PHRASES IN ENGLISH

Words are the constituent elements of the next rank, phrases. At the phrase rank, we discover that it is possible to analyze each structure in more than one way. To study this phenomenon more closely, we will look at phrase structure in English. English is a language with five classes of phrases: 1. noun phrases 2. verb phrases 3. adjective phrases 4. adverb phrases 5. prepositional phrases. 1. The Noun Phrase Like all phrases, the constituents of the English noun phrase can be analyzed into both functional constituents and formal constituents. rom a functional point of view, the noun phrase has four ma!or components, occurring in a fixed order" the determinative, that constituent which determines the reference of the noun phrase in its linguistic or situational context # all, both, half, a/an, the, this, every, two, a third, etc$% premodification, which comprises all the modifying or describing constituents before the head, other than the determiners #adjectives, adverbs, nouns$% the head, around which the other constituents cluster #noun$% postmodification, those which comprise all the modifying constituents placed after the head #adjectives/participle, nouns, clauses$. &epending on the context of situation, we choose determiners and modifiers according to our needs in identifying and specifying the referent of the '(. )ometimes we need several determiners and modifiers to clarify the referent #all my boo s in that bo!$% sometimes we need none at all #"i#$. Each phrase is a merger of both form and function, and, as complex as it looks, the diagram illustrates only some of the complexities of the noun phrase in English. # or a more thorough treatment, see *alliday +,,- and .uirk et al. +,/0.$ Another way to illustrate some of the possible arrangements of form and function in the noun phrase is presented in the table below. Some Examples of the Noun Phrase in English F N!"I#N $eterminer Premodifier Head #a$ lions E #b$ the young 1 #c$ the information age A #d$ each of the children 2 #e$ some badly needed time ( #f$ this conclusion Postmodifier

of our family with the family to the story +

L E ) #!$

#g$ #h$ #i$ a

all my brilliant several new mystery such a marvelous better

children books data bank person

that won the contest which we recently en!oyed filled with information than 3

'otice that several forms classes can be 4reused.4 or example, in the noun phrase it is possible to use 5uantifiers to function as pre6determiners or as post6determiners. This kind of 4recycling4 is known as recursion. 'otice also that phrases and even whole clauses can be 4recycled4 into the noun phrase. This process of placing a phrase of clause within another phrase of clause is called embedding. 3t is through the processes of recursion and embedding that we are able to take a finite number of forms #words and phrases$ and construct an infinite number of expressions. urthermore, embedding also allows us to construct an infinitely long structure, in theory anyway. or example, the nursery rhyme 4$he %ouse $hat &ac 'uilt4 plays on the process of embedding in English noun phrases. The nursery rhyme is one sentence that continuously grows by embedding more and more relative clauses as postmodifiers in the noun phrase that ends the sentence" $his is (the house (that &ac built). $his is (the malt (that lay in the house (that &ac built))). $his is (the mouse (that ate the malt (that lay in the house (that &ac built)))). $his is (the cat (that scared the mouse (that ate the malt (that lay in the house (that &ac built))))). $his is (the do* (that chased the cat (that scared the mouse (that ate the malt (that lay in the house (that &ac built)))))). $his is (the boy (who loves the do* (that chased the cat (that scared the mouse (that ate the malt (that lay in the house (that &ac built))))))). And so on. 3n theory, we could go on forever because language relies so heavily on embedding. 2. The Verb Phrase The verb phrase #7($ in English has a noticeably different structure, since the information it carries about mood, tense, modality, aspect, and voice is 5uite different from the information carried by a noun phrase. The verb phrase has two functional parts, the auxiliar%, a grammatical morpheme carrying information about mood, tense, modality, and voice%

 the main ver&, a lexical morpheme carrying its lexical information and, usually, an inflection. The mood system in English is divided into four subcate*ories. a. The indicative mood 9indicates%9 that is, it conveys to the listener:reader that the speaker:writer is making a statement, referring to the real world in an honest, direct, relevant way. The ma!ority of our expressions are indicative in mood. )peakers signal the indicative mood by using word order" when the auxiliaries take their 4usual4 position following the 9sub!ect,9 we interpret the clause as being in the indicative mood. (hilosophers of language, like *. (. ;rice, have done some of the most interesting linguistics of recent years, explicating the meanings of the indicative mood in English by examining how people use language in conversation. After studying a series of conversations in different contexts, he developed the following generalizations or 4rules of conversation4 that help explain much about how we interpret our language in the indicative mood. ;rice #+,<0$ pointed out the participants in a conversation expect each other to be cooperative, to say something true and to the point, and not to be withholding any relevant information. )pecifically, ;rice9s maxims, or 4rules,4 are the following" 2A132 = .>A'T3T? a. 2ake your contribution as informative as is re5uired. b. &o not make your contribution more informative than is re5uired. 2A132 = .>AL3T? c. &o not say what you believe to be false. d. &o not say that for which you lack ade5uate evidence. 2A132 = @ELAT3=' e. Ae relevant. 2A132 = 2A''E@ f. Avoid obscurity of expression. g. Avoid ambiguity. h. Ae brief. i. Ae orderly. Look at the conversation between A and A below. The maxims of 5uantity and relation are at work in A9s response, like principles guiding our indicative interpretation of the fragment. +, When will you stop by-

', .ometime after dinner. Chat maxims are at work in the following conversations between D and &E /, 01m hun*ry. 2, 01ve *ot five dollars. The reply & makes is only sensible if we assume that & is following the maxim of relation #that & is being relevant to D9s statement of hunger$ and the maxim of manner #that & being brief$. b. The interro*ative mood signals the speakers9 desire for information, that they are asking a 5uestion, that they are 9interrogating9 the listeners. The interrogative is marked by starting a clause with an auxiliary verb or an interrogative pronoun. 314 /an "i# do that324 What will "i# doc. The imperative mood expresses the speakers9 sense of a command, re5uest, or exhortation 6 an imperative. )peakers signal the imperative mood by using a base form of the verb in clause6initial position. 334 2o that5 344 'e here by 6,77 pm. d. The subjunctive mood expresses the speakers9 sense of the unlikely, a wish, a prayer, a hope. The sub!unctive describes the state of affairs as speakers wish or hope them to be. 3t describes hypothetical situations, 4some other world,4 the unreal. )peakers signal the sub!unctive by beginning subordinate clauses with an auxiliary or by using subordinators that overtly mark hypothetical conditions. 354 %ad 0 nown you were comin*, 01d have ba ed a ca e. 384 0f 0 were a millionaire, 01d endow an award in your honor. The sub!unctive is also marked in the verb phrase by the use of sub!ect6verb concord, as in #F$, where the singular sub!ect 3 is matched with the plural verb were. Aase forms of verbs can also signal the sub!unctive. 394 0 su**est that :s. &ones reconsider her decision. 364 $he administration insists that no one be e!empted from the placement e!ams. inally, the base form is also used in several older, formulaic sub!unctive expressions that have survived in the modern language. 3;4 <od save the =in*. 3174 %eaven forbid it should snow a*ain.

7erb phrases are also characterized by other grammatical categories such as tense, modality, aspect and voice. > $ense systems mark time. Tense is an inflection on the verb that indicates the time reference of the expression. 3n English, tense is marked on the first verb of the verb phrase. All verbs marked for tense are called 1finite1 verbs, while verb forms that do not carry a tense inflection #such as participles$ are called 1nonfinite1 verbs. English has t'o tenses, really. =n most English verbs, the 6s inflection marks the present tense, and the 6ed inflection marks the past tense. 7erbs using both the 6s and 6ed forms are known as 9regular9 verbs in that those verbs employ the most common, most 9productive9 inflection to mark time, as in helps:helped, hopes:hoped, loves:loved. 93rregular verbs,9 on the other hand, fall into seven subcategories, employing a number of inflections #such as 6en for the participle inflection as in written, taken, stolen$ or in some classes employing no participle inflections at all #such as put or cut as in Liz cuts the cake:Liz cut the cake:Liz has cut the cake$. 3t is really better to refer to the present tense in English as the 9nonpast,9 since English uses the present tense to refer to many different time frames. Donsider the sentences below, for example, where all the verbs are marked for the present tense, but the time reference varies considerably from example to example" #114 ?mily is tired today. 3124 ?mily is leavin* soon. 3134 ?mily is clever. )entence #++$ indeed does refer to the present time frame, but sentence #+8$ seems to refer to the near future, although it is marked for 4present4 tense. )entence #+B$ is altogether different" its time frame is expansive, referring to the past, present, and future simultaneously. Chat people commonly call the 1future1 in English is really part of the modality system of the language. English speakers use modal auxiliary verbs #like will$ or semiauxiliary verbs #like is *oin* to 6 often phonologically reduced to *onna$ to refer to the future. 6 The modality system expresses the speakers9 sense of obli*ation, volition, probability, permission, and ability. 2odality is signaled by the use of a modal auxiliary verb and the use of a base verb, modal G base. 3144 "i# @must/shouldA *o. 3Bobli*ationB4 3154 "i# will stop that immediately5 3BvolitionB4 3184 "i# @may/mi*htA *o. 3BprobabilityB4 3194 "i# @can/mayA *o. 3BpermissionB4 3164 "i# @can/couldA do it 3BabilityB4 The modal will also express a 9future9 sense.

31;4 "i# will do it tomorrow. 3BfutureB4 The modality system also includes a class of auxiliary verbs called semi6auxiliaries #or semi6modals or 5uasi6modals$. These idiomatic verbs express modal #and sometimes aspectual$ meaning. They often #but not always$ take the form of AEG(A@T3D3(LEGto. These semi6auxiliaries resemble auxiliaries in that they have some e5uivalence of meaning. )yntactically, the semi6auxiliaries are a mixed group. The semi6auxiliaries starting with be do not need do6support in negation or 5uestion formation, but most of the others do employ do6support for those syntactic processes. > +spect signals either the completion or the continuation of the process indicated by the verb in English. The perfect aspect expresses the speakers9 sense of completion, the speakers9 sense that the process expressed by the verb has been 4perfected,4 to use the older sense of the word. The perfect aspect is signaled by the use of a form of the auxiliary have and the >ed participle, have C D>ed. #@emember that some verbs are irregular, with irregular participle forms.$ 3274 "i# has *one already. The pro*ressive aspect expresses the speakers9 sense that the process expressed by the verb continues, covers a period of time, and is in some way relevant to the present moment. The progressive aspect is signaled by the use of a form of the auxiliary be and the 6in* participle, be C D>in*. 3214 "i# is doin* the best wor ever. > Doice systems allows speakers to view the action of the sentence in different ways without changing the facts involved. English has two voices, active and passive. 3n the examples below, it is possible to see the event from the perspective of the 9agent9 #the conscious 4doer4 of the action 6 that is active voice$, as in #88$, or from the perspective of the 9goal9 #the 4receiver4 of the action 6 that is passive voice$, as in #8B$. #88$ Liz encourages Emily. #active$ #8B$ Emily is encouraged by Liz. #passive$ The passive voice is signaled by the use of a form of be and the 6ed participle, be G 76ed. Lastly, English also employs the verb do to function as a supporting auxiliary in verb phrases that re5uire an auxiliary for certain grammatical processes but which lack some other auxiliary already discussed. Donsider #8-$ for example where it would be impossible to signal the interrogative mood without the support of the do auxiliary, as in #80$. 3244 ?mily sleeps well at ni*ht. 3254 2oes ?mily sleep well at ni*ht-

To signal the interrogative mood, remember, the auxiliary verb occurs in clause6initial position. *owever, if the clause has not auxiliary verb, as #8-$ does not, then do6support provides the necessary auxiliary, as in #80$. 'otice too that do has all the hallmarks of an auxiliary" not only does it occur in clause6initial position as other auxiliaries do in the interrogative mood, but it also is marked for tense like all first verbs in the finite English verb phrase. Another way to illustrate some of the relationships between form and function in the verb phrase is presented in the table below. Some Examples of the (er& Phrase in English F N!"I#N Auxiliaries )ain (er& #a$ do believe E #b$ can go 1 #c$ may have gone A #d$ is going 2 #e$ has been waiting ( #f$ might have been waiting L #g$ were hired E #h$ are being fired ) #i$ should be trying #!$might have been being interviewed #k$ to talk #l$ to have published #m$ to be killed #n$ having been announced #o$ being taught

3. The Adjective Phrase The ad!ective phrase in English has four functional constituents, premodification, those modifying, describing, or 5ualifying constituents which precede the head% the head, which is an ad!ective or participle serving as the focus of the phrase% postmodification, that modifying constituent which follows the head% and complementation, #the ma!or subcategory of postmodification here$ that constituent which follows any postmodification and completes the specification of a meaning implied by the head.

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Some Examples of the Ad*ective Phrase in English F N!"I#N Premodifier Head Postmodifier #a$ happy E #b$ excited indeed 1 #c$ partly cloudy A #d$ young in spirit 2 #e$ very energetic for his age ( #f$ so extremely sweet L #g$ too good to be true E #h$ hot enough for me ) #i$ 5uite worried about the results of the test #!$ unusually sunny for this time of year 'otice that the order of constituents in the ad!ective phrase, like all other phrase structures in English, is relatively fixed, helping us determine the constituent elements.

4. The Adverb Phrase The adverb phrase in English is nearly identical to the ad!ective phrase, with only the expected changes in form. 3n the adverb phrase, an adverb functions as head. Some Examples of the Adver& Phrase in English F N!"I#N Premodifier Head Postmodifier #a$ 5uietly E #b$ 5uite honestly 1 #c$ very hard indeed A #d$ however 2 #e$ really early ( #f$ so very well indeed L #g$ too 5uickly to see well E #h$ likely enough for us ) #i$ formerly of Dincinnati #!$ more easily than ever 5. The Prepositional Phrase The last structure for us to study at the phrase rank is the prepositional phrase. This phrase is a 1nonheaded1 construction in English since no one constituent functions as the center of the phrase, the center on which the other elements depend. 3nstead, the structure

is divided into two functional components" the preposition followed by its co ple ent. 3n general, a prepositional phrase expresses a relationship between the complement of the preposition and some other constituent of the sentence. )ome Examples of the (repositional (hrase in English >'DT3=' (reposition Domplement #a$ for now E #b$ with her 1 #c$ in time A #d$ next to the table 2 #e$ into the thick of things ( #f$ by the time that you read this L #g$ before slipping off to sleep E #h$ after running more than 0HH miles in one week ) #i$ to whomever it may concern #!$ from what 3 can see

@E E@E'DE) 6 *alliday, 2ichael A. I. #+,,-$" 0ntroduction to Eunctional <rammar, 8nd edition, London" Edward Arnold. 6 .uirk, @., ). ;reenbaum, ;. Leech, and J. )vartvik #+,/0$" + /omprehensive <rammar of the ?n*lish "an*ua*e, London" Longman.