ME ALS

W hat is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.J.S.S.) this topic involves the study of: 1. OUR USE of METALS 2. CHEMICAL ACTIVITY of the METALS

3. PATTERNS of the PERIODIC TABLE 4. QUANTITY CALCULATIONS ... the MOLE 5. METALS from their ORES
...all in the context of how Chemistry contributes to cultural development

but first) an introduction...

Technology Needs Metals
The great sweep of hwnan cultural development has many aspects ... Language, Religion, Art & Music, and, of course, Technology. The history of technology is closely linked with our use of metals; in fact historians have named some parts of history after the metals that changed the way people lived.

Chemistry of the Metals

In the previous topic you learnt about the Elements of the Periodic Table. In this topic you will concentrate on the chemistry of the metals, and some of the chemical patterns that they show. ... and Speaking of Patterns, in this topic you will find that

The Periodic Table

f_oT]~~~t~~j~~I~1
,'I-- _..!._--+---+-_.~
I 1 : i .." .. --- ----j

fOo"]

. L... ...\

This topic starts with a quick look at the history of metal use, and ends with a study of how we get metals from the Earth, and the chemistry of the extraction process.

Measuring Chemical Quantities

In this topic you will also be introduced to the concept of the "Mole"... not a burrowing mammal! not a traitor within the group! not a gangster's girlfriend! certainly not a skin blemish! A Chemical Mole is a clever way to measure quantities; ...essential for analysis & chemical manufacture.

Electrically powered smelter plant for extracting Aluminium from its ore

CONCEPT DIAGRAM ("Mind Map") OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this "Mind Map" to practise on.

Metals We Use Today

Metal Extraction Needs Energy

Metal Reaction Oxygen Water Acids

with

The Activity Series of the Metals

History of Metal Use

Electron Transfer REDOX

Chemical Activity of the Metals Our Use of Metals

Activity & Usage of Metals

METALS
Extracting Metals from Ores

Patterns of the Periodic Table

History of the Periodic Table

Quantity Calculations

Definition of the Mole

Minerals Ores & Resources Molar Case Study: Extracting Copper from its Ore Gay-Lussac's Law & Avogadro's Hypothesis The Case for Recycling Metals

Conductivity Melting Points Chemical Bonding Valency Reactivity Atomic Radius 1st Ionization Energy Electronegativity

Ratios in Reactions

Mole Quantity Calculations Masses Gas Volumes

The First Uses of Metals

For most of human existence, people used tools of stone, wood and bone. Primitive tribes were familiar with gold which occurs uncombined in nature, but it is too soft to be useful for anything but jewellery and decoration. About 5,000 years ago, in the Middle East, some people accidentally discovered that if certain rocks were roasted by fire, small amounts of copper would be found later in the ashes. Copper is too soft to be really useful, but there was a brief "Copper Age" around the eastern end of the Sea. Copper was used for decoration, Mediterranean jewellery, small utensils, and occasionally for knives and spear points. The big breakthrough was the discovery by these copperusing people that if they roasted copper-bearing rocks (ores) with tin ores, the resulting "alloy" (mixture) of copper and tin produced a much harder metal, "bronze", which could be cast in moulds, and hammered to shape many useful tools and weapons ... this was the start of The Bronze Age (approx 4,500 to 2,500 years ago) It is no accident that the rise of the great ancient civilizations occurred about this time. The stone blocks of the pyramids and temples of ancient Egypt were cut and shaped with bronze chisels. Egyptians, and later Greeks, dominated their world because their soldiers were armed with bronze swords, spears and arrowheads. With bronze tools they built better ships and wagons for transport and trade, which brought wealth and power.

The Iron Age (approx. 2,500 to 1,500 years ago) About 1,000 B.C. the extraction of iron from its ores was discovered. This requires much higher temperatures, and the breakthrough was probably the invention of the bellows, a device to pump air into a furnace so the wood or charcoal burns hotter. Iron is stronger and harder than bronze. A warrior armed with iron weapons will usually beat a bronze-armed man. Iron tools and even the humble nail allowed new developments in buildings, ships, wagons ... remember that towns, trade and commerce give wealth and power. An iron plough allows more land to be cultivated to grow more food, to feed a bigger army ... and so on. It is no accident that the dominant world power of this time was ancient Rome, because their technology was based on iron. From the Medieval to the Modern After the collapse of the Roman Empire the various cultures that dominated the "Dark Ages" still had ironbased technologies. The next great technological change was the "Industrial Revolution" which began about 1750 in England. This had many aspects, but the big change in technology was the use of coal (instead of wood) for fuel. As well as steam engines, coal allowed for large scale smelting of iron and the invention of steel (an alloy of iron with carbon). The engines, tools and machinery of the great factories were based on steel. Transport was revolutionized by steel locomotives running on steel rails. Steel ships replaced wooden ones, and steel weapons (machine guns, tanks and artillery) achieved new heights (depths?) in warfare and mass destruction.

Sad as it might be, the facts of human history are that progress has been marked by conflict, war and conquest, and metals have been a vital part of that development. Metal has many advantages over stone, wood, or bone: metal is harder, stronger, and flexible, not brittle. metal can be cast, hammered or drawn into shapes not possible in stone, such as saw blades, swords and armour. when tools become blunt, metal can be re-sharpened. Basically, a warrior with a bronze sword always beats a bloke with a stone axe ... we call that progress!

In the 20th century, new metals and alloys became available... aluminium, titanium, chromium, and many more. This was made possible by electricity, which is needed in large amounts to extract some metals from their ores, or to purify and process them once extracted. Human Progress has always been linked to our use of Metals.

Progress in metal usage has always been linked to the availability of energy to extract the metals.

keep

it simple

science Solder is an alloy of 30-50% tin with lead. Its most notable property around 150-200C. IS a very low melting point,

The Metals We Use Today

In one sense, we are still in the "Iron Age". Iron is still the metal we use the most, but nearly always it is mixed with other elements in a variety of alloys, notably steel.

Its major use is in plumbing for sealing the joints between pipes,. and in electronics for connecting on a "circuit board". small components

Metals That Are Used in Their Pure State

Although we use a wide range of alloys, there are some important metals we use in their pure, elemental state. Aluminium Steel is used for bridges, tools and machinery, bolts, screws and nails, reinforcing inside concrete structures, engines, vehicle bodies, trains and their rails, ships, and "tin" cans. is very lightweight, yet strong and corrosion Its lightweight strength is perfect for aircraft construction. Lightweight and a good conductor, it is used for electricity power lines. Malleable and corrosion resistant, it is ideal for window frames and drink cans. Copper is used for electrical wiring in buildings and appliances, because of its great electrical conductivity and its ductility for ease of wire-making. resistant

Iron ore occurs in huge deposits, so iron is common and economical to produce. Steel (in its various forms) is very hard and strong. It can be cast, milled, rolled, worked, bent, cut and machined into just about any shape or size imaginable. As always, our usage of the different steel alloys is linked to their particular properties: Steel Alloy Mild steel Iron, with ... 0.2% carbon 1-1.5% carbon 20% nickel & chromium Properties strong, but malleable very hard Uses car bodies, pipes, roofing drills, knives, hammers food utensils, medical tools

Metal Extraction Needs Energy

As mentioned previously, our use of different metals through history can be linked to the availability of energy. In topic 1, you learned about the process of chemical decomposition; where a compound breaks down into simpler substances. Decomposition is generally an endothermic process; energy is absorbed by the reactants during the reaction. Generally, you must supply energy to make the process happen. Metal ores are mineral compounds. To obtain the elemental metal involves decomposition, which is endothermic and requires energy. Some compounds require more energy than others for decomposition. Copper and tin ores require little energy. A decent wood fire can "smelt" the metal from its ore. TIllS why copper and bronze were used in ancient times. Iron ore requires more energy for decomposition. why the "Iron Age" came later. That's

Tool steel

Stainless Steel

resists corrOSIon, hygenic

Brass is a common "non-ferrous"

(no iron) alloy.

Brass is very hard, but easily machined for screw threads, etc. It is more expensive than steel, but is corrosion resistant, so it is ideal for taps and fittings for water and gas pipes.

Aluminium and other "modern" metals require even more energy, and electricity works better than heat, so these only became available in quite recent times.

Before metals, people used tools mainly made from a)............................. or . The fIrst metal used was probably b) , because it occurs in the elemental state in nature. However, it is too soft to be used for tools, so was just used for

Today, the metal we use most is still t) , in the form of the alloy u) Its widespread use is because: it is common and v) to produce. it is very w) and . Steel comes in a variety of alloys, including x) steel (car bodies, pipes, roofIng) and y) steel used for food utensils and medical tools. Other alloys used widely include: brass, a mixture of z) and . aa) , with a very low melting point, is an alloy of ab) and .................................... and is used in ac) and . As well as many alloys, there are some metals commonly used in their pure, elemental form: Aluminium, which has the advantages of being ad)................................. and resistant to ae) . Uses include af) . and . ag) is used for electrical wiring because of its good ah) and because it is ai) so it is easy to draw out into wues. Chemically, the extraction of metals from ores involves aj) . reactions, which are ak) -thermic. Some metals, such as al).................................... require very little energy, others such as am) require much more. In many cases an) . works better than heat in the extraction and purifIcation processes. The changes in ao) usage through history can be directly linked to society's changing sources and uses of ap) .

c)

Metallurgy (the technology of metals) began with the extraction of d) from ores that were simply e) . A big improvement was the mixing of ores of f) and . This produced the alloy g) , which made tools and weapons with many advantages over stone: metal is h) and . and is not i) like stone metal can made into intricate shapes, such as j) : , not possible in stone. Later, bronze was replaced by k) which is 1) and but requires more m) its extraction. During n) 0) amount allowed and the In q) r) s) the . , for

the "Industrial Revolution", the use of for energy led to the production of which is iron with a small of p)................................ in it. This the development of machinery, trains modern industrial world. 20th century new metals such as became available because the needed to extract it from its was available.

WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES

Metals React With Oxygen

One of the most familiar laboratory reactions
1S

Metals React With Acids

the The different activity levels of tlle metals is most clearly seen when metals are reacted with dilute acids. You may have done experimental work to observe how vigorously different metals react with a dilute acid. Metals like calcium and magnesium react vigorously.

burning of magnesium: Magnesium 2 Mg

+ Oxygen

~ ----..

Magnesium 2 MgO

oxide

0z

In fact, many metals will burn, some a lot more readily and violently than magnesium: Sodium

4 Na

+ Oxygen --.+ 0z --..

Sodium 2 NazO

oxide

In these cases there is a violent exothermic reaction, with light and heat energy produced. The product is often a powdery, crumbly solid. Other metals, such as aluminium and zinc, react on the When there is a reaction, the gas produced is hydrogen. The metal is "eaten away" and dissolves into the liquid. This is because it forms a soluble ionic compound. Exactly what the compound is, depends on which acid is used.

surface and the oxide compound formed is airtight and pr~vents further reaction. That's why these metals are often dull-looking ... the surface coat of oxide is dull. Aluminium

2 Al

+ Oxygen + 30z

Aluminium

oxide

----..

2 AlZ03

Other metals, such as copper, react with oxygen very slowly and only if heated strongly. Some, like gold, will not react at all. Zinc The point is, that have different chemical

+ Hydrochloric
Zn acid + 2HCI

~ ~

Hydrogen Hz Hydrogen
~

+ Zinc +
chloride ZnClz

metals

activities. Magnesium

+ Nitric ~
acid 2 HN03 Sulfuric acid

+ Magnesium +
nitrate Mg(N03

Metals React With Water

Another favourite school reaction is when sodium reacts with water. This is often done outdoors, because it results in an exciting little explosion. What happens is: Sodium 2 Na

Mg Iron

+ +

Hz

+
+

Fe + HZS04

Iron(II) sulfate FeS04

Water

----..

+ 2 HzO

Hydrogen (gas) . Hz

+ Sodium
hydroxide

+ 2NaOH

The ionic compounds formed are collectively known as "salts", so the general pattern of the reactions is

(In fact this is NOT the explosion reaction. The explosion is the reaction of the hydrogen with oxygen, to form water) Once again, some metals react easily and rapidly and form the metal h)7droxide, while others react slowly if heated in steam, and form oxides. Zinc Zn

Metal

+ Acid

Common

It will help you greatly to learn the common laboratory acids Name Chern Name Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen chloride Sulfate nitrate

Formula

+ Water ~ + HzO ~

Hydrogen Hz

+ Zinc oxide
ZnO

Hydrochloric SulfurIC Nitric

HCI HzS04
HN03

Metals W{ecopper and gold do not react at all. There is an "Activity Series" among the metals.

keep

it

simple

science

Northmead

High School

SL#603217

The Activity Series of the Metals

From these 3 patterns of reaction, it seems there is a further, underlying pattern. Certain metals, like sodium, always seem to react readily and vigorously. Others, like copper, always react slowly or not at all. From this, aItd other reaction studies, the common laboratory metals can be arranged in an "Activity Series":

Electron Transfer in Metal Reactions

The chemical reactions that allow us to see the pattern of the Activity Series are just part of an even greater pattern in Chemistry ... the process of electron transfer. To understand this, look again at the reaction between a metal and an acid:

Zinc

+ Hydrochloric
acid

Most Active

Hydrogen (gas)

+ Zinc
chloride

HCl and ZnClz are both ionic compounds. Here is the equation re-written to show the individual ion "species".

I
Mg

Zn + 2B+ + 2Cr ------

B, + Zn +> +

2Cr

AI

Study this carefully and make sure you understand why there have to be 2 of some ions to agree with the original balanced equation. Notice that the chloride ions (Clj occur on both sides of the equation unchanged. Nothing has happened to them at all. We say they are "spectator ions". Like by-standers at a car crash they are not involved, while other atoms and ions undergo serious changes. Since they aren't actually involved, we can leave the spectators out. This is called a "net equation".

Ag
Least Active

Au
Now we can see what really happened; a zinc atom became a zinc ion and

2 hydrogen ions became a (covalent) hydrogen

molecule.

To do this, the zinc atom has to lose 2 electrons, and the hydrogen ions must gain a pair of electrons to share.

The highly active metals all lie to the extreme left of the table, AND the higher their activity, the lower down the table they are within each column. This is one of many patterns that allows you to use the Periodic Table instead of learning many small facts. For example, instead of memorizing the Activity Series fully, you can remember the pattern above and always be able to figure out the order of the most active metals.

Now it should be clear what really happened: the zinc atom gave a pair of electrons to some hydrogen ions. Electrons were transferred from one "species" to another. The equations above are "Half-Equations" and are often used to describe what is really happening in a reaction.

keep

it

simple

science

Northmead

High School

SL#60321 7

Oxidation and Reduction

The transfer of electrons from one species to another is one of the most fundamental and important general reactions of Chemistry. The reaction between zinc and acid can be visualized like this:

First Ionization Energy

Although you're not yet required to know about Oxidation and Reduction, this bit you have to learn. Definition The Ionization Energy of an element is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom. For technical reasons, the measurement of this energy is carried out for atoms in the gas state.

~::;;::::~'
Zinc atom 2 Hydrogen

electrons

transferred

G)
ions

----.The energy

Zn

(g)

+ eis the

required for this to happen "1st Ionization Energy"

0;0
Covalent bond (2 electrons being shared)

We know that zinc atoms normally lose 2 electrons to form the Zn +2 ion. However, the formal defInition for this process involves just the loss of 1 electron. Every element has its own characteristic value, even those elements which would not normally lose electrons, such as non-metals like chlorine.

Normally For historical reasons, the loss of electrons is called "Oxidation"

a chlorine atom forms a negative by gaining an electron.

ion

Technically though, it is possible for it to lose an electron if energy is added. This energy is the "1st Ionization Energy"

...
Q)

L.U

c c
0

Na
Li

.~
Even the inert gases, which normally do not form ions .~ c at all, can be forced to lose an electron if energy is .2 <-J added. They too have a 1st Ionization Energy value. VI Ionization Energy Determines the Activity Series Now back to the metals and the Activity Series. In order for a metal to begin reacting with an acid, (or with water or oxygen) it must lose an electron. Tlus will require the input of its 1st Ionization Energy. If the value for 1st Ionization energy is very low, the metal will gain this energy easily and quickly from its surroundings. It will readily enter the reaction, and the reaction will proceed vigorously. If its value for 1st IOluzation energy is higher, the atom cannot react so readily or vigorously ... its activity is lower.

Ba Ca Mg AI
Zn Fe Sn
Ph

.2
VI Q)

...
::s

>
c
VI Q)

The zinc oxidation allows the hydrogen to be reduced, and the hydrogen reduction allows the zinc to be oxidized. The total reaction is an "Oxidation-Reduction" commonly abbreviated to "REDOX". Note that the syllabus does NOT and is

rU

... E

require you to know

these defInitions yet, but it is worth knowing about Redox for future topics. You ARE required to know about electron transfer and "its involvement in metal reactions.

Cu Ag Au

The ACTIVITY SERIES of the Metals is determined by 1st IONIZATION ENERGY

keep

it

simple

science

Choice of Metals Based on Activity

Sometimes which metal is chosen for a particular application is based on its position in the Activity Series. Example In critical electronic connections, such as computer network plugs, it is essential that the electric signals get through without loss or distortion. Normally we use copper for electrical winng, but in a critical connection plug it is worth the extra expense of using gold. Copper is a low activity metal, but can slowly react with oxygen to form a non-conducting oxide layer in the connection. Gold is lower down the activity series and will not react at all, so the plug connection cannot corrode. Gold's extremely low chemical activity (due to a relatively high 1st Ionization Energy) is part of the reason it has always been used for jewellery. The decision is usually to use cheap steel pipes for longer, outdoor uses like your garden taps. Indoors, where distances are shorter, and a rusted-out leaking pipe would be a disaster inside a wall or ceiling, copper is chosen, especially for hot water supply. Interestingly, sometimes the higher activity metals corrode less. Aluminium and zinc are higher up the Activity Series than iron. They react rapidly when exposed to oxygen, but the surface layer of oxide is airtight and waterproof, and prevents oxygen or water getting to the metal underneath. Therefore, these metals can be used in situations where corrosion needs to be prevented. "Galvanized" steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc to of steel roofIng, fence Steel is cheap, but since iron is about the middle of the Activity Series it will corrode (rust) by contact with water. Is it better to choose a lower activity metal such as copper, which will not corrode as quickly, but is more expensive?

prevent (or slow down) corrosion wires, nails, bolts, etc. Gold's low activity means it will not tarnish or corrode, so it retains its beautiful colour and lustre.

1. Write a balanced, symbol equation for the reaction of each of the following metals with oxygen. When a metal reacts with oxygen it forms an a) compound. . a) Lead (assume lead(IV) ion forms)

METAL + OXYGEN

b)
also react with gas and a d) water, forming

\
b) Iron (Assume iron (III) ion) .

Some c)

metals

will

compound.

I METAL I METAL

+ WATER

--..c)

+ d)
.

I
"

Most metals will react with acids, forming e) gas and an ionic compound called a ")

2. a) Arrange the metals in Q1 in order of decreasing chemical activity. b) Which one(s), if any, might ignite easily and burn in air with a visible flame?

+ ACID ~

e)

+ )

,
3. Write a word equation AND a balanced, equation to describe the reaction of: a) calcium metal with water (reacts spontaneously temperature) symbol

In all these reactions the various metals react at g) rates, showing an order of chemical h) From these reactions and others, the "Activity Series" has been determined. Metals such as i) and . are the most active. These are the elements located in the j) columns of the Periodic Table. Some metals such as k) and . have very low activity, and often do not react at all. Other and common metals like 1) .................................... are in the middle of the series. They will react, but generally do so m) . All these reactions involve the transfer of n) . In the case of the Metal + Acid reaction, the metal atoms always 0)........................... electron(s) while a pair of p) ions gain 2 electrons (which they share in a q) bond) and form a r) molecule with formula s) . "Oxidation" is the technical term for t) ................................. The opposite is "u) the metal In the Metal + Acid reaction, v) while w) are always x) . . . is always ions

at room

4. All the following equations are Metal Fill in all blank spaces, then re-write balance.

+ Acid reactions.
in symbols and

b) Calcium

+ Hydrochloric ~
acid

+ ~ + Barium
nitrate

c)

Hydrogen

d)

Hydrogen

+ iron (II)
chloride

The "1st y) Energy" of an element is defined as the energy required to z) . ............................... from atoms in the aa) state. The very active metals are like that because they have very ab) (high/low) values for tllls. Metals further down the series do not react as vigorously because their values are ac) . Sometimes the choice of which metal to use is determined by the activity level. An example is ad) .

5. For each of the reactions in Q4, wlllch chemical species a) lost electrons? b) gained electrons? c) was a "spectator"?

WHEN COMPLETED, BECOME SECTION

WORKSHEETS SUMMARIES

Atomic Structure, Number and Mass

Here is a quick reminder of some basics about atoms you need to know: In the Nucleus Protons & Neutrons

History of the Periodic Table

The modern concept of a chemical element as a substance containing identical atoms was first accepted almost exactly 200 years ago. By 1830 there were about 40 known elements. Even with such a small sample, people began to notice patterns: Dobereiner (German) pointed out that there were several groups of 3 elements witl1.remarkably sinlliar properties:

x'.," .
are .....................
:.'

'"

;'

"

,-

, '\.::/\,n
.....

Debit aeDund
the nucleus are
the Electrons

Lithium, sodium & potassium was one "triad". Chlorine, bromine and iodine formed another "triad". By 1860, with over 60 known elements, (English) proposed a "Law of Octaves". Newlands

Each element's atoms have a different, characteristic, number of protons and electrons. Therefore, each element has a different Atomic Number. In the Periodic Table the elements are arranged in order of Atomic Number.

If the elements were arranged in order of relative weights, Newlands found that every 8th element (an "octave") was sinlliar in properties. These similar elements included Dobereiner's triads. The system worked well for the first 20 elements, but then became confused. The basis of the modern Periodic Table was developed by the Russian, Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Mendeleev used many physical and chemical properties: atomic weight density melting point formula of oxide compound density of oxide and many more, and arranged the elements in order of weight, but with elements with sinlliar properties under each other.

+ No.Neutrons No.Protons (Electron mass is insignificant)

= "Mass

Number"

The Mass Number is always a whole number, but in the Periodic Table the "Atomic Weight" is shown instead. (How and why this is different will be explained in a later topic) The Periodic Table is firstly a list of the elements, showing all the basic details.

arranged

in order, and

18

Atomic Number Equal to the number of electrons and the number of protons in each atom

Ar Argon

..
"Atomic Weight" NOT the "Mass Number" Mendeleev's genius was to realiz that there were probably missing elements that hadn't een discovered yet. He cleverly left gaps in his table for these undiscovered elements. The most famous case was that of the "missing" element Mendeleev called "eka-silicon". He used the patterns in his table to predict, very precisely, the properties for ekasilicon. Scientists went looking for such a substance and soon found a new element (which was named "Germanium") with properties almost exactly as predicted.

The shape and arrangement of the Periodic Table is a very clever device to allow many patterns and groupings to be accommodated. You have already learnt one pattern in the position of the most active metals, and their 1st Ioniza tion Energies.

Patterns of the Periodic Table

In Mendeleev's day no-one could explain why these patterns existed. However, when scientists see patterns in nature like this, they know there must be underlying "rules" or "laws of nature" causing and controlling the patterns. Perhaps Mendeleev's great contribution was not just the Periodic Table itself, but the stimulus it gave other scientists to investigate the reasons behind the patterns. Within 40 years Science had unravelled the secrets of atomic structure, the electron energy levels, and more. At this sta e our task is to learn some of the atterns.

Melting Point You learned in topic 1 how melting point is determined by the bonding within a substance. Electrical Conductivity As you go across any row ("period") of the table, you will move through a number of metals, then one or two semimetals, then into the non-metals. Therefore, the conductivity will start out high, but rapidly decrease as you encounter a semi-metal, and become extremely low at the non-metals.
r!
, I

At the left side of the table are the very active metals of d1e Activity Series. They are also usually soft, and have relatively low (for metals) melting points. Moving to the right across a period you enter d1e "Transition Block" containing typical hard, high melting point metals, held strongly together by "metallic bonding". Further right you hit d1e Semi-Metals. These often have very high melting points because of their covalent lattice structure. Then you enter d1e Non-Metals which have covalent molecular structures and quite low mp's. At the far right column, each period ends with an Inert Gas which are all single-atom molecules, and have d1e lowest mp of each period. This pattern repeats itself along each period.
o o

CLJ
\ I

llj~H~~tJTEI1:1
Boiling Points follow a similar pattern Melting Points to

Sketch

Graph.

Melting

Points of Elements
I I I
I

o
N

G o
o c..

Peaks are Transition or Semi-Metals

Metals

~o

o ... c-

010

c Valencies are the same down each group

Na

Chemical Bonding, Valency & Reactivity What you've already learnt about the Activity Series, Ionic and Covalent Bonding and Valency will help you make sense of the following: ("" G 8 I G roup nert ases No chemical reactions, no bonding

Activity

of Non-Metals

Most active at top-right (FIuori ne) Activity (generally) decreases downwards and to the left.