Le 1 Amanda Le Biology Honors (7) Mr. Motroni Chapters 16, 17, 31, 32, 33 e!

ie" Chapter 16: The Origin and Evolution of Microbial Life - the #irst atmosphere "as mainly $omposed o# H2 % the se$ond atmosphere "as mostly C&2, '2, H2(, "ater !apor, methane, and ammonia % the )rey%Miller e*periment+ pro!ed that amino a$ids and other organi$ mole$,les $o,ld ha!e #ormed on -arth % Polymeri ation is #ormation o# organi$ polymers #rom monomers 1. .olymers o# li#e are synthesi/ed 0y dehydration rea$tions 2. 1ater is !apori/ed and the heat $on$entrates the monomer2s ,nderlying s,0stan$e $hanges together 3 polymers 3. Clay s,r#a$es $on$entrate amino a$ids and other monomers and $an also #,n$tion as $atalysts % Protobiont!+ a $olle$tion o# a0ioti$ally%$reated mole$,les "ithin a mem0rane Mem0ranes are #ormed nat,rally4 0,00les may ha!e #ormed in early -arth in the "ater

% the endosym0ioti$ theory+ the e,5aryoti$ $ell pro0a0ly originated as a $omm,nity o# pro5aryotes Membrane infolding+ the e,5aryoti$ $ell2s endomem0rand system e!ol!ed #rom in"ard #olds o# the plasma mem0rane o# a pro5aryoti$ $ell Endo!ymbio!i!+ ho" mito$hondria and $hloroplasts are tho,ght to ha!e originated4 pro5aryotes may ha!e li!ed "ithin one another, and may ha!e 0een a0le to ,se o*ygen and release large amo,nts o# energy 0y $ell,lar respiration

6ingdom Monera % Ar$hae0a$teria !s. Ba$teria Ar$haea0a$teria is more $omple*

Le 2 % (hapes o# Ba$teria+ 1. Co$$i 3 spheri$al 2. Ba$illi 3 rod%shaped 3. (pirilli 3 spiral%shaped 7. (taphyl 3 $l,ster 8. (trepto 3 $hain 6. 9iplo 3 t"o % str,$t,re o# 0a$teria+ Cell "all % gram !tain+ :ram%.ositi!e 0a$teria has simpler "alls "ith relati!ely thi$5 layer o# peptidogly$an4 :ram%negati!e 0a$teria has less peptidogly$an, more $omple*, "ith an o,ter mem0rane that $ontains lipids 0onded to $ar0ohydrates % peptidoglycan+ a polymer o# s,gars $ross%lin5ed 0y short polypeptides flagella: ena0le the organisms to mo!e aro,nd

% !ariety among 0a$teria Tran!formation+ ,pta5e o# #oreign 9'A #rom the s,rro,nding en!ironment Tran!duction+ ;he trans#er o# 0a$terial genes 0y a phage % a #ragment o# 9'A 0elonging to a phage2s pre!io,s host $ell <s a$$identally pa$5aged "ithin the phage2s $oat instead o# phage 9'A Con=,n$tion+ ,nion o# $ells and the 9'A trans#er 0et"een them. % >male? se* pili atta$hes to a >#emale? re$ipient $ell in "hi$h it donates@trans#ers the 9'A, 0,t the mating 0ridge is easily 0ro5en

% -ndospores and their pro0lems (ome pro5aryotes are a0le to "ithstand harsh $onditions % some are li5e t"o $ells, one $ontained "ithin another4 the o,ter $ell, "hi$h later disintegrates, prod,$es the spe$iali/ed inner $ell, 5no"n as an endo!pore

% Halophiles, ;hermophiles, ;hermoa$idophiles, methanogens Halophiles+ gro,p o# ar$haea that lo!es salt A thri!es in !ery salty pla$es ;hermophiles+ gro,p o# ar$haea that lo!es heat, tri!es in hot "ater ;hermoa$idophiles+ gro,p o# ar$haea that ,ses s,l#,r as energy Methanogens+ gro,p o# ar$haea that li!es in aero0i$ en!ironments and gi!e o## methane as a "aste prod,$t

% o0ligate aero0es, o0ligate anaero0es, and #a$,ltati!e anaero0es

Le 3 &0ligate aero0es + needs o*ygen to s,r!i!e % (almonella &0ligate anaero0es+ $an2t 0e e*posed to o*ygen % 0ot,lism Ba$,ltati!e Anaero0es + $an li!e "ith or "itho,t o*ygen % ;etan,s, altho,gh it is an a$t,al anaero0e, it $an s,r!i!e 0e$a,se it $reates spores % A,totrophs, Chemoa,totrophs, photoa,totroph, photoheterotrophs A,totrophs+ >sel#%#eeders? A ma5es their o"n organi$ $ompo,nds #rom inorgani$ so,r$es % Most pro5aryotes are a,totrophs % .hotoa,totrophs+ a,totrophs that harness s,nlight #or energy % Chemoa,totrophs+ a,totrophi$ organisms that o0tain energy #rom inorgani$ $hemi$als instead o# s,nlight Heterotrophs+ >other%#eeders? A o0tain their $ar0on atoms #rom organi$ $ompo,nds % .hotoheterotrophs+ o0tain energy #rom s,nlight % Chemoheterotrophs+ any organi$ mole$,le $an ser!e as #ood #or some spe$ies % Cyano0a$teria and the $on!ersion o# early -arth Cyano0a$teria+ only pro5aryotes "ith plant%li5e, o*ygen%generating photosynthesis % An$ient $yano0a$teria generated the stromatolites+ made the atmosphere aero0i$ % .ro!ides an enormo,s amo,nt o# #ood #or #resh"ater and marine e$osystem % -*oto*ins !s -ndoto*ins A hemoto*ins and ne,roto*ins -ndoto*ins and -*oto*ins are posin that are prod,$ed 0y most pro5aryotes % -ndoto*ins+ $omponents o# the other mem0rane o# gram%negati!e 0a$teria % <nd,$e the same general symptoms+ #e!er, a$hes, sometimes dangero,s drop in 0lood press,re

Le 7 -*oto*ins+ se$reted 0y 0a$terial $ells and in$l,de some o# most potent poisons 5no"n Hemoto*ins+ to*ins that destroy red 0lood $ells 'e,roto*ins+ to*ins that a$t spe$i#i$ally on ner!e $ells.

% ;a*is%, photo%, $hemo%, geo%, magneto ;a*is%+ mo!ement .hoto%+ light Chemo% $hemi$al :eo%+ earth Magneto+ magneti$ #ield

% :ood Ba$teria+ 0ioremediation, #ood, sapro0es, de$omposers et$. Bioremediation+ ;he ,se o# organisms to remo!e poll,tants #rom soil, air or "ater. Bood+ some 0a$teria $an ma5e #ood li5e 0,ttermil5 9e$omposers+ 0rea5s do"n things

% Bad Ba$teria+ pathogens, parasites, 0io$hemi$al "ar#are .athogens+ disease $a,sing agents .arasites+ $an spread a n,m0er o# diseases 0y mo!ing #rom host to host Bio$hemi$al "ar#are+ disease is spread to enemy land, de$imating pop,lations

Chapter 1": Plant!# $ungi# and the Coloni ation of Land B,ngi % their dominant li#estyle is haploid % they are heterotrophs, 0,t do not ingest #ood to o0tain n,trients % they are de$omposers that are essential to most e$osystems % $hara$teristi$s o# #,ngi+ ;hreadli5e #ilaments $alled hyphae that 0ran$h o,t

Le 8 ;he hyphae are a $hain o# $ells separated 0y $ross "alls that ha!e pores large eno,gh to allo" ri0osomes, mito$hondria, and n,$lei to #lo" #rom $ell to $ell ;he hyphae #orm a net"or5 $alled a mycelium A m,shroom is =,st a reprod,$ti!e str,$t,re gro"ing a0o!e gro,nd #rom a m,$h more e*tensi!e ,ndergro,nd my$eli,m ;he hyphae o# #,ngi are s,rro,nded 0y a $ell "all made #rom chitin

% ho" #,ngi eat ;hey do not >eat? or ingest #ood B,ngi se$rete digesti!e en/ymes into the s,rro,nding area, 0rea5ing do"n dead matter ;he #,ngi then a0sor0 the small n,trient mole$,les dire$tly into their $ells 1ith s,$h rapidly%gro"ing hyphae that are a0le to gro" longer "itho,t getting thi$5er, #,ngi ha!e a h,ge s,r#a$e area that allo"s them to get more n,trients

% 3 types o# #,ngi Cygomy$etes+ /ygote #,ngi % ha!e resistant /ygosporangi,m, in "hi$h haploid spores #orm 0y meiosis % in$l,des 0la$5 0read mold and other prod,$e%rotting molds Basidiomy$etes+ $l,0 #,ngi % ha!e $l,0%shaped str,$t,re $alled a 0asidi,m, that prod,$es spores % the spores are released do"n"ard % this gro,p $ontains #,ngi s,$h as the m,shrooms that "e eat As$omy$etes+ sa$ #,ngi % ha!e sa$%li5e str,$t,res $alled as$i, that prod,$e spores in se*,al reprod,$tion

% B,ngi are predominantly haploid, 0,t they alternates and 0e$ome diploid at spe$i#i$ times+ 1. ;he hetero5aryoti$ stage 0egins "hen hyphae o# t"o di##erent mating types #,se 2. A hetero5aryoti$ my$eli,m #orms, gro"s, and prod,$es a m,shroom4 the haploid n,$lei #,se in the 0asidia, "hi$h lines the gills 3. 9iploid n,$lei #orm, and ea$h one ,ndergoes meiosis 7. Haploid spores #orm and are released 8. ;he spores germinate and gro" into haploid my$elia % diagram+

Le 6

% ;he role o# #,ngi in o,r e$osystem .lants % plants e!ol!ed #rom green algae % there are se!eral distin$tions that $an no" 0e made 0et"een them+ .lants ha!e spe$ial str,$t,res to per#orm di##erent #,n$tions, "hile an entire alga "or5s to"ards the same things .lants ha!e roots to an$hor it and a0sor0 "ater4 algae ha!e hold#asts that do not a0sor0 "ater .lants ha!e stems to s,pport them on land4 algae need "ater to s,pport them .lants ha!e lea!es to per#orm photosynthesis4 the "hole alga does photosynthesis .lants ha!e spe$iali/ed reprod,$ti!e str,$t,res4 algae do not B,ngi $an 0e harm#,l A0o,t 3DE o# the spe$ies o# #,ngi are parasiti$ and harm#,l Myco!i! is any type o# #,ngal in#e$tion, s,$h as ring"orm and athlete2s #oot B,ngi $an li!e m,t,alisti$ally "ith plants and animals Lichen! are asso$iations o# algae held in a mass o# #,ngal hyphae4 ,s,ally, the alga pro!ides #ood #or the #,ngi, and the #,ngi pro!ide a ha0itat #or the alga Be$a,se o# their a0ility to 0rea5 do"n plant material, some spe$ies o# ants #arm the #,ngi H,mans ,se #,ngi #or n,mero,s reasons, s,$h as #arming and #ood%pro$essing

% plants ha!e 7 main $hara$teristi$s that e!ol!ed #or li!ing on land 1. Obtaining re!ource! from t%o location!+ plants m,st get $hemi$als #rom soil and the air4 plants de!eloped roots to o0tain "ater and minerals #rom the soil, and stems and lea!es to get light and C&2 #rom a0o!e gro,nd 2. &upporting the plant body+ ,pon mo!ing to land, plants needed s,pport4 they de!eloped $ell "alls and !as$,lar tiss,e to hold itsel# ,p against the p,ll o# gra!ity 3. Maintaining moi!ture+ plants easily lose "ater to the air4 they de!eloped a cuticle, "hi$h is a "a*y layer that $o!ers their stems and lea!es4 as a res,lt, they also needed !tomata to allo" C&2 to enter and o*ygen to lea!e 7. 'eproducing on land+ plants are one o# the only organisms to ha!e o!er$ome the pro0lem o# #lagellated sperm4 they ha!e gametangia, "hi$h are str,$t,res that $onsist

Le 7 o# prote$ti!e =a$5ets o# $ells s,rro,nding the gamete%prod,$ing $ells4 in plants, the /ygote de!elops into an em0ryo "hile atta$hed to and no,rished 0y the parent plan, ma5ing plants embryophyte! Bryophytes ha!e not o!er$ome any o# these pro0lems4 they are still 0o,nd to the "ater Berns are the mid%"ay in e!ol,tion 0et"een 0ryophytes and plants4 they ha!e !as$,lar tiss,e and #lagellated sperm that are en$losed in spores :ymnosperms and angiosperms ha!e !as$,lar tiss,e, and prod,$e pollen to trans#er their sperm

% haploid and diploid generations alternate in plant li#e $y$les (ametophyte! are the haploid generation o# a plant, in "hi$h gametes are prod,$ed &porophyte! are the diploid generation o# plants, in "hi$h spores are #ormed &eed! are em0ryos pa$5aged "ith a #ood s,pply "ithin a prote$ti!e $o!ering

% Berns ha!e a dominant sporophyte li5e most plants ;hey are hermaphrodites (ha!ing 0oth male and #emale reprod,$ti!e organs) ;he archegonium is the #emale reprod,$ti!e part that prod,$es eggs ;he antheridium is the male reprod,$ti!e part that prod,$es spores ;he prothallu! is the gametophyte stage o# a #ern ;he !oru! is a $l,ster o# sporangia, or str,$t,res that ma5e and $ontain spores ;he rhi oid! an$hor the #ern

% :ymnosperms+ $one%0earing plants Bemale $ones are the hard, "oody $ones that ha!e radiating s$ales, ea$h one ha!ing a pair o# ovule! An o!,le is a sporangi,m "ith a $o!ering Male $ones are the pollen $ones, "hi$h $ontain many sporangia that ma5e haploid spores 0y meiosis Pollen grain! are male gametophytes Pollination o$$,rs "hen pollen grains land on and enter an o!,le

% Angiosperms+ #lo"ering plants Angiosperms are sporophytes "ith gametophytes in its #lo"ers A #lo"er $onsists o# male parts and #emale parts+ % the stamen, "hi$h in$l,des the anther and #ilament, is the male reprod,$ti!e str,$t,re % the $arpel, "hi$h in$l,des the stigma, style, and o!ary, is the #emale str,$t,re % a fruit is =,st a ripened o!ary o# an angiosperm

Le F

9iagram o# a #lo"er+

Chapter )1: Plant !tructure# reproduction# and development % Mono$ots !ers,s 9i$ots Geins+ mono$ot !eins r,n parallel, di$ot !eins 0ran$h o,t .etals+ mono$ots ha!e petals in 32s, di$ots ha!e petals in 72s or 82s Cotyledons+ mono$ots ha!e 1, di$ots ha!e 2 (tems+ mono$ots ha!e $omple* !as$,lar 0,ndles, di$ots ha!e rings oots+ mono$ots ha!e #i0ro,s roots, di$ots ha!e taproots

% roots and shoots+ % roots+ 'oot hair!+ e*tremely #ine, tiny pro=e$tions #rom the roots that in$rease s,r#a$e area Tap root!+ go deep into the earth #or "ater and n,trients $ibrou! root!+ gro" hori/ontally $lose 0eneath the s,r#a$e4 an$hor soil *erial root!+ roots that hang in the air Prop root!+ s,pport the plants *pical meri!tem+ gro"th%prod,$ing regions o# $ell di!ision, #o,nd at the tips o# stems and roots *pical dominance+ "hen the terminal 0,d prod,$es hormones that inhi0it gro"th o# the a*illary 0,ds Terminal bud+ the tip o# the stem

Le H % the !as$,lar system+ Iylem+ $arries "ater #rom the roots ,p to the rest o# the plant .hloem+ $arries s,gars thro,gho,t the plant

% the str,$t,re o# "ood, #rom o,termost to innermost layers+ 1. 2. 3. 7. 8. 6. 7. Bar5+ e!erything e*ternal to the !as$,lar $am0i,m Cor5+ dead $ells "ith "a*y "alls4 prote$t interior o# stem #rom "ater loss Cor5 $am0i,m+ prod,$es $or5 .hloem+ prod,$ed 0y the !as$,lar $am0i,m4 gets p,shed o,t"ard Gas$,lar $am0i,m+ in 0et"een the *ylem and phloem, and p,shes o,t"ard Iylem+ prod,$ed 0y the !as$,lar $am0i,m4 gets $ondensed in"ard 9ead *ylem+ innermost part o# stem4 "ood

% diagram+

% pla!mode!mata+ $ell =,n$tions, str,$t,res that $onne$t $ells to one another % tran!piration+ the pro$ess 0y "hi$h "ater is p,lled ,p thro,gh the *ylem !essels 1hen the g,ard $ells in#late and the stomata open to allo" the e*$hange o# gas, "ater is p,lled o,t along "ith o*ygen 1ater is sti$5y, displaying a property 5no"n as cohe!ion, and "hen the o*ygen e*its, displays adhe!ion and gets p,lled ,p thro,gh the plant

% indeterminate gro%th+ most plants gro" #or as long as they li!e % determinate gro%th+ most animals stop gro"ing a#ter rea$hing a $ertain si/e % annual!+ plants that $omplete their li#e$y$le in a year or less % biennial!+ $omplete their li#e $y$le in t"o years, ,s,ally #lo"ering the se$ond year % perennial!+ plants that li!e and reprod,$e #or many years

Le 1D % #lo"ers ,ndergo do,0le #ertili/ation, in "hi$h the pollen has 2 sperm in it+ % diagram+

% !eed coat+ near the end o# an em0ryo2s mat,ration, a seed #orms a hard $o!ering % dormancy+ a $ondition in "hi$h gro"th and de!elopment are s,spended temporarily % germination+ "hen a plant 0egins gro"th % 9ermal tiss,e system+ o,ter prote$ti!e $o!ering o# !as$,lar systen Epidermi!+ single layer o# tightly%pa$5ed $ells Cuticle+ "a*y $o!ering that prote$ts #rom "ater loss +a!cular ti!!ue+ *ylem and phloem that distri0,te "ater, minerals, and s,gars (round ti!!ue+ tiss,es that are neither dermal nor !as$,lar

% fruit!+ the ripened@ mat,red o!aries o# #lo"ering plants <ntended as a me$hanism #or spreading seeds Chapter ),: Plant nutrition and Tran!port % Tran!piration+ the pro$ess 0y "hi$h "ater is p,lled ,p thro,gh the *ylem !essels 1hen the g,ard $ells in#late and the stomata open to allo" the e*$hange o# gas, "ater is p,lled o,t along "ith o*ygen 1ater is sti$5y, displaying a property 5no"n as cohe!ion, and "hen the o*ygen e*its, displays adhe!ion and gets p,lled ,p thro,gh the plant

% .lants a0sor0 C&2 to per#orm $ertain #,n$tions ;here are 3 stim,li that trigger the opening o# stomata+ s,nlight, lo" C&2 le!els, and internal timing (e!en in the dar5, stomata "ill $ontin,e their rhythm o# opening and $losing)

% -itrogen fi.ation+ a meta0oli$ pro$ess in "hi$h $ertain soil 0a$teria $alled nitrogen%#i*ing 0a$teria $on!ert atmospheri$ '2 to ammonia

Le 11 Leg,mes ho,se nitrogen%#i*ing 0a$teria ;he relationship 0et"een plants and nitrogen%#i*ing 0a$teria is m,t,ally 0ene#i$ial4 the plant pro!ides the 0a$teria "ith $ar0ohydrates and other organi$ $ompo,nds, and the 0a$teria ha!e en/ymes that $ataly/e the $on!ersion o# atmospheri$ '2 to ammoni,m ions

Chapter )): Control !y!tem! in plant! %.lants rely on se!eral di##erent tropisms+ >t,rns?4 responses 1. 2. 3. 7. 8. Phototropi!m+ response to light Chemotropi!m+ response to $hemi$als Magnetotropi!m+ response to the magneti$ #ield (eotropi!m+ response to gra!ity Thigmotropi!m+ response to $onta$t or stim,li

% 3 ma=or types o# hormones reg,late plant gro"th and de!elopment /ormone! are $hemi$al signals that $oordinate the a$ti!ities in an organism4 a $ompo,nd that is prod,$ed 0y one part o# the 0ody and then transported to other parts, "here it 0inds to a spe$i#i$ re$eptor and triggers a signal transd,$tion path"ay that ampli#ies the hormone2s signal

1. A,*in+ stim,late stem elongation4 a##e$t root gro"th, di##erentiation, and 0ran$hing4 de!elopment o# #r,it4 api$al dominan$e4 phototropism and gra!itropism4 "hen a,*in is present, the plant gro"s in that dire$tion, t,rning the plant away 2. Cyto5inins+ a##e$t root gro"th and di##erentiation4 stim,late $ell di!ision and gro"th4 stim,late germination4 delay aging 3. -thylene+ promotes #r,it ripening4 opposes some a,*in e##e$ts4 promotes or inhi0its gro"th and de!elopment o# roots, lea!es, and #lo"ers, depending on the spe$ies