Syria

1
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Geography ......................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 5
Location and Area ........................................................................................................... 5
Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features ........................................................... 6
Rivers and Lakes ............................................................................................................. 8
Climate .......................................................................................................................... 10
Major Cities .................................................................................................................. 11
Environmental Concerns ............................................................................................... 15
Natural Hazards ............................................................................................................ 16
Chapter 1: Assessment ...................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 2: History ............................................................................................................. 19
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 19
Ebla ............................................................................................................................... 19
Waves of Invaders......................................................................................................... 20
Aramaeans, Assyrians, and Persians ............................................................................. 21
Ancient Greek Conquest ............................................................................................... 22
The Roman and Byzantine Era ..................................................................................... 23
The Spread of Islam ...................................................................................................... 24
The Umayyad Era ......................................................................................................... 25
Fatimid Rule.................................................................................................................. 26
Saladin, the Ayyubids, and the Mamluks ..................................................................... 27
The Ottoman Era ........................................................................................................... 28
End of the Ottoman Era ................................................................................................ 29
World War I .................................................................................................................. 30
2
The French Mandate ..................................................................................................... 30
Coups ............................................................................................................................ 31
The Baathists ................................................................................................................. 32
Baath Ascendancy......................................................................................................... 33
The Early Assad Years.................................................................................................. 35
Lebanon......................................................................................................................... 35
Bashar al-Assad ............................................................................................................ 36
Recent Events................................................................................................................ 37
Chapter 3: Economy ......................................................................................................... 41
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 41
Resources ...................................................................................................................... 42
Services ......................................................................................................................... 43
Industry ......................................................................................................................... 45
Agriculture .................................................................................................................... 45
Trade ............................................................................................................................. 47
Standard of Living ........................................................................................................ 48
Investment ..................................................................................................................... 50
Transportation ............................................................................................................... 50
Economic Outlook ........................................................................................................ 51
Chapter 4: Society ............................................................................................................. 53
Ethnic Groups ............................................................................................................... 53
Political Refugees ......................................................................................................... 54
Literature and Arts ........................................................................................................ 54
3
Social Customs.............................................................................................................. 55
MaleFemale Relationships .......................................................................................... 56
Sports ............................................................................................................................ 58
Chapter 5: Security ........................................................................................................... 60
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 60
U.S.Syrian Relations ................................................................................................... 60
Relations with Neighboring Countries.......................................................................... 62
Military ......................................................................................................................... 68
Terrorist Groups ............................................................................................................ 69
Other Security Issues .................................................................................................... 70
Final Assessment .............................................................................................................. 76
Further Reading ................................................................................................................ 78
4
Chapter 1: Geography
Introduction
Located on the east coast of the Mediterranean
Sea in the Middle East, Syria occupies a sensitive
geopolitical region that has traditionally been a
crossroads between Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Modern-day Syria was once part of a larger
geographical territory that encompassed the
coastal and inland areas along the eastern
Mediterranean Sea. Known as Greater Syria, or
the Levant, this region roughly included the
current states of Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and
Syria, as well as the present-day Palestinian territories and a portion of southern Turkey. 1
In its modern form, Syria occupies the northern portion of the Greater Syrian region.
Most of Syria is semi-arid, desert plateau, punctuated by numerous rivers and mountains.
The mountains, Jabal an Nusayriyah and the Anti-Lebanon Range in particular, shape the
countrys climate by preventing much of the Mediterranean winds and rains from passing
into Syrias interior. Along the coast, summers are hot and winters are rainy. The higher
elevations receive rain and snow. East of the mountains, temperatures are more extreme
and the air is typically dry. Throughout Syria, the spring and fall seasons are generally
mild and pleasant as the temperature gradually increases or decreases according to
season.
Location and Area

Syria is bound by five neighbors. The country
shares its northern border with Turkey, and to the
east and southeast, it shares a border with Iraq. To
the south lies Jordan. On Syrias far southwestern
edge lies the Golan Heights region, which Israel
has occupied since 1967. Site of Syrias ongoing
territorial dispute with Israel, the strategic Golan
Heights includes three main tributaries of the
Jordan River, a major water supply for Israel. The
Golan Heights border between Syria and Israel
measures 76 km (47 mi). Lebanon, which also claims a portion of Golan Heights, lies
between the Mediterranean Sea and Syrias western border. 2 Syrias short Mediterranean
coastline (193 km or 120 mi) begins at Lebanons northern border and runs to the
southern border of Turkey.
1
The extent of Greater Syria varies according to source.
2
Central Intelligence Agency, Lebanon, in The World Factbook, 6 April 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html
5
As a whole, Syrias total surface area measures 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq mi), (including
a 1,295 sq km (500 sq mi) region of Golan Heights). 3 At this size, Syria is slightly larger
than the state of North Dakota. 4
Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features

Syrias topography demonstrates significant
diversity as one moves from the Mediterranean
coast (in the west) to the Syrian Desert (in the
southeast). The western region of the country is
characterized by a narrow coastal plain and two
major mountain chains. The expansive eastern
region largely consists of steppe or desert plateau
interspersed with river basin, low elevation
mountain ranges, and occasional oases.
Coastal Plain
Bounded by mountains to the immediate east, a narrow plain runs along Syrias
Mediterranean coast from Turkey in the north to Lebanon in the south. The width of the
plain varies according to the reach of the nearby mountains; the plain is widest in the
north near the port city of Latakia and in the south near the Lebanese border. Because of
its extremely fertile soil and Mediterranean climate, the coastal plain is the site of intense
agricultural development. It is also densely populated. The terrain along the coastline
varies from sandy shores to rugged, rocky promontories and cliffs. 5
Mountains
The Jabal an Nusayriyah mountain range rises
from the coastal plain to form a rugged north
south boundary running parallel to the coast. The
peaks of the Jabal an Nusayriyah average 1,212 m
(3,976 ft), with a highpoint of 1,524 m (5,000 ft)
marking the northern end of the range. 6 The
ranges western slope, indented with deep
ravines, receives significant moisture from the
Mediterranean Sea. Numerous historic castles and
fortresses built by either Arabs or Crusaders
populate the mountains of this region. The ranges eastern slope descends rapidly into the
richly fertile Ghab Depression, which is part of the Great Rift Valley. 7 At the southern
3
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Syria: Geography, April 2005, 4,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Syria.pdf
4
Central Intelligence Agency, Syria, in The World Factbook, 6 April 2011,
5
Terri Dougherty, From Sea to Desert, in Syria (San Diego: Thomson Gale, 2004), 1112.
6
Alison Behnke, The Land, in Syria in Pictures (Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company, 2005), 9.
7
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Environment, in Syria and Lebanon (Footscray,
Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 57.
6
end of the range, the Jabal an Nusayriyah descends into Homs Gap, a traditional trade
and passage route separating the Jabal an Nusayriyah and another major Syrian range to
the south, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. 8
Running roughly northeastsouthwest, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains form the boundary
between Syria and Lebanon. Jabal al-Shaykh, also known as Mt. Hermon (2,814 m; 9,232
ft), is located in the southern reaches of this range, which averages 2,000 m (6,500 ft). 9
These mountains are often capped with snow in winter months. From Mt. Hermon, the
range descends southward into the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights region.
Additional ranges populate the southern and central areas of Syria. The Jabal al-Arab
range, also known as the Jabal Druze, is in the far south, near the Jordanian border. These
volcanic peaks are the traditional home of the Druze, one of Syrias many religious
groups. 10 The Jabal ar Ruwaq, the Jabal Abu Rujmayn, and the Jabal Bishri are low
elevation ranges that extend northeastward across the central plateau and southern
desert. 11
Eastern Plateau and the Syrian Desert
East of the western mountains and the Ghab
Depression, northern Syria largely consists of
semiarid to arid plateau, with vegetation ranging
from agricultural crops to grass and shrub. In the
north and northeast, the Euphrates River and its
tributaries intersect the plateau and carry precious
water through the region, allowing for
agricultural development and human settlement.
The far northeastern region of Syria is the Jazira
Plain. Located between the Euphrates and Tigris
Rivers, this expanse of grassland is an important agricultural region, particularly for
cereal crops. As the northern region of Mesopotamia, the Jazira Plain extends
southeastward into Iraq. 12
Moving south from the Euphrates River Basin, the terrain transitions from steppe into the
Syrian Desert, which comprises most of southeastern Syria and extends into Iraq and
Jordan. The terrain in this region is dry, rocky, and largely barren, although there are
occasional oases and some patches of scrub grass. (The oases were once caravan towns
8
The name Anti-Lebanon Mountains means that the range lies geographically opposite the Lebanon
Mountain range.
9
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Relief: The Mountains, 2008,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria#
10
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Relief: The Mountains, 2008,
11
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment:
Geography and Population: Land, Water, and Climate, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0030)
12
Warwick Ball, Chapter 1: Introduction, in Syria: A Historical and Architectural Guide (Northampton,
Massachusetts: Interlink Publishing Group, Inc., 2007), 111.
7
on the Silk Road trade route.) Small populations of Bedouin, a tribe of nomadic
pastoralists, live in this area. 13 Originating in the southwest, a few low elevation
mountain ranges extend across the desert plateau towards the northeast. The Hawran, a
volcanic lava field interspersed with patches of fertile soil, is in the southwest near the
Jabal al-Arab range and the SyrianJordanian border. 14 In the far southwest is the
contested region of Golan Heights, which consists of foothills descending into plateau.
The most important regional cities in the far southwest are As Suwayda and Daraa,
which became the epicenter of mass anti-government protests in the spring of 2011.
The Fertile Crescent
The cultivated region of the country extends in an arc from the Jazira plain and the
Euphrates River basin through northern Syria and south along the coastal plains. This
area is part of the Fertile Crescent. Stretching from Mesopotamia in Iraq to the Nile
Valley in Egypt, the Fertile Crescent is a swath of productive, hospitable land bordered
by inhospitable desert. Endowed with precious water resources, the region has given rise
to some of the worlds earliest civilizations.15 Today, Syrias population remains heavily
centered in pockets within the Fertile Crescent, namely the coastal plain, the historic
cities of Aleppo and Damascus, and the Jazira. 16
Rivers and Lakes
Euphrates River
The Euphrates River, or Nahr al-Furat, is the
principal source of water in Syria; it is
responsible for roughly 80% of the countrys
water supply. 17 Although only a fraction of its
length is in Syria, the Euphrates is the countrys
longest river. In north-central Syria, a large dam
on the Euphrates feeds a massive reservoir called
Buhayrat al Assad, or Lake Assad. At roughly 60
km in length, the reservoir is the nations largest
body of water. 18 Constructed in the 1960s and
1970s, the Euphrates Dam (also known as the Tabaqa Dam) allows for intensive
irrigation and serves as a source of hydroelectric power. To the east, two rivers, the
Balikh and the Khabur, flow southward into the Euphrates as left-bank tributaries. 19
13
14
Warwick Ball, Chapter 1: Introduction, in Syria: A Historical and Architectural Guide (Northampton,
Massachusetts: Interlink Publishing Group, Inc., 2007), 1011.
15
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Fertile Crescent, 2008,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/205250/Fertile-Crescent#
16
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Syria, April 2005,
17
18
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Palmyra to the Euphrates, in Syria and Lebanon
(Footscray, Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 216.
19
8
Seasonal waterways, known as wadis, may also flow east and west into the Euphrates
from the desert. 20
Orontes River
The Orontes River, or Nahr al-Asi, is an essential water source for western Syria.
Originating in Lebanon, the Orontes enters Syria near Homs Gap and flows northward
through the Ghab Depression and into Turkey, where it empties into the Mediterranean.
On its route, the river supplies the Syrian cities of Homs and Hama; each city uses dams
to direct irrigation water into their respective regions. 21 Lake Qatinnah, a reservoir
located southwest of Homs, is supplied by the Orontes, as is Lake Rastan, a reservoir
found between Homs and Hama. In the north, the river is an important source of
irrigation water in the heavily cultivated Ghab Depression.
Barada River
Originating in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, the Barada River supplies water to
Damascus, the capital of Syria. As the river approaches Damascus from the west, a series
of ancient channels directs its flow across a large expanse of land, creating the Al-Ghutah
Oasis. Before reaching Damascus, the river is fed by the Fijah Spring, a source of
drinking water for the city. Beyond Damascus, the river drains into the desert. 22
Yarmuk River
In the southwest, the Yarmuk River forms a small
portion of the SyrianJordanian border before
flowing into the Jordan River as a tributary. The
river originates in Syria, from the volcanic lava
plateau near the Jabal al-Arab range. 23 Regional
springs that supply the Yarmuk are used for
irrigation in the Hawran Plateau. 24
Al-Kabir River
The Al-Kabir River forms a substantial segment
of the SyrianLebanese border, which runs roughly eastwest from the northern end of
the Lebanon Mountains to the Mediterranean coast. Fed by mountain springs and
snowmelt, the river flows westward through the coastal Akkar Plain and empties into the
Mediterranean Sea. Pollution from raw sewage and agricultural and industrial chemicals
20
21
22
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Barada River, 2008, http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-
9013259/Barada-River
23
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Yarmuk River, 2008,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/652081/Yarmuk-River#
24
9
has detrimentally affected the river, which remains an important source of water in the
region. 25
Underground Springs
Underground springs and rivers are a significant source of drinking and irrigation water
in Syria, and they often contribute to surface rivers. The Ghab Depression is known for
its wealth of subterranean water resources, as numerous springs and underground rivers
contribute to the regional supply. 26 Springs also occur occasionally in the desert, creating
sources for precious oases.
Lakes
The largest natural lake in Syria is Lake al-Jabbul, a seasonal saline lake located to the
southeast of Aleppo. Other saline lakes are found outside the cities of Damascus and Al
Hasakah. A small freshwater lake, Lake Muzayrib, lies to the northwest of Daraa. 27
Climate
Forming a barrier between the humid
Mediterranean coast and the arid eastern plateau,
the mountain ranges in Syrias west help shape
the countrys climate. Specifically, the dual
mountain chains of the Jabal an Nusayriyah and
the Anti-Lebanon Range prevent Mediterranean
winds and rains from passing into Syrias interior.
Thus, the climate of the coastal plains and
western slope tend to be wetter and milder than
that of the eastern slope and plateau, which
experience drier conditions and greater extremes in temperature.
Syrias Mediterranean climate cools the hot, humid conditions of the coastal plain during
the summer (MayAugust) and causes temperatures to drop below freezing in the
mountains during winter (NovemberFebruary). 28 Along the coast, the average daily high
is 29C (84F) during summer, while winter temperatures range from 920C (48
68F). 29 In the western mountains, average summer temperatures (22C; 72F) are cooler
than anywhere else in the country.
25
Nadia El-Awady and Patrick Kavanagh, Thirsty Sea, Tainted River: Shedding Light on the Middle
Easts Threatened Border Waters, Rural Poverty and Environment Program, International Research
Development Centre, n.d., http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/11600768441Transboundary_water_eng.pdf
26
27
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Drainage: Surface Water, 2008,
28
29
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: The Land: Climate: Temperature and Precipitation, 2008,
10
In the near eastern plateau, the cities of Damascus and Aleppo experience average daily
highs of 3337C (9199F) in the summer and average daily lows of 14C (3440F)
in the winter. Further east, in the desert, average daily highs range from 3740C (99
104F) in the summer while winter temperatures drop to freezing levels. 30 Temperature
extremes often occur when hot, sand-bearing winds (called khamsin) blow in from the
Arabian Desert during the summer months. 31
Syrias rainy season runs from NovemberMay and DecemberFebruary receive the most
precipitation. 32 The coastal plains and mountains receive approximately 76102 cm (30
40 in) of rainfall per year. With the mountains trapping Mediterranean moisture on the
western slope, the eastern plateau experiences markedly less rainfall. In the Fertile
Crescent region of the eastern plateau, annual precipitation ranges from 2551 cm (1020
in). 33 Beyond the semiarid steppe, in the true desert of the southeast, annual rainfall may
be as minimal as 813 cm (35 in). 34
Major Cities
Historically, most of Syrias population lived in
rural areas. Urban traditions from the Greeks,
Romans, and Islamic Empires left their mark in
Latakia, Tadmur, Damascus, and Aleppo, which
were trade centers over the centuries, but the
urbanization rate was slow. In the past few
decades, however, rapid urbanization has
basically split the population into rural and urban
areas. Urban populations have settled mainly in
pockets within the Fertile Crescent. The
northwest, northeast, and southwest have the highest densities. 35 The lowest density areas
are the desert steppe, which are inhabited by oasis dwellers and the Bedouin.
Damascus (Dimashq)
Damascus is the capital of Syria and the nations center for government, commerce, and
culture. It has an estimated 1.7 million people living in the city proper plus 2.7 million
living in the greater metropolitan area. 36 The city lies within the irrigated oasis of al-
Ghutah. Damascus is commonly known as al-Sham, which refers to its relative location
30
31
BBC Weather, Country Guide: Syria, 2008,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002850
32
BBC Weather, Country Guide: Syria, 2008,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002850
33
34
35
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: People, 2010,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria
36
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, Background Note: Syria, 18 March 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm
11
in the northwest Arabian Desert. 37 One of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the
world, Damascus is an intercontinental crossroads of the Middle East with a long history
of trade and cultural exchange. 38
Today, the city exhibits a mixture of antiquity and modernity. The famous Umayyad
Mosque and Straight Street are found in the old city. With such a rich heritage, the city is
also a center of Islamic study and practice. Modern Damascus has rail and highway links
to major cities within Syria and to neighboring countries. As such, it is a marketing hub
for handicrafts and products in the cement, food processing, textiles, and chemical
industries.
The citys population has rapidly expanded in recent decades and infrastructure, water
supply, and services have been severely strained. The region also suffers pollution
problems. Furthermore, urban sprawl has eliminated much of the surrounding farmlands
and vegetation.
In recent years, Damascus has been the site of several terrorist attacks, including
bombings in 2006 and 2008. 39 The city is also headquarters for certain terrorist
organizations, including Hamas, the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and the Palestine-General
Command (PFLP-GC) all of whom Syria supports as national liberation movements. 40
Aleppo (Halab)
Located on the plateau in northwestern Syria, Aleppo
(population 4.6 million) is an important regional hub for
commerce and industry. 41 Like Damascus, Aleppo is thought to
be one of the oldest continuously populated cities in the world. 42
For centuries, the city was a major trading post on
intercontinental commercial routes, and, like Damascus, it has
been occupied by a number of different peoples and powers.
Throughout its history Aleppo has also suffered a number of
devastating earthquakes, which, at various times, leveled the city
and killed large numbers of inhabitants. 43
Aleppos ancient center, or Old City, is surrounded by the
modern metropolis, which contains a central district known as
37
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Damascus, 2008,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus#
38
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Damascus, in Syria and Lebanon (Footscray,
39
START, Syria, 2010, http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?country=200
40
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Chapter 3: State Sponsors of Terrorism, in Country
Reports on Terrorism 2009, 5 August 2010, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140889.htm
41
42
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Aleppo, 2008,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppo#
43
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Aleppo, in Syria and Lebanon (Footscray,
12
the New City. Aleppos most prominent feature is a large citadel constructed on a raised
mound in the northeastern quarter of the Old City. Also located in the Old City, Aleppos
souq, or bazaar, is one of the most famous in the Middle East due to its immense size and
authenticity. Today, it remains the center of the citys commercial activity. 44
Major components of Aleppos local industry include textile manufacturing, most
famously of silk, and food processing, predominantly of nuts and dried fruits. The citys
souq acts as a market for regional agricultural produce, which is heavily supported by the
nearby Euphrates River and al-Assad reservoir to the east. Aleppo is an important
transportation corridor for the region. Aleppo is also a center for intellectual pursuits, as it
is home to a major university, several madrassas, or Islamic theological schools, and
other educational institutions. 45 Aleppo has a significant Christian population, including
many descendents of Armenians expelled from nearby Turkey in the early 20th century. 46
Homs (Hims)
Homs, is situated in the Orontes River Valley in
the western region of the country. Homs Gap lies
directly west of Homs, making the city a major
transit point for travel between the coast and the
interior, as well as between Aleppo and
Damascus. The Orontes River and nearby
reservoir, Lake Qatinnah, are essential for
supplying the city and the fertile farmlands in the
surrounding region. Local produce ranges from
fruits and vegetables to grains, such as wheat and
corn, and cotton. 47 However, Homs is better known as a major industrial hub, most
notably as the site of Syrias largest oil refinery. Silk manufacturing and the production
of fertilizers (using phosphates) are also important components of local industry. 48 The
city is also home to a major military academy. The population of the greater Homs region
is approximately 1.7 million. 49
Before the advent of Islam, Homs was a hub for Christian practice, and the city retains a
small Christian population to this day. In terms of architecture and layout, much of the
old city has been torn down and removed. Although not within the city itself, a major
regional monument is the Krak des Chevaliers, a Crusader fortress located in the nearby
Jabal an Nusayriyah. The city is home to a mosque built in honor of Khalid ibn al-Walid,
44
Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 2004), 178, 181.
45
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Aleppo, 2008,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppo#
46
47
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Hims, 2008, http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9040501/Hims
48
49
13
a revered Arab general known as the sword of Allah. Al-Walid famously brought Islam
to Syria in 636 C.E. 50
Latakia (Al-Ladhiqiyah)
Located on a harbor on Syrias northern Mediterranean coast, Latakia is the countrys
chief port city. Numerous earthquakes and prolonged battles between Muslims and
Christian Crusaders severely damaged much of the citys ancient architecture. Today, the
Roman ruins of the Temple of Bacchus and the Triumphal Arch are virtually the only
remaining artifacts. 51
The fertile coastal plain surrounding the city is a major agricultural region, particularly
for the production of tobacco, fruits, cotton, and grains. These goods make up many of
the citys primary exports. Latakias other industries include vegetable oil processing,
cotton ginning, sponge fishing, and tourism. 52 With its Mediterranean location and influx
of diverse cultures, Latakia is known as the most cosmopolitan and least conservative city
in Syria.
Hama (Hamah)
Hama is located north of Homs in the Orontes
Valley. The Orontes River flows through the
center of Hama, providing for the citys famous
gardens and tree-lined river banks. Along the
river, the city retains a number of huge medieval
waterwheels, known as noriaformerly used to
irrigate the surrounding region. Like Homs, Hama
serves as a marketplace and processing center for
the produce grown in the fertile Orontes Valley;
major crops include grains, cotton, fruits, and
vegetables. Textile manufacturing, cement production, and flour milling are components
of local industry. As a center of Sunni Islam, the majority Islamic sect in Syria, Hama is
known for its traditional and conservative character. The citys history is marked by a
recent, notorious event when, in 1982, the al-Assad regime violently suppressed the
Muslim Brotherhood insurgent group. After weeks of fighting between Syrian soldiers
and Muslim Brotherhood rebels, thousands of people were left dead and up to one-fourth
of Hamas old city was destroyed. 53
50
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, Orontes Valley, in Syria and Lebanon
51
Terry Carter, Lara Dunston, and Andrew Humphreys, The Coast and Mountains, in Syria and Lebanon
52
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Latakia, 2008,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331236/Latakia#
53
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Hamah, 2008, http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-
9038991/Hamah
14
Environmental Concerns
Syrias many environmental concerns largely
stem from overuse or mismanagement of the
nations limited land, water, and timber resources.
Agriculture remains a major component of the
Syrian economy, and its intensive practices and
monopolization of resources has produced a
number of detrimental effects.
Syria uses most of its annual water supply for
agricultural purposes, largely for the irrigation of
cereal crops. The resulting depletion of some regional water sources, including
freshwater springs, and overall declines in groundwater levels have led to serious
shortages. In some areas, water deficiencies have forced agricultural activity to cease,
thus requiring local residents to relocate. The pollution of groundwater and surface rivers
with raw sewage, agricultural additives, and industrial chemicals has further strained the
countrys water supply. In addition, as underground aquifers have been depleted, the
salinity of the groundwater has increased and overall water quality has declined. This, in
turn, has led to increased health concerns and higher costs for water treatment. 54
Intensive agricultural and industrial practices have seriously affected the land as well. In
some areas, the long-term use of rudimentary irrigation methods has increased the
salinity of the soil; this has reduced its fertility and diminished overall crop yields. 55
Deforestation (largely due to demand for timber) and the overgrazing and unsustainable
development of rangelands in the Syrian steppe have also led to serious degradation. 56, 57
With the removal of trees and surface vegetation, many areas have been increasingly
exposed to erosive forces, which, in turn, have heightened the risk of desertification.
About half of the countrys surface area may be affected or threatened by desertification.
Air pollution, particularly in the large cities of Damascus and Aleppo, is also a problem,
in part due to a prevalence of older vehicles that produce higher levels of emissions. 58
Syria has made some effort to combat these trends. Overall, the country has had some
54
United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Country Team in Syria, Syrian Arab
Republic: Common Country Assessment 2005, 2005, 5152,
http://www.undp.org.sy/pdf/CCA%20final.pdf?phpMyAdmin=xmOXzXVfLl705fbItaqCMDpyUf5
55
World Bank/METAP, Syrian Arab Republic Cost Assessment of Environmental Degradation, 9
February 2004, 15,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/SyriaCountryReportEn
g.pdf
56
57
February 2004, 17,
g.pdf
58
February 2004, 11,
g.pdf
15
success, such as in its reforestation and water sanitation programs. 59 In any case, as
climate conditions have become more extreme and the Syrian population continues to
grow, the country will continue to face serious environmental threats. 60
Natural Hazards
Syrias climate and geographic location make it
vulnerable to a variety of natural disasters,
including droughts, floods, earthquakes, dust
storms, and sandstorms. Syria is prone to periods
of limited rainfall, and with its inherently hot and
dry conditions, it occasionally suffers devastating
droughts. Most recently, in 2007 and 2008, a
severe drought affected 1.3 million people and
diminished the nations wheat yields. 61
Floods are also a serious hazard in Syria, particularly during the winter rainy season and
the spring, when the snow melts. In recent years, the most infamous flood was manmade.
In June of 2002, the Zeyzoun Dam in northwestern Syria burst. The flood wiped out five
villages in its wake and killed 80 people. 62
Situated within the region where the Arabian, African, and Eurasian continental plates
converge, Syria is exposed to significant seismic activity. Specifically, Damascus is
located near the Dead Sea Fault System and its active arm, the Sergaya fault. 63 While the
majority of recent earthquakes have been minor, the region has experienced major
seismic events in the past. In 1759, a massive earthquake (estimated at more than 7.0 on
the Richter scale) destroyed Damascus and the Lebanese city of Beirut. 64 In the 12th
century, an earthquake near Aleppo killed upwards of 230,000 people in one of the
59
United Nations Development Programme, Syria MDGs at a Glance, n.d.,
http://www.undp.org.sy/index.php?page=content&id=mdg%20nat
60
The World Bank, Syrian Arab Republic: Country Brief, September 2010,
http://go.worldbank.org/HUSX4L9ZB0
61
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Emergency Events Database, Syrian Arab Rep:
Country ProfileNatural Disasters, 2011, http://www.emdat.be/result-country-profile
62
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Emergency Events Database, Syrian Arab Rep:
Country ProfileNatural Disasters, 2011, http://www.emdat.be/result-country-profile
63
64
16
deadliest seismic events in world history. 65 Today, Syrias western region continues to be
the most susceptible to seismic activity. 66
Dust storms and sandstorms are also significant natural disaster threats in Syria. Spawned
by the khamsin desert winds, sandstorms can blow at great speeds and carry enough sand
to darken the sky and decrease visibility to zero. In addition to damage caused by strong
winds, sandstorms also frequently lead to traffic accidents and can cause serious
respiratory issues for persons exposed to the air.
65
Earthquake Hazards Program, United States Geologic Survey, Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on
Record in the World, 16 July 2008, http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php
66
17
Chapter 1: Assessment
1. Modern-day Syria was once part of a larger geographical territory known as Greater
Syria.
True
In its modern form, Syria occupies the northern portion of the former Greater Syrian
region. Greater Syria, or the Levant, roughly included the current states of Israel, Jordan,
Lebanon, and Syria, as well as the present-day Palestinian territories and a portion of
southern Turkey.
2. The cultivated region of Syria extends in an arc known as the Fertile Crescent.
True
The cultivated region of Syria that extends in an arc from the Jazira Plain and the
Euphrates River basin through northern Syria and south along the coastal plains is part of
a region known as the Fertile Crescent. Syrias population remains heavily centered in
pockets within the Fertile Crescent.
3. Underground springs are the principal source of water for all of Syria.
False
The Euphrates River, or Nahr al-Furat, is Syrias longest river and principal source of
water. It is responsible for roughly 80% of the countrys water supply.
4. Damascus is the capital of Syria and the nations center for government, commerce,
culture, and Islamic study.
True
Damascus is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It has a long
history as an important site of trade and cultural exchange along the intercontinental
crossroads of the Middle East.
5. Syria has carefully managed the use of its limited land, water, and timber resources.
False
Syrias many environmental concerns, such as water shortages, deforestation,
overgrazing, water pollution, soil erosion, and desertification, largely stem from overuse
or mismanagement of the nations natural resources.
18
Chapter 2: History
Introduction
Syria is a relatively modern country, having existed as an
independent entity only in the years since World War II.
However, the region known as Syria, which is not congruent
with the borders of modern Syria, has existed for millennia and
has one of the worlds richest histories. Cities such as Damascus,
Aleppo, and Hama are among the worlds oldest inhabited
places and have been occupied by countless invaders through the
centuries. Religion has also played an essential role in Syrias
history, a theme that continues today. The worlds three major
monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) have had
important historical chapters take place within the Syrian
landscape. In addition, several modern-day Islamic and Christian
religious communities emerged from ancient Syria.
Ebla
Between 3500 and 3100 B.C.E., urban culture
was gaining a foothold in the city of Ebla, some
53 km (33 mi) southwest of the present city of
Aleppo. 67 An excavation begun in the 1960s
unearthed 17,000 cuneiform tablets that have
provided an unparalleled insight into the
economic, social, and political developments of
that time. 68 The discoveries at Ebla also had
linguistic importance, as Eblaite, the language of
Ebla, proved to be much older than Amorite, at
the time considered to be the oldest known Semitic language. 69
Eblas importance as a commercial center connected it to trading centers as far away as
Egypt to the south, modern-day Iran to the east, and the Aegean Sea to the west. 70,71
67
The Encyclopedia of World History, 6th ed, II: Ancient and Classical Periods, 3500 B.C.E500 C.E. B.
Kingdoms of Western Asia and Africa, to 323 B.C.E., 5: Syria-Palestine, c. 3500323 B.C.E. c. Ebla and
Mari, Bartleby.com (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), http://www.bartleby.com/67/102.html
68
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Ebla, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/177615/Ebla
69
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Ancient Syria, in Syria:
A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0012)
70
71
19
Waves of Invaders
At roughly the same time Ebla was expanding, so, too, was the
Akkadian civilization in Mesopotamia. There is conflicting
evidence on which ruler actually carried out Eblas destruction;
either the Akkadian King Sargon or his grandson Naram-Sin
conquered and laid waste to the city between 2200 and 2300
B.C.E. Ebla was rebuilt but did not thrive until it was once again
sacked by invading Amorites around 2000 B.C.E. 72, 73
For much of the latter half of the second millennium B.C.E.,
modern-day Syria became the battlefield upon which numerous
dynasties vied for power. The regions importance as a
commercial crossroads provided motivation for regional rulers
to extend their domain over the area. 74 First to arrive were the
Hittites. They came from the north in what is today Turkey and
destroyed many of the Amorite cities in northern Syria and southern-most Turkey (e.g.,
Ebla, Aleppo, Alalakh) around 1600 B.C.E. 75 During the early part of the 13th century
B.C.E, the Hittites and Egyptians battled for supremacy at the Battle of Kadesh, located
near the modern city of Homs along the Orontes River. 76,77
To the east, in the Jazira Plain, lay the Mitanni kingdom, whose center was located on the
Khabur River (a major tributary of the Euphrates). This kingdom was populated by the
Hurrians, a group of people thought to have moved westward from northern
Mesopotamia. 78 During the mid-14th to early 13th centuries B.C.E., however, this
kingdom was conquered first by the Hittites and then by Assyria, the former Mitanni
vassal state lying to the east. 79
72
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Mari, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364795/Mari
73
74
Troy Fox, Who Were the Hittites?, TourEgypt.net, n.d.,
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/hittites.htm
75
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Early History, 2009,
76
Troy Fox, The Actual Battle of Kadesh (The Battle of Kadesh, Part II), TourEgypt.net, n.d.,
http://touregypt.net/featurestories/kadesh.htm
77
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Battle of Kadesh, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/309464/Battle-of-Kadesh
78
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Hurrian, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/277330/Hurrian
79
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Mitanni, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/385882/Mitanni
20
Aramaeans, Assyrians, and Persians
By the end of the 11th century B.C.E., a group of tribespeople
with shadowy historical origins began to form states in northern
Syria southward to the Anti-Lebanon Mountains along the
modern-day Lebanon border. These tribal people, known
collectively as Aramaeans, briefly ruled much of modern-day
Syria, including a southern principality whose capital was
Damascus. 80 Ultimately, however, a revitalized Assyrian
kingdom gained control over all of their Syrian lands by the late
8th century B.C.E. 81 Nonetheless, the cultural influence of the
Aramaeans continued well beyond the demise of their power.
Well into the first millennium C.E., Aramaic, the Aramaean
language, remained the lingua franca in much of Greater Syria
(roughly equivalent to modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan,
Israel, and Palestine). 82 Even today, Aramaic is spoken in a few
Christian villages in Syria, located in the hills not far from Damascus. 83
Assyrian dominance over Mesopotamia and ultimately most of the Middle East reached
its peak in the late 8th century B.C.E., but it declined quickly thereafter. 84 Near the end of
the 7th century B.C.E., Assyria was conquered by the Babylonians, who themselves were
defeated less than a century later by the Persian forces of Cyrus the Great. 85 For the next
two centuries, the Syrian lands were part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, one of the
largest land empires in history. 86 Under Persian rule, Syrian cities and villages were
given a certain degree of sovereignty. This pattern was periodically repeated over the
succeeding centuries as new foreign rulers conquered the region. 87
80
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Damascus: History, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus
81
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Aramaean, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32018/Aramaean
82
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Glossary, in Syria: A Country Study,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/syria/sy_glos.html#Greater
83
Robert F. Worth, In Syrian Villages, the Language of Jesus Lives, New York Times, 22 April 2008,
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/22/world/middleeast/22aramaic.html
84
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, The Neo-Assyrian Empire (746609): Tiglath-pileser III and
Shalmaneser V, 2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamia
85
Encyclopdia Britannica Online Cyrus II, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/148758/Cyrus-II
86
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Early History, 2009,
87
21
Ancient Greek Conquest
When Alexander the Great arrived in the land of Syria in 333
B.C.E., he brought not just his army and administration, but also
a brand new worldview and philosophy of life: Hellenism. As
Greek colonizers came to the new lands, a synthesis of Greek
and native Syrian cultures took place; the Syrian people had
their first exposure to Greek thought and Western culture.
After Alexanders death in 323, his military officers battled for
supremacy within the conquered territories. One of these
military leaders was Seleucus I Nicator. In the last part of the
4th century B.C.E., Nicator consolidated a large kingdom that
included most of modern-day Syria (known historically as the
Seleucid Empire). Much of the next century, however, was
marked by a series of wars between the forces of the Seleucid
Dynasty and the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt (another Greek
successor state from Alexanders conquests). 88
The Seleucid era in Syria was marked by the promotion of Greek culture, the
development of a streamlined administrative structure that consolidated military and
civilian power, and the founding of several cities. Perhaps most notable of the new cities
was Antioch, which served as the Seleucid principal capital. Constant fighting during the
wars with Egypt, however, took its toll over time. The Seleucid Dynastys decline began
in earnest in the early 2nd century B.C.E. with the first defeats to Roman forces. The
empire continued to shrink until 64 B.C.E., when the Romans finally completed their
takeover of the Seleucid lands. 89
88
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syrian Wars, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/579047/Syrian-Wars
89
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, History of Mesopotamia: Mesopotamia from c. 320 B.C. to 620 A.D.:
The Seleucid Period, 2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/376828/Mesopotamia
22
The Roman and Byzantine Era
Syria was a Roman province for over four centuries, although its
borders changed several times during that period. At this time,
Antioch was the capital and premier city of the province. It was
surpassed only by Rome and Constantinople (modern-day
Istanbul) in terms of size and importance within the Roman
Empire. 90 Damascus also continued to grow because of its
importance as a trading center on the route between Europe and
the Parthian cities of Mesopotamia. Like Antioch, Damascus
also became a center for the early Christian community. 91
In 330 C.E. Constantine I, the first Christian Emperor of the
Roman Empire, inaugurated the Empires new capital at the
rebuilt ancient city of Byzantium, which was later renamed
Constaninople. 92 During the more than three centuries of
Byzantine rule, Syria was the base for several attacks against Persian Sassanid Empire
forces to the east, as well as the target of reciprocal Sassanid military campaigns. In 540
C.E., Antioch was captured and briefly held by the armies of Sassanid ruler Khosrow I. 93
Approximately 70 years later, the Sassanids, now under the leadership of Khosrow II,
once again conquered Antioch and much of the remaining eastern Byzantine Empire.
However, the military success of the Sassanids in the early part of the 7th century was
fleeting. By the time the Sassanid armies were fully beaten back by the forces of
Byzantine Emperor Heraclius around 628 C.E., both sides had exhausted their treasuries
on the military, leaving them vulnerable to a new invading force marching north from the
Arabian Peninsula. 94,95
90
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Antioch, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/28297/Antioch
91
Michael Dumper, Damascus, in Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia
(Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 120.
92
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Istanbul, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/296962/Istanbul
93
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Khosrow I, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316888/Khosrow-I
94
95
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Ancient Iran: The Ssnian Period: Triumph of the Arabs, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/851961/ancient-Iran/32144/The-Sasanian-
period#ref=ref755340
23
The Spread of Islam
In the early decades of the 7th century C.E., in the
Arabian oasis city of Mecca, a local merchant
known as Muhammad (later given the title of
Prophet) began to teach about the revelations that
he had received from the archangel Gabriel while
fasting and meditating in a nearby cave. The
collection of these revelations formed the basis of
the Quran, the fundamental religious text of
Islam. At the time of Muhammads teachings, a
significant portion of the Meccan economy was
based on pilgrimages to the Kaaba, a local polytheistic temple that held idols sacred to
local tribal religions. The monotheistic message of the Prophet Muhammad, in which
there was no god but Allah, was foreign to the desert tribespeople of the time. Thus,
Muhammad and his followers encountered resistance and even persecution as a result of
his teachings. In 622 the Prophet Muhammad journeyed to the northern city of Yathrib
(modern-day Medina), where the first Muslim community took root over the next six
years. An increasing number of conversions, as well as military excursions against
pockets of resistance, ultimately united Mecca and most of the rest of the Arabian
Peninsula under Islam by the time of the Prophets death in 632. 96
After Muhammads death, Islam spread quickly through the neighboring regions of the
Middle East. In 635, Byzantine Damascus surrendered to Khalid Ibn Al-Walid, one of the
Prophets generals, and by 640, the remainder of Syria was firmly under the control of
Arab Muslim forces. In exchange for payment of a poll tax, all residents of the newly
conquered lands were guaranteed their personal safety and the safety of their possessions
and churches. For members of some Christian sects, such as the Nestorians and Jacobites,
conditions actually improved under Arab Muslim rule compared to the Byzantine era. 97
Muawiya, of the Umayyad clan, was appointed by the Caliph 98 Umar as the first
governor of the Syrian territories in 639, making Damascus his capital. However,
harmony did not reign in the newly expanding Muslim empire. After Umar was
assassinated in 644, his successor, Uthman, was chosen by a six-man shura (council) as
an apparent compromise choice over other, more likely candidates within the group. 99
Like Muawiya, Uthman was a member of the Umayyad clan. As caliph, he led the effort
to collect, compile, and codify an official version of the Quran. In 656, Uthman, too, was
96
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Muhammad: The Life of Muhammad, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396226/Muhammad
97
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Medieval Period: Islamic Conquest, 2009,
98
The word caliph (Arabic khaleefa) means successor. For Sunni Muslims, the four rashidun (rightly
guided) caliphs were the first four leaders of the Muslim community after the Prophet Muhammad died.
The first was Abu Bakr; the second, Umar; the third, Uthman; and the fourth, Ali. Shia Muslims deny the
legitimacy of the first three caliphs and consider Ali their first imam.
99
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Uthmn ibn Affn, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620653/Uthman-ibn-Affan
24
assassinated by Egyptian rebels in his Medina home, and Ali, cousin and son-in-law to
the late Prophet Muhammad, was chosen as the new caliph.
As Uthmans kin, Muawiya was obliged to revenge his murder. When Ali, the new
caliph, did not apprehend Uthmans killers, Muawiya refused to recognize Ali as the
caliph. Alis response was to invade Syria. His army was met by that of Muawiya at the
Battle of Siffin on the Euphrates River near the present-day IraqiSyrian border. Both the
battle itself and the mutually agreed-upon arbitration after the battle proved indecisive in
the struggle for the caliphate. 100 Ali was subsequently slain in 661 by a group of his
former followers who considered his decision to arbitrate the caliphate a repudiation of
the Quran. 101 After Alis death, Muawiya proclaimed himself the first Umayyad caliph,
with his capital at Damascus. Alis followers, meanwhile, broke away from Sunni Islam,
forming the Shia (party of Ali) branch of Islam.
The Umayyad Era

The Muslim world expanded ever more widely
and rapidly thereafter. During the 89-year period
known as the Umayyad Era (661750), Muslim
armies marched across the Middle East and
Africa; they sailed to Europe and conquered
Spain; they penetrated Central Asia, northwest
India, and reached the doorstep of China. All
these campaigns were based out of Syria, and it
was the Syrian army itself that supplied most of
the manpower. 102 Art and architecture also
flourished under Umayyad rule. Two of the most famous buildings from this era, still
standing today, are the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and the Dome of the Rock in
Jerusalem. 103During the Umayyad Dynasty, most Syrians converted to Islam and
Damascus underwent an Arabization process. 104 Arabic replaced Aramaic and Greek as
the principal language of Syria, Arabic coinage replaced the old Byzantine and Sassanid
currency, and Arabs took on many of the financial administrative duties formerly carried
out by Greeks and Persians. 105 By the mid 8th century, however, dissention from within,
and resentment from without, weakened the Umayyad grip on power. The Abbasids, a
dynasty of Meccan origin aided militarily by forces from northeast Persia, applied the
100
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Battle of Siffin, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/543526/Battle-of-Siffin
101
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Khrijite, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/316391/Kharijite
102
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Umayyad Dynasty, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynasty
103
Suzan Yalman, The Art of the Umayyad Period (661750), Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2008,
http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/umay/hd_umay.htm
104
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Muslim Empires:
Umayyad Caliphate, in A Country Study: Syria, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0014)
105
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Umayyad Dynasty, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/613719/Umayyad-dynasty
25
final blow when they defeated the Umayyads in 750 at the Battle of the Great Kab River
in Mesopotamia. 106 The Abbasids thereafter established a new caliphate in Baghdad that
lasted for 500 years, in which Syria was merely a province. Nonetheless, periods of
resistance against Abbasid authority periodically occurred within the Syrian lands. 107, 108
Fatimid Rule
The rulers of the Fatimid Dynasty belonged to the
Ismaili sect of the Shiites and claimed descent
from Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet
Muhammad and wife of Ali, the first Shia imam.
Their empire originated during the early 10th
century in the area of North Africa now occupied
by eastern Algeria, Tunisia, and western Libya.
After several failed attempts, the Fatimids
conquered Egypt in 969 and shortly thereafter
established the new city of Cairo as their
capital. 109 From Egypt, the Fatimid forces drove north, conquering Damascus and
southern Syria in 978. They remained until 1076. 110 Aleppo and northern Syria became
the scene of an ongoing struggle for supremacy between the Fatimid and the Byzantine
Empire after the Hamdanid Dynasty began its final decline. Small principalities were able
to take hold in this region for several decades owing to the lack of a dominant central
power. 111
The Seljuk Turks, a sultanate led by the rulers of Turkmen tribespeople, migrated from
Central Asia to Persia and ultimately pushed westward into Mesopotamia and Anatolia.
During the last half of the 11th century, the Seljuks ended the Fatimid period in Syria.
Their presence in Syria, however, was short lived. Toward the end of the 11th century,
under pressure from European Christian Crusaders, the Seljuk Empire began to fragment,
eventually devolving into small principalities in central Anatolia. 112 The Crusaders,
meanwhile, entered the Near East region and began occupation of coastal areas and cities
such as Antioch, Jerusalem, Edessa, and Al-Karak. Here they formed what became
106
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Abbsid Dynasty, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/465/Abbasid-dynasty
107
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Sayf al-Dawlah, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/526146/Sayf-ad-Dawlah
108
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Hamdnid Dynasty, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253288/Hamdanid-dynasty
109
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Cairo: History: Early History, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/88520/Cairo
110
Farhad Daftary, Ftimid Ismlsm, in The Ismls: Their History and Doctrine (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1992), 174176.
111
Ira Marvin Lapidus, 15: The Arab Middle East: Egypt and Syria in the Caliphal Age, in A History of
Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 287.
112
Islamicity.com, The Seljuk Turks, n.d., http://www.islamicity.com/Mosque/ihame/Sec9.htm
26
known as the Crusader states. 113 Notably, the cities of Aleppo and Damascus were
besieged by Crusader forces, but never fell. 114, 115
Saladin, the Ayyubids, and the Mamluks

Kurdish warrior Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyubi, known in the
West as Saladin, led the Muslim forces to defeat the Crusaders
and take back Muslim cities. The Crusaders surrendered
Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187, and much of the remainder of the
Crusader states fell shortly thereafter (although subsequent
Crusades briefly regained some territory). 116 Saladin, as founder
of the Ayyubid Dynasty, ultimately ruled the Muslim lands from
the Tigris, beyond the Nile to North Africa, and south to the
Sudan. He died of malaria in 1192 and the Ayyubid Empire
began to break apart. 117
The successors to the Ayyubids in Egypt were the Mamluks, a
dynasty founded by the Turkish generals of slave armies, who
were able to repel the initial invasions of the Mongols in 1260
and eventually extended their dominance through Syria to the Euphrates River in the
1300s. 118, 119 A second Mongol invasion, under the military leadership of Tamerlane (also
known as Timur), was more successful. Tamerlane invaded Syria in 1401, and in the
process devastated Aleppo and Damascus. After the Mongols left Syria, the Mamluks
reclaimed the lost territories, but a weakened financial foundation and internal decay left
their armies vulnerable when the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Selim I invaded in 1516
17. 120, 121
113
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Medieval Period: From the 9th to the 12th Century,
2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria
114
Carol Miller, Aleppo, SyriaGate.com, 2004.
http://www.syriagate.com/Syria/about/cities/Aleppo/aleppo-cm.htm
115
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Damascus, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus
116
HistoryWorld.net, History of the Crusades, n.d.,
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=fpf
117
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Muslim Empires:
Succeeding Caliphates and Kingdoms, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0015)
118
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Mamlk, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamluk
119
Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary, The Islamic World to 1600: The Il-Khanate,
1998, http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/
120
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Mamlk, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360799/Mamluk
121
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Ottoman Empire: The Peak of Ottoman Power, 14811566:
Domination of Southeastern Europe and the Middle East: Selim I, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434996/Ottoman-Empire
27
The Ottoman Era
The era of the Ottoman Empire in Syria lasted 400 years, with
only one significant interruption. Agriculture improved for
awhile in parts of Syria under Ottoman administration, and
Aleppo thrived as a trading center with Europe. Damascus
gained a special role within the Ottoman world because of its
position as the starting point for Muslims making the annual
Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca. Over time, however, economic
and political stagnation set in within the Ottoman domain.
Ottoman central administration of Syrias provinces slackened;
janissaries (the Sultans elite soldiers), lost their discipline and
deteriorated into a law unto themselves; taxes increasingly
burdened villages as mltizim (tax farmers) abused their
powers. 122, 123 By the early 19th century, the Ottoman Sultan in
Istanbul lost control of the hinterlands, and Bedouin tribesmen
from the Arabian deserts rode in to fill the vacuum. While Aleppo and Damascus
maintained their security and wealth, the outlying cities and villages fell prey to the
Bedouin marauders. 124
During the 1830s, the Ottomans were chased out of Greater Syria by the forces of
Egypts ruling pasha (leader) Muhammad Ali. For nearly 10 years, his son Ibrahim
Pasha ruled Syria, but in 1841 European forces intervened, assisting the Ottoman armies
in forcing the Egyptians to withdraw from Syria. 125 European influence in Ottoman-held
Syria continued to grow, with local Catholic and Orthodox populations placed under the
protectorships of France and Russia, respectively. European goods also began to flood
into the region, disrupting the local economy. Many Muslims grew resentful towards
Christian and Jewish merchants who had established trade agreements with the
Europeans. 126
122
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Ottoman Period: Ottoman Government, 16th17th
centuries, Decline of Ottoman Authority, 2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria
123
Warwick Ball, Chapter 2: Historical Background: The Modern Period, in Syria: A Historical and
Architectural Guide (Northampton, MA: Interlink Books, 2007), 44.
124
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Ottoman Period: Ottoman Government, 16th17th
Centuries, Decline of Ottoman Authority, 2009,
125
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Ottoman Period: Egyptian Domination, 2009,
126
Terri Dougherty, Chapter 2: Conquered by the Great Empires of History: Egyptian Occupation, in
Syria (Farmington Hill, MI: Lucent Books, 2004), 28.
28
End of the Ottoman Era
During the last 25 years of the 19th century and the first decade
of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Sultan
Abdulhamid II. As he came to power, the Empire found itself
effectively bankrupt. The financial problems that had been
building for decades within the Empire accelerated as a result of
the hugely expensive Crimean War with Russia. It was financed
through European loans that continued after the war and
eventually built up a staggering load of debt. 127, 128 Abdulhamid
II created a European-administered debt bureau that managed
the debt repayment and was in charge of collecting taxes and
overseeing revenues in some Ottoman provinces. As the
Ottoman economy increasingly came under European
domination, the Sultan embraced Pan-Islamism, a broad
ideology advocating the unification of all Muslim lands. Most
European empires now had Muslim lands within their areas of control; they feared the
unrest that might occur if subjects grasped their ethnic or religious identities, and pressed
for nationhood on this basis.
The colonial powers, including the Ottomans, had good reason to fear such nationalist
movements. Within Syria itself, the philosophy of Pan-Islamismwhich the Sultan
viewed only as a tool to solidify internal support within what was left of his empirewas
willingly adopted by many in this largely Muslim region. 129, 130 Ultimately, however, it
did not deter the stirrings of an independence movement among the Syrian Arabs,
especially after the Young Turk revolution in 1908 led to the effective dissolution of the
power of the Ottoman sultanate. Relations between Turks and Arabs worsened after the
revolution, and Arab nationalist political parties began to emerge in Syria, Egypt,
Constantinople, and even Paris. 131 The Ottoman Empires entrance into World War I on
the side of Germany and Austria (the Central Powers) gave hope to Syrian Arab
nationalists that independence would be obtained after the war if the
Ottomans/Germans/Austrians were defeated. 132
127
Charles Lipson, International Debt and National Security: Britain and America, in The International
Debt Crisis in Historical Perspective (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1992), 198.
128
Misha Glenny, The Realm of Ruins: Reform and Decay, 18391878, in The Balkans: Nationalism,
War and the Great Powers, 18041999 (New York: Viking, 1999), 8590.
129
Naqhshbandi.org, Abdulhamid II, n.d., http://www.naqshbandi.org/ottomans/khalifa/s34_detail.htm
130
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Ottoman Period: Ottoman Rule Restored, 2009,
131
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: Ottoman Period: Ottoman Rule Restored, 2009,
132
Terri Dougherty, Chapter 2: Conquered by the Great Empires of History: Ottoman Defeat, in Syria
(Farmington Hill, MI: Lucent Books, 2004), 29.
29
World War I
During World War I, Syrian Arab nationalists aligned
themselves with Hussein, the Sharif of Hejaz (Red Sea coast of
Arabia), who was virtually alone among Arab leaders in
deciding to fight against the Ottoman Turks. Husseins army,
with assistance from British officer, T.E. Lawrence (later known
as Lawrence of Arabia) and under the command of Husseins
son Faisal, captured the strategically important Red Sea port of
Aqaba. 133 In October 1918, Faisals forces triumphantly entered
Damascus. Arab nationalists, especially Syrians, rejoiced that
the day of their sovereignty had finally arrived. But it was not to
be. Faisal was named King of Syria in March 1920, but his reign
was short because of European meddling. In 1916, the British
and French had signed the Sykes-Picot agreement, a document
that, in advance, carved out spheres of influence in the Middle
East after the war was to end. Under the agreement, Syria and Lebanon fell within the
French mandate. When the French invaded Damascus in July 1920, Faisal went into exile
in London. One year later, he was named king of the new government of Iraq, a region
under the British sphere of influence that included much of the ancient region of
Mesopotamia. 134
The French Mandate

During the 1920s, Syrian calls for independence became more
forceful. The French mandate over Syria, under the auspices of
the League of Nations, asserted that the French government help
Syria prepare for eventual self-governance. However, in the
view of most Muslim Syrians, the French were not expediting
that process. Syrian nationalists also resented the
dismemberment of Greater Syria under the French and British
mandates, which had removed Palestine, Lebanon, and
Transjordan (modern-day Jordan). In 1925, a Syrian nationalist
revolt, initiated by Druze rebels in southern Syria, erupted and
continued to simmer for two years. 135
In much of the first half of the 1930s, negotiations between the
French and Syrian nationalists over a framework for ultimate
independence were unsuccessful. But with a change of the French government in 1936,
these negotiations quickly turned fruitful. An agreement outlining the terms and details of
133
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, T. E. Lawrence, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/332960/T-E-Lawrence
134
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Faysal I, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202997/Faysal-I
135
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: History: The French Mandate, 2009,
30
Syrian independence was reached in 1936. The Syrian government quickly signed off on
the agreement, but the French parliament never ratified it.
As Europe slipped into another World War, Syria became a base of operations in the
conflict, only this time under Allied control. After the French government fell to
Germany in 1941, British, British Commonwealth, and Free French forces invaded Syria
in order to gain control of the region before the Germans. 136 Both the British and Free
French proclaimed Syrian independence upon entering Syria, and Syrians quickly set up
a government. In 1945, the French delayed in transferring final control of armed forces in
Syria, bombing Damascus when the Syrians refused to negotiate a treaty, and establishing
French rights within Syria after independence. British leader Winston Churchill then
threatened to use British forces to aid the Syrian government if the French attacks did not
stop, which they soon did. In 1946, the French finally left Syria, and to this day, Syrians
celebrate Evacuation Day every April 17, marking the end of French occupation. 137, 138
Coups
In 1948, Syria participated in the war against the
newly formed state of Israel and was defeated
along with its Arab allies. In the aftermath of
Arab defeat in Palestine, popular discontent rose
among Syrians against the democratically elected
civilian government, which the army blamed for
its defeat. 139 In March 1949 military forces loyal
to Army Chief of Staff Husni al-Zaim removed
President Shuhri al-Quwatli from office in the
first of a long series of coups d'tatthree in
1949 alone. 140 Motivation for these coups emanated from the divisive issue of Syrian
political unity with Iraq, an idea whose popularity or lack thereof exposed the
geographic, religious, and political divisions among the Syrian population. 141, 142 The
leader of the third coup, Colonel Adib al-Shishakli, initially kept a low profile and let the
political establishment bicker among themselves as popular discontent grew. One of al-
Shishaklis civilian political allies during this time was Akram al-Hawrani, founder of the
136
Free French Forces were fighters during WWII that continued to fight Axis forces after France
surrendered to Germany.
137
Nejla Izzedlin, X: Syria and Lebanon, in The Arab World: Past, Present, and Future (Chicago: Henry
Regnery Company, 1953), 163165.
138
ArabicNews.com, Syria Celebrates Evacuation Day, 17 April 1999,
http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/990417/1999041744.html
139
R. Hrair Dekmejian, The Arab Republic of Syria, in Politics and Government in the Middle East and
North Africa (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1991), 193.
140
Terri Dougherty, Chapter 3: Independent Syria, in Syria (Farmington Hill, MI: Lucent Books, 2004),
33.
141
Joshua Landis, Shishakli and the Druzes: Integration and Intransigence, in The Syrian Land: Process
of Integration and Fragmentation, 1998, 369396, http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-
1/Joshua_Landis_Druze_and_Shishakli.htm
142
31
Arab Socialist Party, who rather unsuccessfully pushed for land reform measures. 143, 144
In 1951, al-Shishakli staged a second coup against the political leadership of the country
and actively took control of the country in a military dictatorship. All political parties
except al-Shishaklis were banned and political dissent was aggressively squelched. 145 As
Syrian political leaders, including al-Hawrani, fled the country, al-Shishaklis heavy-
handed tactics began to backfire. By 1954, al-Shishaklis base of support had dwindled,
and he faced increasing opposition within the Syrian army. In February of that year, he
was overthrown and forced into exile. 146,147
The Baathists
As the Syrian government continued to undergo frequent
changes, alternative political organizations were formed. Among
these groups were the Baathists. Even prior to Syrian
independence, the pan-Arab unity movement had spawned
several political groups, one of which was the Baath (Arabic for
renaissance) Party, whose platform promoted political
nonalignment, a secular embrace of Islamic values, and anti-
imperialism. 148 Economically, the Baathists advanced a socialist
agenda, a stance that was reinforced in 1953 when the Baath
Party merged with al-Hawranis Arab Socialist Party
(ASP). 149,150 The party found its strongest support, particularly
after the merger with the ASP, among the poorer groups within
Syria: Druzes, Alawites (a Shiite Muslim sect mostly living in
the coastal mountain regions near Latakia), and peasant Sunnis
and Christians. 151,152
By 1957, with Syria once again under a parliamentary system, the Baath Party obtained a
fragile position of political primacy within a left-wing political alliance that controlled
143
David Dean Commins, Hawrani, Akram al-, in Historical Dictionary of Syria, 2nd ed. (Lanham, MD:
Scarecrow Press, 2004) 123124.
144
Derek Hopwood, Independence 19451970, in Syria: 19451986 (Oxford: Routledge, 1988), 3436.
145
146
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Adib al-Shishakli, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/541174/Adib-al-Shishakli
147
Damascus-Online.com, Shishakli, Adib al-, n.d., http://www.damascus-
online.com/se/bio/shishakli_adib.htm
148
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Bath Party, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/55912/Bath-Party
149
Ahmed Janabi, The Arab Baath Socialist Party, Al Jazeera, 12 February 2008,
http://english.aljazeera.net/focus/arabunity/2008/02/2008525184059317433.html
150
151
152
Alan George, The Leading Party in Society and the State: The Baath Party, in Syria: Neither Bread
nor Freedom (London: Zed Books, 2003), 66.
32
the Syrian government. 153 The party, however, was already beginning to falter because of
internal disarray and dissension, and its leadership position was being challenged by the
growth of the Syrian Communist Party, a Baath Party ally in the alliance that was
increasingly viewed as a political rival. 154
In 1958, the Baath Party proposed a political union to Egyptian President Gamal Abdel
Nasser, a pan-Arabist leader who was extremely popular in Syria. Thus was created the
United Arab Republic (UAR), a three-and-a-half year experiment in nation building that
drove not only the Syrian Community Party out of existence, but also the Baathists. 155
Syria became very much the lesser partner in this new nation. In 1961, as Nasser
continued moving forward toward the complete political and economic integration of
Syria into the Egyptian-dominated UAR, a coup dtat led by conservative Syrian army
officers took place in Damascus. Nasser, whose ambivalence toward the EgyptSyria
union never seemed to fade, did not resist the Syrian secession from the UAR.
Baath Ascendancy
After the political break with Egypt, the Baath Party began to re-
form itself. The secession splintered the vanguard of the old
Baath Party, with those favoring the split with Egypt leaving or
being forced out of the new party. One such individual was al-
Hawrani, who left to restart the Arab Socialist Party. Within the
Syrian military, a group of mid-level officers had formed a
clandestine Baathist cell while serving in Egypt during the UAR
era. As the conservative senior officers who staged the 1961
coup were relieved of their high-level positions, this Baathist
group began to consolidate power. Among the officers were
Alawis Salah al-Jadid and Hafez al-Assad, who within a few
years battled for control of the Syrian government. 156,157 In
March 1963, the military Baathists staged a coup, and the reborn
Baath Party gained power.
Power Struggle
Over the next few years, two factions within the Baath partyone that promoted Arab
nationalism and a slow approach to socialism and another that was more concerned about
153
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: After Independence:
Radical Political Influence, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
154
Alan George, The Leading Party in Society and the State: The Baath Party, in Syria: Neither Bread
nor Freedom (London: Zed Books, 2003), 67.
155
United Arab Republic, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
156
Dilip Hiro, Assad, Hafiz, in The Essential Middle East: A Comprehensive Guide (New York: Carroll
& Graf, 2001), 55.
157
Neo-Baath Dominance, 19631966, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
33
advancing socialist reforms than re-establishing Arab unitybattled for party supremacy.
The former group became known as the pan-Arab nationalists, while the latter was
referred to as the regionalists. In 1966, Amin al-Hafiz, the Baathist military leader and
most powerful figure among the nationalists, was overthrown in a bloody coup. Alawis
Salah al-Jadid, the military leader of the regionalists, became the Baath Party leader, and
the true power behind the civilian government. Hafez al-Assad, Hafizs fellow Alawite
military colleague, took over as Minister of Defense. 158
Soon thereafter, however, the two men began to engage in a
power struggle that lasted nearly four years. During the 1967
Six-Day War against Israel, the Syrian Air Force was destroyed,
and Israel took control of the Golan Heights from Syria. Syrias
crushing losses as part of the pan-Arab forces during this time
contributed to the turning point in their relationship. Both men,
as part of the Baathist military leadership, found themselves on
the defensive following the war and needing to rebuild their
power bases. Assad, whose views were now closer to the more
moderate nationalists than the fervently socialist Jadid, focused
on placing key supporters within the military leadership. Jadid,
on the other hand, firmed up his support within the civilian
political structure. 159
The culminating events in this long-running political struggle came in 1970. In
September of that year, Jadids civilian political leaders ordered a Syrian tank force into
Jordan to support Palestinian guerilla forces that were being expelled from the country by
the army of King Hussein (an event known henceforth by Palestinian leaders as Black
September). Assad and his associates, who were against this action, refused to lend air
support to the expeditionary force, and the Syrian tanks were forced to beat a hasty and
embarrassing retreat. In November, Jadid and the Baath Party leadership tried to remove
Assad, but they were instead deposed by Assads military supporters. This Correction
Movement, as it was referred to, ushered in three decades of Assad rule in Syria. 160,161
158
Neo-Baath Dominance, 19631966, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
159
160
161
The Baath Redirections of 1966 and 1970, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0026)
34
The Early Assad Years
By 1971, Assad had firmly consolidated his control of the Baath
Party and the Syrian government. In March of that year Assad
became president after a sweeping victory in the first of a long
string of unopposed elections during his tenure. He quickly
bolstered relations with Egypt, Libya, and the Soviet Union,
using Moscow as a source of military support for rebuilding
Syrias armed forces. 162
Both Syria and Egypt continued to nurse their grievances with
Israel, particularly over the territory from their countries (Golan
Heights for Syria, the Sinai Peninsula and Suez Canal for Egypt)
that was still under Israeli control from the 1967 war. In October
1973, both countries launched an attack against Israel. In April
1974, a U.S.-brokered disengagement agreement between Syria
and Israel returned the now-demolished Golan Heights city of Quneitra to Syria, which
was viewed as a triumph for the Syrian people. 163
Lebanon
During 19751976, Syrian military forces became
increasingly involved in the escalating civil war
between Lebanese Christian Maronite and
Muslim militias. Syria initially took on a
diplomatic, peace-keeping role, but this soon
evolved to active military support for the
Christian right against the Palestinian and Muslim
left. Syrias position proved unpopular in the
Arab world, including among Syrias own Sunni
Muslim population.
By 1978, Syria had switched sides in the Lebanese conflict and was now supporting
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) forces and the Muslim militias. As the civil war
began to subside during the late 1980s, Syria still was militarily in control of a large part
of Lebanon. Syria pledged in the 1989 Taif Accord, which laid the groundwork for the
end to the Lebanese Civil War, to withdraw their forces to the eastern Bekaa Valley of
Lebanon by the end of 1992. Ultimately this pledge was not fulfilledSyrian soldiers
remained in Lebanon for another 16 years. 164,165
162
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 5: National Security: The Regular Armed
Forces: Foreign Influences in the Development of the Armed Forces, in Syria: A Country Study, April
1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sy0127)
163
Return to Quneitra, Time, 8 July 1974, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943909-
1,00.html
164
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Lebanon: History: Lebanon After Independence: Lebanons Second
Republic (1990- ): Continuing Challenges into the 21st Century: External Intervention and Confessional
35
Opposition Forces
As Sunni Muslim dissatisfaction with the Assad regime continued into the mid- to late
1970s, several opposition groups emerged in Syrian cities. Most notable was the Muslim
Brotherhood, a Sunni fundamentalist organization. During the late 1970s, violent attacks
aimed at Syrian governmental and Baath Party targets as well as Alawites continued to
escalate. 166 Muslim Brotherhood attacks in Aleppo continued into 1980 and eventually
spread to other cities, such as Hama, Homs, and the eastern city of Dayr az Zawr.
Violence continued to increase through 1981 and into 1982, triggering demonstrations
and strikes in Sunni-dominant cities. For a time, it appeared that Syria, like Lebanon,
might be on the path to civil war. 167 Ultimately, a brutal governmental response to a
Muslim Brotherhood attack against government forces in Hama crippled the anti-Assad
movement. After the ambush, Syrian forces were ordered to attack Hama, leaving much
of the old city in ruins. The number of deaths from the Hama action was estimated
between 10,000 and 25,000 people. 168 No similar dissident movements have arisen since
the fighting at Hama. 169
Bashar al-Assad
Hafiz al-Assad died in June 2000. His 34-year-old son, Bashar,
became the new Syrian President upon his death. After coming
to power, Bashar al-Assad began to push forward modest
reforms, primarily economic. Syria has long been dependent on
oil exports, but declining oil reserves have increased the
pressure to diversify the economy. The Baath Party continues to
hold a monopoly on political power within Syria, although some
baby steps have been taken to loosen the tight restrictions on
political expression. 170
During 2005, Assads government came under intense pressure
from Western and Arab countries after former Lebanese Prime
Minister Rafiq al-Hariri was assassinated by car bomb in
Conflict, 2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon/279120/Civil-

war#ref=ref38658 6
165
After 29 Years, Syria Leaves Lebanon, International Herald Tribune, 26 April 2005,
http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/04/26/africa/web.0426syria.php
166
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: The Assad Era, in
Syria: A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
167
Neil Farquhar, Hafez al-Assad, Who Turned Syria Into a Power in the Middle East, Dies at 69, New
York Times, 10 June 2000, http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/asadd3.htm
168
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 1: Historical Setting: The Assad Era, in
Syria: A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
169
Esther Pan, Syria: Has Assad Dodged a Bullet?, Council on Foreign Relations, 26 April 2006,
http://www.cfr.org/publication/10546/syria.html
170
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Bashar al-Assad, 2009,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/711020/Bashar-al-Assad
36
February. 171 Syria was widely suspected of having played a role in the death of Hariri,
who had expressed anger at Syria for its role in keeping pro-Syrian Lebanese President
mile Lahoud in office beyond his constitutional term limit. 172 Hariris death also
triggered massive street protests in Lebanon against Syrias continued presence in the
country. These demonstrations, collectively named the Cedar Revolution, were
augmented by increased international pressure for Syria to uphold a 2004 UN Security
Council resolution calling for all foreign nations to pull their forces out of Lebanon.
Recent Events
Ultimately, the uproar over Hariris death forced
Syria to back down. In April 2005, the
approximately 14,000 Syrian troops remaining in
Lebanon left the country. Meanwhile, a
preliminary report of a United Nations
investigation into Hariris death implicated
several senior Syrian intelligence and
administration figures, including Bashar al-
Assads brother and brother-in-law, in the
bombing. 173,174,175 While Assads rule was shaken
by the fallout from the Hariri assassination, he managed to avoid having international
economic sanctions placed on Syria, except for the United States, which first established
sanctions in 2004. 176
In the aftermath of the Hariri assassination and its follow-up investigation, Syria
strengthened its ties with Iran, a move that Western nations and many of the primarily
Sunni Muslim countries of the Middle East viewed with concern. 177 Both Syria and Iran
are key supporters of Hamas and Hezbollah, which the United States and several other
countries have listed as terrorist organizations.
In 2008, it was announced that Syria and Israel had initiated indirect peace talks, with
Turkey serving as intermediary. 178 The talks began only months after Israel, with possible
assistance from North Korea, bombed a suspected nuclear reactor under construction in
171
Tony Badran, Saudi-Syrian Relations After Hariri, Mideast Monitor, February 2006,
http://www.mideastmonitor.org/issues/0602/0602_2.htm
172
Susan Sachs, Rafik Harriri, Ex-Premier of Lebanon, Dies at 60, New York Times, 15 February 2005,
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/15/international/middleeast/15hariri.html
173
Esther Pan, Syria: Has Assad Dodged a Bullet?, Council on Foreign Relations, 26 April 2006,
http://www.cfr.org/publication/10546/syria.html
174
Deb Riechmann, Syria Facing UN Sanctions, Sydney Morning Herald, 23 October 2005,
http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/syria-facing-un-sanctions/2005/10/22/1129775994535.html
175
176
Embassy of the United States, Damascus, U.S. Trade and Financial Sanctions Against Syria, n.d.,
http://damascus.usembassy.gov/sanctions-syr.html
177
178
Richard Boudreaux, Turkey Mediating Israel-Syria Peace Talk, Los Angeles Times, 25 April 2008,
http://articles.latimes.com/2008/apr/25/world/fg-golan25
37
Syria. 179 The Syrian-Israeli talks were later suspended when the Israeli mediator resigned
and Israel began its military offensive in Gaza against Hamas.
In late 2010 and early 2011, mass protests against political repression, corruption, and
poverty erupted throughout the Middle East. Popular uprisings led to the fall of President
Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in Tunisia and the Hosni Mubarak regime in Egypt. In Libya,
the demonstrations turned into an armed insurgency with Colonel Qaddafi and his
supporters on one side and the rebels and NATO on the other. In mid-March 2011,
protests broke out in Syria and expanded across the nation with the southern city of
Daraa quickly becoming the hotspot. The rallies began on 16 March as a silent protest by
families of prisoners held by the state. Two days later, the demonstrations had spread to
Daraa and along with those in other cities they grew into an anti-regime pro-democracy
movement. Despite the brutal government crackdown that killed hundreds and
international appeals for caution and restraint, the protests continue as of May 2011
without international or regional intervention.
179
David E. Sanger, Bush Administration Releases Images to Bolster Its Claims About Syrian Reactor,
New York Times, 25 April 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/25/world/middleeast/25korea.html
38
1. The cultural influence of the Aramaeans continued well beyond the demise of their
power.
True
Well into the first millennium C.E., Aramaic, the Aramaean language, remained the
lingua franca in much of Greater Syria (roughly equivalent to modern-day Syria,
Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine). Even today, Aramaic is spoken in a few Christian
villages in Syria, located in the hills not far from Damascus.
2. During the Umayyad Era, the Muslim world shrank significantly.
False
During the 89-year period known as the Umayyad Era (661750 C.E.), Muslim armies
marched across the Middle East and Africa; they sailed to Europe and conquered Spain;
they penetrated Central Asia, northwest India, and reached the doorstep of China. All
these campaigns were based out of Syria, and it was the Syrian army itself that supplied
most of the manpower.
3. The Ottoman Empire in Syria was interrupted by various empires and dynasties
fighting for control of Greater Syria.
False
The era of the Ottoman Empire in Syria lasted 400 years, with only one significant
interruption. Over time, however, economic and political stagnation occurred in the
Ottoman domain, and Syria in particular became something of a backwater. By the early
19th century, the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul lost control of the hinterlands, and outlying
cities and villages fell prey to Bedouin marauders.
4. During World War I, Syrian Arab nationalists aligned themselves with Hussein, the
Sharif of Hejaz (Red Sea coast of Arabia).
True
Hussein was virtually alone among Arab leaders in deciding to fight against the Ottoman
Turks. Husseins army, with assistance from British officer, T.E. Lawrence (also known
as Lawrence of Arabia) and under the command of Husseins son Faisal, captured the
strategically important Red Sea port of Aqaba. In October 1918, Faisals forces
triumphantly entered Damascus.
39
5. The death of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri triggered massive street
protests in Lebanon against Syrias continued presence in the country.
True
These demonstrations in 2005, collectively named the Cedar Revolution, were augmented
by increased international pressure for Syria to uphold a 2004 UN Security Council
resolution calling for all foreign nations to pull their forces out of Lebanon.
40
Chapter 3: Economy
Introduction
Syria has had a centralized and state-run economy
since the Baath (Arabic for Renaissance) Party
emerged as a major political force in the 1960s.
Thereafter, Syria maintained the Baath socialist
agenda for the economy but also moved toward
industrialization and socialist transformation.
Syria implemented its first five-year economic
plan in 1960 with limited results. 180, 181 The
government nationalized major industries and
foreign investment and the country experienced a
loss of capital, skilled workers, and administrators as centralized planning increased. The
country received a boost, however, during the 1970s with higher oil prices. The economy
shifted away from being agriculture-based to one focused on the industrial, commercial,
and services sectors. Internal and external crises during the 1980s, as well as continued
military and security spending and government bureaucracy, again slowed down the
economy.
Syria has since then implemented a number of modest reforms to modernize and
transform its economy. These reforms include opening private banks, consolidating
exchange rates, reducing lending interest rates, establishing stock markets, and removing
some barriers to trade. Nonetheless, government still retains control over major industries
and regulates businesses in the private sector. Moreover, the reforms have not been
enough to eradicate poverty, substantially reduce unemployment, or increase the standard
of living. Despite strong economic growth in the past few years, the government has had
to reduce subsidies and the inefficient and corrupt nature of the economy has led to both
low investment and industrial and agricultural productivity rates. 182, 183 Recently, the
global economic recession, a prolonged drought, and civil unrest has also negatively
impacted the economy. Syrias Gross Domestic Product (GDP purchasing power parity)
was an estimated USD 106.4 billion in 2010 with 4% real growth rate.
180
Five-year plans were the Soviet economic practice of planning to augment agricultural and industrial
output by designated quotas for a limited period of usually five years. Nations other than the former USSR
and the Soviet bloc members, especially developing countries, have adopted such plans for four, five, or
more years. (AllRefer.com, Five-Year Plan, Russian, Soviet, and CIS History, 2003,
http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/F/FiveYear.html)
181
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Chapter 3: The Economy: Role of Government:
Development Planning, in Syria: A Country Study, April 1987, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
182
The World Bank, Syria: Country Brief, September 2010, http://go.worldbank.org/HUSX4L9ZB0
183
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, Background Note: Syria: Economy, 18 March 2011,
41
Resources
Petroleum and Natural Gas
Petroleum and natural gas are Syrias most
important natural resources. In the 1980s, large
oil fields were discovered and oil began playing a
significant role in the economy. The Syrian
government formed partnerships with
international oil companies, including
ConocoPhillips and Shell, to assist in the
development of its oil industry, from extraction to
refinement. Ever since, crude oil has been the
dominant Syrian export. In 2009, Syria exported
an estimated 148,000 barrels of oil per day, mainly to European countries. 184
Most Syrian oil fields are located in the northeastern region of the country with refineries
in the cities of Baniyas and Homs. Smaller fields are located in the central regions.
Syrias total crude oil output hit its highest point in 1995 at 610,000 barrels per day
(bbd). 185 Since then, oil production has declined, falling to an estimated 368,000 bbd in
2009. 186 Syrias oil reserves are being gradually depleted. Oil reserves stood at 2.5 billion
barrels in January 2010 but may be used up by 2030. 187,188 The Syrian oil ministry has
been accelerating efforts to switch domestic power plants and industrial use to natural
gas, so that Syrias crude oil may continue to generate export revenue. 189 All of Syrias
natural gas production is currently used domestically, and plans are being made to
dramatically increase this production over the next few years by bringing more gas fields
online. 190 Natural gas reserves are at 8.5 trillion cubic feet. 191
Phosphate Rock
Syria is the worlds ninth leading producer of phosphate rock. Much of the phosphate
rock is exported and the remainder used for local production of phosphate fertilizers and
184
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, Syria: Oil, in Country Analysis
Briefs, June 2010, http://www.eia.doe.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=SY
185
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs. Background Note: Syria: Economy. 18 March 2011.
186
187
188
Bloomberg. Ibrahim, Lina and Nayla Razzouk. Syrian Oil, Gas Output Rise in 2010, Ministry Says.
25 January 2011. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-01-24/syrian-crude-oil-gas-output-rises-in-2010-
energy-ministry-says.html
189
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, Syria: Natural Gas, in Country
Analysis Briefs, March 2008, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Syria/Oil.html
190
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, Syria: Background Notes, May 2007,
191
42
phosphoric acid. 192 In 2009, Syria generated roughly 1.9% of the worlds production of
phosphate rock, most of which comes from desert mines located southwest of
Palmyra. 193, 194 These mines are operated by the government-owned General Company
for Phosphates and Mines, which also manages Syrias salt production, from a mine
located near the Euphrates River city of Dayr al-Zawr. Other mining and mineral
processing operations within Syria include cement, gypsum, marble, and silica. Steel was
produced at plants in Hama and the Mediterranean port cities of Latakia and Tartus.
Services
The services sector comprised an estimated 55%
of GDP and 67% of the labor force in 2010.
Services is the largest sector of Syrias economy
and includes government services. Tourism is
becoming increasingly important in the services
sector, stimulated by privatization in real estate,
trade, and insurance.
Tourism
With numerous ancient historical sites, religious
shrines of several religions, and a warm Mediterranean coastline, Syria has ample
potential to develop a strong tourism industry. Facing declining oil export revenues, the
Syrian government has placed increased emphasis on developing its tourist
infrastructure. 195 Five Syrian locations are World Heritage Sites, including the ancient
parts of Damascus and Aleppo, the nations two largest cities.
Presently, most travelers to Syria come from neighboring Middle East countries. 196
Visitors from the U.S. and Europe are beginning to increase in numbers, but the lingering
bad publicity concerning the governments state support of what the U.S. considers
terrorist groups continues to dampen tourism. 197 Nevertheless, in 2008, Syria had 5.4
million visitors. 198
192
Nations Encyclopedia, SyriaMining, n.d., http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-
Oceania/Syria-MINING.html
193
Stephen M. Jasinski, Phosphate Rock, U.S. Geological Survey, January 2008,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/phosphate_rock/mcs-2008-phosp.pdf
194
Mowafa Taib, The Mineral Industry of Syria, U.S. Geological Survey, 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2009/myb3-2009-sy.pdf
195
Katie Hunt, Long Isolated Syria Warms to Tourism, BBC News,18 November 2008,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7706757.stm
196
Nations Encyclopedia, SyriaTourism, Travel, and Recreation, n.d.,
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Syria-TOURISM-TRAVEL-AND-
RECREATION.html
197
Syria Ministry of Tourism, Foreign Tourists Flock to Syria Despite Troubles, Reuters, 16 July 2005,
http://www.syriatourism.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=277
198
UN Data, Country Profile: Syrian Arab Republic. n.d.,
http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Syrian%20Arab%20Republic
43
Banking
Syrias banking system is predominantly
government-owned and administered although
private banks are currently the leaders of financial
sector growth. The Central Bank of Syria, the
main bank, issues the Syrian currency: the Syrian
pound. The Central Bank is the governing body
for many specialized branch banks.
Privately held banks were granted permission to
operate within Syria in 2001, as long as a Syrian
majority held interest in the bank. 199 Fourteen private banks now operate in the
country. 200, 201 These private institutions continue to follow the directions and leadership
of the Central Bank. Along with privatization, the Syrian government has started to
permit banks to deal in hard currency, and foreign investors can now open accounts using
foreign currency. 202 In 2005, the first Islamic banks, which do not charge interest, were
established in Syria. 203 In the same year, private companies (foreign and domestic)
gained access to the insurance sector. Since then, private banks assets have grown
considerably at about 25% in 2010. 204
In May 2004, the Commercial Bank of Syria (CBS) was accused by the United States
Department of the Treasury of allowing terrorist organizations to launder illegal proceeds
generated from sale of Iraqi oil by Saddam Husseins regime. 205 As a result, all U.S.
banks (including overseas affiliates), financial institutions, and citizens were
subsequently banned from holding accounts in the CBS. Syrias government, claims that
it does uphold international standards for monitoring and policing money laundering. As
evidence, it points to a law passed in 2004 establishing an Anti-Money-Laundering
Commission. 206,207
199
Embassy of the United States, Damascus, Syria, Bank and Currency Information, n.d.,
http://damascus.usembassy.gov/information_for_travelers/bank-and-currency-information/
200
The Heritage Foundation, 2011 Index of Economic Freedom: Syria, 2011,
http://www.heritage.org/index/Country/Syria
201
202
ANIMA, Syria: Finance and Banking System, 29 January 2009,
http://www.animaweb.org/en/pays_syrie_financesbanques_en.php
203
United Nations Development Programme, Financial Transparency Country Profiles: Syria, 2009,
http://www.pogar.org/countries/theme.asp?th=12&cid=19
204
Bilateral US Arab Chamber of Commerce, Finance, September 2010,
http://www.bilateralchamber.org/newsletter/2010/sept/finance.html
205
America.gov, Treasury Dept. Accuses Syrian Banks of Money Laundering, 12 May 2004,
http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2004/May/20040512164434cpataruk0.5541651.html
206
Matthew Levitt, Global Anti-Terrorism Financing Group Challenged by Syrias Application,
Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 31 May 2007,
http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2609
207
United Nations Development Programme, Financial Transparency Country Profiles: Syria, 2009,
http://www.pogar.org/countries/theme.asp?th=12&cid=19
44
Stock Market
The Central Banks new willingness to trade in hard currencies was a start toward the
establishment of a national stock exchange. The Syrian Securities and Exchange
Commission (SSEC) has been a legal entity since June 2005. The stock exchange in Syria
is seen as a way to attract money in an economy that still offers few investment
prospects. 208 The Damascus Stock Exchange opened in March 2009.
Industry
Much of Syrias industrial production is related to its mineral
and energy resources (e.g., refined oil products, fertilizers,
cement, and other building materials). Most of these are
produced in Damascus. Manufacturing makes up a smaller
portion of the economy. The two largest manufacturing
segments are textiles and clothing, and food and beverage
processing. The textile mills are located mainly in Damascus,
Aleppo, Hims, and Hamah. Syria also has long been known for
its beautiful handicraftsitems such as mother-of-pearl inlays,
hand engravings, silk brocades, and swords and bladesbut
production of most of these items has declined since large-scale
manufacturing was introduced. 209
Agriculture
Syrians agricultural sector produces 17% of
Syrias GDP and employs the same percentage of
the countrys work force. 210 Although
infrastructure development, investment, and
subsidies have made Syria an exporter of
agricultural products, Syria still faces several
challenges in furthering the development of
agriculture. First, the desert limits the amount of
arable land to about 25% of the countrys total
area. 211 Second, the percentage of irrigated fields is only 30%, leaving a large percentage
of Syrias crops dependent on rain-fed sources. 212 Low rainfall and drought limit food
production. Drought in 2008 dramatically decreased wheat production - Syria is now a
net importer of wheat whereas before it was a net exporter. Finally, major water
208
Jihad Yazigi, ed., Syria Moves Closer to First Stock Market, ArabicNews.com, 13 March 2006,
http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/060314/2006031411.html
209
Encyclopdia Britannica Online Syria: Economy: Manufacturing, 2009,
210
211
212
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Agri-Food Trade Service-Agriculture Technology and Equipment
Sector Profile-Damascus, Syria, May 2010, http://www.ats.agr.gc.ca/afr/5641-eng.htm
45
resources, such as the Orontes and Euphrates Rivers, do not originate in Syria, causing
complex water-sharing disputes.
The modernization of irrigation practices is critical for Syria to increase its total food
production. To this end, the Syrian government invested about USD 600 million from
2001 to 2005 in modernizing irrigation systems, changing from open canal systems to
pressurized systems. 213 Water shortages, in part due to inefficient and antiquated
irrigation systems, have already led to decreased cotton planting. 214
The majority of Syrian farms, unlike many Syrian businesses, are privately owned;
nevertheless, the state continues to exert extensive marketing controls on crops deemed to
be strategic. 215 Syrias main crops include cotton (the largest cash crop), grains (mostly
wheat and barley), lentils, olives, sugar beets, chickpeas, grapes, pistachio nuts, and citrus
fruit. 216 Animal products include beef, lamb, eggs, poultry, and milk. 217
Another agricultural problem is that some farmers do not regularly practice crop rotation,
which causes the depletion of vital nutrients in the soil. Some believe that government
agricultural subsidies contribute to this situation, because they often encourage farmers to
plant the same crop each growing season. 218
213
Food and Agricultural Organization, Background, International Symposium on Irrigation: Constraints
and Solutions, March 2006. http://dotproject.fao.org/syria/background.php
214
215
216
Encyclopedia of the Earth, Water Profile of Syria, 11 April 2008,
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_Syria
217
New Agriculturist, Country Profile: Syria, n.d., http://www.new-agri.co.uk/02-5/countryp.html
218
John Dagge, The Worlds Oldest Agricultural Sector Looks to the Future, United Nations
Development Programme, 3 November 2008, http://www.undp.org.sy/index.php/stories/60-environment-
and-energy/347-the-worlds-oldest-agricultural-sector-looks-to-the-future-
46
Trade
Syria currently has a negative trade balance. The trade deficit is
due in part to the global economic crisis and the drought.
Exports for 2010 are estimated at USD 12.84 billion while
imports are forecast at USD 13.57 billion. The trade deficit is
offset by income from foreign aid, remittances from abroad, and
tourism. 219 Syria is not a member of the World Trade
Organization yet (it recently obtained observer status) but does
have regional free trade agreements with India, Belarus, and
Slovakia.
Syrias export total for 2009 was USD 10.85 billion, down 30%
from the previous year. 220 Crude oil was Syrias main export
commodity. Other important exported products included refined
oil products, minerals, raw cotton, fruits, olives, and grains. 221 In
terms of commodity groups, agricultural products, fuels and mining products, and
manufactures made up roughly equal portions of total exports in 2009, with fuels and
mining leading by just a few percentage points. 222 Syrias largest export partner in 2009
was Iraq (30%). Other export partners included Lebanon, Germany, Italy, Egypt, Saudi
Arabia, and France. 223
In 2009, Syria imported goods worth USD 15.29 billion, a reduction of 16% from 2008.
In addition to machinery and equipment for transportation, other key imports included
metal and metal products, food and livestock, chemicals, and textiles. Manufactures made
up about half of the total imports in 2009, followed by fuels and mining products (24%),
and agricultural products (20%). Saudi Arabia was Syrias largest import partner,
supplying 10% of all Syrian imports. Other main import partners are China, Turkey,
Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Ukraine, Italy, Russia, Germany, and Lebanon.
219
Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Syria: Economy, 2010,
220
World Trade Organization, Syrian Arab Republic, March 2011,
http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=SY
221
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, Syria: Background Notes, May 2007,
222
World Trade Organization, Syrian Arab Republic, March 2011,
http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=SY
223
Central Intelligence Agency. Syria. in The World Factbook, 22 January 2009,
47
Trade with Iran
Syria is developing stronger economic, trade, and energy ties
with Iran, a country with whom it shares political views on
certain regional and global issues. A highly publicized bilateral
trade agreement went into effect in 2004 and a draft free trade
agreement followed in August 2010. 224 Iran has invested in
power generation, concrete production, and urban transportation
in Syria and also partnered in joint ventures such as the Syrian-
Iranian Vehicle Company and Syrian-Iranian Motor
Company. 225 A joint Iranian-Syrian bank is in the planning
stages. In the field of energy, Syria and Iran have recently
agreed on a natural gas deal that would establish a pipeline from
Iran to Syria through Iraq. In all, bilateral trade between the two
nations stood at USD 350 million in 2009, slightly more than the
U.S.-Syria trade in goods. 226, 227 By March 2011, bilateral trade
had increased to USD 3 billion.228
Standard of Living
Syria has a lower middle-income population
living in an economy that has been improving
since 2005. Many have benefited from the
governments investments in and liberalization
and diversification of the socialist economy.
Western-style malls have opened in Damascus,
and private-sector banking and insurance
industries have taken root. 229,230,231 Nevertheless,
for the large percentage of the Syrian population
living outside the wealthier neighborhoods of
Damascus, poverty, rather than prosperity, remains the daily reality. About 30% of the
population is employed in government or the public sector with low salaries and wages.
The average monthly public sector worker salary is about USD 320. In the past, wages
224
Press TV, Iran, Syria to Launch Joint Bank, 9 March 2011, http://www.presstv.ir/detail/168973.html
225
Jeremy M. Sharp, Syria: Issues for the 112th Congress and Background on U.S. Sanctions,
Congressional Research Service, 28 March 2011, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33487.pdf
226
U.S. Census Bureau, Foreign Trade: Trade in Goods with Syria, 2011,
http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5020.html
227
UPI, Special Reports: Iran, Syria Push Economic Ties, 2 July 2009,
http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2009/07/02/Iran-Syria-push-economic-ties/UPI-85371246556440/
228
DP-News, Iran-Syria Ties Beneficial for Mideast, 10 March 2011, http://www.dp-
news.com/en/detail.aspx?articleid=77348
229
Zeina Karam, Syrian Economy OpensWill Its Politics Follow?, USA Today,8 September 2008,
http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-09-08-2559772007_x.htm
230
Zawya, SyriaInsurance on the Rise, November 2007,
http://zawya.com/printstory.cfm?storyid=ZAWYA20071111102648&l=115725071114
231
American Public Media, Marketplace, Syria Transfers to Modern Banking, 10 September 2007,
http://marketplace.publicradio.org/display/web/2007/09/10/syria_banks/
48
have neither kept up with inflation nor with the cost of living. 232 Syria has increased
public sector wages numerous timesthe latest by USD 32 in the wake of the spring
2011 mass demonstrationsbut it may not be enough for all Syrians to make ends
meet. 233, 234
In 2005, 30% of Syrians lived in poverty while 11% lived below the subsistence level. 235
With unemployment at a high 8.3% (2010 estimate), inflation at 5.9%, population growth
rate at .9%, and economic growth at 4%, creating jobs has been a challenge. Some of the
reasons for Syrias inflation problems include reduced food harvests due to drought, a
reduction in government fuel subsidies, and a large influx of refugees from Iraq who have
driven up rents in large cities such as Damascus. 236 Syria faces a housing shortage due to
high real estate prices, refugee migrants, and domestic urban migration. 237 The shortage
has led to informal housing structures or slums around larger cities. Many of these areas
lack basic services such as running water and electricity.
Both the government and Syrians have taken some steps to alleviate poverty. The
government provides subsidies for basic commodities but they are difficult to sustain due
to the increasing gap between production and consumption. Given the overall tough
economic situation at home, large numbers of Syrians have long worked outside the
country and sent remittances back to their families. Lebanon has been a popular
destination for Syrian workers since the 1950s. 238 Some have work permits, while others
work there illegally. 239
232
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, 2011 Investment
Climate Statement- Syria, March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157366.htm
233
Economist Intelligence Unit, The Economist, Syria: Mr. Assad Raises Wages and Pensions and Lowers
Tax Rates, 1 April 2011,
http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=1047932489&Country=Syria&topic=Economy&subtopic=Cur
rent+policy&subsubtopic=Economic+policy%3A+Mr+Assad+raises+wages+and+pensions+and+lowers+t
ax+rates
234
Syria Today, Wages Fail to Keep up with Inflation, Union group Warns, December 2010,
http://www.syria-today.com/index.php/december-2010/691-business-news/13109-wages-fail-to-keep-up-
with-inflation-union-group-warns
235
236
Brookings, Global Economic Crisis: Mixed Forecast for Jordan and Syria, 1 December 2008,
http://www.brookings.edu/interviews/2008/1201_jordan_syria_dhillon.aspx
237
Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Damascus Slum Dwellers Fear Eviction, 19 May 2009,
http://iwpr.net/report-news/damascus-slum-dwellers-fear-eviction
238
John Chalcraft, The Invisible Cage: Syrian Migrant Workers in Lebanon (Palo Alto: Stanford University
Press, 2009).
239
IRIN News, Lebanon-Syria: Wretched Conditions for Syrian Workers, 13 April 2009,
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?Reportid=83900
49
Investment
Syria hopes to increase investment in tourism, services, and
natural gas in order to diversify its economy. In the past few
years, Syria has taken a number of steps toward attracting new
investments. In 2007, the Syrian government permitted investors
to obtain loans from foreign banks and to repay those loans
using local banks. A year later, Syria established a one-stop shop
to facilitate the investment application process and minimize
bureaucratic hurdles. A number of steps in 2010 have also
encouraged investment: the government divided Syria into four
development zones and set the minimum investment capital for
each zone, enacted a new labor law that was more business-
friendly, permitted private sector investment in electricity, and
established a holding company for investment called Syria for
Investment with offices within and outside of Syria. Today,
most sectors are open to investment. 240, 241 Nevertheless, a number of factors undermine
the investment climate in Syria. These include corruption, lack of transparency in and the
arbitrary nature of investment laws, bureaucracy, political violence, and the absence of an
independent judiciary. 242
Transportation
Syria has good basic transportation infrastructure
but is striving to improve it. 243 In late 2010, Syria
was considering financing from the World Bank
for the first time to develop its infrastructure. 244
Syria currently has 104 airports of which 29 are
paved. International connections (to European,
Asian, and other Arab countries) are available at
Damascus and Aleppo airports. Syria also has a
well-developed railway system. Railways
measure 2,052 km (1,275 mi) of which about
90% is standard gauge. Trains connect many cities in Syria but they are slower although
cheaper than buses. There are 97,401 km (60,522 mi) of roadways but only 20% of it is
paved. Major ports and terminals in Syria include Baniyas, Latakia, Tartus.
240
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, 2011 Investment Climate Statement Syria,
March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157366.htm
241
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, Background Note: Syria, 18 March 2011,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm#econ
242
Heritage Foundation, 2011 Index of Economic Freedom: Syria, 2011,
http://www.heritage.org/index/Country/Syria
243
Sarah Standish, Chapter 7: Travel, Health, and Safety, Culture Smart! Bosnia and Herzegovina: The
Essential Guide to Customs & Culture (London: Kuperard, 2010), 129.
244
Khaled Yacoub Oweis, In Break with Past, Syria Seeks World Bank Financing, Reuters, 4 October
2010, http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/10/04/us-syria-worldbank-interview-
idUSTRE6930MP20101004
50
Overall, traveling in Syria requires some care and caution. Public transportation may be
crowded and buses or trains may not run on time. On the road, drivers may not follow all
traffic laws or yield to entering traffic in traffic circles. Even when drivers do observe
traffic signs and signals, high speeds and the unpredictable nature of traffic can make for
hazardous conditions.
Economic Outlook
Syria has historically maintained a socialist state-dominated
economy while transitioning toward a social market economy.
In the past two decades the Syrian government has released
some control on the economy. Among other reforms, it has
established private banks, cut interest rates, and allowed
privatization of some business sectors. In order to receive
support from the West, however, Syria will need to comply with
the Syria Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Act by
ceasing to support terrorist groups. Alongside this, future long-
term economic challenges to the Syrian economy include rising
budget deficit, declining oil production, high unemployment
rates, corruption, an overstaffed and poorly performing public
sector, increased pressure on water supplies because of
population growth, and water pollution. 245 In October 2010, the
Syrian State Planning Commission stated that a 2001 five-year plan would prioritize
infrastructure, health, education, and social services, while stimulating industrial
production and agriculture. With the recent civil conflicts, these plans may or may not
change. 246
245
Central Intelligence Agency, Syria, in The World Factbook, 22 January 2009,
246
Khaled Yacoub Oweis, In Break with Past, Syria Seeks World Bank Financing, Reuters, 4 October
51
1. Syria implemented five-year economic plans.
True
Syria has had a centralized and state-run economy since the Baath (Arabic for
Renaissance) Party emerged as a major political force in the 1960s. Syria implemented its
first five-year economic plan in 1960 with limited results. After the Baath Party
implemented their socialist economic agenda, the country experienced a loss of capital,
skilled workers, and administrators as centralized planning increased.
2. Crude oil is Syrias main export commodity.
True
Syrias crude oil output hit its highest point in 1995 at 610,000 barrels per day (bbd).
However, since then, oil production has been declining, falling to an estimated 369,000
bbd in 2009.
3. Recent strong economic growth has meant increased industrial and agricultural
production.
False
Despite strong economic growth in the past few years, the government has had to reduce
subsidies and the inefficient and corrupt nature of the economy has led to both low
investment and industrial and agricultural productivity rates.
4. Prosperity, rather than poverty, has become the daily reality even for the large
percentage of the Syrian population living outside the wealthier neighborhoods of
Damascus.
False
The average workers monthly salary in the public sector is about USD 320. Wages have
neither kept up with inflation nor with the cost of living. The gap between these two
measures highlights the difficulties that many Syrians face in making ends meet.
5. Privately owned banks are not authorized to operate within Syrias borders.
False
Privately held banks were granted permission to operate in Syria in 2001, as long as a
majority interest in the bank was held by Syrian citizens. These private institutions
continue to follow the directions and leadership of the Central Bank.
52
Chapter 4: Society
Ethnic Groups
Syrias population is fairly cohesive by heritage, but the
different religious and ethnic communities have kept their
identities. Arabic people represent 90% of the population and
the rest is composed of Kurds, Armenians, and others. As for
religious affiliation, Sunni Muslims make up 74% of the
population; the Shia, Alawite, Druze, and other Muslim sects
total about 16% of all Syrians; and Christians represent the
remaining 10% of the population. Syrian Christians are mostly
Greek Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, or Greek Catholic. There are
tiny, remnant Jewish communities in Damascus, Al Qamishli,
and Aleppo. 247 Arabic is spoken by most, but the sizable
Kurdish and Armenian populations have kept their languages. 248
The geographic distribution of the different groups of people in
Syria includes the Syrian Arabs dominant in the western and central areas. Most of the
Kurdish population live in the east. The mountainous regions and valleys are populated
largely by Christians. The Druze concentrate in the south, while most Armenians live in
Aleppo.
247
Central Intelligence Agency, Syria, in The World Factbook, 22 January 2009,
248
Robert Fisk, In the Land of the Alawites, an Arab Legend is Born, The Independent, 17 June 2000,
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/in-the-land-of-alawites-an-arab-legend-is-born-
712778.html
53
Political Refugees
Syria has an increasing refugee problem. Refugees in Syria are
mainly from two countries: Palestine and Iraq. 249 More Iraqi
refugees have been entering Syria than any other country in the
region since the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. 250 In late 2007,
the numbers of Iraqi refuges entering Syria began dropping
sharply as Syria tightened its visa requirements. In addition,
some Iraqis began voluntarily returning to Iraq around this time,
possibly because of the improving security situation in parts of
the country. 251
The refugee problem in Syria is causing rents to soar, schools to
become overcrowded, and real estate values to spiral upward.
Some of the wealthier Iraqi refugees have bought property in
Damascus and built large homes. Real estate prices in the area
rose 50% in 2004, seemingly as a result of the population influx.252 Crime and health
problems are also rising in slum areas where refugees have settled, mainly around
Damascus. Many refugee children cannot find a place in the public schools and are
forced to live on the street, leading to further problems.
Literature and Arts

Poetry
Syrias literary tradition is rich, and the recitation of poetry dates
back to ancient times. Many modern Syrian poets and writers
have moved to Lebanon, where freedom of expression is not as
limited as in Syria, and where most of the Arab publications are
produced. 253
One Syrian poet, Nizar Qabbani became a national hero under
President Hafez al-Assad, who hailed Qabbani across Syria as
one of the nations greatest poets. Qabbanis poetry used simple
language and represented the cause of women long before that
topic was addressed by others. Another famous modern Arab
249
U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, World Refugee Survey 2009: Syria, 2009,
http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-
country-updates/syria.html
250
Scott Wilson, Iraqi Refugees Overwhelm Syria, Washington Post, 3 February 2005,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A58648-2005Feb2?
251
Maryanne Loughrey and Julianne Duncan, Report of the ICMC-USCCB Mission to Assess the
Protection Needs of Iraqi Refugees in Syria, International Catholic Migration CommissionU.S.
Conference of Catholic Bishops, April 2008, 34, http://www.usccb.org/mrs/iraqi_refugees_syria_4-
2008.pdf
252
Scott Wilson, Iraqi Refugees Overwhelm Syria, Washington Post, 3 February 2005,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A58648-2005Feb2?
253
Citizen and Immigration Canada, Cultural Profiles Project, Cultural Profile of Syria: Arts and
Literature, n.d., http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/syria/arts.html
54
poet, Omar Abou Riche, was Syrias Ambassador to Washington in 1962.
Syrian Music
Syrian singers and musicians have made major contributions to the Arabic world of
music. One of the most famous Syrian singers was Farid el-Atrash, whose songs are still
famous throughout the Middle East. He also acted and sang in Syrian and Egyptian
movies. Mayyada Hennawi is another name that attracts many listeners, as do George
Wassouf and Asala Nasri, whose recordings can also be heard on Arabic radio and TV
stations all around the Middle East and beyond.
Social Customs
Hospitality
Arab hospitality is world famous, and Syria honors this tradition
to the fullest. A visitor to any and every home in Syria will be
welcomed and honored. The host family will offer the guest the
very best food and drink that they can afford and will go to great
lengths to assure the comfort of their guest. When offered tea,
coffee, or something to eat, it is the custom to politely refuse it
the first time. The host will offer a second time, and again, the
guest, with the utmost delicacy, should turn it down. A third
time, the host will ask, Not even a cup of coffee? or some
such thing, and at this point, the guest should relent and
gratefully accept his hosts generosity.
The Arabic expression ahlan wa-sahlan means welcome, and
the host will probably repeat this phrase several times during the
visit, as if to remind the guest to relax in the knowledge that the host is honored to have
him there. It is not necessary for the visitor to bring a gift to his host, but it is acceptable
and a nice thing to do. In the case of non-Muslim families, a good bottle of wine or araq
(the local variety of anisette liquor) is appropriate, but not among Muslims, for whom
alcoholic beverages are forbidden.
Syrian Food
Grains, vegetables, and fruit form the basis of most Syrian food. Another staple food is
hummus, which is offered as an appetizer dip or with the main entree with other
vegetables. The main ingredient of hummus is a pure of garbanzo beans, to which tahini
(a smooth paste made from sesame seeds), lemon, garlic and other spices are added
according to taste.
Another famous Syrian dish is labneh, or salty yogurt balls in olive oil. They are served
with fresh parsley or vegetables. Fresh vegetables stuffed with meat and rice are also
found in Syrian cuisine. Syrian food is generally healthy, low in fat and cholesterol, and
easy to prepare. The main course is usually followed by Arabic coffee or shai (Arabic
tea) and pastries.
55
Syrian desserts are often made of honey-soaked pastry filled with nuts and other
ingredients. One of the most well-known and popular Arabic pastries is baklava, which is
thought to date back to the Assyrians around the 8th century B.C.E. 254 Halawat al-Jibna
is a doughy pastry filled with cream cheese and usually covered in syrup.
MaleFemale Relationships
In Syria, marriage is the only respectable context
for male-female relationships. Dating, per se, is
rare, and premarital sex is virtually unheard of.
Almost no children are born out of wedlock. Boys
and girls go to separate schools, though university
classes are coeducational. Syria is a socially
conservative society; as long as visitors recognize
and respect this reality, they will feel most
welcome. For example, if a foreign male visitor in
Damascus meets a Syrian woman in a public
place and finds her interesting, he should not pursue his interest. Do not invite her for a
cup of tea. Do not flirt. This would dishonor the woman and her family.
Arranged Marriages
Marriage in Syria is still largely an arranged affair. The mother and other female relatives
of the young man seek marriage candidates, preferably from among cousins, or failing
that, then from the daughters of close friends and trusted neighbors. If his mother is not
alive, then his aunt takes this responsibility upon herself. Once a candidate is identified,
women from the grooms family visit the girls family to meet her and her mother. 255 The
young mans mother learns of the candidates good attributes, qualities, and abilities and
determines if she would make a good wife for her son. If that is the case, the two mothers
set a date for the young man and both of his parents to come calling to meet her family.
This is the first step.
254
KitchenProject.com, The History of Baklava, 11 May 2006,
http://www.kitchenproject.com/history/Baklava.htm
255
Carole Bechara, An Old Levantine Marriage, FW Magazine, February 2009, http://www.fw-
magazine.com/content/old-levantine-marriage
56
The Process of Engagement
Most families will not force a young woman to marry against
her will. If both young people agree that they want to go ahead,
then the two fathers step in and play their role. The young mans
father visits the father to discuss all aspects of the wedding, not
just the time, date, and place, but also the dowry, the steps of the
process, the preparations for the bride, and maraseem al-zawaj
(the rituals of the marriage).
The engagement period extends from the moment the young
man and woman agree to marry until the wedding day. During
this engagement, the couple visits each others families and get
to know them better. In Syria, marriage is not merely the bond
between two individuals; rather, marriage is a bond between
families. For that reason, the parents are consulted at every step
of the process, and the extended families from the two sides meet repeatedly and
exchange hospitality and gifts. Unlike in Western countries, generally speaking, there is
not a lot of opportunity for the engaged couple to be alone together; in fact, they may not
even meet each other before the actual wedding ceremony. Another difference is that it is
the grooms parents who are responsible for all the expenses of the wedding.
Differences in Marriage Tradition Between Christians and
Muslims
Engagement procedures apply to both Muslim and Christian
families. In Syria, a person is known by his family, not by his
religion. Muslim or Christian, he or she is known as the son or
daughter of a certain person, or the father or mother of a certain
person. In other aspects, however, Christian and Muslim
marriages do differ in significant ways.
The Christian Wedding
Christians marry in the church and invite friends and relatives to
attend the wedding ceremony. After the ceremony, the wedding
party gathersmen, women, and children all togetherfor a
reception and feast.
The Muslim Wedding
Muslims do not necessarily marry in a mosque. An imam (Muslim prayer leader) meets
with the bride, groom, and the parents, either in his office or at the home of the groom,
and reviews the marriage contract to verify its validity. He recites certain suras (chapters)
or ayat (verses) from the Quran and signs the documents to legalize the marriage. There
is no party at this ceremony. The groom and bride return separately to their respective
parents houses, attended by their siblings, and perhaps their closest cousins and dearest
friends. The parties are held the next day. For conservative Muslim families there are
57
separate parties for the men and the women, because most of the women are veiled and
should not be the focus of mens attention.
Polygamy is permitted among Muslims, and men may have as many as four wives. This
practice, however, has become less and less common in present-day Syria.
Sports
Syrians are big sports fans, both in terms of
participation and spectatorship. Basketball,
volleyball, badminton, tennis, wrestling, boxing,
body building, and football (soccer) are the most
popular sports. It is worth noting that soccer is not
played in Syria quite as widely as it is in other
Arab countries, such as Egypt, Kuwait, the United
Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia. Nevertheless,
Syrian interest in soccer is keen enough to have
established and maintained an extensive league
with some 120 clubs made up of 25,000 players, 1,500 trainers, and 425 referees. 256
Regardless of what sports Syrians prefer to play, when it comes to watching the
professionals, qurat al-qadam (soccer) is number one.
256
The-AFC, Syria: Organisation Structure, n.d., http://www.the-afc.com/eng/nassoc/country.jsp_SYR-
242-1.html
58
1. Syrias population is fairly cohesive by heritage.
True
But the different religious and ethnic communities have kept their identities. Arabic
people represent 90% of the population and the rest is composed of Kurds,
Armenians, and others. As for religious affiliation, Sunni Muslims make up 74% of
the population; the Shia, Alawite, Druze, and other Muslim sects total about 16% of
all Syrians; and Christians represent the remaining 10% of the population.
2. Syria, the public recitation of poetry only recently became a popular pastime.
False
Syrias literary tradition is rich, and the recitation of poetry dates back to ancient
times. Many modern Syrian poets and writers have moved to Lebanon, where
freedom of expression is not as limited as in Syria, and where most of the Arab
publications are produced.
3. The guest in an Arab home is expected to refuse refreshment more than once.
True
When offered tea, coffee, or something to eat, it is the custom to politely refuse it the
first time. The host will offer a second time, and again, the guest, with the utmost
delicacy, should turn it down. A third time, the host will ask, Not even a cup of
coffee? or some such thing, and at this point, the guest should relent and gratefully
accept his hosts generosity.
4. A typical Syrian dessert is the Arabic pastry baklava.
True
Syrian desserts are often made of honey-soaked pastry that is filled with nuts and
other ingredients. Baklava is one of the most well-known and popular Arabic pastries.
It is thought to date back to the Assyrians around the 8th century B.C.E.
5. In Syria, marriage is the only respectable context for male-female relationships.
True
Dating, per se, is rare, and premarital sex is virtually unheard of. Syria is a socially
conservative society; as long as visitors recognize and respect this reality, they will
feel most welcome. For example, if a foreign male visitor in Damascus meets a
Syrian woman in a public place and finds her interesting, he should not pursue his
interest. Do not invite her for a cup of tea. Do not flirt. This would dishonor the
woman and her family.
59
Chapter 5: Security
Introduction
Syria lies at the northern end of one of the worlds most volatile
regions. Modern-day Syria was once part of a larger
geographical territory that encompassed the coastal and inland
areas along the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Known as Greater
Syria, or the Levant, this region roughly included the current
states of Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, as well as the
present-day Palestinian territories and a portion of southern
Turkey. Over time, the boundaries of these regions changed but
conflict has been a constant. In recent times, two of Syrias
neighborsIraq and Lebanonhave been plagued by wars that
have periodically devastated their countries. In addition, Syria
played an active military role in the 2011 Lebanese conflict.
Syrias southwestern neighbor, Israel, has fought three wars
against Syria and its allies since 1948; it currently occupies the
Golan Heights, which was Syrian territory after WWI until 1967. Syrias relations with
its other two neighbors, Turkey and Jordan, have often been frosty as well, with stand-
offs over issues ranging from water rights to terrorism support. The Assad regime has
also had to face internal threats, and has responded by using its feared security apparatus
to relentlessly discourage dissent.
U.S.Syrian Relations
Since Syrias independence in 1946, U.S.Syrian relations have
both improved and soured. In 1967, the U.S. severed ties with
Syria after the Six-Day War with Israel but resumed relations
again in 1974 when Syria and Israel signed a disengagement
agreement. 257 In 1979, the U.S. designated Syria as a State
Sponsor of Terrorism for providing support and safe haven for
organizations the U.S. has designated terrorist groups, such as
Hamas and Hezbollah. 258, 259 Relations became further strained
during the 1980s with the U.S. suspecting a Syrian role in the
U.S. Embassy and Marine barrack attacks in Beirut, Lebanon,
and also U.S. attacks on Syrian installations in Lebanon. 260 Syria
257
During the Six-Day War, involving not just Israel and Syria but also Egypt and Jordan, Israel gained
Jerusalem, Gaza Strip, Golan Heights, West Bank, and Sinai Peninsula. Israel gave Sinai back to Egypt in
1982.
258
Jeffrey D Feltman and Daniel Benjamin, Assessing the Strength of Hizballah, Bureau of Near Eastern
Affairs, U.S. Department of State, 8 June 2010, http://www.state.gov/p/nea/rls/rm/142857.htm
259
Jim Zanotti, Hamas: Background and Issues for Congress, Congressional Research Service, 2
December 2010, http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/152599.pdf
260
Thomas Collelo, ed., Relations with the United States, in Syria: A Country Study, Federal Research
Division, Library of Congress, 1987, http://countrystudies.us/syria/67.htm
60
helped secure the release of hostages aboard the hijacked Trans World Airlines flight 847
in 1986 but continued suspicion of Syrian involvement in terrorism led to administrative
sanctions and the recall of the U.S. ambassador in 1986. The ambassador returned to
Syria after Syria expelled terrorist group Abu Nidal Organization from the country.
Relations were again improved when Syria supported the international coalition against
Iraq in the 1991 Gulf War and it cooperated with U.S. counter-terrorism efforts.
During the past decade, however, relations remained difficult due in part to Syrias
continued support of terrorist groups and also because of the presence of Syrian forces in
Lebanon. (Syrian troops eventually withdrew from Lebanon in 2005.) Furthermore, U.S.
government and military officials frequently accused Syria of allowing Islamist fighters
from other countries to freely cross its borders into Iraq. Syrias tight suppression of
internal dissent and its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction have also been ongoing
concerns of the U.S. government. 261 Consequently, Syria is under both general and
specific U.S. economic sanctions. 262 The Obama administration renewed the sanctions in
May 2010 but has sought to engage Syria in dialog about ways to reduce regional tension
and promote peace. 263
In April 2011, the U.S. extended sanctions against Syria in the wake of the government
crackdown on civilian protestors in Daraa and other parts of the country. Sanctions were
imposed on Syrias intelligence agency; President Assads brother, Mahir al-Assad, a
commander in the Syrian Army who led the operations in Daraa; and President Assads
cousin, Atif Najib, former security chief in the province of Daraa. Sanctions were also
placed on the Qods Force of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps. 264
261
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, U.S. Department of State, Background Notes: Syria, May 2007,
262
Congressional Research Service, 28 March 2011, 1321, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33487.pdf
263
Syrias sanctioning by the U.S. means that any U.S. foreign aid to Syria is severely restricted; that all
arms exports and sales to Syria are banned; that sales of dual-use items that could improve Syrias military
capability or its ability to assist terrorist organizations are significantly controlled; and that business or
trade transactions with Syria are subject to several restrictions.
264
David Gollust, US Imposes New Sanctions Against Syria Over Crackdown, VOA News, 29 April
2011, http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/US-to-Freeze-Syrian-Officials-Assets-
120976399.html
61
Relations with Neighboring Countries
Turkey
After decades of tension, Syria and Turkey have
recently improved their political, trade, and
economic ties. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s,
relations between Syria and Turkey, were
strained. 265 The Turks claimed that Syria was
actively supporting the banned separatists
Kurdistan Workers Party in Turkey (PKK).
Syrias support of the PKK was thought to be a
lever against Turkey in the ongoing water dispute
between the two countries. Syria was critical of a
rural development initiative that centered on a series of immense hydroelectric dams
along the Euphrates River that would reduce Syrias and Iraqs downstream allotment of
water. Syria was also concerned about Turkeys use of Euphrates water for irrigation,
which caused higher salinity in the water entering Syria. 266 In April 1996, as PKK
guerrillas training in the Syrian-controlled Bekaa Valley in Lebanon continued to launch
terrorist strikes against military and civilian targets in southeastern Turkey. During that
time, Turkey temporarily shut off the Euphrates water supply to Syria for technical
reasons, resulting in water rationing in Syria. 267,268
Relations became worse before they got better. In 1988, SyrianTurkish relations were in
crisis when Turkish forces massed along the Syrian border. They threatened to invade, if
Syria did not cease its support of the PKK, and expel PKK leader Abdullah calan, who
was reported to be living in Damascus at the time. 269,270,271 Syria eventually severed all
connections to the PKK and expelled its leader. From that point forward, the two
countries slowly began to develop a better relationship. 272 Syria and Turkey now aim for
a common future and a complete economic cooperation package with no visa
265
F. Stephen Larrabee, Turkey Rediscovers the Middle East, Council on Foreign Relations, July/August
2007, http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20070701faessay86408-p0/f-stephen-larrabee/turkey-rediscovers-the-
middle-east.html
266
Adel Darwish, Water Is Behind Turkey Syria Border Tension, MidEast News, 6 October 1998,
http://www.mideastnews.com/water001.html
267
Graham Fuller, Turkey and Syria, in The New Turkish Republic: Turkey as a Pivotal State in the
Muslim World (Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace Press, December 2007), 95.
268
The Middle East and North Africa 2003, 49th ed, Syria (Oxford, England: Taylor and Francis, 2002),
1016.
269
Turks.us: Daily World EU News, Turkey Still Sees Syria As PKK Supporter, 30 January 2003,
http://www.turks.us/article.php?story=20030130174627643
270
Michael Collins Dunn, ed., The Syria-Turkey Confrontation, The Estimate 10, no. 21 (9 October
1998), http://www.theestimate.com/public/100998.html
271
Adel Darwish, Water Is Behind Turkey Syria Border Tension, MidEast News, 6 October 1998,
http://www.mideastnews.com/water001.html
272
Turks.us: Daily World EU News, Turkey Still Sees Syria As PKK Supporter, 30 January 2003,
http://www.turks.us/article.php?story=20030130174627643
62
restrictions. 273, 274 The SyrianTurkish alliance is mutually beneficial on many levels:
Turkey has a stable neighbor in regards to the PKK, cooperation with an EU candidate
improves Syrias reputation in the world, and trade between the two countries opens new
markets for each. 275 In the wake of the 2011 anti-government mass protests that began in
March, Turkey remained in contact with Syrian officials, hosting some of them in
Istanbul, while urging for reform and restraint. 276 By May 2011, nearly 250 Syrian
refugees had fled to Turkey due to the violence and government crackdown. 277
Lebanon
Despite their long shared history, Syria
established formal diplomatic relations with
Lebanon for the first time on 13 October 2008.
Lebanon was once part of Greater Syria and both
nations emerged from the French Mandate in the
1940s. 278 With such historic ties, Syria has always
held a dominant position in Lebanese politics.
Syrias role in Lebanon was reinforced by its
1976 intervention in the Lebanese civil war on
behalf of the Maronite Christians, its blocking of
the accord between Israel and Lebanon after Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982, Israels
withdrawal from Lebanon, and the presence of tens of thousands of Syrian troops in
Lebanon. The 1991 Treaty of Brotherhood, Cooperation, and Coordination solidified their
strong ties. 279,280
Syria assisted the Lebanese government and military in disarming the nations militias in
the early 1990s after the end of fighting; but a few militiasmost notably, Hezbollah
were allowed to keep their weapons. Hezbollah forces in southern Lebanon, in effect,
gave Syria a proxy force to pressure Israel to the south, and to counter anti-Syrian
273
Sebnem Arsu, Turkey and Syria Signal Improved Relations, New York Times, 13 October 2009,
http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/14/world/europe/14turkey.html
274
Al Jazeera, Turkey and Syria Forge Closer Ties, 14 October 2009,
http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2009/10/20091013947216247.html
275
Bilal Y. Saab, Syria and Turkey Deepen Bilateral Relations, Brookings Institute, 6 May 2009,
http://www.brookings.edu/articles/2009/0506_syria_turkey_saab.aspx
276
Dorian Jones, Syrian Unrest Presents Tough Balancing Act for Turkey, VOA News, 26 April 2011,
http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Syrian-Unrest-Presents-Tough-Balancing-Act-for-
Turkey-120739074.html
277
Dorian Jones, Turkey Worries Syrias Refugees Influx Could Cause Crisis, VOA News, 3 May 2011,
http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Turkey-Worries-Syrias-Refugee-Influx-Could-Cause-
Crisis-121173469.html
278
Associated Press, Syria Formally Establishes Diplomatic Ties With Lebanon, Haaretz.com, 14
October 2008, http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1028635.html
279
Tom Pierre Najem, Syrias Growing Dominance of the Lebanese, in Lebanons Renaissance: The
Political Economy of Reconstruction (Reading, UK: Garnet & Ithaca Press, 2000).
280
Ihsan Hijazi, Syria-Lebanon Cooperation Pact Signed, New York Times, 23 May 1991,
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE3D7173EF930A15756C0A967958260
63
opposition parties in Lebanon. 281 Towards the latter end, Hezbollah evolved a political
wing that has increasingly become a significant force in Lebanese politics. In May 2008,
after Hezbollah armed supporters gained control of western Beirut, a governmental
power-sharing agreement was reached.
Although Syrias relationship with Hezbollah has changed over the years, Syria continues
to exert its influence in Lebanon in both the political and military arenas. 282 When
Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, a critic of Syria, was assassinated in 2005, many
observers suspected Syrian involvement. A year later, when Hezbollah abducted two
Israeli soldiers in Israel in a cross-border raid, the UN mission in Lebanon had to
dramatically increase their troop presence. With no agreement yet on SyrianLebanon
borders, Hezbollah uses Israels continued occupation of Shebaa to argue that Israeli
forces have not yet completely left Lebanon. This justifies Hezbollahs continued
militarization and provides a rationale for continued attacks against Israeli targets. 283,284
On 13 January 2011, Hezbollah and their allies withdrew from the Lebanese cabinet,
causing a total collapse of the government. The Prime Minister, Saad Hariri, was replaced
by Hezbollah nominee Najib Miqati, whom parliament then approved. Miqati is believed
to have agreed to Hezbollah demand that he denounce the findings of the Special
Tribunal for Lebanon. 285
Israel
Israel and Syria have no formal diplomatic
relations, and have technically been at war since
1948. 286 The main source of conflict between the
two nations has been the disputed Golan Heights.
Golan Heights is a strategic region between Syria
and Israel that measures 76 km (47 mi). The
Golan Heights includes three main tributaries of
the Jordan River, a major water supply for Israel.
Israel captured the Golan Heights during the 1967
war, annexing it in 1981. Talks, direct and
indirect, have failed because Syria insists the Golan Heights must be returned to them.
Israel, in return, has been looking for assurances that Syria will no longer sponsor or
281
Robert G. Rabil, Has Hezbollahs Rise Come at Syrias Expense?, Middle East Quarterly,
http://www.meforum.org/article/1755#_ftn5
282
Mona Yacoubian, Syrias Role in Lebanon, United States Institute of Peace, November 2006,
http://www.usip.org/publications/syrias-role-lebanon
283
Asher Kaufman, Understanding the Shebaa Farms Dispute: Roots of he [sic] Anomaly and Prospects
for Resolution, Palestine-Israel Journal 11, no. 1. (2004), http://www.pij.org/details.php?id=9
284
Joshua Mitnick, Behind the Dispute Over Shebaa Farms, Christian Science Monitor, 22 August 2006,
http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0822/p10s01-wome.html
285
286
Agence France-Presse, Turkey Ends Syria-Israel Peace Effort Over Gaza, Google.com, 29 December
2008, http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gFsDh9eI8JBmm-qZKrVJEAmIIi5w
64
support groups who do not recognize Israels right to exist as a nation, and that security
and water-access issues related to the Golan Heights be agreed upon. 287
The most recent negotiations, indirect talks mediated by Turkey, were delayed when the
Israeli mediator resigned. 288, 289 Talks were halted in December 2008, when Israeli forces
began air strikes and a ground offensive in the Gaza Strip without warning. 290 Since then,
Israel has opted out of Turkish-mediated talks. The Israeli parliament also passed a bill
that would require cessation of land in any deal to be placed on a national referendum. 291
Since 1974, the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) has
maintained a buffer zone between Syria and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights. During
this time, there have been no serious military incursions by either side across the
separation zone. 292 However, Israel has launched air attacks on Syria. One attack in 2003,
targeted what Israel described to be an Islamic Jihad training camp. Syria denied the
charge, claiming that the Israelis bombed a civilian site. 293 Four years later, Israeli jets
bombed a suspected nuclear site in northern Syria. 294
Jordan
Despite their shared history as part of Greater Syria and their
alliance against Israel in two wars, relations between Syria and
Jordan have been difficult at times. In part, the friction has been
based on the two countries frequent opposite alignments in
regional geopolitical affairs. Syria has long been a champion for
pan-Arab nationalism and has generally opposed the
intervention of Western nations in the region. Jordan has
traditionally had strong relations with the United States and
Great Britain. 295 Paradoxically, Jordan stood on the sidelines
during the first Gulf War in 1991, whereas Syria joined the U.S.-
led coalition forces that opposed Iraq. In 2003, the roles were
287
Carol Migdalovitz, The Middle East Peace Talks, Congressional Research Service, Library of
Congress, 1 February 2009, http://www.fas.org/man/crs/IB91137.pdf
288
Mark Tran, Syria Awaits Israeli Response to Peace Proposals After Talks Postponed, The Guardian
UK, 4 September 2008, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/sep/04/syria.israelandthepalestinians
289
Al Jazeera, Israel-Syria Peace Talks Delayed, 4 September 2008,
http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2008/09/2008949105940724.html
290
Agence France-Presse, Turkey Ends Syria-Israel Peace Effort Over Gaza, Google.com, 29 December
2008, http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gFsDh9eI8JBmm-qZKrVJEAmIIi5w
291
292
United Nations, Golan Heights - UNDOF Background, 2005,
http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/undof/background.html
293
CNN.com, Security Council Meets on Israeli Attack in Syria, 5 October 2003,
http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/10/05/mideast/index.html
294
Glenn Kessler and Robin Wright, Israel, U.S. Shared Data on Suspected Nuclear Site, Washington
Post, 21 September 2007, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2007/09/20/AR2007092002701.html
295
Public Broadcasting System, Syrias Role in the Middle East: Syrias Regional Relationships, 2005,
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/middle_east/syria/map_flash.html
65
somewhat reversed. Syria opposed the U.S-led invasion of Iraq; Jordan, while not
publically supporting the operation, quietly offered operational assistance during and
after the invasion. 296 Nevertheless, despite this history of the two countries being on
opposite sides of the fence, there has been a steady improvement in SyrianJordanian
relations in recent years, as indicated by more frequent meetings between high-level
officials, increased trade activity, and a higher number of border crossings between the
two nations. 297
Syrias continued support of Hamas, however, caused strains in its relations with Jordan.
Since 1999, when current Jordanian King Abdullah II ascended to the crown, Jordan has
followed a course of supporting the Palestinian cause and Palestinian moderates while
keeping Hamas at a distance. 298, 299 Over half of Jordans population is of Palestinian
origin, a situation that has made its relationships with Palestinian organizations highly
sensitive and subject to complex political considerations. In addition, unlike Syria, Jordan
has signed a peace treaty with Israel, although that agreement became a source of public
protest after the December 2008January 2009 Israeli offensive into Gaza to root out
Hamas militia forces. 300
In mid-2008, Jordan reopened communications with Hamas, although the Israeli raid in
Gaza and the resulting street support of Hamas in Amman may have forced the Kings
hand. In the past few years, the King has supported the other Palestinian Authority
political party, Fatah in the West Bank, moving once again to distance itself from the
HamasSyria bloc toward the EgyptSaudi ArabiaFatahU.S. axis. 301,302,303 Fatah and
Hamas had parted ways after the 2006 elections but agreed in an April 2011 deal
296
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Jordan, September 2006,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Jordan.pdf
297
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Country Profile: Jordan, September 2006,
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Jordan.pdf
298
P. R. Kumraswamy, Tension Returns Between Jordan and Hamas, Power and Interest News Report,
13 July 2006, http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=525&language_id=1
299
Jeremy M. Sharp, Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations, Congressional Research Service, 21 April
2011, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33546.pdf
300
Media Line News Agency, Jordan Under Pressure as Israel Presses on in Gaza, Jerusalem Post, 11
January 2009,
http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1231424924214
301
Hassan Barari, Outside View: Jordans New Hamas Policy?, UPI.com, 27 January 2009,
http://www.upi.com/Emerging_Threats/2009/01/27/Outside_View_Jordans_new_Hamas_policy/UPI-
36241233066532/
302
Zvi Barel, Analysis: Jordans King Is Torn Between U.S.-Egypt and Syria-Hamas Axes,
Haaretz.com, 21 January 2009, http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1057385.html
303
Ian Black, Gaza Split Prompts Arab Countries to Boycott Emergency Summit: Egypt and Saudi Arabia
Refuse to Attend Qatar Meeting, The Guardian UK, 15 January 2009,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/jan/15/gaza-egypt-saudi-qatar-summit
66
brokered by Turkey to build a unity government in the Palestinian territories. 304 The
union will likely affect Israels security. 305
Iraq
The U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 to overthrow the
government of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was opposed by
Syrian President Assads government. While Syria had severed
relations with the Hussein government during the 1980s, when it
supported Iran in its war against Iraq, political hostilities began
to lessen in 2000 shortly after Bashar al-Assad became
president. Around this time, Syria began receiving illegal
shipments of below-market-price Iraqi oil, circumventing the
UN oil-for-food program. In return, Syrian firms smuggled
various goods, including arms, into Iraq, further subverting UN
sanctions. 306
After fighting began in Iraq, Syria, and Damascus in particular,
became a favored destination for Iraqi refugees. 307 The massive
influx has overburdened Syrias social services and economic infrastructure and has
contributed to the high rates of inflation in Syria, pushing up demand for housing, food,
and other essential items. 308
During the height of the counter-insurgency in Iraq, a key point of division between Syria
and the Iraqi government was the continued influx of foreign fighters into Iraq across the
Syrian border. Despite these tensions, however, Syria and Iraq established formal
diplomatic ties in November 2006, after 25 years of broken relations. Although it
opposed the Iraq war, the Assad government seemingly saw greater value in working
with the fragile Iraqi democracy, than in having Iraq disintegrate completely into
sectarian chaos that could spill across its border. Syria has long-standing connections to
many of the current political leaders in Iraq, including Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki,
who lived in Syria for over 20 years before the fall of the Hussein regime. Iraqi Kurdish
leader Jalal Talabani, President of Iraq, also lived in Syria for several years. These high-
level contacts have led to increased cooperation on border security and combating crime
and terrorism.
Although Syria has in the past supported Kurdish independence groupsmost notably
the PKKit now speaks out against Kurdish autonomy in Iraq, fearing that such
304
The Guardian UK, Palestinian Rivals Hamas and Fatah Sign Reconciliation Deal, 4 May 2011,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/04/palestinian-rivals-hamas-fatah-deal
305
Joe Klein, Hamas and Fatah Together Again, Time Magazine, 27 April 2011,
http://swampland.time.com/2011/04/27/hamas-and-fatah-together-again/
306
Jeffrey Fleishman and Bob Drogin, Banned Arms Flow Into Iraq Through Syrian Firm, Los Angeles
Times, 30 December 2003, http://articles.latimes.com/2003/dec/30/world/fg-iraqarms30
307
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2011 UNHCR Country Operations Profile - Syria
Arab Republic, January 2010, http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486a76.html
308
Faisal Al-Miqdad, Iraqi Refugees in Syria, Forced Migration Review, Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford
Department of International Development, June 2007, http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/Iraq/08.pdf
67
autonomy fuels discontent among Syrias own population of 150,000 to 300,00 Kurds. 309
Nevertheless, in light of the spring 2011 uprising, President Assad granted Syrian
nationality to Kurds by decree. 310
Military
Syria has one of the Middle Easts largest military
forces, although in total numbers, its military has
decreased from the highs reached in the late
1990s. Syrias military consists of the Syrian
Arab Army, Syrian Arab Navy, and Syrian Arab
Air and Air Defence Forces. In 2011, Syrias
armed forces had 295,000 active personnel and
314,000 reservists. 311 Most senior level officers in
Syrias armed forces are from the same Alawite
minority as President Assad. The largest part of
the armed forces (400,000 active and reserve troops combined) is assigned to the Syrian
Army. 312 The Syria army has about 5,000 battle tanks, 600 reconnaissance vehicles,
1,500 armored personnel carriers, 2,500 armored infantry fighting vehicles, and 4,000
surface-to-air missiles. 313
For most of the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union was the primary supplier of arms and
other equipment for the Syrian military, most of which was purchased on credit. For this
reason, Syrias military expenditures were high during this time despite a weak economy.
For example, spending reached as high as 23% of the Syrian GDP in 1983. However, the
collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 forced Syria to reduce its military spending. Since
1993, Syrian military spending has averaged between 4 and 7% of the national GDP. 314
Prior to 2005, Syria owed Russia USD 13 billion for its Soviet-era military purchases;
Russia has since waived USD 10 billion of this debt, reputedly in exchange for Syrian
guarantees of future arms purchases from Russia. 315,316
309
Mona Yacoubian, USIPeace Briefing: Syrias Relations With Iraq, United States Institute of Peace,
April 2007, http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2007/syria_iraq.pd f
310
BBC News, Syrias Assad Grants Nationality to Kurds, 7 April 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12995174
311
Reuters, FACTBOX-Syrias Military: What Does Assad Have?, 6 April 2011,
http://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFLDE72S19O20110406
312
Anthony H. Cordesman, The Israeli and Syrian Conventional Military Balance: An Overview, Center
for Strategic and International Studies, 25 November 2008, 145,
http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/081125_arab-israeli-syrian_conv_mil_bal.pdf
313
314
315
Wade Boese, Syria to Acquire Russian Missiles, Arms Control Association, June 2005,
http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2005_06/Syria_Russian_Missles
68
Syrias navy is by far the smallest of its military forces at around 5,000 members. Navy
bases are located at Latakia, Tartus, and Minet el-Baida. The navys primary mission is to
defend Syrias major ports at Tartus and Latakia, as well as to carry out coastal patrols
and surveillance. 317 The port at Tartus has long hosted a maintenance center for the
Russian navy, serving as Russias only naval facility in the Mediterranean Sea. In recent
years, there has been rampant speculation that Syria and Russia have agreed to develop
the Tartus facility into a full-scale naval base for the Russian Black Sea Fleet, whose
main facility at the Ukrainian port of Sevastopol is on a lease that runs out in 2017.
Russian Navy officials, however, deny that any decisions or agreements have been
reached on basing their fleets ships in Syrian ports. 318
In the uprising that began in mid-March 2011, security forces launched a brutal
crackdown against protesters. Six weeks later, divisions within the army became apparent
as soldiers refused to fire on civilians. 319 Their continued disobedience may become the
undoing of President Assads regime.
Terrorist Groups
Syria is one of only four nations that the United States currently
designates as a State Sponsor of Terrorism. 320 According to the
annual U.S. State Department report on terrorism, there are four
Palestinian groups Syria provides political support for that the
U.S. considers terrorist organizations: the Islamic Resistance
Movement (Hamas), Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ), the Popular
Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), and another called
the Popular Front for the Liberation of PalestineGeneral
Command (PFLP-GC).
Other terrorist organizations and elements operate within Syria
as well. Hezbollah still receives both material and political
support from the Syrian government. 321 Although the number of
Al Qaida foreign fighters transiting through Syria and to and
from Iraq has declined since the height of the Iraqi insurgency between 2005 and 2007,
316
Nilita Petrov, Russia Pushing Weapon Sales in Middle East and Beyond, Middle East Times, 27
August 2008,
http://www.metimes.com/International/2008/08/27/russia_pushing_weapons_sales_in_middle_east_and_be
yond/3200/
317
Anthony H. Cordesman, The Military Forces of Syria: Syrian Naval Readiness and Training, in Arab-
Israeli Military Forces in an Era of Asymmetric Wars (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006),
356.
318
RIA Novosti, Russian Navy Denies Plans for Bases in Mediterranean Countries, 19 January 2009,
http://rusnavy.com/news/navy/index.php?ELEMENT_ID=6026
319
Nicholas Blanford, Syrias Military Shows Signs of Division Amid Crackdown, Christian Science
Monitor, 25 April 2011, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2011/0425/Syria-s-military-shows-
signs-of-division-amid-crackdown
320
The other three are Iran, Sudan, and Cuba.
321
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, Chapter 3: State Sponsors of
Terrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2009, 5 August 2010.
http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140889.htm
69
their presence in Syria, along with former Iraqi Regime Elements, continue to be a
concern to the United States. While Hamas has taken a neutral stance on Syrias civil
unrest, Hezbollah was unenthusiastic about the prospect of losing Syrias support should
there be a regime change in the country. 322,323Syrias financial sector is particularly
vulnerable to terrorism financing as over half of the total business transactions in the
country are made in cash.
Syria itself has not been directly implicated in a terrorist action since 1986. However,
interim reports on an ongoing UN investigation into Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq
Hariris assassination have generated much speculation that Syrian governmental and
intelligence officials may have been involved in some way. No final conclusions have
been made though. 324
Despite Syrias checkered record in providing support for organizations that carry out
terrorist actions, Syria itself has been generally immune from such actions on its own
soil. For many years, Damascus was considered among the most secure Middle East
capitals, with assassinations or bombings seldom occurring. This relative calm was
shattered in September 2008 when a car bomb on a crowded Damascus street killed 17
people. No group took credit for the attack in its immediate aftermath, but Damascus
television two months later broadcast the purported confessions of 11 members of Fatah
al-Islam, a radical Sunni Islamist group. One of the confessors alleged that funding had
come to the group from the Future Movement, a Lebanese Sunni political group led by
the son of assassinated Lebanese leader Rafiq Hariri and the largest party in Lebanons
anti-Syrian March 14 parliamentary coalition. 325,326,327
Other Security Issues

Civil Unrest
The mass demonstrations that began in March
2011 marked the first time President Assad was
directly challenged by the people during his 11-
year presidency. However, despite the
governments tight control on public dissent,
Syria has a long history of massive human rights
abuses that have plagued the nation and fomented
322
Ethan Bronner, Tensions Rise as Hamas Refuses to Take Sides in Syria, New York Times. 2 May
2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/03/world/middleeast/03hamas.html
323
Samia Nakhoul, Analysis: Syria Neighbors Fear Future Without Assad Family, Reuters, 27 April
2011, http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/27/us-syria-assad-idUSTRE73Q2XQ20110427
324
Gary C. Gambill, The Hariri Investigation and the Politics of Perception, Mideast Monitor, August
2008, http://www.mideastmonitor.org/issues/0808/0808_1.htm
325
Al Arabiya. Bombers Say March 14 Funded Deadly Blast: Syria TV. 7 November 2008.
http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2008/11/07/59659.html
326
The Daily Star. Wander, Andrew. March 14 Denies Charges of Funding Fatah al-Islam. 8 November
2009. http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=2&article_id=97518
327
Mideast Monitor. Starr, Stephen. The Threat on Syrias Doorstep. December 2008.
http://www.mideastmonitor.org/issues/0812/0812_3.htm#_ftnref11
70
civil unrest. Through emergency rule, Syria has firmly restricted freedoms of expression,
assembly, and association, particularly of the minority Kurd population. 328 Political
power is dominated by the Alawites, another minority group from which the President
himself hails. The only legal political party is the Baath, and its coalition partners, who
orchestrate popular referendums by which the president is elected for seven-year terms.
Government officials and their family and friends benefit economically (sometimes
illegally) from their Baath Party connections. Corruption in the government is
pervasive. 329 Ultimately, the executive branch holds all the power.
The most violent of government crackdowns was the Hama massacre of 1982. Security
forces killed tens of thousands of people and demolished the Muslim Brotherhoods
opposition center. The six-year armed insurgency by anti-regime and archconservative
Muslim Brotherhood was quelled in such a way that public dissent has been limited since
then. However, the grievances were still there. Economic liberalization did not alleviate
the plight of the poor and the thousands that are displaced by drought. 330 In 2009, 15% of
Syrias labor force was working in Lebanon. 331 Women, although they are guaranteed
equality in the constitution, are discriminated against because of the countrys personal
status laws and the penal code. 332 Despite these conditions and some of the same issues
that brought down regimes in Tunisia and Egypt (such as corruption, political repression,
unemployment), the mass demonstrations during Spring 2011 were both unexpected and
smaller in scope due to limited internet usage, cultural disinclination toward sectarian
conflict, and Syrias large military and police force. 333
328
Freedom House, Syria 2010, Freedom in the World Country Reports 2010 Edition, 2010,
http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2010&country=7928
329
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State, 2011 Investment
Climate Statement- Syria, March 2011, http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157366.htm
330
Khaled Yacoub Oweis, In Breaking with Past, Syria Seeks World Bank Financing, Reuters, 4 October
331
IRIN News, Lebanon-Syria: Wretched Conditions for Syrian Workers, 13 April 2009,
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?Reportid=83900
332
Human Rights Watch, World Report 2011: Syria, 2011, http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-
2011/syria
333
Congressional Research Service, 28 March 2011, 1 http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33487.pdf
71
Weapons of Mass Destruction
Syria is suspected of having a stockpile of
chemical weapons and is pursuing biological and
nuclear weapons as well. Analysts have produced
supporting evidence that Syria has chemical
weapons but very limited data on capabilities for
biological weapons. 334, 335 In September 2007
Israeli forces bombed, Al Kibar (or Dair Alzour) a
suspected nuclear reactor under construction in
Syrias remote northeastern desert. This facility
furthered rumors that Syria was using North
Korean assistance to advance its nuclear weapons program, although there is no evidence
that Syria could provide fuel for the remote Al Kibar facility. 336
Confirming Syrias pursuit of weapons of mass destruction has been difficult since 2008.
That year, Syria barred the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) from accessing
the alleged nuclear reactor after the IAEA found traces of uranium at the facility. 337 In the
next two years, the IAEA found more evidence of uranium particles at the site and
reported their concern that the uranium did not come from an undeclared inventory, as
the Syrians claimed, but that it could possibly be used for nuclear purposes instead. Over
time, the evidence at the site deteriorated and the IAEA urged Syrias cooperation in the
investigation of the bombed site. In February 2011, Syria announced that it would
continue to work with the IAEA to resolve all outstanding technical issues in accordance with
the countrys IAEA and NPT commitments. 338
Sunni Islamist Groups

While Syria remains a State Sponsor of
Terrorism, it does not provide indiscriminate
support to all terrorist organizations. Most of the
terrorist groups with members operating in Syria
are Palestinian rejectionist groups (i.e.,
organizations that focus their violent activities
toward Israel and do not acknowledge Israels
right to exist as a national entity). Some of these
334
Anthony Cordesman, Israeli and Syrian Weapons of Mass Destruction, Center for Strategic and
International Studies, 3 June 2008,
http://www.csis.org/component/option,com_csis_pubs/task,view/id,4505/
335
Eric Croddy, Clarisa Perez-Armendariz, and John Hart, Gas, Bugs, and Common Sense: Who Has
These Weapons?, in Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned
Citizen (New York: Springer, 2002), 45.
336
Anthony Cordesman, Israeli and Syrian Weapons of Mass Destruction, Center for Strategic and
International Studies, 3 June 2008, http://csis.org/publication/israeli-and-syrian-weapons-mass-destruction
337
338
72
groups, such as Hamas and PIJ, have charters with goals that include transforming all of
the Palestine region (including modern-day Israel) into an Islamic state. 339, 340 Such
groups either draw inspiration from (PIJ) or are Palestinian wings (Hamas) of the Muslim
Brotherhood, a Sunni Islamist organization that operates in several countries in the
Middle East and is the ultimate source of the ideology of most modern Sunni jihadist
groups. 341
During the Iraq War, Lebanon and Syria were transit countries for many of the foreign
jihadists entering Iraq to support Al Qaeda their counterinsurgency. Several observers
have recently questioned whether Syria, as well as Lebanon, is now experiencing a
blowback problem resulting from this policy. 342,343 As some of the Sunni jihadists
retreated from Iraq, where the Sunni tribes have turned against Al Qaeda, both Damascus
and the coastal Lebanese city of Tripoli were racked by bomb attacks in late 2008. In
November 2008, the Lebanese and Syrian interior ministers met in Damascus for the first
time since diplomatic relations between the two countries were established. They agreed
to form a joint commission to coordinate their efforts to fight terrorism and other
crimes. 344
Drug and Human Trafficking
Aside from border disputes and the refugee crisis,
drug and human trafficking are two other
transnational issues in Syria. Syria is on the Tier 2
Watch List as a destination and transit country for
women and children trafficked for forced labor or
forced prostitution. 345 Thousands of women from
East Africa and Southeast Asia, hired as domestic
servants, are forced into involuntary servitude.
Some women from Eastern Europe, hired as
cabaret dancers, are forced into prostitution.
There is also forced prostitution among the Iraqi refugee population, mainly due to
poverty and criminal gang activity. Syria continues to be a destination for child sex
tourism for Middle Eastern Countries. Syria is also a transit country for Iraqi, Southeast
339
Pierre Tristam, Middle East Issues: Hamas Charter, Unabridged (1988), Part 1, About.com, 2009,
http://middleeast.about.com/od/palestinepalestinians/a/me080106b.htm
340
Amy Zalman, Terrorism Issues: A Profile of Palestinian Islamic Jihad, About.com, 2009,
http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/IslamicJIhad.htm
341
Bruce Livesey, Al Qaedas New Front: The Salafist Movement, Frontline, Public Broadcasting
System, 25 January 2005, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/special/sala.html
342
The Boston Globe, Syrias Blowback Problem, International Herald Tribune, 17 October 2008,
http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/10/17/opinion/edsyria.php
343
TheEconomist.com, Syria and Lebanon: Jihadist Blowback?, 2 October 2008,
http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12342146
344
Agence France-Presse, Neighbours Agree to Boost Border Controls, France24.com, 11 November
2008, http://www.france24.com/en/20081111-terrorism-border-controls-syria-lebanon
345
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, Country Narratives:
N-S (PDF), Trafficking in Persons Report, 2010, 312313,
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/143188.pdf
73
Asian, and East African women and girls trafficked for forced prostitution to Europe,
Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait. The Syrian government has
made some effort to reduce human trafficking but does not meet the minimum standards
to eliminate it.
In addition to human trafficking, Syria is also a transit point for drugs. Syria is neither a
consumer (illegal drug use is discouraged through harsh penalties and social stigma) nor
a major producer of drugs. However, due to its porous borders, police corruption, and the
political uncertainty in Iraq and Lebanon, Syria has become a trafficking route for drugs
smuggled between Europe and the Persian Gulf. 346 Drugs smuggled include hashish,
opiates, and cocaine, and Captagon (a stimulant like amphetamine), which is trafficked to
the Gulf States from Lebanon and Turkey.
346
Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement, U.S. Department of State, 2010 INCSR:
Country Reports Slovakia through Zambia, 2010 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report
(INCSR), 1 March 2010, http://www.state.gov/p/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2010/vol1/137199.htm
74
1. Syria has one of the Middle Easts smallest military forces.
False
Although in total numbers, its military has decreased from the highs reached in the late
1990s, Syria has one of the Middle Easts largest military forces. In 2011, Syrias armed
forces had 295,000 active personnel and 314,000 reservists.
2. Syria established formal diplomatic relations with Lebanon for the first time in 2008.
True
Despite their long shared history, Syria established formal diplomatic relations with
Lebanon for the first time on 13 October 2008. Lebanon was once part of Greater Syria
and both nations emerged from the French Mandate in the 1940s.
3. Syria and Israel have no formal diplomatic relations, and technically they have been
at war since 1948.
True
Central to peace talks between Israel and Syria is the status of the Golan Heights, which
Syria has long insisted must be returned to them, according to the pre-1967 borders.
Israel, in return, has been looking for assurances that Syria will no longer sponsor or
support rejectionist groups that do not recognize Israels right to exist as a nation, and
that security and water-access issues related to the Golan Heights be agreed upon.
4. After fighting began in Iraq in 2003, Syria, and Damascus in particular, became a
favored destination for Iraqi refugees.
True
While no one knows for certain how many Iraqis are now living in Syria, the most recent
estimate placed the total at 151,000 in January 2010. The massive influx has stressed
Syrias social services and economic infrastructure and has contributed to the high rates
of inflation in Syria, pushing up demand for housing, food, and other essential items.
5. There has long been speculation that Syria has a stockpile of chemical weapons and is
pursuing biological and nuclear weapons as well.
True
While there is supporting evidence for Syrian chemical weapons, there is only surmise
about Syrias biological weapons capabilities. The September 2008 Israeli bombing of a
suspected nuclear reactor under construction in northeastern Syria furthered rumors that
Syria was using North Korean assistance to advance its nuclear weapons program.
However, there is no evidence that Syria has the ability to provide fuel for the reactor.
75
Final Assessment
1. Syria has an ongoing territorial dispute with Lebanon over the Golan Heights
region on Syrias far southwestern edge.
2. Syrias topography demonstrates a significant lack of diversity, consisting entirely
of one expansive desert plateau.
3. Springs in the desert are a significant source of drinking and irrigation water in
Syria.
4. Damascus is often described as one of the worlds oldest continuously inhabited
cities.
5. Dust storms and sandstorms are significant natural disaster threats in Syria.
6. Aramaeans ruled much of modern-day Syria, including a southern principality
whose capital was Damascus.
7. During the Umayyad Dynasty, Arabic replaced Aramaic and Greek as the
principal language of Syria.
8. For most of the European powers in the late 1800s, a weakened Ottoman Empire
was preferable to the potential geopolitical crisis that might ensue if the empire
were to collapse altogether.
9. The British and French honored the Syrian sovereignty that was established when
Faisal was named King of Syria in March 1920.
10. A United Nations investigation into the death of former Lebanese Prime Minister
Rafiq al-Hariri cleared several senior Syrian intelligence and administration
figures.
11. After the discovery of large oil fields during the 1980s, an influx of foreign
companies helped institute Syrias new economic reforms.
12. Syrias largest import partner is Iran.
13. One problem with agricultural production in Syria is that some farmers do not
regularly practice crop rotation, thus causing the depletion of vital nutrients in the
soil.
14. Large numbers of Syrians have long worked outside the country and sent
remittances back to their families.
15. The Syrian government does not permit banks to deal in hard currency.
16. The geographic distribution of the different groups of people in Syria has been
artificially created through a government mandate.
76
17. Syrian poet Nizar Qabbani became a national hero under President Hafez al-
Assad.
18. It is not necessary for a visitor to an Arab home to bring a gift to his host.
19. Hummus, a pure of garbanzo beans, is a popular breakfast food in Syria.
20. In Syria, the mother of the young man seeks out marriage candidates.
21. For most of the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union was the primary supplier of
arms and other equipment for the Syrian military.
22. One particularly contentious area in the process of delineating and demarcating
the border between Syria and Lebanon is the Shebaa Farms.
23. In 1981, Israel unilaterally annexed the Golan Heights.
24. There was no division between Syria and the Iraqi government about the
continued influx of foreign fighters into Iraq across the Syrian border.
25. During the Iraq War, Syria were a transit country for many of the foreign jihadists
entering into Iraq to support Al Qaeda in their Iraq counterinsurgency.
77
Further Reading
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. 2010
Human Rights Report: Syria. 8 April 2011.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154473.htm
Bureau of Economic, Energy, and Business Affairs, U.S. Department of State. 2011
Investment Climate Statement Syria. March 2011.
http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2011/157366.htm
Encyclopedia of Earth. Water Profile of Syria. 11 April 2008.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Water_profile_of_Syria
The Heritage Foundation. Syria. In 2010 Index of Economic Freedom. 2010.
http://www.heritage.org/Index/Country/Syria
Human Rights Watch. Syria: Events of 2010. In World Report 2011. 2011.
http://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2011/syria
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State.
Trafficking in Persons Report 2010: Country Narratives: Countries N Through Z. 2010.
http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142761.htm
UCLA Language Materials Project. Arabic. n.d.
http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=210&menu=004
UN Development Programme, POGAR. Country Theme: Gender: Syria. n.d.,
http://www.undp-pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?t=4&cid=19
UN High Commissioner for Refugees. 2011 UNHCR Country Operations Profile -
Syrian Arab Republic. 2010. http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-
bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e486a76
78

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1

Chapter 1: Geography ......................................................................................................... 5

Location and Area ........................................................................................................... 5

Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features ........................................................... 6

Rivers and Lakes ............................................................................................................. 8

Major Cities .................................................................................................................. 11

Environmental Concerns ............................................................................................... 15

Natural Hazards ............................................................................................................ 16

Chapter 1: Assessment ...................................................................................................... 18

Chapter 2: History ............................................................................................................. 19

Aramaeans, Assyrians, and Persians ............................................................................. 21

Ancient Greek Conquest ............................................................................................... 22

The Roman and Byzantine Era ..................................................................................... 23

The Spread of Islam ...................................................................................................... 24

The Umayyad Era ......................................................................................................... 25

Saladin, the Ayyubids, and the Mamluks ..................................................................... 27

The Ottoman Era ........................................................................................................... 28

End of the Ottoman Era ................................................................................................ 29

World War I .................................................................................................................. 30

The Baathists ................................................................................................................. 32

The Early Assad Years.................................................................................................. 35

Bashar al-Assad ............................................................................................................ 36

Chapter 2: Assessment ...................................................................................................... 39

Chapter 3: Economy ......................................................................................................... 41

Standard of Living ........................................................................................................ 48

Economic Outlook ........................................................................................................ 51

Chapter 3: Assessment ...................................................................................................... 52

Chapter 4: Society ............................................................................................................. 53

Ethnic Groups ............................................................................................................... 53

Political Refugees ......................................................................................................... 54

Literature and Arts ........................................................................................................ 54

MaleFemale Relationships .......................................................................................... 56

Chapter 4: Assessment ...................................................................................................... 59

Chapter 5: Security ........................................................................................................... 60

U.S.Syrian Relations ................................................................................................... 60

Relations with Neighboring Countries.......................................................................... 62

Terrorist Groups ............................................................................................................ 69

Other Security Issues .................................................................................................... 70

Chapter 5: Assessment ...................................................................................................... 75

Final Assessment .............................................................................................................. 76

Further Reading ................................................................................................................ 78

Location and Area

Geographic Divisions and Topographic Features

The Umayyad Era

Saladin, the Ayyubids, and the Mamluks

The French Mandate

Conflict, 2009, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon/279120/Civil-

1. Syria implemented five-year economic plans.

2. Crude oil is Syrias main export commodity.

Literature and Arts

Other Security Issues

Sunni Islamist Groups

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