MATERIAL SCIENCE AND PROCESS

This is a branch of science that investigates the relationship between structure of materials and their properties. Engineering material are classified into the following three types. 1. Metals and alloys 2. Ceramics and 3. Organic olymers. Material Definitions : Metals : are nothing but elemental substance. Alloys : are obtained by melting two or more relatively pure metals to form a new metal. They alloys have !uite different properties in comparison to the other two materials used for its manufacture. Ceramics : contains two phases. " phase is a physically separable and is a homogenous constituent. They phases may be metallic or non metallic. Organic Materials : are derived from carbon combined with o#ygen$ %ydrogen etc. Their structure is fairly comple#. lastics and rubber are the organic engineering materials. "lso called as polymers because of the polymeri&ation process. olymeri&ation is the process in which two or more simple molecules are chemically combined to form a massive long chain molecules. Properties of Materials : Mechanical roperties ' (trength$ (tiffness$ Elasticity$ plasticity$ ductility$ malleability$ hardness and brittleness. Electrical roperties ' Conductivity and )esistivity. Magnetic roperties ' Coercive forces and %ysterisys. Thermal roperties ' Conductivity$ specific heat$ thermal e#pansion. Chemical roperties ' Corrosion resistance$ acidity and al*alinity. hysical roperties ' +imension and density. "coustic roperties ' (ound transmission and )eflection. Optical roperties ' ,ight transmission and light reflection. Material Structure : +epending on the level of magnification the structure of material is classified as follows. Macrostructure : -t is the structure of the material$ as seen by the na*ed eye. -t deals with

shape and si&e. . ,i*e fracture$ flaws on surface etc. / Microstructure : -t is observed with a magnification of 0 12 3 0 1244. Optical microscope is used for this purpose. Substructure : -n this the structure is observed with a magnification of 0 144444 using a electron microscope. -t provides information on crystal imperfections. Crystal Structure : This structure tell about the atomic arrangement within the crystal. 03 )ay and electron diffraction techni!ues are used for this study. Electronic Structure : This deals with the study of electrons in the outermost shells of individual atoms. (pectroscopic techni!ues are used. Nuclear Structure : -t is studied using 5uclear spectroscopic techni!ues. Criteria For Selection of Materials : The choice is made based upon ta*ing the following factors. 1. (ervice ' There are of paramount importance and should have properties li*e ade!uate strength$ corrosion resistance$ hardness and toughness. 2. 6abrication ' This is also gaining importance. This includes the possibility to shape a material and 7oin with other materials. These include ductility$ Machinability$ hardenability$ weldability$ castability. 3. Economy. Atomic Structure : Atom : -t is a electrical structure having a diameter of 1 # 14314 metres or 1 "ngstrom. -t has two main parts. " heavier nucleus and electrons surrounding it. This nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. Protons : -t is positively charged and 1839 times heavier as electron. -t e#ists with the neutrons in the nucleus of atom. Neutron : -t is 1.448 times heavier than proton. -t has no electric charge. 6or large atoms$ the ratio of Mass to 5eutron to Mass of roton is greater than 1.448. Electron :

(urrounds the nucleus and at a greater distant from the nucleus. -ts mass is 1:1839 of proton. -t is negatively charged. with a magnitude e!ual to the charge of protons. Electrons in the outermost orbit are called as valence electrons which determine many of the properties of materials. Atomic Number : 5umber of protons or number of electrons. Mass Number : (um of protons and 5eutrons. Atomic Weight : ;eight of a atom of element in comparison with weight of a atom of o#ygen ta*en as 19. Isotopes : (ame elements having different number of neutrons. Bon in! of soli s : The arrangement of atoms in a solid element is determined by the character$ strength of chemical bonds or cohesive forces. The bonds may be attractive or repulsive$ which hold the atoms at a particular spacing and which 7ust balances the opposite forces. There are two types of Chemical bonds. They are primary bonds and secondary bonds. rimary bonds are interatomic bonds$ which include -onic bonds$ Covalent bonds$ and metallic bonds. (econdary bonds are intermolecular bonds and include <ander waals and %ydrogen bonds. Cr"stals : These are solids in which the atoms are arranged in some regular repetitive pattern in three dimension. This arrangement is called as crystal structure. Cr"stal Imperfections : 5o crystal structure is perfect. -t is associated with imperfections$ which is often helpful for understanding the properties of crystals. The following are the crystal defects. 1. Thermal <ibration. 2. oint defects . <acancies$ -nterstitial cies and electron defects /

3. ,ine defects . Edge and screw dislocations / =. (urface defects and 2. <olume defects. Soli Stu " : There are two approaches. They are structural approach . electrons$ valence bonds / and Compositional approach . +eals with the phase of materials /. This compositional approach is used to *now the state and condition of solid and to change the condition from thermodynamic point of view. S"stem : it is a substance or group of substance unaffected by the surroundings. -t is sub7ected to change in composition$ temperature$ pressure or total volume only to the e#tend allowed by the person investigating it. The system may be composed of solid$ li!uid or gas or a composition of all three. State : Of a system is a physical condition defined by !uantities. E.g. ,ength and angles define the state of triangles. P#ase : -t is physically and chemically homogenous. %omogenous in the sense that the smallest ad7acent part is indistinguishable form the other. Each phase has its own physical and chemical properties. $i%%s Rule : 6>C3 ?2

6 3 +egrees of freedom. C 3 5umber of components at e!uilibrium. 3 5umber of phases that can co e#ist at e!uilibrium. Mec#anical Properties an testin! : (ince a number of properties are best evaluated by testing under various conditions$ mechanical testing are carried out to provide useful data to a designer. %owever certain assumptions are made about the materials. The materials are continuous$ homogenous and isotropic. Continuous 3 5o voids or space. %omogenous 3 -dentical properties at all points.

-sotropic 3 ;ith respect to some property. That property does not vary with direction. "nisotropy 3 " body where the property varies in different directions.

Stress : ;hen a material is sub7ected to a load$ it does not deform instantaneously$ but increases steadily till it stops. +uring the process of deformation$ the material e#erts continuously increases it resistance to the load. The moment the deformation stops$ the body is in state of e!uilibrium. "pplied load > -nternal resistance of the body. @oth are e!ual and opposite indirection. The sum total of interatomic forces that prevails in the body to counteract the e#ternally applied load is called stress and the resultant deformation is e#pressed a fraction change in dimension called as strain. True Stress : -n this instead of ta*ing the original area into account for the calculation of stress$ that area at any instant on applying the load it ta*en into account. Different Mec#anical properties of materials : Strength : -t is the capacity of the materials to withstand load without destruction$ under the action of e#ternal load. -t is the ability of the material to with stand stress without failure. This strength varies according to the type of loading . ;hether$ tensile load or compressive load or shear load /. Materials with covalent bond are the strongest. Then comes -onic bond$ Metallic and Molecular bond. Stiffness : -t is the resistance of the material to elastic deformation. " material having only slight deformation has a high amount of stiffness. le!ibility : This is opposite to stiffness. -t is related to bending. "esilience : -t is the capacity of body to absorb energy elastically$ and return it when unloaded. The ma#imum energy that can be stored upto elastic limits is called as proof resilience. This property is associated with high elastic limits. Materials with high

resilience is used tin springs. Modulus or resilience > roof resilience : <olume. Plasticity : -t is the property of the material to undergo permanent deformation without rupture. lastic deformation occurs beyond the elastic limits. lasticity increases with increase in temperature. #uctility : -t is a measure of tensile property. -t enables a material to be easily drawn to wires. ercentage increase in elongation and percentage reduction in are the two measures used. "i$ets are ma%e of %uctile material& Machinability : -t is the ease with which the metals could be removed from operation li*e turning$ drilling etc. Malleability : -t is a measure of compressive property. -t is the ability of material to be flattened into sheets without crac*ing by rolling and hammering. Toughness : -t is the ability of material to withstand both elastic and plastic deformation . is the ability to withstand high deformations and high stress without fracture. / -t is the amount of energy that it could absorb before rupture. -t is not possible to measure toughness but it is the area under the (tress3(train curve. There is a %ifference bet'een %uctility an% toughness& #uctility %eals 'ith only %eformation& (ar%enability : -ndicates the degree of hardness that could be imparted to particular steel$ by the process of hardening is connected with the transformation of characteristic of steel. )rittleness : -t is the property of brea*ing of a material without much permanent deformation . Alass /$ Tensile stress of a brittle material is only a fraction of their compressive stress. Fati!ue :

84B 3 C4B of total machine failure is because of fatigue. The term fatigue is used to describe the failure of the material under repeated stress. The stress necessary to cause failure when it is applied a large number of times is much below the actual brea*ing strength. Thus fatigue deals with cyclic loading in which the ma#imum stress applied : cycle is within the elastic limits. -f failure occurs$ the material has poor fatigue strength. Mechanism ' This fatigue begins at irregularities at the surface or at points of high stress or stress concentration. 6racture so formed is brittle even in a ductile material. atigue stress : The stress at which the material fails because of fatigue is called as fatigue stress. 6or most materials$ there is a limiting stress within which it can be applied for a indefinitely large number of times without causing failure. This is called as endurance limit or fatigue limit. The presence of stress concentrators reduce the endurance limit.

"s tensile strength increase$ the endurance limit increases. "s temperature decreases below the ambient temperature$ the endurance limit increases.

To resist fatigue failure there should be good surface finish$ 5o stress raisers and Control of corrosion and erosion. Creep : " material is sub7ect to constant tensile load at an elevated temperature will creep and undergo a time dependent deformation. This slow and progressive deformation of the material under constant stress is called as creep. This creep continues until sufficient strain has occurred in nec*ing down and reducing the cross sectional area$ and finally the material ruptures. Creep occurs at stress below the elastic limits. "t low temperatures$ the creep rate usually decreases with time and logarithmic creep curve is obtained. "t high temperatures$ . T > 4.2 3 4.1 Tm / the creep rate does not decrease gradually. This is due to mechanical recovery. "t very high temperatures . T D 4 .1 Tm / the creep is primarily due to diffusion and stress applied has little effect. &iel Point : This is the hori&ontal portion of stress3strain curve. -t is the point$ where the material yields without any increase in load. Eield strength is defined as that stress at which there is a great increase in strain$ without the corresponding increase in stress. 6or materials which does not have a clear cut yield point$ it is determined by offset test. Tensile stren!t# :

@eyond the yield point the load can again be increased to a minimum value$ when a nec*ing down occurs and there is a reduction in cross sectional area. This load is called as tensile load. 'ar ness Test : 1. @rinell %ardness ' -t is used for iron and steel. The different combination of the test are 14 mm ball with a applied load of 244 Fg or 3444 Fg. "nd a 2 mm ball with a applied load of 124 Fg. 2. )oc*well hardness. 3. <ic*ers hardness. This vic*ers and brinells hardness coincide for values upto =44. Anelastic : )efers to stress and time dependent of elastic strain. 6ully recoverable by time dependent deformation is called anelatic deformation. Gpon removal of load$ the material does not regain it shape instantaneously. This asymptotic approach to reach the e!uilibrium value is called as elastic after effect. This can be understood$ by understanding the concept of rela#ation time. Plastic Deformation : -t is a function of stress$ temperature and rate of straining. Fracture : -t is the failure caused by stress$ separating the material into two or more pieces. 6ollowing are the different modes of failure 1. Eielding 2. 6racture 3. +eflection =. ;ear 2. Corrosion and 9. Caustic embrittlement 6ollowing are the different theories of failure. 1. 2. 3. =. 2. Ma#imum prinicple stress theory 3 )an*ine theory Ma#imum shear shtress theory 3 Coloums theory Ma#imum strain energy theory 3 venants theory Ma#imum strain theory 3 %aigh theory +istorsion energy theory 3 von misses theory. ,ast updated on $