Sean Nalty Comprehensive Exam Answers for Professor Holt March 6, 200 Part !

, "#estion 2 St#$ents are to rea$ %oo&s in their entirety #nless otherwise note$' (ea$in) *ist for Comin) of the Civil +ar Collo,#i#m+ee& .- !ntro$#ction to the Pro%lem of Civil +ar Ca#sation (ecommen$e$ (ea$in)- Michael Perman /e$'0, The Coming of the American Civil War /! wo#l$ enco#ra)e st#$ents to rea$ only selections that cover historio)raphy #p to .1200 +ee& 2- An Era of 3oo$ or !ll 4eelin)5 3eor)e 6an)erfiel$, The Era of Good Feelings /! wo#l$ have st#$ents rea$ selections, especially the chapters that show nationalism0 3lover Moore, The Missouri Controversy +ee& 7- 8he Mar&et (evol#tion an$ !ts (ole in 4or)in) a New National Party System Harry +atson, Liberty and Power *ee 9enson, The Conce t of !ac"sonian #emocracy +ee& :- Antislavery (eform an$ the Proslavery 9ac&lash ;ames Stewart, $oly Warriors +illiam 4reehlin), Prelude to Civil War +ee& 2- 8he (ise of the Secon$ American Party System ;ames (' Sharp, The !ac"sonians %ersus the &an"s +illiam Cooper, The 'outh and the Politics of 'lavery /! wo#l$ have st#$ents rea$ only the chapters in Cooper that cover events #p to .<::0 +ee& 6- =Mexico +ill Poison >s? /Expansion as a Har%in)er of 6oom50 4re$eric& Mer&, Manifest #estiny and Mission in American $istory ;onathan Earle, !ac"sonian Antislavery and the Politics of Free 'oil /! wo#l$ as& st#$ents to concentrate especially on Earle@s later chapters0 +ee& - 8he 6evelopment of So#thern an$ Northern Nationalism ;ohn McCar$le, The (dea of a 'outhern )ation

S#sanAMary 3rant, )orth over 'outh +ee& <- 8he 6isr#ption of the Secon$ American Party System Michael Holt, The Political Crisis of the *+,-.s Eric 4oner, Free 'oil/ Free Labor/ Free Men +ee& 1- Secession an$ Civil +ar 6aniel Crofts, 0eluctant Confederates 9ertram +yattA9rown, 1an"ee 'aints and 'outhern 'inners Paper Assi)nment- Contemporaries an$ Historians Biew the Comin) of the +ar !n the s#ccessive para)raphs, ! will try to provi$e some explanation for my choices a%ove' 9efore the first meetin) of the collo,#i#m, ! wo#l$ ma&e s#re to sen$ o#t a messa)e to all prospective st#$ents hi)hly enco#ra)in) them to rea$ portions of Michael Perman@s rea$er on Civil +ar ca#sation' ! co#l$ then assist st#$ents with #n$erstan$in) the maCor schools of tho#)ht s#rro#n$in) the inevita%ility of the conflict' Dne tactic that ! mi)ht #se to foster $isc#ssion is to assi)n st#$ents a partic#lar interpretation from Perman@s %oo&, s#ch as the Henry +ilson or 4re$eric& 6o#)lass excerpts, an$ then as& them to $isc#ss the maCor i$eas of each a#thor an$ how pro%lems of %ias mi)ht shape their respective acco#nts' Nevertheless, the time for the first meetin) will pro%a%ly %e ta&en #p in %#rea#cratic matters an$ presentin) a formal intro$#ction of the co#rse' 8he secon$ meetin) wo#l$ allow me to $isc#ss the role of nationalism after the +ar of .<.2, especially as it le$ to the term =8he Era of 3oo$ 4eelin)? cele%rate$ %y contemporary an$ later historians' >nfort#nately, there $oes not exist many recent wor&s that partic#larly foc#s on the perio$ from .<.2A.<2<, #nless one co#nts Charles Sellers@ The Mar"et 0evolution' As a hi)hly rea$a%le, if $ate$, acco#nt of the perio$ an$ the

)eneral political, $iplomatic, economic, an$ social $evelopments after .<.2, 3eor)e 6an)erfiel$@s The Era of Good Feeling provi$es a nice intro$#ction for st#$ents' Here, ! co#l$ stress the chapters that hi)hli)ht the $isinte)ration of the 4e$eralist party an$ the a))ressive $iplomacy of the Monroe A$ministration as a so#rce for national feelin)' 8he flip si$e to all of this res#r)ence of nationalism, however, wo#l$ %e fo#n$ in 3lover Moore@s The Missouri Controversy, which stresses the role of the 4e$eralists an$ Clinton (ep#%lican faction in a)itatin) on %ehalf of )ra$#al emancipation in Misso#ri' Perhaps the fact that my choices in this section are p#lle$ from the $eca$e of the .120@s mi)ht reveal to st#$ents C#st how little wor& has %een $one on this perio$ in American historio)raphy' +e mi)ht then $isc#ss whether historians have sli)hte$ a tr#ly =critical? perio$ in >'S' history, especially )iven the way in which the postA+ar of .<.2 years )ave rise to the Misso#ri Compromise, the Panic of .<.1, an$ the 4irst Seminole +ar that wo#l$ help propel An$rew ;ac&son into the +hite Ho#se' 9y the thir$ wee&, ! expect to show st#$ents how historians have ar)#e$ for mainly two maCor ca#ses of the formation of the Secon$ American Party System' Harry +atson@s Liberty and Power, while similar in some respects to Charles Seller@s lar)er wor&, a$e,#ately stresses the centrality of the =Mar&et (evol#tion? to political $evelopment after .<.2, with its atten$ant t#rnpi&es, canals, steam%oats, %an&in) corporations, an$ %e)innin)s of the factory system' +atson@s intri)#in) thesis that the politics of the new party system reflecte$ the $eep social cleava)es over the receptivity of or$inary Americans to the innovations of the mar&et is ,#ite #sef#l here' Still, ! wo#l$ stress to st#$ents that politics in the A)e of ;ac&son $i$ not simply t#rn on ,#estions s#rro#n$in) economic matters, %#t also re)ar$in) reli)io#s an$ later ethnic tensions

within the American p#%lic at lar)e' Here, ! wo#l$ choose a classic of the =new political history,? *ee 9enson@s The Conce t of !ac"sonian #emocracy to offer an important corrective to the ol$ Pro)ressive an$ neoAPro)ressive foc#s on the economic $isp#tes %etween the parties' 9enson@s intensive st#$y of New Eor& an$ partic#larly the rise of AntiAMasonry aro#n$ the time that Charles 4inney starts to lea$ the revivals in the =9#rne$ Dver 6istrict? wo#l$ help st#$ents )rasp an important social %ase for the later +hi) an$ (ep#%lican parties' ! co#l$ then as& st#$ents to $isc#ss why AntiAMasonry too& hol$ thro#)ho#t the North an$ how it, alon) with the revision of state constit#tions to a%olish property ,#alifications for votin) an$ offices, serve$ to %rin) or$inary citiFens into the $emocratic process' !n my fo#rth wee&, ! wo#l$ trace the rise of another form of reformAmin$e$ protest an$ its so#thern response- political antislavery an$ the proslavery ar)#ment' +ith the incl#sion of ;ames Stewart@s $oly Warriors, ! can provi$e st#$ents a short s#mmary of the rise of antislavery sentiment an$ the fatef#l $ecision to en)a)e in political activism' 8hro#)h Stewart@s %oo&, ! mi)ht as& the st#$ents as to why the antislavery movement fract#re$ rather than completely #nite %ehin$ either men li&e +illiam *loy$ 3arrison or ;osh#a (oot 3i$$in)s, lea$ers of two respective strate)ies of imme$iatism, apolitical confrontation thro#)h newspapers an$ leaflets an$ political pra)matism in Con)ress in opposin) the fe$eral )a) r#le' St#$ents mi)ht also )ain a %etter sense for the ways in which coloniFation an$ a%olitionism were relate$ aims in the min$s of reformers' !n or$er to )a#)e so#thern slavehol$er response to the a%olitionists, ! wo#l$ not hesitate to assi)n +illiam 4reehlin)@s masterf#l Prelude to Civil War' 8hro#)h his ,#alifie$ reCection of the ol$ tariffA%ase$ ar)#ment for the ori)ins of the

N#llification Controversy, 4reehlin) serves to hi)hli)ht the threat that a%olitionists an$ political antislavery lea$ers pose$ to So#th Carolinians an$ other so#therners' 8racin) how the conflict over tariffs #ltimately revolve$ aro#n$ the So#th Carolinian in$irect $efense of slavery, this st#$y of N#llification an$ the s#%se,#ent efforts of so#thern politicians to o%tain a )a) r#le over a%olition petitions wo#l$ provi$e a parallel to the iss#es that Stewart@s %oo& serves to raise' Even with the rise of sectional attit#$es thro#)h the N#llification Controversy, ! thin& it is imperative that st#$ents #n$erstan$ that the chief attention for many northern an$ so#thern whites was how +hi)s an$ 6emocrats $ivi$e$ over monetary an$ fiscal matters' 8he Panic of .<7 an$ its aftermath, in partic#lar, witnesse$ the crystalliFation of the parties %ehin$ sharp pro)rammatic $ifferences over the proper role of )overnment in economic recovery when alleviatin) the wi$esprea$ pop#lar s#fferin)' 8h#s, the %oo& ! wo#l$ choose to show C#st how sharp those $ifferences were in %oth North an$ So#th wo#l$ %e ;ames (' Sharp@s The !ac"sonians %ersus the &an"s' Sharp@s %oo& has the virt#e of systematically investi)atin) how state 6emocratic an$ +hi) parties thro#)ho#t the co#ntry fo#)ht over %an&in) corporate privile)es, paper money, an$ private an$ p#%lic $e%ts $#rin) the late .<70@s an$ early .<:0@s' Df co#rse, not all historians have s#%scri%e$ to this ar)#ment that economic an$ not sectional conflicts serve$ to str#ct#re political $e%ate in this perio$, th#s ! wo#l$ also )ive st#$ents +illiam Cooper@s provocative The 'outh and the Politics of 'lavery' 8ho#)h Cooper himself has pro%lems in acco#ntin) for the =3reat A%erration? of the early .<:0@s, when economic matters temporarily s#perse$e$ so#thern $e%ates over slavery, his explanation for the rise of so#thern +hi))ery thro#)h the .<76 proslavery campai)n of ;#$)e H#)h *awson +hite

provi$es m#ch fo$$er for st#$ents to consi$er a%o#t the ori)ins an$ $evelopment of the ;ac&sonian Era party system' Now in the sixth wee&, ! hope to intro$#ce st#$ents to the pivotal %attles over westwar$ expansion in the .<:0@s' 8ho#)h an ol$ wor&, 4re$eric& Mer&@s Manifest #estiny and Mission in American $istory nicely $emonstrates to st#$ents how political an$ racial fears mi)ht act#ally have ca#se$ some so#therners, li&e Alexan$er Stephens an$ ;ohn C' Calho#n, to resist territorial expansion' Mer&@s approach to the pro%lem of Manifest 6estiny also hi)hli)hts the missionary imp#lse that one fin$s in m#ch of American $iplomacy, especially the American $esire to %rin) the %enefits of rep#%lican selfA)overnment to forei)n, =%ar%aro#s? peoples #n$er the yo&e of Catholicism or aristocracy' Here, ! wo#l$ hi)hli)ht how ;ac&sonian 6emocrats )enerally le$ the char)e for more lan$ an$, in the case of (o%ert +al&er@s =slave $rain? ar)#ment, the expansion of chattel slavery' 8he more a%stract tenor of Mer&@s %oo& mi)ht ma&e the selection of ;onathan Earle@s !ac"sonian Antislavery and the Politics of Free 'oil all the more appealin) to st#$ents' 8hro#)h his case st#$ies of prominent ;ac&sonians who later %ecame van)#ar$s of the antiAextension movement, Earle helps point o#t how the e)alitarian, antiAprivile)e %eliefs of the ;ac&sonians co#l$ permit some of its mem%ers to em%race antislavery' !n partic#lar, Earle@s wor& can show how important it is that st#$ents $o not always i$entify all ;ac&sonians with a proslavery orientation, even if many still favore$ national expansion' !n the followin) wee&, after emphasiFin) political so#rces of conflict %etween the sections, ! mi)ht want to explain to st#$ents how these political $ivisions reinforce$ a sense of c#lt#ral separation %etween North an$ So#th' 8o this en$, ;ohn McCar$le@s

,#ite comprehensive The (dea of a 'outhern )ation offers a #sef#l overview of the ways in which so#thern nationalists trie$ to infl#ence so#thern reli)ion, literat#re, economic $evelopment, as well as politics in the years after .<70' >nli&e ol$er st#$ies of so#thern nationalism, s#ch as Clement Eaton@s The Growth of 'outhern Civili2ation, McCar$le %rin)s to his wor& a clear appreciation for the h#r$les that so#thern nationalists face$ when tryin) to convince their fellow so#therners to a%an$on their alle)iance to the >nion' Still, st#$ents mi)ht come away from McCar$le@s %oo& with the lon)Astan$in) scholarly impression that sectionalism was somehow a profo#n$ly so#thern phenomenon, as evi$ence$ in the writin)s of s#ch )reat historians as Genneth Stampp' !n or$er to co#nter this %elief an$ provi$e a stim#latin) $isc#ssion of =nationalism? an$ =sectionalism,? ! wo#l$ then co#nter%alance McCar$le with S#sanAMary 3rant@s )orth 3ver 'outh, a fine treatment in the ways in which northerners viewe$ the So#th thro#)h a sectional not necessarily national lens' Her attention to the pro%lem of a northern =sectionalism? can also point to how the polariFe$ climate of .<:0@s politics helpe$ create an$ s#stain i$eas of northern s#periority in the virt#es of free la%or i$eolo)y' +ith the ei)hth session, ! wo#l$ now t#rn to how the com%ination of sectional i$eolo)ies, antiAparty sentiments, an$ $isappearance of the ol$ economic $isp#tes %etween parties helpe$ hasten the en$ of the Secon$ American Party System' My choices here, perhaps not #ns#rprisin)ly, wo#l$ %e Eric 4oner@s Free 'oil/ Free Labor/ Free Men an$ Michael Holt@s The Political Crisis of the *+,-.s' Since the latter explicitly notes how his wor& serve$ as a co#nterAar)#ment to the former, ! thin& that st#$ents mi)ht )et a lot o#t of rea$in) %oth %oo&s for what they have to say a%o#t the reasons for the rise of the (ep#%lican party' 4oner repeate$ly asserts that the free la%or

i$eolo)y was the )l#e that hel$ northern antislavery politicians an$ voters to)ether $espite the hetero$ox political ori)ins /i'e' AntiAMason, +hi), 6emocratic, *i%erty, 4ree Soil, GnowANothin)0 of many in the coalition' His contention that the rise of the (ep#%licans somehow represente$ a new =i$eolo)ical? perio$ of politics %ase$ #pon f#n$amental $ifferences over slavery an$ its expansion presents a compellin) iss#e that Holt@s wor& $irectly spea&s to an$ see&s to re%#t' Another area of $isa)reement that co#l$ prove very enli)htenin) to st#$ents is what %oth a#thors have to say a%o#t the relationship %etween nativism an$ antislavery in the .<20@s' 4oner initially ac&nowle$)es the power of nativism %#t then $enies its importance in shapin) (ep#%lican electoral strate)ies, choosin) instea$ to foc#s #pon antiAnativists li&e +illiam Sewar$ an$ A%raham *incoln' !n contrast, Holt %rin)s the role of antiAparty, antiA immi)rant GnowANothin) cr#sa$es into sharp relief as maCor insti)ators in northern voter reali)nment an$ a serio#s force for antislavery (ep#%licans to rec&on with $#rin) the .<20@s' A%ove all, Holt@s wor& throws into ,#estion whether the (ep#%lican party was %o#n$ to arise o#t of the sectional $iscor$ of the late .<:0@s thro#)h mi$A.<20@s' 4inally, ! wo#l$ en$ the co#rse with two $ifferent views of so#thern secession that $eal with party politics an$ the c#lt#ral importance of honor' !n $isc#ssin) the $eep $ivisions that white so#therners contin#e$ to have a%o#t secession, ! thin& that 6aniel Crofts@s 0eluctant Confederates mi)ht %e an i$eal choice here' His attention to the role of slavehol$in) an$ party affiliation in %rin)in) a%o#t secession in the >pper So#th mi)ht $ispel the myth of complete so#thern #nity prior an$ even $#rin) the Civil +ar' 8he possi%ility of alternative $ecisions %y political lea$ers, especially the tantaliFin) prospect of A%raham *incoln appointin) an antiA(ep#%lican so#therner to his Ca%inet, sho#l$

provi$e m#ch room for spec#lation an$ critical thin&in) on the part of st#$ents' Df co#rse, to %alance thin)s o#t, ! wo#l$ also assi)n 9ertram +yattA9rown@s 1an"ee 'aints and 'outhern 'inners, which famo#sly post#lates that existence of a so#thern =honor c#lt#re? impelle$ white so#therners to treat northern $enials of e,#al access to the fe$eral territories as a personal re%#&e that C#stifie$ secession' 8he white so#thern fear of %ein) %ran$e$ a =s#%missionist? in lea)#e with 9lac& (ep#%licanism can also $raw st#$ents towar$ the relationship %etween racial fears an$ so#thern violence' (ea$in) *ist for (econstr#ction after the Civil +ar+ee& .- !ntro$#ction- +hose (econstr#ction5 /Here ! wo#l$ as& st#$ents to $efine what they thin& the term =reconstr#ction? means0 +ee& 2- 8he Pro%lem of So#thern SelfA(econstr#ction in .<6. 6aniel Crofts, 0eluctant Confederates Peter Carmichael, The Last Generation +ee& 7- +artime (econstr#ction an$ !ts *imitations +illiam Harris, With Charity for All Mar& 3rimsley, The $ard $and of War +ee& :- 8he Emancipationist Moment in the North an$ So#th (o)er (ansom an$ (ichar$ S#tch, 3ne 4ind of Freedom Michael Boren%er), Final Freedom +ee& 2- So#thern (econstr#ction, .<62A.<66 /!ntransi)ence or Statesmanship50 6an 8' Carter, When the War Was 3ver Eric 4oner, 0econstruction /! wo#l$ as& st#$ents to concentrate #pon the chapters that lea$ #p to the M(A0 +ee& 6- Con)ressional (econstr#ction, .<6 A.<61 /Conservative or (evol#tionary50 Michael *es 9ene$ict, A Com romise of Princi le /! wo#l$ as& st#$ents to s&im 9ene$ict@s preA.<6 chapters, an$ foc#s on later material0

+illiam 6#nnin), 0econstruction +ee& - So#thern Politics an$ the Pro%lem of the ColorA*ine +'E'9' 6#9ois, &lac" 0econstruction in America /! wo#l$ have st#$ents rea$ selecte$ chapters, especially =8he 9lac& Proletariat in So#th Carolina? an$ =8he Propa)an$a of History?0 Michael Perman, The 0oad to 0edem tion +ee& <- Northerners Confront (econstr#ction 6avi$ Mont)omery, &eyond E5uality An$rew Slap, The #oom of 0econstruction +ee& 1- 8he Pro%lem of Civil (i)hts Enforcement an$ Northern A%an$onment Allan 8release, White Terror +illiam 3illette, 0etreat from 0econstruction Paper Assi)nment- New 6irections in (econstr#ction Historio)raphy5 (ecommen$e$ (ea$in)- 8homas 9rown /e$'0, 0econstructions As in the a%ove co#rse on Civil +ar ca#sation, ! wo#l$ pro%a%ly #se a pair of rea$in)s for each wee& of the collo,#i#m' 8o %e)in with, ! wo#l$ first alter the expecte$ startin) point of the co#rse C#st a %it' !n the first meetin), the class an$ ! mi)ht try to tac&le who an$ what the process of reconstr#ction was $esi)ne$ to affect after the Civil +ar' Also, ! co#l$ s#))est that reconstr#ction co#l$ ta&e potentially many $ifferent forms after the o#t%rea& of war in April .<6.' ! feel that most co#rses on (econstr#ction play $own or simply i)nore the real possi%ility of some white northerners an$ so#thern >nionists that the nation mi)ht %e re#nite$ in .<6., even after the secession of the 6eep So#th' !n or$er to rectify this oversi)ht an$ provi$e a $ifferent way to view the pro%lem of reconstr#ction in )eneral, ! propose to assi)n %oth 6aniel Crofts@s 0eluctant Confederates an$ Peter Carmichael@s The Last Generation' As state$ %efore, Crofts presents to st#$ents the importance of contin)ency in shapin) the $ecisions of northern

an$ so#thern politicians $#rin) the Secession Crisis' Examinin) yo#n) so#therners also from the >pper So#th an$ specifically from Bir)inia, Carmichael explores how a )eneration comin) of a)e conscio#sly reCecte$ the mo$eration of their ol$ >nionist parents an$ politicians an$ ea)erly em%race$ secession in .<6.' 8o)ether these two %oo&s hi)hli)ht the very o%stacles that prevente$ the contin#e$ alle)iance of the >pper So#th states to the >nion an$ the challen)es to so#thernAle$ reconstr#ction' 9y the thir$ wee&, ! want to explore with the class C#st how the imperatives of a =har$ war? mi)ht have clashe$ with the hopes for a ,#ic& an$ relatively painless restoration of so#thern whites to the >nion' Mar& 3rimsley@s The $ard $and of War, while a$mitte$ly a%o#t military strate)y towar$ civilians $oes offer some important insi)hts into the way that the process of fi)htin) helpe$ en)en$er %itter hatre$s on %oth si$es that wo#l$ impair attempts at reconciliation' Partic#larly, his passa)es that cover the passa)e of the Confiscation Acts an$ the prom#l)ation of the *ie%er Co$e /.<670 co#l$ serve to reveal C#st northern $esires for a ,#ic& en$ to the conflict prompte$ increasin)ly harsher meas#res' Nevertheless, the actions of Con)ress an$ antiAso#thern attit#$es of the northern p#%lic $i$ not prevent A%raham *incoln from clin)in) to a conservative view of reconstr#ction that wishe$ to impose few con$itions to re#nion' !n this instance, +illiam Harris@s splen$i$ With Charity for All, with its ar)#ment that *incoln maintaine$ a consistently lenient policy towar$ white so#therners wo#l$ allow me to as& st#$ents why *incoln wo#l$ persist in this attit#$e $espite the resistance of Con)ress an$ some se)ments of northern p#%lic opinion' 8he followin) wee& wo#l$ then consist of two wor&s that to)ether %rin) the political, economic, le)al an$ social $imension of the war@s other achievement-

emancipation' 4rom personal experience, ! can say that Michael Boren%er)@s Final Freedom $oes a fine Co% of presentin) the revol#tionary implications of emancipation #pon American political an$ constit#tional $evelopment' 8ho#)h a slim vol#me, Boren%er)@s %oo& caref#lly traces the wheelin) an$ $ealin) of the *incoln A$ministration, (ep#%licans an$ +ar 6emocrats in Con)ress, an$ a%olitionists in effectin) the 8hirteenth Amen$ment' His cr#cial insi)ht that the amen$ment presa)e$ a chan)e in the way or$inary Americans loo&e$ at their Constit#tion is partic#larly #sef#l in stim#latin) f#rther $isc#ssion' 8#rnin) from the halls of Con)ress to con$itions on the )ro#n$ for the free$men themselves, (o)er (ansom an$ (ichar$ S#tch@s 3ne 4ind of Freedom $isplays the nee$ of so#thern planters an$ free$men to form a s#ita%le wor& arran)ement after the $emise of slavery' +hile many aspects of so#thern life will event#ally )et reconstr#cte$, the ol$ instit#tion of slavery was not one of them, an$ th#s poorer whites an$ %lac&s fo#n$ themselves as sharecroppers force$ to pro$#ce cotton in or$er to satisfy the $esires of )eneral store merchants who hel$ a monopoly on postwar cre$it' 8he experiences of whites an$ %lac&s in the So#th after the Civil +ar lar)ely reflecte$ the wi$esprea$ poverty an$ fixation of the re)ion@s elite #pon the res#mption of cotton pro$#ction' Aro#n$ the halfway point, then, my co#rse wo#l$ only %e)in to $isc#ss the impact of postA.<62 events on the process of reconstr#ction' Dne of the areas of this perio$ that partic#larly interests me is the tho#)hts an$ actions of so#thern whites concernin) reconstr#ction #n$er the provisional lea$ers appointe$ %y Presi$ent An$rew ;ohnson' 8o %etter #n$erstan$ the willin)ness or lac& of willin)ness that whites in that re)ion $isplaye$ towar$ the i$ea of reconstr#ction, ! thin& ! mi)ht ma&e st#$ents rea$

%oth 6an 8' Carter@s )oo$ %oo& When the War Was 3ver as well as Eric 4oner@s ma)isterial 0econstruction' Carter $oes an excellent Co% with reco)niFin) the stren)ths an$ limitations inherent in the concept of so#thern selfAreconstr#ction after .<62' 8he exA+hi) an$ #s#ally antiAsecession lea$ers of the ;ohnson )overnments were perhaps the most capa%le )ro#p to lea$ the re)ion %ac& to its former )lory' +hile Carter presents these men in a ,#ite favora%le li)ht, it mi)ht help to contrast that view with the one provi$e$ in 4oner@s massive synthesis of the perio$' Here, ! wo#l$ pro%a%ly have st#$ents rea$ only the chapters that $isc#ss the %lac& $esire for a#tonomy an$ the white $eman$ for a system of la%or every %it as coercive as slavery' Also important is the way in which 4oner $escri%es the ;ohnson )overnors li&e Mississippi@s +illiam Shar&ey not as political an$ racial mo$erates, %#t as men %ent on sec#rin) passa)e of the infamo#s =%lac& co$es? an$ other le)al impe$iments to %lac& free$om' (i)ht on the heels of the $isc#ssion of the ,#estion of so#thern white intransi)ence towar$ the northern =fr#its of victory? that reconstr#ction was s#ppose$ to sec#re wo#l$ %e Michael *es 9ene$ict@s A Com romise of Princi le as well as +illiam 6#nnin)@s ori)inal Harper H (ow vol#me 0econstruction' My maCor theme in $isc#ssion for this wee& wo#l$ %e on the ways that historians can conceive of Con)ressional (econstr#ction as either a ra$ical experiment in %iracial $emocracy /even if flawe$0 or as an essentially conservative movement to preserve the li%erties of white an$ %lac& loyalists while maintainin) a stateAcentere$ conception of fe$eralism' 4or all of the attac&s #pon 6#nnin)@s =(e$eemer? perspective, even Eric 4oner ac&nowle$)es how 6#nnin) conceive$ of the le)islation comin) o#t of Con)ress as tr#ly =ra$ical? in scope' 9y the .1 0@s, tho#)h, the pen$#l#m of (econstr#ction historio)raphy ha$ sw#n)

towar$ reco)niFin) how the policies of Con)ress were frame$ %y Mo$erates who may have prevente$ a more thoro#)h)oin) process of reconstr#ction towar$ the $efeate$ white So#th' 8o this en$, st#$ent $isc#ssions mi)ht foc#s #pon the intentions an$ act#al o#tcomes of $e%ates to pass the Civil (i)hts 9ill of .<66 an$ the 4irst Military (econstr#ction Act of .<6 ' 9y the time the seventh wee& rolls aro#n$, ! hope now to %rin) a sense of how so#therners, white an$ %lac&, respon$e$ politically to the $eman$s of =military reconstr#ction'? +ith the creation of a via%le so#thern win) of the (ep#%lican party after .<6 , %lac& an$ white so#thern (ep#%licans %e)an to ar)#e a%o#t the proper $irection of their nascent or)aniFation' +'E'9' 6# 9ois, even more than Eric 4oner, explains the rise of the so#thern (ep#%lican parties as a tr#ly ra$ical attempt to create a classA%ase$ alliance %etween poor whites an$ %lac&s a)ainst the exAConfe$erate r#lin) elite' >nfort#nately, the appeals to race thro#)h =strai)htAo#t? strate)ies of white violence an$ the a%an$onment of northern capitalists prompt a re$rawin) of the colorAline to create raciallyA%ase$ parties after .< 2' !nvertin) this analysis is Michael Perman@s intri)#in) The 0oad to 0edem tion, which claims that far from enco#ra)in) racial or class $ivisions, exA+hi) lea$ers of the (ep#%lican party actively so#)ht to forestall the $evelopment of s#ch ali)nments thro#)h their em%race of railroa$ finance an$ constr#ction' !n place of 6# 9ois@s view of so#thern white 6emocrats as mere reactionaries, Perman stresses the $e)ree to which mem%ers of that party p#rs#e$ a =New 6epart#re? in or$er to win %lac& votes an$ prevent f#rther fe$eral interventions' 8h#s, the central ,#estion to explore here is the nat#re of the social %ases of each maCor party an$ their infl#ence on their respective strate)ies'

+hile some co#rses spen$ consi$era%le time on events in the So#th, ! happen to thin& that events in the North an$ +est also carrie$ a maCor /if not $ominant0 infl#ence #pon the form#lation of policy in +ashin)ton' 8he postwar North experience$ a rise in immi)ration levels after the war an$ this in t#rn le$ to the )rowin) clo#t of or)aniFe$ la%or in the A)e of (econstr#ction' 6avi$ Mont)omery@s fine &eyond E5uality s#))ests one reason for the northern wanin) interest in the pro%lem of reconstr#ction thro#)h his emphasis on the specter of class conflict over the meanin) of free la%or' +hen most (ep#%licans ref#se to ac&nowle$)e the ri)ht to collective %ar)ain an$ stri&e, the ei)htA ho#r $ay, or p#rs#e so#thern lan$ confiscation to its f#llest extent, the interests of the la%orers of the National *a%or >nion %e)an to $iver)e from the (a$ical (ep#%licans' Part of explainin) this apparent fiscal conservatism of (ep#%licans m#st rest with some #n$erstan$in) of the ori)ins of the *i%eral (ep#%lican movement after the war' 8hro#)h An$rew Slap@s #oom of 0econstruction, st#$ents )ain a %etter appreciation for the way in which i$eas of laisseFAfaire political economy )aine$ wi$e cre$ence amon) elite northerners after .<62' Dne area ! mi)ht foc#s on is the way in which political strate)y of re)ainin) *i%eral s#pport mi)ht have alienate$ elements of or)aniFe$ la%or from their warAtime alle)iance to (ep#%licanism' 4inally, in my last wee& with the co#rse, ! wo#l$ $evelop f#rther the concept of )ra$#al northern a%an$onment of the ca#se of the free$men, c#lminatin) in the Compromise of .< ' Allan 8release, in his White Terror, $oes a )reat service for

st#$ents who mi)ht won$er whether white so#thern intransi)ence an$ not simply northern racism le$ to )rowin) pop#lar fr#strations over reconstr#ction meas#res' 6etailin) the rise an$ sprea$ of the G# Gl#x Glan as well as the fe$eral efforts to com%at

it, 8release@s len)thy st#$y properly points o#t how $iffic#lt any consistent policy towar$ white so#thern violence was %o#n$ to %e after .<61' Still, +illiam 3illette@s 0etreat from 0econstruction may )ive st#$ents m#ch to consi$er with the limitations of the 3rant A$ministration@s policy of enforcement of the 4ifteenth Amen$ment' His %oo& f#rther helps st#$ents realiFe that so#thern white violence was only one component of a to#)h sit#ation for fe$eral policyma&ers' 3rant ha$ to $eal with whether to intervene on %ehalf of certain (ep#%lican factions or reco)niFe the re)#lar 6emocratic can$i$ate as the ri)htf#l officehol$er' 8he alle)ations of fra#$ an$ severity of northern racism hampere$ 3rant@s free$om of action to choose %etween alternative policies' !n this way, st#$ents %e)in to #n$erstan$ how events in %oth the North an$ So#th to)ether helpe$ en$ (econstr#ction even %efore the removal of troops from so#thern cities to their %arrac&s in .< '

Part !!, "#estion 2 Part of the remar&a%le varia%ility that one sees thro#)ho#t nineteenthAcent#ry political history is #n$o#%te$ly $#e to the infl#ence of thir$Aparty challen)es' !n a time when )rassroots lea$ers of local movement co#l$ simply arran)e to %#y a printer to create an$ $isseminate their own %allots, thir$Aparties co#l$ $ecisively play the role of =spoiler- in many local or state contests' Also important was the $e)ree to which voters co#l$ exercise their own &in$ of soverei)nty over the political system thro#)h =scratchin)? a %allot an$ mar&in) it with the can$i$ate of their choice' 4actionalism within the maCor parties co#l$ also prompt a =%olt? of certain lea$ers an$ followers towar$ a new party in the hopes of either $isplacin) one of the existin) maCor parties or ne)otiatin) with them for reforms' 8h#s, in contrast to o#r own era when the possi%ility

of a maCor thir$Aparty challen)e seems excee$in)ly rare, voters in the nineteenthAcent#ry m#st have )reete$ these #pstart or)aniFations as a fairly ro#tine matter for Americans to express their $issatisfaction with the c#rrent political lea$ership' Dne example of s#ch a protest movement is the AntiAMasonry movement of the late .<20@s to late .<70@s' 8he AntiAMasons arose principally to aven)e the s#specte$ coverA#p of the m#r$er of former Mason +illiam Mor)an in the fall of .<26' Mor)an %efore his #ntimely $eath ha$ promise$ to p#%lish an expose on the )ro#p@s activities when he mysterio#sly $ie$ in #pstate New Eor&' +hen pio#s New Eor&ers loo&e$ to the power of the law to %rin) C#stice #pon the &illers, they %elieve$ that the #ncooperative nat#re of Masonic law a#thorities reveale$ the way in which privile)e of mem%ership in the or)aniFation ha$ effectively tr#mpe$ the r#le of law' An)ry over how Masons appeare$ to flo#t the central tenet of rep#%licanism, these AntiAMasons or)aniFe$ a )rassroots movement to elect only those who ple$)e$ never to have associate$ with that fraternal or$er' Soon, this movement )rew to incl#$e many small comm#nities of the Northeast, partic#larly those that ha$ experience$ reli)io#s revivals' 8he f#sion of the e)alitarian imp#lse of evan)elical Protestantism with the respect for law that they ha$ inherite$ thro#)h the i$eolo)y of rep#%licanism, the AntiAMasons %ecame the first or)aniFe$ political party to hol$ a pop#lar nominatin) convention in .<72' Sp#rnin) any alliance with the National (ep#%lican Henry Clay %eca#se of his Masonry, the movement ironically selecte$ another former Mason an$ Attorney 3eneral +illiam +irt to hea$ their tic&et' 8ho#)h the movement wo#l$ event#ally f#se with the +hi) party after .<7:, the chief contri%#tion of the party was to show the power of or$inary people in $eman$in) )overnmental action a)ainst an antiArep#%lican menace'

8he creation of the *i%erty party after the AntiAMasons %e)an to Coin with the +hi)s, hi)hli)hts the small, %#t )rowin) importance of antislavery sentiment within the political system' 8he mem%ers of the *i%erty party compose$ those a%olitionists, incl#$in) Salmon P' Chase an$ 4re$eric& 6o#)lass, who co#l$ simply not a%i$e %y the $ict#m of the followers of +illiam *loy$ 3arrison that en)a)ement in partisan politics wo#l$ prove to %e a compromise of principle' 8his split ha$ first occ#rre$ in the .<71 American AntiASlavery Society national meetin) where the two camps of a%olitionists %itterly $ivi$e$ over the ,#estion of political involvement' 8hose who a$vocate$ $irect action in politics left the meetin) an$ went on to fo#n$ the *i%erty party on a platform of imme$iate a%olition thro#)ho#t the entire >nite$ States' +hile the *i%erty party first appeare$ on the scene in .<:0, it was not #ntil .<:: when it too& nearly 62,000 votes in the state of New Eor& alone that the party ha$ %e)#n to ass#me the role of political spoiler' 8hro#)h their #se of can$i$ates li&e the former Gent#c&y slavehol$er, ;ames 9irney, the party trie$ to proCect a national ima)e of moral reform that wo#l$ #se the coercive power of the state rather than s#asion to achieve its aims' Nevertheless, the ol$ =*i%erty? name $isappeare$ %y .<:< $#e to the willin)ness of its mem%ers to parta&e in the creation of the antiAextension 4ree Soil party' >nli&e the *i%erty party, the 4ree Soil party never serio#sly a$opte$ any plan for imme$iate emancipation within the so#thern states' !nstea$, the party emer)e$ thro#)h a meetin) of the min$s of antislavery +hi)s, proABan 9#ren 6emocrats, an$ former *i%erty men at the A#)#st .<:< 9#ffalo Convention' (e%#ffe$ for the nomination %y proslavery an$ proA8exas annexation so#thern 6emocrats in .<::, Martin Ban 9#ren an$ his irate followers ori)inally vowe$ to a%i$e %y the convention@s choice of =$ar& horse?

;ames Pol&' Dnce in office, however, Pol& mana)e$ to an)er westerners thro#)h his veto of rivers an$ har%ors improvements, proAtariff 6emocrats in Pennsylvania with the +al&er 8ariff, an$ the few remainin) conservative 6emocrats thro#)h his rea#thoriFation of the !n$epen$ent 8reas#ry system' 8he Ban 9#ren men increasin)ly felt incense$ %y the patrona)e the Pol& A$ministration )ave to their New Eor& rivals, the H#n&ers, which incl#$e$ Secretary of +ar +illiam *' Marcy' +hen the H#n&ers attempte$ to $eny the Ban 9#ren =9arn%#rners? a chance to press for the +ilmot Proviso at Her&imer /Dcto%er .<: 0 as well as their seats to the 9altimore Convention /May .<:<0, the Ban 9#ren men %olte$ for some new antislavery party of their own' 8he splits %etween conservative Cotton an$ antislavery Conscience +hi)s in states li&e Massach#setts also le$ to a $epart#re of some mem%ers of that party to form a new or)aniFation' Com%ine$ with the former *i%erty men, these %olters Coine$ into the 4ree Soil party an$ ple$)e$ a policy of antiAextension of slavery %ase$ on the policy of the fa%le$ Northwest Dr$inance of . < ' +hile Ban 9#ren receive$ the top spot, a compromise of former +hi) Charles A$ams an$ a platform that wo#l$ #phol$ internal improvements, a mil$ly protective tariff, an$ a homestea$ policy all came o#t of $eli%erations at the 9#ffalo Convention' 6espite the s#ccess at for)in) a new party, the =soft? H#n&er win) of the New Eor& 6emocracy ha$ ma$e a$mittin) the ol$ 9arn%#rners %ac& into the party a prime concern' Dnce these Ban 9#ren men reCoine$ their former partisans, the 4ree Soil party@s $ays as competitive or)aniFation were effectively finishe$' !mportantly, the 4ree Soilers expose$ the %roa$er s#pport that a party %#ilt on an antiAextension platform co#l$ achieve within the twoA party system'

D#t of the former 4ree Soilers an$ those remainin) northern 6emocrats an$ +hi)s who resente$ the ha#)htiness of the =Slave Power,? the (ep#%lican party emer)e$ o#t of a series of antiANe%ras&a splinter parties that rose #p a)ainst the passa)e of Stephen 6o#)las@s GansasANe%ras&a Act in May .<2:' 8he (ep#%licans hel$ their first state convention in ;ac&son, Michi)an later that same year' 8he rapi$ $ecline of the national +hi) party $#e to the $isastro#s res#lts of the .<22 elections ha$ ma$e many northern +hi)s cast a%o#t in search of a new home' 9#il$in) #pon northern resentment at the fe$eral 4#)itive Slave Act of .<20 as well as hostility to the prospect of slave la%or openly competin) with free la%or in the western territories, (ep#%licans crafte$ a messa)e that stresse$ %oth antiAso#thernism an$ antiAslavery as a way to restore the $ominant northern maCority to its ri)htf#l place of power' !n a$optin) m#ch of the +hi) pro)rams of fe$erallyAsponsore$ internal improvements, hi)h tariffs, an$ acceptance of corporate privile)es, the (ep#%licans catere$ primarily to a white, An)loASaxon, an$ evan)elical mi$$leAclass %ase' 8he party en$#re$ $#e to a series of fort#ito#s events in .<26A.<2<, which saw the Sac& of *awrence, the Canin) of Charles S#mner, the 6re$ Scott $ecision, an$ the *ecompton Controversy' 8hese an$ the a%ility of (ep#%licans to win over nativist Protestants whose a%stentions ha$ $oome$ the +hi)s in .<22 )reatly acco#nts for this thir$Aparty s#ccess' 8ho#)h the (ep#%licans s#ccee$e$ in perpet#atin) their yo#n) or)aniFation, the GnowANothin)s in the lon) r#n $i$ not prove so l#c&y' 8he com%ination of a =hi$$en $epression? in .<27 an$ the willin)ness of +hi)s strate)ists to woo immi)rant voters in .<22 )ave rise to this protest movement a)ainst the s#r)e of new arrivals that came to America' 8ar)etin) !rish an$ 3erman Catholics an$ $eno#ncin) all politicians as corr#pt

an$ $an)ers to the rep#%lic, the hyperApatriotic GnowANothin)s starte$ o#t as a series of fraternal lo$)es that ,#ic&ly )rew into a mass political movement' 8he GnowANothin)s #r)e$ a len)thenin) of the perio$ of nat#raliFation for forei)ners as well as an en$ to the papal infl#ence of Catholic lea$ers li&e New Eor&@s Arch%ishop ;ohn H#)hes thro#)h the nativist $eman$ for an en$ to p#%lic ai$ of parochial schools an$ incl#sion of only the Gin) ;ames 9i%le in p#%lic schools' 8he party /later %ran$e$ =American? #n$erwent a meteoric rise, capt#rin) control of states li&e Massach#setts in .<2: an$ .<22' 8he com%ination of (ep#%lican a%sorption of the nativists an$ their positions as well as the $ivisions %etween northern an$ so#thern mem%ers over slavery, tho#)h, pointe$ the way to their en$' *i&e the AntiAMasons, the GnowANothin)s represente$ a )rassroots movement that criticiFe$ the role of party =wireAp#llers? in s#%vertin) the will of the people' 8he Constit#tional >nion party of .<60 represente$ some former so#thern +hi)s who co#l$ not %rin) themselves to Coin the 6emocracy' *e$ %y ;ohn ;' Critten$en of Gent#c&y, these =>nionists? hope$ to or)aniFe a tr#ly national party in a climate where %oth maCor parties reflecte$ a lar)ely sectional orientation' +hile men li&e Critten$en ha$ so#)ht to ali)n with (ep#%licans in .<2< over the *ecompton Controversy, their efforts ha$ come to na#)ht an$ these former +hi)s fo#n$ themselves a$optin) the la%el of =Dpposition? when r#nnin) for offices in the >pper So#th' 8hro#)h a call for a convention in lateA.<21, the Constit#tional >nionists met in 9altimore next May to $raft a simple platform that simply #r)e$ that they wo#l$ wor& to #phol$ the =Constit#tion an$ the *aws? of the lan$' +hile the party $i$ not ma&e m#ch of a showin) in parts of the North, the 9or$er re)ion an$ some parts of the 6eep So#th act#ally saw the

Constit#tional >nionists as a competitive force with the 9rec&inri$)e 6emocrats' !n the en$, tho#)h, the secession of the 6eep an$ later >pper So#th ha$ ero$e$ whatever force the party ha$ to effect f#t#re elections' 8he tas& for creatin) a %isectional =>nion? party th#s fell #pon the (ep#%lican a$ministration of A%raham *incoln' After the Civil +ar, however, the (ep#%licans ha$ proven themselves an en$#rin) maCority in northern politics' 8he fee%le competitiveness of the northern 6emocracy, with its so#thern win) still limite$ %y the threat of fe$eral intervention ha$ provi$e$ the context for a potential $ivision within the ran&s of the $ominant (ep#%licans' 8he *i%eral (ep#%lican %olt occ#rre$ first in Misso#ri as formerly ra$ical politicians li&e Carl Sch#rF an$ 9enCamin 3ratF 9rown so#)ht to win over $isfranchise$ exAConfe$erates there thro#)h a lenient policy of amnesty an$ reconciliation' 8he #se of fe$eral power in the Military (econstr#ction Act of .<6 also shoc&e$ the conscience of these men li&e li%eral economic theorist 6avi$ +ells, who %e)an to artic#late a nee$ for fe$eral fiscal retrenchment, free tra$e, an$ har$ money to $eal with the presence of )reen%ac& inflation' 6#rin) the first term of the >lysses 3rant A$ministration, the #se of fe$eral =4orce Acts? to p#t $own the G# Gl#x Glan alon) with the presence of corr#ption %oth in the fe$eral )overnment as well as in so#thern =carpet%a))er? le)islat#res ha$ proven intolera%le to these =li%erals? that they left the (ep#%lican party an$ waite$ to see whether 3rant wo#l$ )et the (ep#%lican nomination a)ain' Dnce he ha$, $is)r#ntle$ freeAtra$ers li&e Charles S#mner, who was sac&e$ from his position as Chair of the Senate 4orei)n (elations Committee %y 3rant for the Senator@s o%stinate ref#sal to en$orse the propose$ Santo 6omin)o annexation treaty, ,#ic&ly Coine$ this reform movement' >nfort#nately for the freeAtra$e men, factional rivalries at the Cincinnati

allowe$ protectionist an$ Horace 3reeley to )ain the nomination in May .< 2' Northern an$ so#thern 6emocrats, who ha$ em%ar&e$ on a =New 6epart#re? to re)ain power thro#)h a ple$)e to not oppose the (econstr#ction amen$ments, event#ally )ave ,#alifie$ s#pport to the %olters at Cincinnati' Some $ie har$ =strai)htAo#t? 6emocrats nominate$ New Eor& lawyer Charles D@Conor in place of 3reeley, %#t they were not necessarily a maCority of their party' 8he fail#re to %eat =3rantism? left the reformers completely in $isarray an$ contri%#te$ to the en$ of the =New 6epart#re? strate)y amon) 6emocrats' Dn the other en$ of the =Money "#estion? were mem%ers of the 3reen%ac&A *a%or party' 8his or)aniFation first forme$ in Novem%er .< : an$ later Coine$ the *a%or party to create a home for farmers an$ in$#strial la%orers who felt that only expansion of the monetary s#pply thro#)h the printin) of )reen%ac&s wo#l$ alleviate their financial woes after the Panic of .< 7 occ#rre$' 8ho#)h the i$ea for )reen%ac& expansion $ates from the .<6 =Dhio !$ea? of 6emocrat 3eor)e Pen$leton, the pro%lem of whether to restore )ol$ converti%ility to national %an& notes an$ retire from circ#lation the fiat c#rrency still remaine$' As forces of contraction %attle$ inflation, 3reen%ac& partisans $eman$e$ that the )overnment contin#e to provi$e paper money that co#l$ help poorer people repay their cre$itors in $epreciate$ c#rrency' 8o this en$, the party reacte$ #nfavora%ly to Presi$ent 3rant@s veto of the !nflation 9ill in ;#ne .< :, which wo#l$ have %oth increase$ the n#m%er of )reen%ac&s an$ en$e$ any caps on the n#m%er of national %an&notes in circ#lation' 8he severe losses in the .< : elections ma$e the $ifferent factions of (ep#%licans come to a compromise thro#)h ;ohn Sherman@s Specie (es#mption Act /;an#ary .< 20' !n place of )ra$#ally contractin) the amo#nt of paper

c#rrency from I:20 million to I700 million over a perio$ of : years %efore a ret#rn to )ol$ converti%ility, Sherman also remove$ any caps on the n#m%er of national %an&notes in circ#lation' 8h#s free %an&in) came at the cost of )reen%ac& re$#ction, which prove$ no compromise to the )reen%ac& a$vocates' +ith the res#mption of specie, the mem%ers of the 3reen%ac& party ran their own presi$ential can$i$ate in .<<0, former >nion 3eneral ;ames 9' +eaver, in protest of the fe$eral )overnment@s actions' >nfort#nately, the 9laineAAllison Silver P#rchase Act of .< < showe$ that the a$vocates of silver ha$ %e)#n to press their case an$ the cr#sa$e for )reen%ac&s %e)an to fiFFle o#t %y the mi$$le part of the .<<0@s' 8he final maCor thir$Aparty challen)e occ#rre$ with the Pop#list or People@s Party of .<12' 8racin) their ori)ins %ac& to the =Patrons of H#s%an$ry? in .<6 , the national 3ran)e movement ha$ ma$e the re)#lation of railroa$ ha#l rates their main priority $#rin) the early .< 0@s an$ ha$ or)aniFe$ =AntiAMonopoly? tic&ets accor$in)ly' 8he 3ran)e movement, tho#)h, never ,#ite achieve$ the sense of coor$ination as a national movement to create an en$#rin) party' 8hat tas& was left to the or)aniFers of the 4armer@s Alliances, emer)in) o#t of places li&e *ampasas, 8exas in .< 6, the system of alliances ,#ic&ly mer)e$ into a National Alliance in the .<<0@s that so#)ht the re)#lation of railroa$s an$ )rain elevators, the cooperative sellin) of vario#s pro$#cer )ro#ps, an$ metho$s of $irect $emocracy li&e the election of >'S' Senators' 9y .<10, the mem%ers of the Alliance ha$ re)istere$ their Dcala 6eman$s an$ thro#)h the efforts of 6r' Charles +' Mac#ne, event#ally or)aniFe$ a national political party in .<12' 8ho#)h the Pop#lists $i$ rather well in that election for a new party, the antiA6emocratic sentiments after the Panic of .<17 $i$ not %enefit them' 8he party lea$ers th#s em%ar&e$ on the

panacea of free silver an$ achieve$ f#sion with the 6emocrats #n$er +illiam ;ennin)s 9ryan in .<16' 6espite the promise of s#ccess, the (ep#%licans #n$er +illiam McGinley carrie$ the Northeast an$ Northwestern states an$ won the election' 8he presence of so#thern %lac&s in the Pop#list cr#sa$e ha$ %een orchestrate$ %y men li&e 8homas +atson of 3eor)ia, %#t after the $isastro#s $efeat +atson an$ other white Pop#lists %e)an to a$opt a =raceA%aitin)? strate)y to win white voters' 8he Pop#list party, shorn of its novelty an$ relative racial soli$arity, ha$ %ecome a shell of itself %y .100'