92

4 ELECTROSTA CHAPTER
terminated,the moleculesreturn to their original polarized state. In some materials,such as watcq molccrrlarstnrcftrc is such that thc molcculcs built-in permanentdipole momentsthat are of an appliedelectric fieldorientedin the absence dipoles are callod of permanent terials composed materials. Owing to their random orientations, poles of polar materialsproduceno net dipole (at the macroscopic scale,each macroscopically
the material representsa small volume containing sandsof molecules). Under the influence of an

Figure 4-17: A dielectric medium polarized by an external electric field Es11.

field, the permanentdipoles tend to align to someextent along the direction of the electic in an arrangement somewhatsimilar to that materials. Fig.4-17 for nonpolar
Whereas D and E are related by e6 in free presence of these microscopic dipoles in a material alters that relationship in that material to

an electric dipole consisting of charge *q at the center of the nucleus and charge -q at the center of the electroncloud [Fig. a-16(c)]. Each such dipole sets up a small electric field, pointing from the positively chargednucleus to the center of the equally but negatively charged electron cloud. This induced electric field, called a polarizntionfield, is weaker than and opposite in direction to Esx1.Consequently,the net electric field present in the dielectric material is smaller ttran E"*,. At the microscopic level, each dipole exhibits a dipole moment similar to that described in Example 4-7. Within the dielectric material, the dipoles align themselvesin a linear arrangement,as shown in Fig. 4-17. Along the upper and lower edges of the material, the dipole arrangementexhibits a positive surface chargedensity on the upper surfaceand a negativedensity on the lower surface. The relatively simple picture described in Figs. 4-16 and 4-17 pertains to nonpolnr materials in which the molecules do not have permanent dipole moments. Nonpolar molecules become polarized only when an extemal electric field is applied, and when the field is

D:eoE*P,
where P, called the electric polarizationfield , for the polarization properties of the material. larization field is produced by the electric field E depends on the material properties.

A dielectric medium is said to be linear If tlrc nitude of the inducedpolarization field is directly
portional to the magnitude of E, and it is said isotropic if the polarization field and E are in the

direction.In somecrystals,the periodic structure material allows more polarization to take place certaindirections,suchas the crystal axes,than others.In suchanisotropic dielectrics,E and D havedifferentdirections.A mediumis said to (e, pa, parameters if its constitutive mogeneous
are constant throughout the medium. Our present ment will be limited to media that are linear, i For such media the and homogeneous.

is directly proportionalto E and is expressed relationship

P: aoXeE,

r.8 DIELECTRICS iginal water, cs field.

dled

93

Table 4-2: Relativepermittivity (dielectricconstant) and dielectric strengthof commonmaterials.

a J

,ns,the
le

Petoleum oil Polystyrene Glass Quartz Bakelite Mica

ch poic
ining an :ctric t shown ) spacg rdi rial to

2.1 2.6 4.5-10 3.8-5 5 5.44

I : er6oand es : 8.854 x 10-12 F/m.

12 20 2540 30 20 200

-E-texe is called the electric susceptibility of the ma-

:rl. Inserting Eq. (4.8a)into Eq. (4.83),we have D: eoE * e6X"E : eo(l * X")E : rE,

t,
al. The held E if the

(4.85)

--',-h defines the permittivitye of the materialas

e:eo(l+Xe).

(4.86)

irectly
said to in the cture d place than

rr-; was mentioned earlier, it is often convenient --haracterize the permittivity of a material relative trat of free space, eo; this is accommodated by relative permittivity r : t/to. Values of e, are in Table L2 for a few common materials. and

and D
dtobe
, tt,

roger list is given in Appendix B. In free space = l, andfor mostconductors sr : l. The dielectric :rant of air is approximately1.0006at sea level,
rt decreasestoward unity with increasing altitude. ::pt in some special circumstances, such as when :rlating electromagnetic wave refraction (bending) the atmosphere over long distances, air is :-',d the sameasfree space.

resent
lr. 1

lzanon

ssedby

ae dielectricpolarization model presented thus far on theupperendof thestrength :lacedno restriction

te applied electric field E. In reality, if E exceedsa

certain critical value, known as the dielectric strength of the material, it will free the electrons completely from the molecules and causethem to acceleratethrough the material in the form of a conduction current. When this happens,sparking can occur, and the dielectric material can sustainpermanentdamagedue to electron collision with the molecular structure.This abrupt change in behavior is called a dielectric breakdown. The dielectric strength 86, is the highest magnitude of E that the material can sustain without breakdown. Dielectric breakdown can occur in gas, liquid, and solid dielectrics. The associatedfield strength depends on the material composition, as well as other factors such as temperature and humidity. The dielectric strength for air is 3 (MV/m); for glass, it is 25 to 40 (MV/m); and for mica, it is 200 (MV/m) [see Table 4-2]. A chargedthundercloud with an electric potential V, relative to the ground, inducesan electric field E : V/d in the air medium between the ground and the cloud, where d is the height of the cloud base above the ground's surface. If 7 is sufficiently large so that E exceedsthe dielectric strength of air, ionization occurs and discharge (lightning) follows. The breakdown voltage V61of a parallel-plate capacitor is discussedin Example4-11.

94

CHAPTER 4 ELECTROSTAN

Figure 4-18:Interface between two dielectricmedia.

REVIEW OUESTI(}NS Q4.20 What is a polar material? A nonpolar material? Q4.21 Do D andE alwayspoint in the samedirection? If not, when do they not? Q4.22 What happenswhen dielecfic breakdown occurs?

4-g Electric Boundary Gonditions

An electric field is said to be spatially continuous if it does not exhibit abrupt changes in either its magnitude or direction as a function of spatial position. Even though the electric field may be continuous in each of two dissimilar media, it may be discontinuous at the boundary between them if surface charge exists along that boundary.Boundary conditions specify how the tangential and normal components of the field in one medium are related to the componentsof the field acrossthe boundaryin another medium. We will derive a general set of boundary conditions, applicable at the interface betweenany two dissimilar media, be they two different dielectricsor a conductor and a dielectric.

Also, any of the dielectrics may be free space. Er though these boundary conditions will be derived 1 electrostatic conditions, they will be equally rn for time-varying electric fields. Figure 4-18 shows interface between medium 1 with permittivity e1 r medium 2 with permittivity e2. In the general case,I boundary may have a surface charge density p.. To derive the boundary conditions for the tangeil componentsof E and D, we begin by constructingI closed rectangular loop abcda shown in Fig. 4-18, r then we apply the conservative property of the elocl field given by Eq. (4.40), which statesthat the linci tegral of the electrostatic field around a closed pd always equal to zero. By letting A4* 0, the col tions to the line integral by segmenisbc and da zero. Hence.

.dt: o, *. or: Ez. dt* E1 l"u f"o

where E1 and &z are the electric fields in media I respectively. In terms of the tangential and normC rectionsshown in Fig. 4-18, Er : Ert* Ern, Ez:Ezt * Ezn. ( (

y9

ELECTRIC BOUNDARY CONDHONS

95 whereff1 and ff2 are the outwardnormal unit vectorsof the bottomandtop surfaces, respectively. It is important to rcmemberttnt thenormal unit vectorat thesurfaceof anymcdiumis alwaysdefned to be in theoutwarddirec_ tionawayfromthatmediuru. Sincefir : -ff2, W.9.92) simplifies to ff2.@r-Dz) :A (Clm2). (4.93.)

ab, E7 and dl havethe samedirection, lJttr segment cd, Ey anddl are in oppositedireclul over segment Conscquently, Eq. (4.87) gives u.
Ey Al - E11A/ = 0,

(4.8e)

Er:

Ezt

ff/m).

(4.90)
With D1n and D2, defined as the normal components of D1 and D2 along ff2, we have Dn - D2n: p,

rce. erived illv shows t)'er . case, Ps. rctrng

t'rordingly, the tangential component of the electric r'r.i is continuousacross the boundary betweenany tw,o -, -;:,i.Since Dt : e1811 and Dz, : t2E2t, the boundr. condition on the tangential componentof the electric ftu densitv is

(C/m2).

(4.94)

Dt
a1

Dzt
2

(4.e1)

Thus, the normal component of D changes abruptlt,at ct charged boundary befweentwo dffirent media, and the atnount of change is equal to the surface charge density. The correspondingboundary condition for E is rEnzEznps. (4.95)

+18,
E C

re line

d pat
do go

rl
ormal (4 (4

\ext we apply Gauss's law, as expressed by \. G.29), to determine the boundary conditions on the rurmal components of E and D. According to Gauss's lrr. the total outward flux of D through the three surlx of the small cylinder shown in Fig. 4-18 must rFrel ths total charge enclosed in the cylinder. By letrng the cylinder's height L,h + 0, the contribution to tu total flux by the side surface goes to zero. Also, rm if each of the two media happensto have free or n:rmd volume charge densities,the only chargeremainn,_: in the collapsed cylinder is that distributed on the I:undary. Thus, Q : p, As, and

In summary, (1) the conservative propertyof E,

V x E-0

< = = + 0 E.dl : 0, JC

(4.96)

led to the resultthat E hasa continuous tangential componentacrossa boundary,and(2) the divergence property of D,

V . D: p v < +

JS

$ r.0": g,

g97)

f r f D . a s : I D r. f f 2 d s+ I Q Js Jtop
: PsA,s,

D 2. f f 1 ds
(4.92)

./bouo.

led to theresultthatthenormalcomponent of D changes by p, across theboundary. A summary of theconditions at the boundarybetweendifferent types of media is givenin Thble4-3.

CHAPTER 4

Table 4-3: Boundaryconditionsfor the clectric fields.

Tangential E Tirngential D Normal E Normal D

En= Ex D*/et: Dzt/ez p" ff.(erEr -tzBz)* fl.(or-Dz):p,

E*= Ex Dt/er: Dzr/ez

stEln - e2B2n- ps Dy1 - D21t: 4

0 ' Application of Boundary Conditions The x-y planeis a charge-free boundaryseparating two dielectricmedia with permittivitiese1 and 12, as shownin Fig. 4-19.lf the electricfield in medium I is Er : iEr, * I Ery * iEp, find (a) the electric field E2 in medium2 and (b) the angles and 02. il Solution:(a) Let Ez : i'Eu * 9Ezy+ 2822. Our task

is to find the components of E2 in terms of the components of E1. The normal to the boundary Hence,the x and y componentsof the fields are tial to the boundary and the z componentsare the boundary. At a charge-freeinterface, the componentsof E and the normal componentsof continuous. Consequently,
Ezt: Ek, Ezy: Eb,

and Dzr: Dk HenG, - stEb. szEzz

Ez: iEr,*|Ery +2!Eu.

r-y plane

91 and 02 are then given by

Et, ^ tan Ar ' :E u Figurt 4-19: Application of boundary conditions at the interface between two dielectric media (Example 4-10).

(b) The tangential componenrs oi ", and l - l l l - _ _ _ - - l - t - - - ] - - - - ] En: tlEi, a Ef, andE21: EL + E y.Tllr; J \f Ef, + Eiy E u ' r.-:-_^ \\fE;r + E;y
Ezz r--7---------;_

tanl.t: -

E"

Ez,

$,+ no
(e1/e)Ep

H.ECTRIC BOUNDARY CONDMONS

Ps=stEo

Conducting sla$---..+.

t : 0 r : 0

tllre

&20: When a conductingslab is placedin an externalelectric field &, chargesthat accumulate on the conductor

I the ndary are ta : non lsofD

6e two angles are related by tan02 _ t ,

tan01
1

(4.ee)

normal components of E2 and D2 to be zero. Consequently, from Eq. (4.90) and Eq. (4.94), the fields in the dielectric medium, at the boundary with the conductor. are given by En: Drt- O,

(4.100a). (4.100b)

- n - i3 + i3 (V/m),dr = 20, and8z : 8eo.

the boundaryto be chargefree. Nrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrri. Er : i2 * y3 + 212 (Ylm). (See G;

4.16 With reference to Fig. 4-19,find E1 if

Dln : g1E6: p".

Thesetwo boundary conditions can be combined into

( dFo lhe

Dr : erBr : ffp, (at conductor (4.101) surface), ffiOSE 4.17 RepeatExercise4.16 for a boundary udddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd chargedensity ps:3.54 x l0-ll (C/m2). .r"ns- Er : *2 * i3 + iI4 (Ylm). (See0;
where ff is a unit vector directed normally outward from the conducting surface.This means that the electricfield linespoint directly awayftom the conductorsurface when p, is positive and directly toward the conductor surface when p, is negative. Figure 4-20 shows an infinitely long conducting slab placed in a uniform electric field &. The medium above and below the slab has a permittivity e1. Because E6 points away from the upper surface, it induces a positive charge density ps : rllllol on the upper surface

+9.1 Dielectric-ConductorBoundary
f,:'nsider thecase whenmedium1 in Fig. 4-18is a dies-tric andmedium2 is a perfectconductor. In a perfect :L'nductor, E = D : 0 everywhere in the conductor. Fience, Ez = Dz: 0, which requires the tangential and

L'L

- lZ

CHAPTER 4 ELECTROST

Figure 4-2lz Metal sphere placedin an externalelectric fieldFa.

of the slab. On the bottom surface, E6 points toward the surface,and therefore the induced charge density is -pr. The presenceof these surface chargesinduces an electricfield E1in the conductor,resulting in a total field E : Fo * Ei. To satisfy the condition that E must be everywherezero in the conductor, Ei must equal -S. If we place a metallic sphere in an electrostatic field, as shownin Fig. 4-2I,negatwe chargeswill accumulate on the lower hemisphere and positive charges will accumulateon the upper hemisphere.The presenceof the spherecausesthe field lines to bend to satisfy the connormal dition given by Eq. (a.101); that is, E is alwav-s to the surfaceat the conductor boundary.

Since we are dealing with conducting media, the ric fields give rise to current densities Jr and Jz, Jr being proportional to El and Jz being to E2. From J - oE, we have Jn o1 Jz, o2
, t l Jrn
01

Jzn
62

The tangential components .Irt and ,I21 represent

flowing in the two media in i direction parallel b boundary,and henceno transfer of chargeis i
betweenthem. This is not the casefor the normal ponents.lf Jh +,/2n, then a different amount of arrives at the boundary than leaves it. Hence, p, remain constant with time. which violates the

4-9.2 Conductor-Gonductor Boundary

lffe now examine the general case of the boundary between two media neither of which are perfect dielectrics or perfect conductors. Depicted in Fig. 4-22, medium 1 has permittivity e1 and conductivity o1, medium 2 has s2 and 02, nn.d the interface between them has a surface chargedensity pr. For the electric fields, Eqs. (4.90) and (4.95) give E*: Ezt, srErn - sz0zn- ps. 9.102)

tion of electrostatics requiring all fields and the nonnal remainconstant. Consequently,
of J has to be continuousacrossthe boundary two dffirent mediaunderelectrostatic conditions. setting Jn: Jznin Eq.(4.103),we have

O CAPACITANCE conductor hasexcess charge, it distributes thechnrge on its surfacein sucha manneras to maintaina zeroelectric field everywhere within the conductorThis ensurs that a conductoris an equipotentialbody, meaningthat the electric potential is the sameat every point in the conductor.Capacitanceof a two-conductor capacitoris definedas C: g v
ng media-

0uEsTr0lts
What ar the boundaryconditionsfor the elec6cld at a conductor-dielectricboundary? Under electrostatic conditions, we require = Jzt at the boundary between two conductors.
r,

(CA/ or F),

(4.105)

10 Capacitance
separated by an insulating(dielectric)medium, of their shapes 1 r*'o conductingbodies,regardless
sizes, form a capacitor. If a d-c voltage source cmnected to the conductors, as shown in Fie. 4-23

ia, the nd Jz,

n*'oarbitraryconductors, charge of equalandoppopolarity is transferred to the conductors'surfaces. surfaceof the conductorconnected to the posisideof the source will accumulate charge*Q, and
-Q will accumulateon the surface of the other

(4.1
nt rallel to
IS

From our discussion in Section4-7, whena

where V is the potential(voltage)difference between the conductorwith charge+Q aurrd the conductorwith charge -Q. Capacitance is measured in farads (F), which is equivalent per volt (CA/). to coulombs The presenceof free chargeson th} conductors' surfacesgives rise to an electric field E, as shown in Fig. 4-23; the field lines originateon the positive charges andterminate on thenegative charges, andsince the tangential component of E is alwaysequalto zero at a conductor'ssurface,E is alwaysperpendicular to theconducting surfaces. The normalcomponent of E at anypoint on the surface of eitherconductor is givenby En: ff'E=
Ps t

SurfaceS

(at conductor surface), (4.106)

rormal
nt of e. Ps i the

I charges
t.(

where p, is the surface charge density at that point, ff is the outward normal unit vector at the same location. and e is the permiaivity of the dielectric medium separating the conductors. The charge Q is equal to the integral of p, over surface S [Fig. 4-23]:

-* (4.r07) r-ds: n: Irp"ds Ir'o lrel'as,

where use was made of Eq. (a.106). The voltage V is relatedto E by Eq. (4.39):

(4.rM)

Frgure 4-23: A d-c voltage sourceconnectedto a capacnx composedof two conducting bodies.

: v : vtz

I:'

E.dt,

(4.108

100
wherepoints P1 and Pz areany two points on conducSubstituting Eqs.(4.107)and tors I and2, respectively. (4.108) into Eq. (4.105)gives

CHAPTER4 ELECTROSTAM

VoltaeI andEreakdown Crpacitance Parallel-Plate Gapacilor

I C : "s ^

en.as
(F), (4.109)

at J,n'

C of a pc for the capacitance Obtainan expression lel-platecapacitorcomprisedof rwo parallelplatesa d.l A and separated by a distance of surfaceare,a capacitoris filled with a dielectric material with p mittivity e. Also, determinethe breakdownvoltap d : 1 cm and the dielectric material is quartz.

where / is the integration path from conductor 2 to conductor 1. To avoid making sign errors when applying Eq. (4.109), it is important to remember that surface ,S is the *0 surfaceand P1 is on S. BecauseE appearsin both the numeratorand denominator of Eq. (4.109), the valueof C obtainedforany specificcapacitor configuraof E. In fact, C dependsonly tion is alwaysindependent (sizes, shapes and relative geometry on the capacitor positionsof the two conductors) and the permittivity of the insulating material. If the material between the conductors is not a perfect dielectric (i.e., if it has a small conductivity o), then current can flow through the material between the conductors,and the material will exhibit a resistanceR. The generalexpressionfor R for a resistor of arbitrary shapeis given by Eq. (4.71):

Solution:In Fig. 4-24, we placethe lower plateof I in the .r-y plane and the upperplate in I capacitor : plane z of the applied voltagedit d. Because uniformly on thcl enceV, charge*O accumulates plateand-Q accumulates uniformlyon thelowerfl plates, thech{ mediumbetweerlthe In thedielectric -2-direction (l inducea uniformelectricfield in the
positive to negative charges). In addition, some ingfield lines will exist near the edges,but their may be ignored if the dimensions of the plates are larger than the separationd between them, that casethe bulk of the electric field lines will exi the medium between the plates. The charge the upperplateis p' : QlA.Hence,

g:

-iE,

of E at tlrc and from Eq. (4.106),the magnitude

ductor-dielectric boundary is E : ptle : QltAEq. (4.108), the voltage difference is

- [ n.at
R: vt,

((.2).

(4.1l0)

J,oE'ds
For a medium with uniform o and e, the product of Eqs.(4.109)and (4.110)gives

v- -

lr'

" dr:-

: Ed, ,-rr, .idz Ioo

e
d

and the capacitanceis

RC:

I
6

O- O
(4.111)
Ed-

(4.113)

This simple relation allows us to find R if C is known. or vice versa.

where use was made of the relation B : QleA. From V - Ed, as given by Eq. (4.112), V when E : Eds, the dielectric strength of the

r-10 CAPACITANCE

l0r

Yottagc
I of a plates nce d. rl with
I

1lZ.

Dielectric e

plate of plate in Itage di

Conductingplate Figure 4-2A:A d-c voltagesource connected to a parallel-plate (Example capacitor 4-l l).

r on thc
lo$'er , the ectlon

some
their Es are . bec u'ill exi e den
-Pt

Outerconductor I at the Q tA. Figure 4-25: Coaxialcapacitor filled with insulating materialof perminivitye @xample 4-12).

Ed. (4-

to TableL2, E6s= 30 (MV/m) for quartz. , the breakdownvoltageis l'- : Easd: 30 x 106x 10-2= 3 x 105V. I

? i l
I

i I

Gapacitance ol Goarial Line

'lbtain an expressionfor the capacitanceof the coaxme shown inFig.4-25.

Q ' eA ?\. rl the

Solution: For a given voltage V acrossthe capacitor (Fig.4-25), charge *Q and-Q will accumulate on the surfaces of theouterandinnerconductors, respectively. We assume that thesecharges areuniformlydistributed alongthe lengthof theconductors with line charge den: p; sity and pt ontheinQ/ I on theouterconductor ner conductor. Ignoringfringing fieldsnearthe endsof thecoaxialline, we canconstruct a cylindricalGaussian surface in the dielectric, around the inner conductor. with radiusr suchthat c < r < b. The innerconductor is a line chargesimilar to that of Example4-6, except

TECHNOLOGY BRIEF: CAPACITTVE

Capacitive Sensors
To sense is to respondto a stimulus.(See Resistiw Sercors.)A iruf::ftflrehion ag a sensorif ttle stinulus 4{d ,&WlgS geometry- usuallythe, $Bgirigl:,$G$itsfr,lt$ - orffidigt fic properiles' conductive elementrs of the insulating material **ated between them. Capacitive sensorsaie uSd'' in" a 'mullitude of applications. A fewexamples follow.''

thentheoverallcapacitance is equivalent to trvo

pacitors in parallel, or i,, : ^ f( w H t ) , .^ C z = C f * C o : _e *t T( H - H i =J!

the heightof the emptyspaceaboveit is (I/ - fl

uhere .w is the elec{rodeplate width, d is spaoing betweenelectrodes, and ey and s4ars perrnittiWles of the fluidand air, respectively. ranging the expression as a linearequation
Cz: kHf a Co, l

Fluid Gauge
The two metal electrodes in (A), usuallyrods or plates,form a capacitor whosecapacitance is directlyproportionalto the permittivity of the material between them.lf thefluidsection is of height Hy and

wherethe constaritft : (e1- e)w/d and Csis capacitance of the tank when totallyempty. the linearequation, the fluidheightcan be minedby measuring C2,whichcan be realized usinga bridgecircuit(B).The outputvoltage I{ proportionalto the deviation between C1andC2settingCr : Co(a fixedcapacitor) and by ing the tankelectrodes to the bridgecircuit to proportionalto C2,Vo." becomes the fluidheigtrt

Y BRIEF: CAPACITTVESENSORS H_H Dttro

103 varieswith the relativehumidityof the surrounding environmentHence,the capacitorbecomesa humiditysensor.

tr)

Pressure Sensor
A flexiblemetaldiaphragm separates an oil-filled p6from a second chamber pressure with reference chamber exposed to the gas or fluidwhosepressureP is to be measured (D1). by the sensor The membrane is sandwiched, but electrically istfiated, between two conductive parallel surfaces, forming two capacitorsin series (D2). When p > ps, the membrane bendsin the direction of the lowerplate (D3). Consequently, d1increases andd2decreases and, in turn, C1decreases and C2increases. The converse happens whenP < po. Withthe useof a capacitance bridgecircuit, such as the one in (B), the sensorcan be calibrated to measure the pressureP withgoodprecision.

dis

L are tly. R n vid

Co is

ditySensor
metalelectrodes shapedin an interdigipattern(to enhancethe ratio A/d) are Iabrion a siliconsubstrate (C).The spacingbedigitsis typically on the orderof 0.2pm. The of the materialseparating theelectrodes

ty be alized ge lL ndcz.
it to fiq height

104 that ttre line chargeof the inner conductoris negative. With a minus sign addedto the expression for E given by Eq.(4.33),we have
n E: ^ -fP t :
-|^ .-

CHAPTER4 ELECTROST

4-11 ElectrostaticPotential Energy

rilhen a s{xrrueis conncctcdto a caryitm, it energy in charging up the caprcitor. If thc plates are made of a good conductor with zero resistance and if thc dielectric separating thc conductors hasnegligibleconductivity,thenno real
rent can flow through the dielcctric, and no ohmic

Zner

Zrerl

(4.r14\

The potentialdifference V betweenthe outer and inner conductors is

v:- I"'r.dt:- (u#) .rur,y I"'

:*"(:)

(4.115)

occur anywherein the capacitor.Where then does charging-upenergy go? The energy ends up storedin the dielectric medium in the fqm of stnticpotential energy.The amountof storedenerg:t is relatedto Q, C, and V. Under the influenceof the electricfield in the
lectric medium between the two conductors. accumulateson one of the conductors,and an equal opposite charge accumulateson the other conductc, effect, charge q has been transfened from one of conductorsto the other. The voltage u acrossthe itor is related to q by
U : _

The capacitanceC is then given by

C_

o
v

2nel
ln(b/a)

(4.116)

(4.r

The capacitance per unit length of the coaxial line is

From the basic definition of the electric potential V,

2tre
ln(b/a)

amountof work dW" requiredto transferan incrementalamountof chargedg is

(F/m). I

(4.rr7)

dWs:udq:tOn.
If we start with an uncharged capacitor and

(4.r

up from zero chargeuntil a final charge O has reached, then the total amountof work performedir
REVIEW OUESTIONS Q4.25 How is the capacitance of a two-conductor structure related to the resistanceof the insulatins material between the conductors? Q4.26 What are fringing fields and when may they be ignored?

::f *": Ion t on

wu: |cvz

(D
(J).

(4.

Using C = Q/V, where V is the final voltage, wc also be written as

For the parallel-platecapacitordiscussed in

ple 4-11, its capacitance is given by Eq. (4.113)

IMAGE METHOD

105

i\
t t

l ,

I t
?_.

4
Charge Q above grounded plane

Efg'

F;ue 1'26zBy imagetheory a chargeQ above a grounded perfectlyconductingplaneis equivalentro e anditsimage- e r"c de groundplaneremoved.

tbe

fiargr
qud
lrctfr-

- tA/d, where A is the surface area of each of its and d is the separationbetween them. Also, the

cof c

sc V across the capacitoris relatedto the magni--nf theelectricfield, E, in thedielectric bv V - Ed. 6ese two expressions in Eq. (4.121) gives
,eA r= = ijeaY:

REVIEW OUESTIONS Q4.27 To bring a charge4 from infinity to a given point in space, a certainamount of work llz is expended. Wheredoesthe energycorresponding to $r go?

(4.1

lefi1eg

|eE2v, (4.122)
EXERCISE 4.18 Theradii of the innerandouterconductors of a coaxialcableare 2 cm and 5 cm, respectively, and the insulatingmaterialbetween themhasa relative permittivityof 4. The chargedensityon the outer conductor is pl - 10-4 (C/m). Use the expression for E derivedin Example 4-12 to calculatethe total energy storedin a 20-cmlengthof the cable. Ans. We:4.1 J. (See{S1

(ttlEe v": Ad is the volume of the capacitor. Ib cbctrostatic energy density u.r"is defined as the

ic potentialenergyly" peJunit volume: (4.1 taF rch is Ned (4.1

(4.r23)
though this expression was derived for a ,el-platecapacitor, it is equally valid for any dimediumin an electricfield E. Furthermore. for
rolume v containing a dielectric e, the total elecpotential energy stored in y is

4-12 lmage Method

Consider a point charge Q at a distance d above a perfectly conducting plane, as shown in the left-hand section of Fig. 4-26. We want to determineV,E, and D at any point in the spaceabove the groundedconductor,as well as the distribution of surfacechargeon the conducting plate. Three different methods have been introduced

(4.1 we-

n'a, ) 1,,

(J).

(4.124)

CHAPTER 4 ELECTROSTA

in this chapter for finding E. The first, based on Coulomb's law, requires knowledge of the magnitudes and locations of all the chargescontributing to E at a given point in space.In the presentcase,the charge Q will induce an unknown and nonuniform distribution of charge on the surface of the conductor. Hence, we cannot utilize Coulomb's method. The secondmethod is basedon the application of Gauss'slaw, and it is equally difficult to use becauseit is not clear how one would construct a Gaussian surface such that E is always totally tangential or totally normal at every point on that surface. ln the third method, the electric field is found from E - -Vy after solving Poisson's or Laplace's equation for V, subjectto the available boundary conditions; that is, V :0 at any point on the grounded conducting surface and at infinity. Although such an approach is feasible in principle, the solution is quite complicated mathematically. Alternatively, the problem at hand can be solved with great ease using image theory, which given chargeconfigurationabovean infstatesthat cuttt nite,perfectlyconducting plane is electricallyequivalent to the combination of the given charge configuration and its image configuration, with the conducting plane removed. The image-method equivalent of the charge e above a conducting plane is shown in the right-hand section of Fig. 4-26. It consists of the charge p itself and an image charge -Q at a distance 2d from e,

with nothing else between them. The electric field to the two isolated chargescan now be easily found any point (x,y,z) by applying Coulomb's method,

demonstrated by Example 4-13.Thecombination of two charges will alwaysproducea potentialV = 0 everypoint in the planewherethe conducting
had been. If the charge is in the presenceof more one grounded plane, it is necessaryto establish i of the charge relative to each of the planes and

to establish images of eachof thoseimagesagains remainingplanes.The processis continueduntil condition V : O is satisfiedat all points on all grounded planes.The image methodappliesnot
to point charges,but also to any distributions of such as the line and volume distributions depictod Fig. 4-77.

Erample 4-13 lmage Method forGharge above Conducling Plane Use imagetheory to determine7 and E at o bitrary point P(.r, ), z) in the region z > 0 duc
chargeQ in free spaceat a distance d abovea conductingplane. Solution: In Fig. 4-28, chargeQ is at (0,0, d) image -O is at (0,0, -d) in Cartesiancoordi

HIGHLIGHTS

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

'

: field ;'found netho4 tion of

!t:O

Eq. (4.19), the electric field at point P(x, y, z) n 6e trvo chargesis given by
I 4Tes ; (

OR r

-OR z\

oI*-{)
ir +iy +t(z- d)

ng more
ish i
i and

4neo L[x2+ y2 + (z - dyzltlz

AL

o f

ir +yy+i(z+d)
[x21yz*(z*d)2]3/2

igainst I until on all s not of bpicted

nrface charge density p, on the surface of the con_ plane.

4.19 Use the resultof Example4-13 to find

ry=44/[2n(x2

+ y2+ d21ttzt. (Seer$

iatan

OUESTIONS What is the fundamental premise of the image $ Given a certainchargedistribution,what are

0 due
I

d) ard

,inous approaches described in this chapter for :uring the electric field E at a given point in space?

o Maxwell's equationsare the fundamental tenetsof electrornagnetic theory. o Under static conditions,Maxwell's equations sp arateinto two uncoupledpairs, with one pair per_ taining to electrostatics and the other to magneto_ statics. o Coulomb'slaw providesan explicit expression for the electric field due to a specifiedchargedistribu_ tion. o Gauss's law states that the total electricfield flux througha closedsurfaceis equalto the net charge enclosed by the surface. o The electrostatic field E at a point is relatedto the electric potential y at rhat point by E - _Vy, with V beingreferenced to zeropotentialat infin_ ity. o Because most metalshave conductivities on the order of 106(S/m), they are treatedin practiceas perfectconductors. By the sametoken,insulators with conductivities smallerthan l0-r0 (S/m) are treatedas perfectdielectrics. o Boundaryconditionsat the interface between two materialsspecify the relationsbetweenthe normal and tangential components of D, E, and J in one of the materialsto the conesponding componen$ in the other. r The capacitance of a two-conductorbody and re_ sistance of the mediumbetween themcanbe computedfrom knowledge of the electricfield in that medium. o The electrostatic energydensitystored in a dielec_ tric mediumis Lc," : )eZz 1ltm3S. o When a chargeconfiguration existsabovean in_ finite, perfectly conducting.plane, the induced field E is the sameas that due to the configura_ tion itself and its imagewith the conducting plane removed.

108

TECHNOI-OCIY BRIEF: NONCONTACTS

Noncontact Sensors
Precisionpositioningb q"4ritilgt,qtg .qf:#mF conductordevicetabrbation, as wll as tlp gperaNonsyste'ms. tion and controlofmanymechanical contactcapacitive sensorsare U$edtO $erF the position of silicon wafers thedeposifu, etchduring processes, ing,and cutting withoutcomingin direct the wabrs.Theyarealsousedtosense contactwith manufacturing andcontrol robotarmsin equipment photocopier rollers, andto position harddiscdrives, printing presses, systems. and othersimilar

Principle Basic
(A1)consists platecapacitor of two The concentric plane, plates, but electrimetal sharingthe same mafromeachotherby an insulating callyisolated Whenconnected to a voltage source, charges terial. polarity will formon the two plates, reof opposite in thecreation linesbetween sulting of electric-field them.The sameprinciple appliesto the adjacentplatescapacitor in (A2).In bothcases,the capacitanceis determined by the shapes and sizesof the permittivity of the conductive elementsand by the medium fieldlines dielectric containing the electric between them.Otten,the capacitorsurfaceis covmaterial, ered by a thin film of nonconductive the purposeof whichis to keepthe platesurfaces clean of an elternalobject and dustfree.The introduction into the proximity of the capacitor(A3) will perturb fieldlines, modifying thecharge distributheelectric plates, tionon the as wellas modifying the valueof the capacitance as wouldbe measured by a capacitancemeteror bridgecircuit. Hence, the capacitor sensor, a proximity and its sensitivity debecomes permittivity pends,in part,on how different the of medium the objectis fromthat of the unperturbed it is or is not madeof a conductive and on whether material.

Fingerprint lmager.
An interesting extension of noncontact the development of a fingerprintimager ing of a two-dimensional arrayof capacitive cells.constructed to recordan electrical (81 and B2).Each tationof a fingerprint is composed of an adjacent-plates capacitor nectedto a capacitance measurement circuil

Y BRIEF: NONCONIACT SENSORS

entiresurfaceof the imager is coveredby a ayerof nonconductive oxide. Whenthefingeris ontheoxide perturbs surface, it thefieldlines individual sensor cellsto varying degrees, deon the distancebetweenthe ridges and of thefinge/ssurface fromthe sensor cells. that the dimensions of an individual sensor
fi the order of 65 pm on the side, the imageris

of recording a fingerprint imagat a resocorresponding to 400 dots per inchor better.

9r cofl

tiveser reprer 9ensor acitor ircuit

* Courtesy of Dr. M. Tartagni, University of Bologna, ltaly

CHAPTER 4

PROBLEMS
tl-Z:Charge Seclions andCurrent Dislribulions 4.1* A cube 2 m on a side is located in the first octant in a Cartesian coordinate system, with one of its corners at the origin. Find the total charge contained in the cube if the chargedensity is given by p, : xy2e-22 (mC/m3). 4.2 Find the total charge contained in a cylindrical volume defined by r < 2 m and 0 < z < 3 m if pv: l0rz (mC/m3). 4.3* Find the total charge contained in a cone defined by R < 2 m and 0 < e < r/4, given that pu :20R2 cosz o (mC/m3). 4.4 If the line charge density is given by pr : I2y2 (mC/m), find the total charge distributed on the y-axis fromy:-5to1l:5. 4.5* Find the total charge on a circular disk defined b y r < a a n dz : 0 i f : (a) p, - psosind (Clm2) (b) p. - pr6 sin2Q (Ctmz) O (c) p, : pso-r (C/m2) (d) p, : pso-'sin2 4 1C/m2; where ps6 is a constant. 4.6 If J : jLxz (Nm2;, find the current / flowing through a squarewith cornersat (0, 0,0), (2, 0, 0), (2,0,2), and (0, 0, 2). 4.7* ffJ: R:5m. frZS1n (A/m2), find 1 through the surface

where p6 is a positive constantand the bam's coincidentwith the e-axis. (a) Delermhe th totd chargeconAincd in of the beam. (b) If theelectrons aremoving in the *zdirectio uniform speedu, determinethe magnitude rection of the eurrentcrossingthe z-plane.

Section 4-3: Coulomb's Law 4.9* A square with sidesof 2 m hasa charge of
at each of its four corners. Determine the electrb at a point 5 m above the center of the square.

s 4.10

Threepoint charges, each with 4 - 3

located at the corners of a triangle in the .r-y

with one cornerat the origin, anotherat (2 cm,

and the third at (0,2 cm,0). Find the force the charge located at the origin.

pC is located 4.11* Charge at (1 cm, I il:4 and chargeq2 is locatedat (0,0,4 cm). What
q2 be so that E at (O,2 cm, 0) has no

4.12 A line of charge with uniform fi :4 (pClm) exists in air along the z-axis z :0 andz :5 cm. Find E at (0,10cm,0).
4.13* Electric charge is distributed along an cated in the -r-y plane and defined by r :2 O < 0 S n 14. lf p1 - 5 (pClm), find E at (0, 0, then evaluate it at:

4.8 An electron beam shaped like a circular cylinder of radius r0 carries a charge density given by

":(#)
*Answer(s) available in Appendix D. (D Solution available in CD-ROM.

(c/m3)

(a) The origin. (b) z :5 cm ( c )z : - 5 c m

PROBLEMS with uniform densityO extends 4'l{ A line of charge z : -L/2 and z : L/2 along the z-axis. bcrween Apply Coulomb's law to obtain an expressionfor the ic field at any point P(r, @,0) on the x-y plane. that your result reducesto the expressiongiven (4.33)as the length Z is extended to infinity. 15' RepeatExample 4-5 for the circular disk of of radiusa, but in the presentcase,assume the
:ace charge density to vary with r as ps: psor2 (Clm2\

l1l

length ction
le and rc.

pr6 is a constant. 'r Multiple charges at different locations are said to - equilibrium if the force acting on any one of them is rical in magnitudeand direction to the force acting on rf the others.Supposewe have two negativecharges, .rrcated at the origin and carrying charge-9e, and the locatedon the positive x-axis at a distanced from

3nC
:-\'

Figure 4-29: Kite-shaped arrangment of line charges for Problem 4.17.

cm.0,
actint

:-rrt one and carryingcharge*36e, Determine the

con. polarity and magnitude of a third chargewhose :ment would bring the entire systeminto equilibrium.

;-' r. I bat

Threeinfinite lines of charge,all parallel to the . arelocatedat the threecornersof the kite-shaped gement shownin Fig. 4-29.lt the two right trianue symmetrical and of equalcorresponding sides, hdrat the electricfield is zeroat the origin.
Three infinite lines of charge, p4 = 5 (nC/m),

your result to the special case where d is infinite and compare it with E4. @.25). Seclion 4-4:Gauss's Law 4,20 Given the electric flux density D : *2(x * y) + y(3x - 2y) determine (a) pu by applying Eq. @.26). (b) The total charge Q enclosed in a cube 2 m on a side, located in the first octant with three of its sides coincident with the x-, 1,-, and z-axes and one of its corners at the origin. (c) The total charge Q inthe cube, obtained by applying Eq. (4.29). (C/m2)

= -5 (nC/m),and p4 = 5 (nC/m), are all parallel :-axis. Ifthey passthroughthe respective points -:,. (0,0), and (0, D) in the .r-y plane,find the
: field at (a,0,0). Evaluate your result for a : ::db:1cm. .{ horizontal strip lying in the .r-y plane is of ; in the y-direction and infinitely long in the :ron. If the strip is in air and has a uniform charge

ps,useCoulomb'slaw to obtainan explicit for the electricfield at a point P locatedat

h above the centerline of the strip. Extend

CHAPTER4
4.21* Repeat Problem 4.20 for D : f;xy2zi (Clm2).

4.22 Charge Q1 is uniformly disributed over a rhin spherical shell of radius a, and charge Q2 is uniformly disnibuted over a second spherical shell of radius D, with D > c. Apply Gauss'slaw to find E in the regions R<a, a<R <D,and R>b. 4.23* The electric flux density inside a dielectric sphereof radius a centeredat the origin is given by D: fi.psR (Clm2)

4.28 The circular disk of radiusc shownin Fig hasuniform chargedensity ps acrossits surface. (a) Obtain an exprcssionfor the electric at a point P(0,0,2) on the z-axis. (b) Use your result to find E and then evaluatci z = h. Compareyour final expression wittr ( whichwasobtained on thebasisof Coulomb'r 4.29* A circularring of chargeof radiusa lies ir
.r-y plane and is centeredat the origin. Assume the ring is in air and carries a uniform density p1. (a) Show that the electrical potential at (0, 0, z) is by V - p1a/[2es(a2+ z2)t/2]. (b) Find the correspondingelectric field E. 4.30 Show that the electric potential difference V12 tween two points in air at radial distances11&nd12 an infinite line of chargewith density p1along the z is Vrz - @t/2nedln(r2/r).

where po is a constant. Find the total charse inside the sphere. 4.24 In a certain region of space,the charge density is given in cylindrical coordinatesby the function: P, :20re-' Apply Gauss'slaw to find D. 4.25* An infinitely long cylindrical shell extending between r : I m and r : 3 m contains a uniform charge density puo. Apply Gauss's law to find D in all regions. 4.26 If the charge density increaseslinearly with distance from the origin such that pv : 0 at the origin and pu: l0 C/m3 at R : 2 m, find the corresponding variation of D. Seclion 4-5:Electric Potential 4.27 A square in the -r-y plane in free space has a point chargeof *Q at corner (a/2,a/2), the same at corner (a/2, -a/2), and a point chargeof -Q at each of the other two corners. (a) Find the electric potential at any point P along the -r-axis. ( b ) E v a l u a t e Va t x : a / 2 . (C/m3)

s 4.31*

Find the electric potential V at a location a tance b from the origin in the x-y plane due to a charge with charge density p1 and of length ,. Thc charge is coincident with the z-axis and extends z: -l/2to z: l/2.

4.32 For the electric dipole shown in Fig. d : I cmandlEl : 2 (mV/m)at R - I mandg FindEatR:2mand 0:90.
4.33 For each of the distributions of the electrk

tential V shownin Fig. 4-30, sketchthe distribution ofE (in all cases, the verticalaxisis in andthehorizontal axisis in meters). 4.34 Giventheelectricfield

u:R# tv/m)
find the electric potentialof point A with point B whereA is at *2 m andB at -4 m, both z-axis.

ttOBLEMS

113
4.36 The r-y plane contains a uniform sheetof charge with pr, : 0.2 (nC/m2). A secondsheetwith ps2 : -9., (nClm) occupies the plane e : 6 m. Fnd VAu: Vac, illd Vrc for A(0,0,6 m), B(0,0,0), and C(0, -Z m,2 m). tl-7:Conductorc Section 4.37* A cylindrical bar of silicon has a radius of 2 mm andalengthof 5 cm.If avoltageof 5 V is appliedbetween the endsof the bar Md p": 0.13 1m2lV.s), &n : 0.05 (m2lV.s), N" : 1.5 x 1016 electrons/m3, and Nn : N", find the following: (a) The conductivity of silicon. (b) The current.l flowing in the bar. (c) The drift velocities u. and u6. (d) The resistanceof the bar. (e) The power dissipatedin the bar. 4.38 Repeat Problem 4.37 for a bar of germanium with i"r, : 0.4 (m2lV.s), trr1 : 0.2 (m2N.s), and N" : Nn :2.4 x 101e electronsor holes/m3. 4.39 A 100-m-longconductorofuniformcross-section hasa voltagedrop of 2 V betweenits ends.If the density of the current flowing through it is 7 x ld (A/m2), identify the material of the conductor. 4.40 A coaxial resistor of length / consistsof two concentric cylinders. The inner cylinder has radius a and is made of a material with conductivity o1, and the outercylinder,extendingbetween r : aandr = S, is made of a material with conductivity o2. lf the two ends of the resistor are capped with conducting plates, show that the resistance between the two ends is R : I l[n(opz * o2(b2- a\)]. 4.41" Apply the result of Problem 4.40 to find the resistanceof a l0-cm-long hollow cylinder (Fig.4-31) made ofcarbon with o : 3 x 104(S/m). 4.42 A2 x 10-3-mm-thicksquaresheetof aluminum has l0 cm x 10 cm faces.Find the followine:

tsilid lrte rt

fr(
mb's

:e Vp

drz the:

ion a rtOa . The :nds

Fsure 4-30: Electricpotentialdistributions of Problem

]!t --

An infinitely long line of charge with uniform ': pt :6 (nCVm) lies in the ;-y plane parallel to

r-eris at x : 2 m. Find the potentialVan at point n- 0.4 m) in Cartesian coordinates with respect to 8,0, 0, 0) by applying theresultof Problem 4.30.

CHAPTER4

Figure 4-31: Cross-section ofhollow cylinder ofproblem 4.41.

(a) The resistance betweenopposite edgeson a square face. (b) The resistance between fhe two square faces. (See Appendix B for the electrical constantsof materi_ als.) Seclion 4-9:Boundary Conditions 4.43* With reference to Fig. 4-lg, find E1 if Ez : i3 - j,z+i{(V/m), r : 2eo, 2 : 18e0, and the boundary has a surface charge density ps = 7.08 x l0-rr (C/mz). What angle does E2 makl with the z-axis? 4.44 An infinitely long dielectric cylinder with e : { 1, anddescribed by r = l0 cm is surroundedby a material with e2,- 8. If Er - ?r2 sinQ + 6Zr2cos @f i3 (V/m) in the cylinder region, find E2 and D2 in the surround_ ing region.Assumethat no free chargesexist along the cylinder'sboundary. 4.45* A 2-cmdielectricspherewith e11 : 3 is embed_ dedinamediumwithe2, : 9.IfEz : fr3cosg-63sing (V/m) in the surroundingregion, find E1 and D1 in the sphere. 4.46 If E : ftSOrylm) ar the surface of a 5-cm conducting spherecenteredat the origin, what is the total chargep on the sphere'ssurface?

Figure 4-32: Dielectricslabsin problem4.47.

4.47* Figure4-32shows three planar dielectric equalthickness but with differentdielectric

E6 in airmakes an angleof 45. with respectto the find the angle of E in eachof the other lavers.

Seclions 4-10 and 4-11: Gapacitance and Electrical

4.48 Determine the force of attraction in a capacitor with A : l0 cm2, d : I cm, and e. - 4

voltage across it is 50 V.

4.49* Dielectric breakdownoccursin a material ever the magnitude of the field E exceedsthe di strengthanywherein that material. In the coaxial

itor of Example4-I2, (a) At whatvalueof r is lEl maximum? (b) What is rhe breakdownvoltage if c b :2 cm, and the dielectricmaterialis er:6?
4.50 AnelectronwithchargeQ" : -l.6xl1-re masstne : 9.1 x 10-31kg is injectedat a point to the negatively chargedplate in the region plates of an air-filled parallel-plate capacitor with ration of I cm and rectangularplateseach l0 cm2 i

PROBLEMS

115 where
etAt ^ . r=T

(4.126)

r) 3eo

^ z : zAz v T
Vo=l0V Figure4-33:Electron between charged plates of problem 1.50.

(4.r27)

ffi
ir)

:. 4-33).If the voltage across the capacitor is l0 V : thefollowing:

.r The force acting on the electron. n The accelerationofthe electron. ,: The time it takesthe electron to reach the positively chargedplate, assumingthat it startsfrom rest.

To this end,proceedasfollows: (a) Find theelectricfi eldsE1andE2in thetwo dielectric layers. (b) Calculate theenergystored in eachsection anduse the resultto calculate Cr andCz. (c) Usethetotalenergy stored in thecapacitorto obtain an expression for C. Showthat (4.125)is indeeda valid result.

: -' In a dielectricmediumwith e, : 4, the electric : r givenby

:rial
P

T I
d

E = i(r2 *22) *gr, - 2(y+ z)

(v/m)

xial

the electrostatic energy stored in the region n 5r < I fii, 0 < y <2m,and0 S z < 3m.

Figure4-34(a)depictsa capacitorconsisting of :'":allel,conducting plates separated by a distance d. ;:ce between the platescontains two adjacent di_
- i. one with permittivity e 1and surfaceareaA and I : u'ith e2 andA2.The objectiveof this problem is to :rt thecapacitance C of the configuration shownin - -'-tl a) is equivalentto two capacitances in parallel, rstratedin Fig.4-34(b), with

(b) Figure4-34:(a)Capacitor with paralleldielectric section, and(b) equivalent circuit.

C:Cr*Cz

(4.rzs)

CHAPTER4 O (a) Conductingplatesile on top and bottom thercctangular in Fig. 4-35(a). structure (b) Conducting platesane oil front ad backfaccs strrrcture in Fig. 4-35(a). (c) Conductingplatesare on top and bottom in Fig. 4-35(b). thecylindricalstructure 4.54 The capacitor shownin Fig.4-36 consists of
parallel dielectric layers. Use energy show that the equivalent capacitance of the overall rt=2mm 12=4mm
(b) 13= 8mm

;.$4--3

cm-.--.+l

pacitor,C, is equalto the series of combination pacitances of theindividuallayers,C1 andC2,

r where A Ct : t -T , A Cz: z;
42

CrCz Cr*Cz

2cm

I l
e t = 8 e Os ; 2=4e,ie3=2eO

Clt

(a) Let Vr and Vz be the electric potentials upper and lower dielectrics, respectively.

Figure 4-35: Dielectric sections for Problems 4.53 and

4.5s.

4.53* Use the result of Problem 4.52 to determine the capacitance for each of the following configurations:

'R.OBLEMS thecorresponding electricfieldsE1 andE2?By ap_ plying the appropriate boundaryconditionat the in_ terfacebetweenthe two dielectrics,obtain explicit expressions for E1 andE2 in termsof e1,e2,V, and the indicateddimensions of the capacitor. tr r Calculatethe energystoredin eachof the dielectric layers andthenusethe sumto obtainanexpression for C. l ShowthatC is givenby Eq. (4.128).
Aj-i Use the expressions given in problem 4.54 to =rmine the capacitance for the configurations in ight and left faces of the structure.

Il7

r faces res of r faccr

sts of

Iz

Ir,

ratios
nerall of the

Figure4-38:Currents above aconductingplane (problem 4.57\.

(S C.SZ Conducting wiresabove a conducting planecarry currents11and 12in the directionsshownin Fig. 4_3g. on4-12: lmage Keeping Method in mind thatthedirectionof a current is defined in termsof the movement of positive charges, what are -i,r With referenceto Fig. 4-37, charge e is located the directions of the imagecurrents conesponding to 11 r listance d above a grounded half-plane located in and12?
:-\' plane and at a distanced from anothergrounded -,;lanein the x-z plane. Use the image method to n Ertablish the magnitudes,polarities, and locations rithe imagesof charge e with respectto eachof the s'o ground planes (as if each is infinite in extent). L' Frnd the electric potential and electric field at an rrbitrary point P(0, y, z).

s .1-35(a) when the conducting platesare placedon

I
j

4.58 Usetheimagemethodto find thecapacitance per unit lengthof an infinitely long conducting cylindeiof radius a situated at adistance d fromaparallel conducting plane, asshown in Fig.4-39. 4.594.64 Additional Solvedhoblems solutions on (0. complete

Figure 4-39: Conductingcylinder abovea conductins plane(Problem 4.58).