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For an isotropic linearly elastic material, = / E in the x, y, and z directions. The resulting equations are:
x = x y z
E
y z x = E E E 1 x = x y z etc. E
1 x = x y z E 1 y = y x z E 1 z = z x y E
) ) )
2
1 x = x y E 1 y = y x E z = x + y E
)
xy
G
x = y =
E 1 2 E 1 2
( x + y ) ( y + x )
HLT, page 108
z = 0
xy = G xy
These equations contain three material constants: E, G, and . We can show that these constants are related by the equation:
E G= 2 (1 + )
Consider a plane stress element in pure shear and relate the shear strains and stresses to the strains and stresses along the = 45 direction.
= G
h c c h Element before shear is applied. d d Element after shear applied. bd lengthens, ac shortens Angle changes related to
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Lbd = 2 h
Lbd = 2 h
bd =
Lbd Lbd
=? Lbd
Lbd = bd Lbd
a Lbd
h d
Using geometry, the normal strain bd can be related to the shear strain .
1 + 2 bd + ( bd )2 = 1 + sin
bd = / 2
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Now use Mohrs circle and Hookes law to relate strains to stresses. Find the stress along the = 45 direction : B
2 A
B 1
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1 = + 2 = - 21 = 90 1 = 45
1 = 1 = 1 = 1
E
1 = + 2 = - = 45
E E
E ( )
E
(1 + ) = bd
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bd = / 2
bd =
(1 + )
G (1 + ) = (1 + ) = 2 E E E G= 2(1 + )
Data from HLT, page 41 Mild Steel: E = 210 GPa, = 0.27-0.30, G = 81 GPa Aluminium 2024: E = 72 GPa, = 0.33, G = 28 GPa Using the equation just derived: Mild Steel: G = 210 / [2(1+0.27)] = 83 GPa G = 210 / [2(1+0.30)] = 81 GPa Aluminium 2024: G = 72 / [2(1+0.33)] = 27 GPa
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Vo = abc
by
cz b
V1 = Vo (1 + x + y + z + x y + y z + x z + x y z )
This equation is valid for both large and small strains. If strains are assumed to be small, the product terms all tend to 0.
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V1 = Vo (1 + x + y + z )
The change in volume V is then:
V = V1 Vo V = Vo (1 + x + y + z ) Vo V = Vo ( x + y + z )
The unit volume change (dilatation,volumetric strain) is defined as:
V Vo ( x + y + z ) e= = Vo Vo e = x + y + z
Consider next two situations: spherical stress and uniaxial stress.
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x = x =
o
E
1 1 x y z = ( o o o ) E E
(Hookes Law)
(1 2 ) = y = z = o
(unit volume change)
e = x + y + z 3 o (1 2 ) e = 3 o = E
Data from HLT, page 41 Mild Steel: E = 210 GPa, = 0.27-0.30, K = 160-170 GPa Aluminium 2024: E = 72 GPa, = 0.33, K = 75 GPa Using the equation for K just derived: Mild Steel: K = 210 / { 3 [1-2(0.27)] } = 152 GPa K = 210 / { 3 [1-2(0.30)] } = 175 GPa Aluminium: K = 72 / { 3 [1-2(0.33)] } = 71 GPa
E K= 3 (1 2 )
If = 0, K = E / 3. If = 1/3, K = E.
If = 1/2, K . This corresponds to a rigid material having no change in volume (that is, the material is incompressible).
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e = x + y + z
x =
e = x (1 2 ) E
Note here that the maximum possible value of Poissons ratio for common materials is 0.5, because a larger value means that the volume would decrease when the material is in tension, which is contrary to ordinary physical behaviour.
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(b)
V = 0.4% = 0.004 e= Vo
4 4 3 V = r = (75 10 3 ) 3 = 1.77 10 3 m 3 3 3
The strain energy density U is then simply
Pressure Vessels
Closed structures containing liquids or gases under pressure. Examples are tanks, pipes, pressurized cabins in aircraft, etc. Pressure vessels are considered to be thin-walled when the ratio of radius r to wall thickness t is greater than 10. Assume that the internal pressure pin exceeds the pressure pout acting on the outside of the vessel (usually atmospheric pressure). If pout > pin, the vessel could collapse inward due to buckling. We are interested in the stresses and strains that develop in the walls of pressure vessels. We will derive equations based on the net or gauge pressure p, where p = pin pout.
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t r p
F = (2 rm t ) p( r 2 ) = 0 pr 2 = 2 rm t
For thin-walled vessels, r rm and the equation becomes
pr = 2t
* Note that using r instead of rm actually gives a result closer to the theoretically exact result.
Since the same equation for tensile stresses would result from any slice through the centre of the sphere, we conclude that the wall of a spherical pressure vessel is subjected to uniform tensile stress in all directions.
x = y = = pr / 2t z = 0 xy = 0
The principal stresses are 1 = 2 = pr / 2t, 3 = 0. The maximum (out-of-plane) shear stress is max = (1 3) / 2 = pr / 4t
Draw the three Mohrs circles to convince yourself of this.
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p b
Longitudinal Stress
n
Fluid force in horizontal direction P = p (r 2) Tensile force in horizontal direction T = L (2r t)
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For equilibrium, forces in the horizontal direction must balance. The longitudinal stress is then: L = Circumferential (or Hoop) Stress
pr 2t
m
tensile stress in the walls h fluid pressure p
p
r
b n q
m
y x
p b
The normal stresses x and y are principal stresses since no shear stresses are acting. Circumferential (Hoop) Direction
pr y = 1 = h = t
Longitudinal Direction
pr x =2 =L = 2t
An obvious discontinuity exists at the ends of the cylinder, where the ends (usually plates or hemispheres) are attached, because the geometry of the structure changes abruptly.
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x = 2 = pr / 2t y = 1 = pr / t z = 3 = 0 xy = 0
max(1,2) =
1 2
2
( pr / t ) ( pr / 2t ) pr = = 2 4t
( pr / t ) 0 pr max(1,3) = = = 2 2 2t 2 3 ( pr / 2t ) 0 pr max(2,3) = = = 2 2 4t
1 3
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Example
A spherical pressure vessel having 450 mm inside diameter and 6 mm wall thickness is to be constructed by welding together two aluminium hemispheres. From tests, it is found that the ultimate and yield stresses in tension at the weld are 165 MPa and 110 MPa, respectively. The tank must have a factor of safety of 2.1 with respect to the ultimate stress and 1.5 with respect to the yield stress. What is the maximum permissible pressure in the tank? (Gere and Timoshenko, 3rd ed, p 413)
r = d/2 = 0.450/2 = 0.225 m t = 0.006 m r / t = 37.5 (>10, so thin-walled assumption okay) The allowable stress based on the ultimate stress is: allow = ult / n = 165/2.1 = 78.6 MPa The allowable stress based on the yield stress is: allow = y / n = 110/1.5 = 73.3 MPa The latter is lower, so it is the most critical and governs the design.
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Tension at the weld for the spherical vessel is = pr / 2t p = 2 t allow / r = 2 (0.006)(73.3 x 106) / 0.225 p = 3.91 x 106 Pa = 3.91 MPa So, the maximum allowable pressure is 3.9 MPa. (Note that for safety reasons we have rounded down here, not up.)
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Example
A cylindrical pressure vessel is constructed with a helical weld that makes an angle of 55 with the longitudinal axis. The tank has inside radius 1.8 m and wall thickness 8 mm. The maximum internal pressure is 600 kPa. Find the circumferential and longitundal stresses, the absolute maximum shear stress, and the normal and shear stresses acting perpendicular and parallel to the weld. (Gere and Timoshenko, 3rd ed, p 414)
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Circumferential and longitudinal stresses x = L = pr / 2t = (600 x 103)(1.8)/2(0.008) = 67.5 MPa y = h = pr / t = 135 MPa
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Absolute maximum shear stress 1 = h, 2 = L, 3 = 0 (at the outer surface) max = (1 - 3 )/2 = 67.5 MPa Need stresses perpendicular and parallel to the weld. Consider the stress element below and use either the transformation equations or Mohrs circle with = 35 (why not 55?) to find x1 = 89.7 MPa, y1 = 112.8 MPa, x1y1 = 31.7 MPa. 135 67.5
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