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9th Indo-German Winter Academy Dec 11-17, Pune
K Karunakar Reddy Tutor: Prof. Sanjay Mittal, IIT Kanpur Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
Contents
Governing Equations 1. Continuity Equation 2. Navier-Stokes Equations Analytical Solutions for Steady flows 1. Flow between fixed parallel plates 2. Couette Flow 3. Flow through circular tubes 4. Flow through annulus 5. Flow over a flat plate Numerical Solutions 1. Finite Difference Method 2. Finite Element Method 3. Finite Volume Method
Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems
Terminology Used in Lecture

v u v w P vr v vz Density Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity Velocity in x-direction Velocity in y-direction Velocity in z-direction Pressure Radial velocity Tangential velocity Axial velocity
U
g
Stream Velocity
Acceleration due to gravity
Re
Boundary layer thickness

Stream function Reynolds number
Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems 3
Governing Equations Cartesian Coordinates:

Equation of Continuity:
Cases: 1. Steady Compressible Flow
2. Steady Incompressible Flow
Cylindrical Polar Coordinates:
Governing Equations
Momentum Equations in Cartesian Coordinates: X-Momentum Equation
Y-Momentum Equation
Z-Momentum Equation
These equations are called the Navier-Stokes Equations. C.L.M.H. Navier (1758-1836) and Sir George G. Stokes (1819-1903) Second order non-linear partial differential equations. These 3 equations of motion combined with the continuity equation provide a complete mathematical description of the flow of incompressible Newtonian fluids.
Governing Equations
Momentum Equations in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates: r-component
-component
z-component
Steady Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates

Consider flow between two horizontal infinite parallel plates. No velocity in y or z direction i.e., v=w=0 Continuity equation yields There would be no variation of u in the z-direction for infinite plates implies u=u(y) Navier-Stokes equations reduce to x-direction : y-direction : P = -gy + f(x)
Fig. Coordinate system and notation used in analysis
z-direction :
Steady Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates
The pressure gradient, function of y
is treated as constant during integration since it is not a
Boundary Condition : u=0 for y = h (No slip condition at the walls of the plates)
Solving the velocity profile with the boundary conditions gives

C1 = 0 and C2 = Thus the velocity distribution becomes
The above equation shows that the velocity profile between two fixed parallel plates is parabolic.
Fig. Parabolic velocity distribution
Couette Flow
Couette flow is another simple parallel plate flow in which one plate is fixed and the other plate moves with constant velocity (U). Navier-Stokes equations reduce to the same form as in the preceding section and the solution for pressure and velocity distribution are also the same but only the boundary conditions differ. Boundary Conditions: 1. u = 0 at y = 0 2. u = U at y = b Applying the boundary conditions, the velocity profile is obtained as
Fig. Coordinate system and notation used in analysis of Couette flow
In dimensionless form,
Couette Flow
The simplest case of Couette flow is one for which pressure gradient is zero i.e., the fluid motion is caused by the fluid being dragged along by the moving boundary. In this case, the velocity profile simply reduces to
Fig. Velocity distribution as a function of parameter P, where P=
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Flow Through Circular Tubes

Consider steady, incompressible, fully developed laminar and viscous flow through a straight circular tube of constant cross-section. This type of flow is called Hagen-Poiseuille flow, or simply Poiseuille flow named in honor of J.L. Poiseuille (1799-1869), a French Physician and G.H.L. Hagen (1797-1884), a German Hydraulic Engineer. Assumptions : Flow is parallel to the walls so that Thus the continuity equation yields Also for an axi-symmetric flow, the axial velocity is not a function of and hence it is only a function of radial position in the tube i.e.,
Fig. Coordinate system and notation used in analysis
Fig. Flow through differential annular ring 12

Under the flow considerations and mentioned assumptions, Navier-Stokes equations reduce to r- direction :
p = -g(r sin) + f(z)

- direction :
z- direction :
The z-component of the pressure gradient, is not a function of r or and hence it is treated as constant during integration.
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Boundary Conditions : 1. At r=0, Vz has to be finite and it follows that C1 = 0 2. At r=R, Vz =0 (No slip condition) Applying the boundary conditions gives C2 = The velocity profile at any section is parabolic and is given by
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Flow Through Annulus

Consider steady, axial, laminar and viscous flow in an annular space between two fixed concentric cylinders. The velocity distribution in the previous section still applies but only the boundary conditions change.
Boundary Conditions : 1. Vz =0 at r=ri 2. Vz =0 at r=r0 With these boundary conditions, the two constants can be determined and the velocity profile becomes
Fig. Velocity distribution in annular flow Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems 15
Flow Over a Flat Plate

Boundary Layer Theory : Consider steady 2-dimensional incompressible viscous flow over a flat plate. The complete set of continuity and Navier-Stokes equations reduce to Continuity equation : x-momentum equation : y-momentum equation : - g
Fig. Distortion of fluid particle
Fig. Development of boundary layer 16

Prandtl / Blasius Boundary Layer Solution : Boundary Layer Approximations : Shear layer must be very thin i.e., << x for large Reynolds number flows. Since the boundary layer is thin, the component of velocity normal to the plate is much smaller than that parallel to the plate and that the rate of change of any parameter across the boundary layer should be much greater than that along the flow direction.
Applying these approximations to the y-momentum equation results in a powerful simplification. or p = -gy + p0 The continuity and x-momentum equations reduce to
In case of free flow, p/ x =0


Boundary Conditions : 1. At y=0 (wall), u=0 (No Slip) 2. Outside of the boundary layer, the flow is uniform upstream flow i.e., as y
, u
Blasius Similarity Solution:

Generally, a similarity solution is one in which number of variables can be reduced by one or more by some analytical means usually by coordinate transformation. By applying a coordinate transformation and change of variables, Blasius reduced the partial differential equations to ordinary differential equation which he was able to solve. Order of Magnitude Analysis:
In dimensionless form, the boundary layer velocity profiles on a flat plate should be similar regardless of the location along the plate.
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Introducing a dimensionless similarity variable = y/ =
The stream function, can be determined as follows
The velocity components for the two-dimensional flow are then determined.
Partial differentiation of the velocity components is done to obtain
and
These are substituted back in the simplified x-momentum equation and the following non-linear third order ordinary differential equation is obtained. where and so on.
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This is the Blasius equation for which accurate solutions have been obtained by integration. The earlier mentioned boundary conditions can now be written as 1. At y =0, f = 0 = f 2. As y , f 1 Since u/U approaches 1 only as y , it is customary to select the boundary layer thickness as the point where u/U = 0.99 when =5. Thus,
or
Table. The Blasius velocity profile
Fig. Boundary layer profile in dimensionless form using the similarity variable
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Unsteady One-Dimensional Viscous Flows

For time-dependent flows, the time derivative of the velocity fields in the equations is not zero For one-dimensional flows v=w=0. Thus the continuity equation reduces to The x-momentum equation reduces to
On transcribing this equation for incompressible flow, it follows that
Time-dependent Diffusion Source Term Without the source term, this equation represents the fundamental equation for all transient diffusion problems and can be solved by analytical methods. For this purpose it is useful to consider the equation without the source term and the following equation holds for the molecular momentum transport.
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Stokes First Problem

Stokes provided an analytical solution for an unsteady, one-dimensional fluid motion induced by the sudden movement of a plate and the related momentum diffusion into an infinitely extended fluid lying above the plate. Boundary Conditions: For t< 0 : u(y, t) = 0 For t 0 : u(y = 0, t) = U u(y, t) = 0 The partial differential equation representing the motion is
If the flow is generated in fluid, with a constant flow velocity U, its properties can be derived by the following solution using a dimensionless variable = y/2vt
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Substituting the relations back into PDE gives
By introducing a new function g() =
and reducing the degree of ODE g() = C exp(-2)
Using the definition of Gaussian Error Function f() = C1 erf() + C2 where C1 =C(2/) and thus u = U [C1 erf() + C2 ] Modifying the boundary conditions to the dimensionless variable for 0 < t < y = 0, i.e. = 0 y, i.e. u=U u=0
Since erf(0)=0 and erf()=1, we get C1 = -1 and C2 = 1
Therefore the solution is
u = U[ 1- erf()]
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Due to fluid viscosity (molecular momentum transport), the momentum of the fluid layer moved in the immediate vicinity of the plate, is transferred to the layers that are further away. With progress of time, layers that are further away from the moved wall are also included in the induced fluid motion.
Fig. Streaming flow above a suddenly started plate

Stokes First Problem Suddenly Stopped Plate:

For a fluid that is initially moving at uniform speed, U and the plate is suddenly decelerated to zero velocity, the boundary conditions can be modified as y = 0, i.e. = 0 u=0 y, i.e. u = U Applying these conditions to the solution previously obtained, we get C1 = 1 and C2 = 0 Therefore the solution is u = U erf()
Fig. Streaming flow above a suddenly stopped plate
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Stokes Second Problem

Consider an unsteady, one-dimensional fluid flow problem due to the oscillatory movement of a plate in a such way that the fluid movement created in the immediate vicinity of the plate is communicated to the fluid above the plate, by molecular momentum diffusion. The movement of the fluid above the plate is thus governed by the following partial differential equation:
Initial and Boundary Conditions: For all times t 0 : u(y, t) = 0 For all times t > 0 : y = 0 u(0, t) = U cos(t) y u(, t) = 0
The solution to the PDE can be found by the separation of variables y and t. u(y , t) = f(y) g(t)
Inserting in the differential equation results in By separation of variables, we obtain The constant appearing on the right-hand side was i2 with i =1. This takes into consideration the fact that there is a periodic stimulation of the fluid movement.

Consequently, the following differential equations are obtained.
Thus, Because of the combination of positive and negative signs, four solutions result
The last two partial solutions of the differential equations do not represent reasonable results from a physical point of view as for y they yield the velocity U(, t). Thus a meaningful solution is
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Applying the boundary condition u(0,t) = U cos(wt)
And thus F = 0, E = U and = w/v . Now the final solution is
Fig. Flow above an oscillating infinite plate.
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Steps to Obtain Analytical Solution

General steps to obtain an analytical solution: 1. The governing equations are written in their complete form. 2. Different flow considerations like steady or transient, compressible or incompressible, viscous or inviscid, 1-D or 2-D or 3-D flow, body forces are all applied and the governing equations are all reduced to their simplest form. 3. Next, the equations are solved analytically to find the pressure and velocity distributions. 4. Initial and Boundary conditions are applied to obtain the constants in the velocity distribution and the exact solutions are derived.
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Numerical Methods
Introduction :
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows.
Numerical methods using digital computers are commonly utilized to solve a wide variety of flow problems. In complex flow geometries, numerical solutions to flow problems are needed because of the complexity of the boundary conditions that do not permit solutions to be obtained analytically. The different techniques for the numerical solution of the governing differential equations of fluid flow are 1. Finite Difference Method 2. Finite Element Method 3. Finite Volume Method In each of these methods the continuous flow fields (i.e., velocity or pressure as a function of space and time) are described in terms of discrete values at prescribed locations. By these techniques the differential equations are replaced by a set of algebraic equations that can be solved on the computer.
Finite Difference Method

The most easily understood and widely used of the three methods. The flow field is dissected into a set of grid points. The continuous functions are approximated by discrete values of these functions calculated at the grid points. The philosophy of finite difference methods is to replace the partial derivatives appearing in the governing equations of fluid dynamics with algebraic difference quotients. The differential equations are thereby transferred into a set of algebraic equations. Derivation of Elementary Finite Difference Quotients : Finite difference representations of derivatives are based on Taylors series expansions. Taylors series expanded about point (i,j) as follows:
Second order accuracy : First order accuracy :
The neglected higher-order terms represent the truncation error in the finite series representation.

First-order forward difference :
First-order rearward difference :
Fig. Discrete grid points


Second-order central difference :
Second-order central second difference :
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An Explicit approach is one in which each difference equation contains only one unknown and therefore can be solved explicitly for this unknown in a straightforward manner. An Implicit approach is one in which the unknowns must be obtained by means of solving simultaneous solutions of difference equations applied at all grid points arrayed. A Finite Difference Equation is CONSISTENT with a Partial Differential Equation(PDE) if the difference between the PDE and FDE vanishes as the sizes of the grid spacing go to zero independently.
When applied to a PDE that has a bounded solution, a FDE is STABLE if it produces a bounded solution and is unstable if it produces an unbounded one.
Discretization error : The difference between the exact analytical solution of the partial differential equation and the exact (round-off free) solution of the corresponding difference equation. If, A = Analytical solution of the partial differential equation and D = Exact solution of the difference equation then Discretization error = A - D Round-off error : The numerical error introduced after a repetitive number of calculations in which the computer is constantly rounding the numbers to some significant figure.

Implicit Numerical Approach for Unsteady Incompressible Couette flow : The resulting governing equation for x-momentum for zero pressure gradient is
For convenience, we deal with the non-dimensional form of the above equation and define the non-dimensional variables.
The non-dimensional equation will be of the form where
Fig. Schematic of Couette flow


Applying Forward Time Central Space(FTCS) scheme and writing the spatial difference on the right hand side in terms of averaged properties between time levels n and n+1,
or Grouping all terms at time level n+1 on left hand side, we get
This above equation is of the form
Boundary Conditions :
u1 = 0 and uN+1 = 1
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With the boundary conditions applied, the system of equations can be written in matrix form
Velocity profiles at various stages in time stepping process
Fig. Labeling of points for the grid

Finite Element Method

The Finite Element Method is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of Partial Differential Equations (PDE) as well as of integral equations. Characteristics of FEM : 1. The continuum field or domain is sub-divided into cells called elements, which form a grid. The elements in 2-D have a triangular or a quadrilateral form and can be rectilinear or curved. The nodal points, or nodes, are typical points of the elements such as vertices, mid-side points, mid-element points, etc. 2. FEM is the modular way in which the discretization is obtained. The discrete equations are constructed from contributions on the element level which afterwards are assembled.
The most attractive feature of FEM is its ability to handle complicated geometries (and boundaries) with relative ease.
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Basic Steps of Solving a problem by Finite Element Technique : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Discretization of the problem by selection of elements interconnected at the nodal points. Evaluation of the matrices of the elements by applying the governing equations. Formulation of the complete matrix of the continuum. Application of the boundary conditions. Solution of the resulting system of equations. Calculation of any other functions based on nodal unknowns.
The flow field is usually broken into a set of small triangular areas if the flow is twodimensional, or small volume elements if the flow is three-dimensional. The meshing should be finer at the locations with larger gradients.
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Fig. Anisotropic adaptive mesh for calculation of viscous flow over a NACA 0012 airfoil at Reynolds number 10,000.
Fig. Finite Element Discretization
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Finite Volume Method

The finite volume method is a method for representing and evaluating partial differential equations in the form of algebraic equations. Similar to the finite difference method or finite element method, values are calculated at discrete places on a meshed geometry. The basic laws of fluid dynamics are conservation laws. They are statements that express the conservation of mass, momentum and energy in a volume closed by a surface.
The basis of the finite volume method is to discretize the integral form of the equations and not the differential form.
The flow field or domain is subdivided into a set of non-overlapping cells that cover the domain. The conservation laws are applied to determine the flow variables in some discrete points of the cells called nodes.
Fig. Representing cell, nodes and finite volumes on a mesh


The conservation laws can be written in the following integral form
In this equation, Q Vector containing a set of variables which are conserved. E.g., Mass, momentum, energy per unit volume etc. n Unit vector normal to the surface pointing outward. F Set of vectors or a tensor containing the flux of Q per unit area per unit time. P Rate of production of Q per unit volume per unit time. The above equation represents conservation of quantities in a finite region of space with volume V(t) and a surface area S(t) over a finite interval of time t 2- t1 If all variables are continuous in time, then the equation can be written as
The partial derivative form of conservation law can be derived by applying Gauss theorem to the flux integral
where

One-Dimensional Example : Consider a scalar dependent variable u and flux f .
The cell average value becomes

Fig. Control volume in one dimension
The integral form becomes
Now with = x x j , Taylor series expansion of u(x) about x j with t fixed is
Hence the cell average value and the value at the centre of cell differ by a term of second order.
Summary
In this Lecture, We have started with the governing equations of fluid mechanics namely continuity equation i.e., mass conservation equation and the Navier-Stokes equations i.e., the momentum conservation equations in Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates. Later we have seen some fluid flows through different geometries and have applied the governing equations with the initial and boundary conditions to solve the flow analytically.
Analytical solutions to the fluid flows provided the information regarding the velocity profiles in different flow geometries. For example, Parabolic velocity profiles in flow through fixed infinite plates and flow through circular tubes
In case of flow over a flat plate, since obtaining an analytical solution of Navier Stokes equations was difficult, boundary layer approximations were used and a similarity solution was presented to solve the equations. Finally, different numerical problem solving techniques like finite element, finite difference and finite volume were covered in which the partial differential equations are reduced into set of algebraic equations.
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References
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Frank M. White Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young and Theodore H. Okiishi Viscous Fluid Flows, Frank M. White An Introduction to the Theory of Fluid Flows, Franz Durst Computational Fluid Dynamics, John D. Anderson Jr. Internet Sources: Wikipedia
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9th Indo-German Winter Academy Dec 11-17, Pune

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Terminology Used in Lecture

Boundary layer thickness

Governing Equations Cartesian Coordinates:

Cases: 1. Steady Compressible Flow

2. Steady Incompressible Flow

Cylindrical Polar Coordinates:

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Steady Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Steady Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates

The pressure gradient, function of y

is treated as constant during integration since it is not a

Solving the velocity profile with the boundary conditions gives

Fig. Parabolic velocity distribution

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Fig. Coordinate system and notation used in analysis of Couette flow

Fig. Velocity distribution as a function of parameter P, where P=

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Flow Through Circular Tubes

Fig. Coordinate system and notation used in analysis

Fig. Flow through differential annular ring 12

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Flow Through Circular Tubes

p = -g(r sin) + f(z)

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Flow Through Circular Tubes

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Flow Through Annulus

Flow Over a Flat Plate

Fig. Distortion of fluid particle

Fig. Development of boundary layer 16

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Flow Over a Flat Plate

In case of free flow, p/ x =0

Flow Over a Flat Plate

Blasius Similarity Solution:

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Flow Over a Flat Plate

Partial differentiation of the velocity components is done to obtain

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Flow Over a Flat Plate

Table. The Blasius velocity profile

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Unsteady One-Dimensional Viscous Flows

On transcribing this equation for incompressible flow, it follows that

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Stokes First Problem

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Stokes First Problem

By introducing a new function g() =

and reducing the degree of ODE g() = C exp(-2)

Since erf(0)=0 and erf()=1, we get C1 = -1 and C2 = 1

Therefore the solution is

Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Flow Problems

Stokes First Problem

Fig. Streaming flow above a suddenly started plate

Stokes First Problem Suddenly Stopped Plate:

Fig. Streaming flow above a suddenly stopped plate