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ELT METHODOLOGY STUDENTS GUIDE

Let us teach and learn: the few before the many; the short before the long; the simple before the complex; the general before the particular; the nearer before the more remote; the regular before the irregular (Comenius, 1657)

FOREWORD

The aim of the present Students Guide is to provide the philology students from Brasov University who take the Methodology Practical Course, with some theoretical input and practical ideas for reference and support during the course and in their teaching practice. It is not meant to be a self-sufficient material, but rather a supplementary one to the students own reading and practice. The Guide is organised in ten Units, starting with a historical perspective of Language Teaching methodology, and focusing on the main issues of the Communicative approach to language teaching: teaching vocabulary, grammar, the four skills, as well as classroom management, lesson planning and evaluating textbooks. The theoretical input and the activities suggested have been adapted or taken from existing ELT material and have been acknowledged and listed in the Bibliography section of each unit. Almost all units suggest some Tasks for the students to solve either during the course or during selfstudy time. At the end of the Guide there is a Bank of materials section containing mainly photocopied activities for reference and practical use and a Glossary of Basic EFL Terms, by Brian Tomlinson (in: Cunningsworth,A, 1984 Evaluating and Selecting EFL Teaching Materials, Heinemann). We hope this Guide will help students with extra-material which could meet their need for access to a synthetic view of Language Teaching methodology.

The authors Brasov, August, 1998

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODOLOGY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING ...Fashions that come and go with monotonous regularity (Nunan 1991)

Aims: to clarify concepts related to the methodology of language teaching to make students aware of the historical development of the language teaching methods/approaches to help students assess the various teaching methods and adapt them to their own teaching

1. What is methodology? The methodology of language teaching draws on theories of language (linguistics) and theories of language learning (applied linguistics) leading to different approaches to/methods of language teaching. If we are to define methodology , the Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1985) gives the following definition: a) the study of the practices and procedures used in teaching and the principles and beliefs that underlie them; b) such practices, principles and beliefs themselves. Methodology includes: a) the study of the nature of language skills (e.g.: listening, speaking, reading, writing) and procedures for teaching them; b) the preparation of lesson plans, materials and textbooks for teaching language skills; c) the evaluation and comparison of language teaching methods . For reasons of course organisation we shall start by defining methods first, and language skills, lesson plans, materials and textbooks will be approached in later units. Therefore, we shall now define three useful concepts in language teaching: methods, principles and techniques (Larsen-Freeman,D, 1986). Methods, according to Anthony Norris (1969:2) involve the selection of materials to be taught, the gradation of those materials, their presentation and pedagogical implementation to induce learning. As the definition shows, methods imply that the teacher chooses either the textbooks or the materials to supplement a textbook, plans how to use these materials, and finally teaches them in order to help students learn.

Principles involve the various theoretical backgrounds concerning the teachers and the learners roles, the teaching and the learning processes as well as knowledge of the target language ( language to be learned)/culture. Classroom techniques involve the classroom activities and procedures derived from the application of the principles. We can remark that a given technique may be associated with more than one method i.e., two methods sharing certain principles or a particular technique may be compatible with more than one method, depending on the way the technique is used. After having defined methodology, we shall ask the following questions, related to teaching (including teaching methods that we will be dealing with in the next section) and learning a foreign language: 1. What do we learn when we learn a foreign language? and 2. Why do learners learn a foreign language? 1. The process of learning a foreign language involves learning grammar, vocabulary, and developing such skills as listening, speaking, reading and writing. 2. The second question involves several answers. First, foreign languages are part of school curriculum. Second, knowing a foreign language may help the learner to advance in his/her professional life. Third, learners of a foreign language may find themselves temporarily or permanently in the target language community and therefore target language knowledge is of utmost importance. Fourth, learners may have specific reasons for learning foreign languages, such as: communication within business communities, writing for academic purposes, etc. And fifth, some learners may learn languages for fun, for travel, etc. As we can see, there may be a lot of reasons why learners want to learn a foreign language, and the degree of success in this activity is closely connected to their motivation in undertaking the task of language learning. The motivation the learners bring to class is the biggest single factor affecting their success (Harmer, 1991:3). According to Harmer, motivation is of two kinds: 1. extrinsic motivation and 2. intrinsic motivation. 1. Extrinsic motivation is concerned with factors outside the classroom and can be either a.) integrative motivation (learners are attracted by the culture of the target language community and they wish to integrate themselves into that culture), and b.) instrumental motivation (which describes a situation in which students believe that mastery of the target language will be the instrument that will help them in getting a better job, position or status). 2. Intrinsic motivation refers to what happens in the classroom and the important effect that classroom language learning has on learners who are already extrinsically motivated.

It is here that Harmer takes into account such factors as: physical conditions the classroom itself), method the teacher (see the next section), and success, which affects learners intrinsic motivation. 2. Historical perspective to teaching methods In the presentation of the various language teaching methods, we shall take into account the views of both H.H.Stern(1983) and Diane Larsen-Freeman(1986) by considering the principles and techniques underlying each of these methods. 2.1 The grammar translation or traditional method A look into the theoretical background of this method shows it similar to the approach used in classical education i.e., the teaching of Latin and Greek which became popular in the late 18-th century. The goal of the teacher using this method is to make students read literature in the target language and learn grammar rules and vocabulary. In the process of teaching, the teacher uses the native language(L1) of the students and does not aim at the students use of the second/target language (L2).The language skills that this method emphasises are reading and writing. The classroom techniques used in this method are: translation from and into L2, reading comprehension questions ,the production of lists of antonyms and synonyms, fill in the blanks exercises, the use of new words in sentences and composition. The grammar translation method was criticised because, according to Stern (1983), it was a cold and lifeless approach to language teaching and it was blamed for the failure of foreign language teaching. In spite of the criticisms, the grammar translation method has maintained itself remarkably well, as it appears to be easy to apply from a didactic point of view. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn better? ________________________________________________________________________

2.2. The direct method The direct method appears as a strong reaction against the grammar translation method. It is closely linked with the introduction of phonetics into language teaching and emphasises the use of spoken language, with focus on the phonetic transcription of words. It was influenced by Bloomfields structuralist theories. This method represents a shift from literary language to spoken everyday language, a goal that was totally lacking

in grammar translation. It stresses that the teacher should use L2 in the classroom, the meaning being shown to the students through actions and pictures, paraphrases, synonyms, demonstration or context. The language skills emphasised are mostly listening and speaking. The classroom techniques include: classroom presentation of a text by the teacher, reading aloud of short texts specially constructed for foreign language learning, questions and answers based on the text. The grammatical observations are derived from the text and the students are encouraged to discover the grammatical principles for themselves. Practice involves fill in the blanks exercises, dictation, map drawing, paragraph writing, free composition. Critics of the direct method raise such questions as: How can meaning be conveyed without any translation into L1? What can be done to avoid misunderstanding? How can the direct method be applied beyond elementary stages? ________________________________________________________________________ TASK Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn better? ________________________________________________________________________

2.3. The audio-lingual method The basis of this method is the theory and research of such sciences as behaviourist psychology and structural linguistics. Behaviourist psychology is connected to the name of B.F.Skinner and it applies the Pavlovian principles of animal behaviour to human behaviour. It is also called stimulusresponse psychology. Structural linguistics, on the other hand, is linked to Bloomfields theory which led to several principles applied to language programmes (Moulton: 1963, cited in Nunan:1991): language is speech not writing a language is a set of habits teach the language not about the language a language is what native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say languages are different The audio-lingual method appeared and was mainly used in the United States. The setting up of language laboratories in schools is due to the emphasis that this method lays on accepted standards of pronunciation.

The classroom techniques involved in this method do not focus much on meaning but rather on dialogue memorisation and pronunciation. The teacher usually begins with a dialogue which the students memorise in chunks, and this leads to the sequencing of skill development, emphasis being laid on listening and speaking, with lesser importance attached to reading and writing. As a consequence of the techniques already mentioned, students vocabulary is, at first, rather limited. Other techniques include repetition drills, substitution drills, transformation drills, dialogue completion and grammar games. The audio-lingual method is strongly criticised by the famous linguist Noam Chomski, who created his own transformational-generative grammar which implies that language acquisition is basically rule-governed. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn better? ________________________________________________________________________

2.4. The cognitive method This method appeared as a reaction to the audio-lingual method and it is based on transformational grammar and cognitive psychology. Transformational-generative grammar, whose representative is Noam Chomski, founded its theory on the idea that a finite number of grammar rules (language universals) can generate an infinite number of sentences. So, the teacher views language as rule acquisition not habit formation and encourages students to become responsible for their own learning as well as to become aware of the way L2 operates. Cognitive psychology, in its turn, stresses the fact that language development is characterised by rule-governed creativity. By accepting the value of rules, cognitive language learning de-emphasises the role of rote learning along with techniques of mimicry and memorisation. The classroom techniques include: deductive presentations of the target language items by which the teacher gives the students the rule and asks them to apply it to several practice items or examples, or inductive presentations of the target language items by which the students are given a number of examples and asked to work out the rule.

In terms of skill development, this method considers reading and writing to be as important as listening and speaking and de-emphasises the importance of standard pronunciation.

The cognitive method laid too much emphasis on the conscious learning of the language, based on applying a finite number of rules and did not account for the unconscious acquisition of a language. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn better? ________________________________________________________________________

2.5. The total physical response method This method was developed by Asher(cited in Nunan:1991) who places primary importance on listening comprehension and then moving to speaking, reading and writing. He derives his theory from models of first language acquisition. Asher provides three principles about the nature of first language acquisition, which he applies to second language acquisition: 1. The teacher should stress comprehension rather than production at the beginning levels, with no demand on the students to generate the L2 structure themselves. The students only have to observe the teachers behaviour and obey his/her commands. 2. The teacher should demonstrate actions that take place here and now, at least during the initial stages of language learning. 3. The teacher should provide input to the students by getting them to carry out commands. (e.g. Sit down! and the students do it). The main classroom technique consists of giving commands which the students act out. The method focuses on activities that are designed to be fun and to allow students to assume active learning roles and that include language games and skits. The method did not live long since language acquisition theories demonstrated that comprehension does not always precede production neither in L1 nor in L2. 2.6. The community language learning method This method aims at creating a warm and supportive community among the students in the classroom and gradually moving them from complete dependence on the teacher to complete autonomy. The teachers role is to act as counsellor and to set a problem to be solved by the students. The syllabus used is learner-generated, i.e. students choose what they want to say in the target language. The focus is on fluency rather than on accuracy.

What makes this method special is that the students are seated in a closed circle with the teacher outside. The classroom techniques involve recording the conversations in which students whisper to the teacher in L1 and he/she whispers back the L2 version which the students repeat to the group. These recordings are transcribed and then the students and their teacher discuss on them and correct the errors. 2.7.Suggestopaedia Suggestopaedia is a method by which the students` mental powers are tapped in order to accelerate the process of learning. An important characteristic of the method is the endeavour to overcome the psychological barriers which students bring with them to the learning situation.The teachers role is to get the students to learn in a state of total relaxation bordering on hypnosis as a means of enhancing the acquisition of vocabulary for example. The classroom techniques used in this method involve relaxation, rhythmic breathing and listening to readings by the teacher which are synchronised to music. The method was highly criticised on grounds that experiments have revealed the fact that students taught by traditional classroom methods can learn more vocabulary than those taught by this method. 2.8. The silent way method The silent way method emphasises the need to develop learner autonomy from both the teacher and the learning situation. Thus the students are led to make use of what they know and actively explore the language and encouraged to use self-correction which is seen as natural and indispensable to language learning. Teaching is subordinate to learning and so, teachers give students only what they absolutely need to promote learning. The teacher is silent much of the time but very active setting up situations, listening to students, speaking only to give clues not to model speech. Students begin with sounds introduced through association of sounds in L1 to a sound-colour chart and are encouraged by the teacher to produce the words in L2 by pointing coloured rods to the sounds on the chart. Consequently, the classroom techniques the method involves include the use of sound-colour charts, coloured rods and self-correction gestures. All four skill areas are worked on from the beginning, pronunciation especially, because sounds are basic and carry the melody of the language. 2.9. The communicative method Most of the previously presented methods emphasised the acquisition of structures and vocabulary. The adherents of the communicative method acknowledge that structure and

vocabulary are important. However, they feel that the preparation for communication will be inadequate if only these are taught. Students may know the rules of language usage but they will be unable to use the language.When we communicate we use the language to accomplish some functions, such as: arguing, persuading, promising, etc. Moreover, we carry out these functions within a social context. In terms of skill development, all the four skills are emphasised and even more, the teacher aims at integrating them. Communication is a process which implies that it is insufficient for students to simply have knowledge of language forms, meanings and functions. They must therefore be able to apply this knowledge in order to negotiate meaning through interaction between speaker and listener / writer and reader, especially in real life situations. The teacher encourages the students to use the L2 fluently but also appropriately (i.e. depending on the social situation). Features of the communicative method: it is a learner-centred method helping the students to survive in the real world the teacher is a facilitator, a task-setter who monitors activities, helps students and gets involved in the learning process the focus is on meaning and rather than on form, on functions rather than on structures emphasis on classroom interaction the teaching-learning process centres on real-life situations and uses authentic materials and tasks. Among the classroom techniques used in the communicative method we could mention pair-work, group-work, role-play, simulations, etc. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn better? ________________________________________________________________________ NOTE that all these methods have been described here in their pure form. In actual classroom application, there is no clear-cut distinction among various methods. Moreover, it is the teachers role to decide which techniques to use , depending on the context in which his/her lesson takes place.

TASK I. Read the following descriptions of lessons and decide on the method used by the teacher:

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A. teacher points to five blocks of colour without saying anything; the colours represent the sounds of 5 English vowels close to 5 simple vowels in Romanian teacher points to the first block of colour and says /a/. Several students say /e/ /I/ /o/ /u/, as the teacher points to the other 4 blocks teacher does not model the new sounds but uses gestures to show students how to modify the Romanian sounds teacher works with gestures and instructions in Romanian to help students produce the sounds teacher points to a rod and then to 3 blocks of colour on the sound-colour chart students respond ROD ......... B. the class is reading an excerpt from Mark Twains Life on the Mississippi students translate the passage from English into Romanian the teacher asks students in Romanian if they have any questions and answers in L1 students write out the answers to the reading comprehension questions students are given a grammar rule for the use of a direct object with two-word verbs ........ C. teacher introduces new dialogue actions, pictures or realia are used to give meaning (only in English) teacher introduces the dialogue by modelling it twice students repeat each line of the new dialogue several times (drills) new vocabulary is introduced through lines of the dialogue ........ D. students read aloud a passage about US geography teacher points to a part of the map after each sentence is read teacher uses English to ask students if they have any questions; students ask questions in English teacher works with students on the pronunciation of geographical names students fill in the blanks with prepositions practised in the lesson ....... E. teacher distributes handouts which have a copy of a sports column from a newspaper teacher tells students to underline the reporters predictions and say which ones they think the reporter feels most certain of and least certain of students unscramble the sentences of the article (on back of handout) students work in groups and teacher gives each group a strip story

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in their groups, the students predict what the next picture in the strip story will look like ....... (adapted from D.Larsen-Freeman,1986, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching,OUP)

II. Match the characteristics in column A with the corresponding method in column B Some characteristics may belong to more than one method: A B 1. Ss. unable to speak language taught a. Grammar translation 2. Classroom atmosphere very important b. Direct method 3. Emphasis on pair and group work c. Audio-lingual 4. Teacher concentrates on correct pronunciation d. Suggestopaedia 5. The four skills are integrated e. Silent way 6. Great effort to avoid student errors f.Community language learning 7. Ss. design own syllabus g. Total physical response 8. Listening is the first skill taught h. Communicative method 9. Ss. should use foreign language APPROPRIATELY 10.Grammar taught from rules 11.Teacher silent most of the time 12.Emphasis on dialogues

BIBLIOGRAPHY Asher,J. 1988, Learning another language through action: the complete teachers guidebook, third edn. Los Gatos, Ca:Sky Oakes Productions 1991, The practice of English language teaching, Longman 1986,Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, OUP, see also video 1961\1963. Linguistics and Language Teaching in the United States: 1946-1960 in Mohrmann, Sommerfelt and Whatmough (eds.), 1961:82-109 1971, TESOL at the beginning of the seventies: Trends, topics and research needs. Pittsburgh: Department of General Linguistics and University Center for International Studies. [115(n.7)]. 1991, Language Teaching Methodology, Prentice Hall 1983, Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching, OUP

Harmer,J. Larsen-Freeman,D. Moulton, W.G.

Norris, W.E.

Nunan, D Stern,H.H.

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II TEACHER AND LEARNER ROLES. CLASS MANAGEMENT. A change in attitude may lead to much more learning than hours of exercises (Cheryl L. Champeau de Lopez, July 1989, English Teaching Forum)

Aims: to make student-teachers aware of the changing roles of both teachers and learners in the present-day teaching methods to help student-teachers understand the link between the view on language learning/teaching and the roles assumed by the teacher and the learner to provide student-teachers with knowledge about and practice of class management

1. Teacher and learner roles _______________________________________________________________________ INITIAL QUESTION on THE TEACHER AND THE LEARNER: 1. What do you think the people in Romania value in a language teacher? Tick the factors below and add any more if you wish. Rank them and discuss with your partner(s): a. excellent results from learners b. good disciplinarian c. caring, gentle attitude towards students d. many qualifications e. always willing to take on extra work f. exemplary private life g. accepts authority h. writes textbooks for local use I. others - specify 2. What do you think the people in Romania value in a learner? Tick the factors below and add any more if you wish. Rank them and discuss with your partner(s): a. good at all subjects b. well-behaved c. accepts authority d. obtains good grades in exams e. has a large number of hobbies f. respects his/her classmates g. others - specify ________________________________________________________________________

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We shall start by defining the concept of role in language learning/teaching as the part played by the participants (teachers and learners) in carrying out the learning tasks. Another defining aspect is the social and interpersonal relationship between the participants in the learning process. When we speak of the change in roles we have to go back to the traditional model of language teaching and contrast it with the more up-todate one. If in the traditional model of teaching language is seen as a finite body of knowledge, a system of forms and structures, in the new model the language is infinite and creative and a way of expressing meaning through form. Language learning means, in the traditional model, learning a set of items by memory, while in the new model it means developing a set of skills. Teaching involves not only the teacher and the learners but also the material used, e.g. the textbooks. The traditional way of using the textbook in the process of teaching views the textbook as a set of lessons to be learned, whereas in the new approach the textbook is a framework for the teachers own lesson. What distinguishes the traditional model of teaching from the modern one also involves the roles played by the teacher and the learner in the classroom. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Refer back to the previous unit and think of your experience as learners, then take a few minutes to jot down at least one word to define the roles of the teacher and the learner. When you have finished, compare your notes with the following role descriptions. ________________________________________________________________________ Teacher and the learner role description TRADITIONAL TEACHING MODEL A. Teacher roles provider of knowledge model of correct forms controller of class dominant in the classroom authority confidence crusher teaching the learners provider of resources initiator of language activities motivator of learners informant to learners + participant in the lesson classroom organiser confidence builder learning about learners/investigator NEW TEACHING MODEL

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B. Learner roles passive recipient of outside stimuli listener and performer has little control of the content of learning totally dependent on the teacher interactor and negotiator capable of giving as well as taking involved in the process of own language development involved in a social activity responsible for own learning, developing autonomy and skills learning to learn

learning by memorising

If we have a look at the above-mentioned roles, we can conclude that the traditional teaching model is teacher-centred, and the new one is learner-centred, meaning that the learners also assume responsibility for their learning, they are not passive receptacles into which the teacher pours knowledge (Champeau de Lopez, C.L., 1989:5). Next we shall consider some of the roles of the teacher in the learner-centred classroom: The teacher as organiser involves management of the lesson in order to ensure the success of the activities in the classroom, i.e. the steps followed in the development of the lesson. For example, any activity/task should start with a lead-in in which the teacher tells the students what they are going to talk about, read, write,etc.; then the teacher gives clear instructions as to what the students are going to do in the activity and initiates/gets the activity going; no activity should end without feedback from the teacher on its success. The teacher as a participant in activities like simulations or role-plays involves improving the atmosphere in the classroom and he/she gives the students a chance to practice English with someone who speaks it better. However, when assuming this role the teacher tends to dominate the activity and the students both allow and expect this to happen. The teacher acts as a resource when doing the presentation of the new structures or vocabulary items and also when offering help in a genuinely communicative activity which is taking place in the classroom (for example a writing task) . As an investigator the teacher reflects on what is going on in the classroom, observes what works well and what does not or tries out new techniques or activities and then evaluates their appropriacy. Teachers who do not investigate the efficiency of new methods and do not actively seek their own personal and professional development may find the job of teaching monotonous! In his/her role of confidence builder, the teacher should start by getting to know the students. This is no easy task for a teacher since this ranges from knowing the students

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names, to gathering information about their backgrounds, interests or previous experience of language learning, learning needs, etc. (For more information refer to the BANK OF MATERIALS and read the article The Role of the Teacher in Todays Language Classroom, by Cheryl L.Cahmpeau de Lopez) ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Now that you have read the descriptions of some of the teachers roles, try to describe any of the other roles listed above. You may want to try describing learners roles as well. ________________________________________________________________________

2. Classroom management ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: What would you include under the heading of classroom management? List your ideas and then read the following section. ________________________________________________________________________ Since the readers of these lecture notes are teachers-to-be, we shall insist on some views on the teacher and what he/she should do in order to ensure successful classroom management. We shall now consider the following aspects of classroom management: a. students seating/teacher position, b.handling materials and resources, c. classroom language, d. organising activities, e. timing and pace, f. rapport. a. Students seating/teacher position depends on what the teacher and students are doing.For example, the teacher should make sure that the seating can be arranged to encourage students to talk to each other when they work in pairs or groups. If the teacher is doing the presentation of the new material his/her position should be in front of the class, addressing all the students and not speaking to some students more than to others, making sure that all students can hear what he/she is saying. If group-work activities are going on, the teacher moves in the classroom and monitors the work of all groups, deciding upon which group needs more help. b. Handling materials and resources. The traditional resources are the blackboard, the chalk and the textbook. Writing on the blackboard, for the beginner-teachers may be a difficult task. Therefore, the information you put on the blackboard must be wellorganised, under headings/in columns, the handwriting should be clear, legible and reasonably quick. If the teacher uses other visual materials such as wall charts, realia (objects) and any kind of printed material (worksheets, handouts) he/she needs to make sure that they are visible, legible, with clear and attractive layout, and should choose the best moment to hand them out or use them.

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The audio-visual equipment used in the classroom may cause problems. That is why the teacher should be well-acquainted with the use and features of such equipment (cassetterecorders, OHP, video-players, slide-projectors) as well as with the right time and reason for their use. c. Classroom language refers to the language used both by the teacher and by the students.Thus, the teacher should grade the language input according to the level of the students, make sure that he/she demonstrates the meaning of language items/structures, check their understanding , should do proper questioning , and should tactfully correct errors (see also Error correction section ). Classroom language also includes the instructions given by the teacher, the routine requests (e.g. Can somebody clean the blackboard), and small-talk.

d. Organising activities implies the teachers work and the students work in pair/group activities and also classroom interaction . In setting up the pairs or the groups the teacher can take into account various aspects, such as: furniture in the classroom (tables that can be moved or fixed desks), different levels or abilities of the students ( should weaker students form a separate group/pair or work with stronger students? ), decisions concerning the size of the group (example, depending on the activity, groups of three may be better than groups of four, or pairs may be better than groups). While pair/group work activities are in progress, the teacher monitors the students work, helps, makes notes on the success of the activities or students most frequent errors and uses them in the feedback that he/she gives at the end of the activities. In pair/group work, the classroom interaction is student(s) to student(s), but at other stages of the lesson it may be teacher to student(s) (mainly in the presentation stage of the lesson) or student(s) to teacher (mainly when students report back to the teacher at the end of an activity). e. Timing and pace of the lesson. Rigorous timing of the activities included in the lesson helps the teacher to plan what material and how much he/she can do during a lesson. Quick-paced activities could alternate with slow-paced ones according to the language level of the students, their age, and the type of the activity (for example, a warm-up activity which may take place at the beginning of the lesson, is necessarily shorter than practice activities, when students use the new language items in performing different tasks). f. Rapport is the friendly and co-operative behaviour and attitude of both teacher and students in the process of teaching/learning. A good rapport can be established from the first moments of the lesson, and it is the teachers skill to ensure a friendly relationship with students and at the same time to be firm and uncompromising. Rapport can also include use of humour, sensitivity to students needs and learning styles. The good

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teaching-learning relationship between students and teacher is not confined to classroom activities only, as the teacher in his/her role of counsellor should encourage students to extend their learning to extra-curricular activities, such as reading, listening to TV and radio programmes,etc. A warm rapport does not exclude the idea of discipline in the classroom, with specific rules that teachers impose and both parties should obey. Here are some things that a teacher should not do if he/she wants to ensure both a friendly atmosphere and discipline in the classroom (from J.Harmer, 1991:250): dont go to class unprepared; dont be inconsistent, i.e. dont allow students to come to class late or break any other rules without taking any action; dont issue unnecessary threats, but if you want to take some action against disruptive behaviour, dont forget to do it; dont raise your voice: you cant control a class by raising your voice or shouting. A quiet voice can often be more effective; dont give boring classes; dont be unfair either to the class as a whole or to individuals; try to avoid having favourites or picking on individuals; dont break house rules; By way of conclusion, we can say that the changing role of the teacher and the learners, together with a different view on classroom management are a result of the communicative approach to language learning and teaching as well as that of the research findings in applied linguistics. Such findings have an impact on classroom practices, which in their turn give food for thought to applied linguists.

FINAL QUESTIONS 1. PAIR AND GROUP WORK In your groups, discuss and answer the following questions, then report to the class: a. Have you ever taken part in pair/group work in your classes? When? How? b. How do you think that using pair/group work can help students learn English more efficiently? c. What criteria would you use in dividing your students into pair/groups? d. How would you introduce pair/group work into your classes? Bear in mind class size and desk arrangement. e. What is the teachers role during pair/group work. How is it different from his/her usual role? 2. In groups, discuss and complete the following lists of advantages and problems of pair/group work:

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ADVANTAGES Ss feel more involved and motivated Ss feel secure,ie.T. not criticising them . BIBLIOGRAPHY Byrne,D Champeau de Lopez, Ch.L Doff,A Harmer,J Nunan,D Underwood,M Ur,P

PROBLEMS Ss prefer to listen to T. than to listen to each other Lack of discipline? Noise? .

1987,Techniques for Classroom Interaction,Longman 1989,The Role of the Teacher in Todays Language Classroom, English Teaching Forum, July 1988,Teach English. A Training Course for Teachers, CUP 1991, The Practice of English Language Teaching,Longman 1991,Language Teaching Methodology,Prentice Hall 1987, Effective Class Management,Longman 1996, A Course in Language Teaching.Practice and theory, CUP

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UNIT III TEACHING VOCABULARY

The words of a foreign tongue which we commit to memory are prisoners of war, incessantly trying to escape, and it requires great vigilance to detain them; for unless our attention be continually directed towards them, and unless we muster them frequently, they steal away into the forest, and disperse. But when they are bound together in sentences, the same degree of watchfulness is not required, because they escape with difficulty, a whole gang of them may easily be traced and recaptured at once. Pendergast, T., 1864. The Mastery of Languages or the Art of Speaking Foreign Tongues Idiomatically, London:Richard Bentley.

Aims: to provide student teachers with theoretical input on teaching vocabulary to provide practical classroom activities In the approach to teaching vocabulary, we shall try to find answers to the following questions: 1. How do we LEARN new vocabulary? 2. How do we SELECT new vocabulary to teach? 3. How do we TEACH vocabulary? 1. How do we learn new vocabulary? The acquisition of vocabulary is as important as the acquisition of grammar, and the use of both is important in the development of language related skills.When answering the previous question, we take into account the following: we recognise and understand more words than we actually use, i.e. our PASSIVE (receptive) vocabulary exceeds our ACTIVE (productive) vocabulary. we normally hear or see a word many times in differing contexts, before we begin to use it, ie.there is an INCUBATION period. in teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) it is essential to distinguish between receptive/PASSIVE, and productive/ACTIVE vocabulary. it is essential to give low level students a limited active vocabulary quickly, and from this a student can build his/her vocabulary at a natural, unforced speed. to build his/her vocabulary a student should be encouraged to read widely outside the classroom and to invest in a good monolingual dictionary.

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2. How do we select new vocabulary to teach? In order to induce active production of vocabulary we need to make our decisions about what to teach with reference to such criteria as: FREQUENCY: how often the word is used; RANGE: number of different contexts in which a word is used; FAMILIARITY: even if the word is not frequently used, is it familiar to everyone? USEFULNESS: according to the students needs. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Look at the following words and: 1. Evaluate them using the above criteria 2. What level could you introduce these words at? Why? soap post-office preach couple ceiling chest of drawers dozen to saunter hang-gliding blackboard paper mushrooms fat sturdy ________________________________________________________________________ 2. How do we teach vocabulary for active use? The way we teach vocabulary depends on the language level of the students. Thus, for beginners the teacher introduces classroom vocabulary such as: greetings, orders, commands, and uses various materials (pictures, charts, cards,etc.), whereas for intermediate and upwards, the teacher should develop learner independence by encouraging students to read more and use dictionaries. It is important to keep in mind that the teaching/learning of vocabulary involves several steps: PRESENTING CHECKING THE UNDERSTANDING PRACTICE RECYCLING A question that teachers should ask themselves is WHEN (at what stage of the lesson) should vocabulary be taught? To answer such a question we need to say that the teaching of vocabulary is only a part of a lesson, a tool for students in order to be able to solve the tasks involved in the development of different skills. Thus, the presentation and practice of vocabulary can be done before, while or after speaking, listening, reading or writing tasks. Techniques of vocabulary presentation: use of realia (real objects)

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use of visual aids (pictures, charts, drawings, etc.) miming giving definitions or examples giving synonyms or antonyms using the new word in context translation drawing lexical sets (mind maps), i.e. the grouping of words under a certain topic. The use of this technique makes learning easier because the words are easier to remember if they belong to the same area; vocabulary is easier to teach since the lexical set can be expanded as students progress in their learning and the vocabulary practice can be contextualised.(For examples, see the Bank of Materials, appendix )

________________________________________________________________________ TASK 1.Write suitable lexical sets for the following: a. furniture - Beginners (6 items); Intermediate (12 items) b.physical description adjectives - Beginners (6 items); Intermediate (12 items) c. driving a car - Intermediate (12 items) 2. Think of suitable ways of presenting the items. ________________________________________________________________________ Ways of checking the understanding of the new vocabulary The techniques of vocabulary presentation can be used at the stage of checking understanding too. Another way of checking the understanding is the use of concept questions. These are yes/no questions which refer to the features of the new lexical item.They can be formed by specifying the crucial, defining components of meaning in terms of statements, and then turning these statements into questions. (Parrot,M, 1993). For example, if you want to check the understanding of the word ANT, you could ask such questions as: Is it small? Does it live in the garden? etc. By the way the students answer, the teacher can see if they understood the meaning of the word. Practice A very important stage in the teaching/learning of vocabulary is the practice stage, which involves a wide range of activities such as: gap filling matching words with their definitions or synonyms multiple choice true/false
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the odd word out (in a group of related words one is unrelated) vocabulary games (see Bibliography) information-gaps (especially by using pictures, e.g.: two different pictures representing the same room; in pairs, students have to find the information missing in their picture by talking to their partners) personalisation (whenever possible the Ss should be asked to talk about themselves using the new vocabulary) role-plays (e.g. role play buying clothes in a shop to practise vocabulary referring to clothes and colours; one student is the shop assistant and the other is the customer) story telling (students make up their own stories starting from the new vocabulary) discussions (students discuss around a theme, for e.g. Unemployment in Romania) writing tasks (e.g. students are asked to write a letter of application for a job, for the use of vocabulary connected to jobs, and writing formal letters) Recycling refers to the revision of previously taught vocabulary by using any of the practice techniques.

IDEAS FOR TASKS TO BE USED IN THE CLASSROOM EXAMPLES OF PRACTICE ACTIVITIES 1.. Example of multiple choice activity: Choose the letter of the item which is the nearest in meaning to the word in bold type: He was reluctant to answer. a) unprepared b) unwilling c) refusing d) slow (from Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching, 1996 : 70) 2.Example of matching activity: Draw lines connecting the pairs of opposites: A brave female cheap asleep fail B awake expensive succeed cowardly male (from Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching, 1996 : 70) 3. Example of Odd Word Out: Say which is the odd word out and say why: goat horse cow spider sheep dog cat (from Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching, 1996 : 70)

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4. Example of vocabulary game: Make a sentence Students write sentences on separate strips of paper for each word. Then all the words are collected and mixed and the students pick out the same number of words they produced originally. Finally they co-operate in the making up of as many new sentences as possible. (Wright,A, Betteridge,D. & Buckby,M, 1979:120-122).

5. Example of discussions practising the use of character vocabulary. Students are asked to place in order traits of character that they dislike most in a partner. Then they could do the same thing with qualities they find most important in a partner . Finally they discuss in pairs what personal characteristics (good or bad) they expect to find in people doing various jobs (nurse, teacher, politician,etc.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Campbell,C. &Kryszewska,H. Doff,A. Gairns,R.& Redman,S Harmer,J. Haycraft,J. Ur, Penny Wingate,J. Wright,A.,Betteridge,D. & Buckby,M.

1992,Learner-Based Teaching, OUP 1988, Teach English.A Training Course for Teachers, CUP 1986,Working with Words.A Guide to Teaching and Learning Vocabulary, CUP 1991, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman 1978,An Introduction to English Language Teaching,Longman 1996, A Course in Language Teaching, CUP 1993,Getting Beginners to Talk, Prentice Hall 1979,Games for Language Learning,CUP

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UNIT IV TEACHING GRAMMAR There was a time when <Doctor Grammar> was seen as a cure for everything. Later, Dr. Grammar became a cure worse than any disease. Harmer,J., 1987, Teaching and Learning Grammar,Longman Aims: to provide student-teachers with principles of teaching grammar to provide examples of classroom activities 1. What is grammar? As Penny Ur (1996:75) defines it, grammar is ...the way words are put together to make correct sentences. This is a very simple way of defining grammar, and it is not the only possible definition. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: On your own or with a partner, think/ discuss and then write down your definition of grammar. ________________________________________________________________________ Even though grammar is generally viewed as a set of rules that govern the correct production of any language item, we should not forget that such items `are alive` only in the process of communication (both spoken and written) and it is here that they combine in order to provide meaning. In other words grammar means both form and meaning. A general tendency in the teaching of grammar is that of neglecting meaning in favour of accuracy of form, but it is not enough to teach students how to construct the tense of a verb, for example, if we dont teach them how and when to use it in order to convey a certain meaning (Penny Ur,1996:76). The importance given to accuracy (that is the teaching of grammar as a set of rules) versus the discovery of the language patterns necessary in the conveyance of meaning is still a matter of debate among language teachers. The point we would like to make here is that the study of grammar rules is not sufficient for learning to use a language properly in real life situations. Therefore, the following sections are an attempt at giving some examples of how grammar can be taught with a spoonful of sugar.

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2. Presenting and explaining grammar. In presenting and explaining a grammatical structure, the teacher should decide whether to elicit rules from the learners on the basis of examples (inductive method) or give the rule first and then invite the students to produce examples (deductive method). Another matter of decision for the teacher is the use of grammatical terminology(various terms used in the explanation of grammatical structures, e.g. clause, sentence, adverbial, etc.) and the use of mother tongue, target language, or a combination of both. Such decisions depend on the age, background and language level of the students. Tips for presenting and explaining grammatical structures a good presentation should include both oral and written forms, and both form and meaning it is important for the teacher to use plenty of contextualised examples of the structure visual materials help learners understand both the form and the meaning the grammar explanation should attempt at covering the great majority of instances students are likely to encounter obvious exceptions should be noted without going into too much detail which may confuse the students the presentation of grammatical structures should be followed by practice which should aim at their use within meaningful contexts. (adapted from Ur,Penny,1996:75-85) 3. Examples of grammar structure presentation Suppose you want to introduce the Present Perfect Continuous to your students, focusing both on form and meaning. For the presentation of form, you can either start by giving your students the rule and then ask them to provide examples (deductive method), or by giving them examples and then ask them to work out the rule (inductive method). In the first case, you pick out examples from the lesson you are teaching and write them on the blackboard. Then explain how the tense is constructed and ask students to give similar examples. In methodological terms this method is also called giving, and involves transmitting form to the students, who are relatively passive recipients. In the second case, which according to the above mentioned terms would be guiding, you start from examples in the context of the lesson, and ask the students to work out the rule of how the tense is formed.

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Students can be helped to understand the meaning that the present perfect continuous conveys by means of graphical representations or concept questions. Here is an example of a graphical representation (a time-line) of the meaning of present perfect continuous. Shes been living here for 20 years.
She moved in She still lives here

x~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~x 1978 1998 Concepts questions, whose purpose is to check the understanding of the meaning, could be: Did she live here before 1978? Does she live here now? Did she start living here in 1978? Did she live here in 1979? ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Draw time-lines and formulate concept questions for the following: I lived in Paris for 8 years. She has just spilt the milk. She spilt the milk half an hour ago. I was having a bath when the telephone rang. When he started his car, the bomb exploded. When it begins raining, Ill open my umbrella. ________________________________________________________________________ 4. Grammar practice activities The purpose of grammar practice activities is to provide a bridge between the use of form and that of communicative meaning. It is the teachers job to help the students step forward from form-focused accurate practice to fluent and acceptable production, by a variety of practice activities. Types of grammar practice: a. Awareness. The teacher introduces a grammar structure and then gives the students a newspaper article in which they identify and underline the structure. b. Controlled drills can be found in any textbook. For example, Replace the underlined words with the following: watch/films - not watch/quiz shows Tom reads newspapers but he doesnt read magazines.

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c. Meaningful drills: The teacher asks the students to choose a partner and interview him/her and then write what he/she likes, dislikes (for the use of the present simple) d. Guided meaningful practice. For example, in the practice of If-clause, the teacher gives the students questions like: What would you do if you were a teacher/millionaire,etc., and asks the students to answer them. e. Free sentence composition. The teacher provides visual or situational cues and directs the students to use the structures and create their own sentences. f. Discourse compositions. Students are instructed to hold a discussion or write a passage according to a given task which includes a certain grammar structure. For example, use of modals in giving recommendation and advice to partners. g. Free discourse. Students are given no instruction to use a specific structure and have to speak or write on a topic which implies the use of certain structures. For example, write or speak about your daily programme (this implies the use of the present simple). (adapted from Ur,Penny, 1996)

IDEAS FOR CLASSROOM TASKS 1. Practice of prepositions: Pictures with differences (Bank of materials) Make two photocopies of the pictures Give each student one picture which they are not allowed to show each other. Each student then has to find someone who has the exact duplicate of his/her picture: they do this by describing their pictures to each other or asking questions. Students who have found duplicates bring them to you. The activity ends when all the pictures are paired. (from Ur,Penny, 1988:169-170) 2. Practice for Future and Future perfect tenses:Future achievements(Bank of materials: ) Copy the timeline and give each student one copy Ask the students to write down three achievements they are pleased with, and to mark below the line the year now and in 20 years time. The sloping lines represent every second year between now and 20 years hence Ask the students to imagine what they will have achieved by every marked year on the timeline and to write a sentence for every marked year, writing up the sloping lines Group the students in threes and ask them to compare past achievements and timelines, reading their sentences out.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Frank,Ch, & Rinvolucri,M Harmer, J Harmer,J Ur,Penny Ur,Penny Wajnryb,R.

1991, Grammar in Action Again,Prantice Hall 1987,Teaching and Learning Grammar,Longman 1991,The Practice of English Language Teaching,Longman 1992,Grammar Practice Activities, CUP 1996,A Course in Language Teaching,CUP 1993,Grammar Dictation,OUP

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UNIT V TEACHING LISTENING Language learners often have a compulsion to comprehend everything [when listening] which may be the result of a fear of making incorrect guesses... Penny Ur, 1984, Teaching Listening Comprehension,p.14)

Aims: to make student-teachers aware of the difficulties of listening for a foreign language learner to show student-teachers how the teacher can help the learners overcome these difficulties to help student-teachers devise listening tasks which replicate real-life listening strategies In the language of methodology you will often find concepts like receptive skills referring to listening and reading, and productive skills referring to speaking and writing. Though receptive skills mean that the listener (reader) does not produce language, in real life he/she is actively involved in these activities because he/she has a certain purpose and expectations when listening or reading. On the other hand, speaking and writing are considered to be productive skills because they involve language production on the part of the speaker (writer). In native as well as foreign language, the listeners (readers) make use of a number of sub-skills which lead to their understanding of the content of what they hear or see. Harmer,J. (1991:183-184) mentions six such sub-skills: a). predictive skills b). extracting specific information c). getting the general picture d). extracting detailed information e). recognising function and discourse patterns f). deducing meaning from context These subskills, subconsciously used by the native listener (reader), create difficulties for the foreign language learner because of psychological barriers (fear of failure or frustration). What are the difficulties of listening for a foreign language learner? ________________________________________________________________________ TASK:

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Here are some problems a listener might be confronted with. Sort them into categories of your own choice and give reasons for putting them together. Add any other problems you might think of: - speed of speech -accents - background noise -memory (trying to remember everything) - weak forms - predictive ability - lack of knowledge of context - listening for every word - redundancy (repetitions,fillers,eg.well) - distinguishing individual words - tension - previous learning experience - short concentration span - lack of background knowledge of L2 - contractions - no interest in topic - tiring - activity overload ________________________________________________________________________

In answer to the previous question we shall approach ways by which teachers can help their students to listen successfully in English: encouraging the students to exploit the redundancy of spoken English and to guess meaning from context (e.g., by listening for gist, see below) encouraging the students to make use of their general knowledge while listening (e.g. by asking students to state the type of spoken text) introducing and talking about the topic before listening and asking them to predict what they will hear giving students a reason to listen (by devising simple tasks to be done while listening) Real life listening In real life situations we listen to a variety of spoken texts: radio/TV programmes, announcements at railway stations, lectures, casual conversations,etc. We listen to such texts in different ways. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Make a list of different real life listening situations and group them according to the following types of listening: A.Listening for the general idea (GIST) B. Listening for specific information (only the items the listener is interested in) C. Intensive listening (focused listening) D. Listening for communication (in order to respond and communicate) ________________________________________________________________________

The characteristics of real life listening situations:

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the speaker uses short chunks of language (e.g. in a conversation people take short turns to speak) pronunciation is often noticeably different from the phonological representation given in a dictionary vocabulary is often colloquial language used in informal situations is often ungrammatical noise can prevent the listener from understanding every word redundancy (repetitions, use of fillers, etc.) the hearer looks as well as listens, except when listening to the radio or speaking on phone Real life listening in the classroom: Though classroom listening is not real life, the listening activities should give learners practice in coping with, at least, some of the features of real life listening. Thus, the teacher can use the cassette recorder and recordings of real life situations for which he/she constructs tasks. Principles in the construction of listening tasks In the construction of listening tasks the teacher should bear in mind the following: questions on the listening text should be short and clear because students hear the text only once and they cannot go over it as in reading students should not be required to write too much as they do not have time while listening it is much better that questions should first check understanding of gist rather than specific information listening tasks should have a variety of question types and make them answerable by one or two words or by ticks in squares . using grids for the practice of note-taking integrating listening activities with speaking, reading and writing activities within one lesson Examples of listening activities (with or without cassette recordings) It is important to mention that listening tasks should be preceded by pre-listening activities and followed by post-listening activities . 1. Pre-listening activities - looking at pictures and talking about them - looking at a list of items, thoughts, etc. - making lists of possibilities, ideas, suggestions, etc. - reading through questions to be answered while-listening - labelling - predicting
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- pre-viewing language - class discussion

2. While-listening activities - marking/checking items in pictures - matching pictures with what is heard - story line picture sets - putting pictures in order - picture drawing - carrying out actions - following a route on a map - completing grids (forms, charts) - T/F - multiple-choice questions - gap-filling - spotting mistakes - prediction - seeking specific items of information 3. Post-listening activities - form (chart) completing - extending lists - extending notes into written responses - summarising - using information for problem solving activities - identifying relationship between speakers - establishing mood, attitude of the speaker - role-play /simulation - dictation ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Take any tape (or tapescript) which accompanies the English textbooks and construct a listening tasksheet. Mention the level of the students for whom you devise the task and include at least one pre-listening and one post-listening activity too. ________________________________________________________________________

BIBLIOGRAPHY Doff, A. Harmer,J Nunan,D Ur,P. 1988, Teach English, CUP 1991, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman 1991, Language Teaching Methodology, Prentice Hall 1996, A Course in Language Teaching, CUP

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1984, Teaching Listening Comprehension, CUP

UNIT VI TEACHING SPEAKING AND PRONUNCIATION When two people are engaged in talking to each other we can be fairly sure that they are doing so for good reasons. (J.Harmer:1991) Aims: to develop student-teachers awareness of what the process of communication involves to help student-teachers to understand the difference between non-communicative and communicative activities to help student-teachers in the design of successful speaking activities in the classroom to help student-teachers to design specific activities for teaching pronunciation of difficult sounds for Romanian learners of English 1. The nature of communication Communicating in real life situations involves two people : a speaker and a listener. The speakers: - want to say something, that is they have a reason why the feel they need to speak. For example, people may wish to speak in order to make requests or inquiries, to express opinions and feelings, to convey information, to socialise, etc. - select from their language store what is appropriate for the communicative situation. For example, they will use different registers, formal or informal language, depending on the communicative context. The listeners: - want to listen to something and have a desire to understand the message. - process a variety of language in order to understand exactly what is being said (Adapted from Harmer,J.,1991:46-48) In conclusion, the nature of communication consists of a process of interaction between two people, in which one knows something and wants to communicate it, and the other is interested in listening and responding to it. 2. Non-communicative vs. communicative activities

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When teaching speaking the teacher will have to distinguish between communicative and non-communicative activities in order to set up successful speaking tasks and to encourage students to speak. According to the nature of communication discussed above and the principles of communicative methodology, the communicative activities that the teacher designs for classroom use are those which meet the following characteristics, compared to the noncommunicative ones: Non-communicative activities no communicative desire no communicative purpose purpose form not content one language item teacher intervention materials control 3. Characteristics of a successful speaking activity ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: In groups, discuss and make a list of what you think are the features of learners involvement in speaking activities. ________________________________________________________________________ Checklist of features of a successful speaking activity: a. Learners talk a lot; b. Participation is even - classroom/group discussions are not dominated by a minority of talkative participants; c. Motivation is high: learners are eager to speak because they are interested in the topic and have something new to say about it; d. Language is of an acceptable level: learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other and of an acceptable level of language accuracy. (From Ur,Penny, 1996:120) 4. Criteria for setting up a speaking activity It is not an easy task to set up speaking activities in the classroom because of the many problems the learners are faced with when they are asked to speak. Some of these problems are: a. Inhibition: learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign language in front of an audience because they are worried about making mistakes, are fearful of criticism, or losing face, or simply shy of the attention that their speech attracts; Communicative activities a desire to communicate a communicative content not form variety of language no teacher intervention no materials control

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b. Nothing to say: even if they are not inhibited, learners often complain that they cannot think of anything to say. They have no reason to express themselves; c. Low or uneven participation: in a large group, participants will have little talking time since some learners tend to dominate, while others speak very little or not at all; d. Mother tongue use: learners may tend to use mother tongue because it is easier, because it feels unnatural to speak to one another in a foreign language, and because they feel less exposed if they are speaking their mother tongue. The criteria for setting up successful speaking activities imply ways by which the teacher can help learners overcome these problems. Thus when devising speaking activities the teacher should: check or pre-teach useful VOCABULARY or STRUCTURES that the learners are likely to need; select interesting topics in order to MOTIVATE learners, generate INTEREST in the activity, and give the activity a PURPOSE; set appropriate CLASS LAYOUT for speaking activities. For example, group work for solving problems, pair work for information transfer, circle for discussion, back to back for telephone conversations, etc. give clear INSTRUCTIONS so that students know what they have to do; give learners TIME TO PREPARE for the speaking activity, to work out ideas, opinions,etc. leave time for FEED-BACK think about what, how, when to CORRECT (try not to interrupt unless the communication is broken down). 5. Examples of communicative speaking activities Spot the differences: learners are given slightly similar pictures and they have to find out the differences by asking questions, describing, etc. Matching cards, e.g., half of the class gets cards with questions and the other half cards with answers. Learners have to find their partners. Filling in grids about fellow students: students are asked to interview their partners and fill in grids Information gap: (see the example The Eurovision Song Contest in the Bank of Materials) Prioritising: rating according to certain criteria (see the example Survival in the Desert in the Bank of Materials) Guessing games (see Wright,A, Betteridge,D and Buckby,M :1979, for examples) Problem solving (see the example Zoo Plan in the Bank of Materials) Role play (see Ladousse Porter, Gillian:1987 for examples)

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Discussions: teacher sets a topic and the students express their opinions

5. Teaching pronunciation Pronunciation includes the production of L2 sounds that do not impair the understanding of meaning. The communicative approach to the learning of English does not insist on the correct (received/standard = RP) pronunciation , since the focus is upon meaning, function, appropriacy in communication. Yet, pronunciation is a matter of concern for teachers, especially at the beginners level, when students are initially exposed to the sounds of English. Difficult sounds for Romanian learners should be the aim of teaching pronunciation in the classroom. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Think back at your experience as learners of English, and write down the English sounds that you found difficult or different from Romanian ones. ________________________________________________________________________ Some of the possible difficulties that the Romanian learners could have might be: the vowel sounds in minimal pairs; for example [e] [] ; [I] [I:], etc. the sounds [] and [] which do not exist in the Romanian language word and sentence stress intonation IDEAS FOR PRONUNCIATION ACTIVITIES TO PRACTICE IN CLASS 1. Choose a sound to practise or two sounds to contrast. Invent a profile of someone (to go with a picture of them ) . Read the profile to the students and ask them questions about the person. Students practise the sound(s) when answering. Example profile: Hank Travers is a mad, bad gangster. When he was young he used to trap cats, but now he robs banks. Theyre going to hang him but he doesnt give a damn. 2. Give the students an example of two names having sounds that make up minimal pairs.Choose three or four topics to talk about the two people and make sure that the words include the sounds on focus. Example: Collin Coleen

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Likes: Dislikes: Travels to:

tinned fish garlic Finland

lean meat leak Greece

3. Rhythm and intonation: Jazz chants are very suitable for practising rhythm and intonation. Here is an example. The students could be asked to role-play the jazz chants :

YOU DID IT AGAIN I told you not to do it, and you did it again Im sorry, Im sorry. You did it! What did I do? You broke it! What did I break? You tore it! What did I tear? I told you not to do it and you did it again. Im sorry, Im sorry. You shook it! What did I shake? You took it! What did I take? I told you not to do it and you did it again. Im sorry, Im sorry. TIPS FOR IMPROVING LEARNERS PRONUNCIATION imitation of teacher or recorded model of sounds, words and sentences; recording of learners speech contrasted with native model and self correction; systematic explanation and instruction (including details of the structure and movements of parts of the mouth); learning and performing dialogues learning by heart of rhymes, tongue twisters and jazz chants (Adapted from: Penny Ur, 1996:54) ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: Design some pronunciation activities of your own that you think might give useful practice to your students. ________________________________________________________________________

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Campbell,C & Kryszewska,H Doff,A Dobson,J.M. Harmer,J Haycraft,J Nunan,D Porter-Ladousse,G Ur,Penny

1992, Learner-based Teaching,OUP 1988, Teach English,CUP 1989, Effective Techniques for English Conversation Groups,USIA 1991, The Practice of English Language Teaching,Longman 1978, An Introduction to English Language Teaching,Longman 1991, Language Teaching Methodology,Prentice Hall 1987, Role play,OUP 1996, A Course in Language Teaching, CUP

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UNIT VII TEACHING READING Using a text does not necessarily equal teaching reading

Aims: to raise student-teachers awareness of what skills are involved in the process of reading to help student-teachers devise classroom reading tasks with the aim of encouraging learners to deal with texts 1. What reading involves When we read a text in either L1 or L2, we usually focus on: recognition of words and phrases understanding grammar predicting the type of text, what follows in the text,etc. guessing the meaning of words from the context the logical ordering of paragraphs into larger units of text The teaching of reading should reproduce as closely as possible real-life reading situations. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: In your groups discuss and write down WHAT you read in real life situations and WHY you read. Make a list under the heading WHAT and WHY. ________________________________________________________________________ Real life reading: WHY pleasure study work information WHAT novels, poetry, magazines,etc. coursebooks, dictionaries, science,etc. journal, reports, catalogues, memos,etc. timetables, newspapers, leaflets,etc.

2. Modes of reading texts

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When reading such texts for the purposes above-mentioned, we read them in different ways, we employ different reading strategies. For example, we may read some texts just to get a general idea of what the text is about (skimming); we read other texts to find out specific information that we are interested in, for example, names, dates, locations, etc. (scanning); and, finally, we may read texts in detail (e.g. for study) in order to comprehend the whole text (detailed/intensive reading). 3. Reading subskills The reader uses specific subskills whenever he/she deals with a text. Such subskills may be: Decoding the written text: - dealing with handwriting/typefaces - word recognition - relating the spelling of a word to its spoken form Using layout - recognising text type from layout -understanding how the structure of texts is emphasised by layout (paragraphs, subtitles, etc.) Predicting the content - from visual clues (layout, pictures) - from source of text (e.g. Is it from a popular magazine?, the introduction to a university textbook?, etc.) - from readers own prior knowledge of subject Understanding the text - identifying topic - extracting the main idea - recognising discourse functions , e.g. defining, comparing, contrasting,etc. - inferring the meaning implicit in text - understanding conventions associated with different text types (e.g., footnote numbers in academic texts, etc.) Working from the text - note-taking - summarising - relating and transferring written information to graphic formats (graphs, charts,etc) 3. Teaching reading: strategies for dealing with a text This section deals with the ways in which the teacher can help students to cope with reading a text. We will consider the stages involved in teaching reading, the points the teacher has to bear in mind for each stage, and the classroom techniques suitable for each stage: Introducing the topic is the stage at which the teacher could try to personalise the topic so that the students might be more involved and motivated . For example, the teaching of a text dealing with entertainment could start with discussions about the students

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personal experience. Another possibility of introducing the topic is to ask the students to predict the context and possible content of the text by looking at the layout, visuals or title of the text. These introductory techniques aim at creating a need to read the text. Facilitating the task: is the stage at which the teacher pre-teaches the vocabulary items by focusing upon key words only (see criteria for selecting vocabulary). Getting the gist: can help students practise the subskill of skimming by the use of such techniques as T/F and multiple choice exercises. Do not forget that the questions should be given to the students before starting to read the text. At this stage it is important to set a relatively short time limit in order to be sure that students just skim the text and do not read every word! Intensive reading: refers to students re-reading of the whole text and aims at checking if they understood the message of the text. It involves a detailed reading.Some of the techniques for the checking of text comprehension are: T/F, Yes/No, Wh- questions, multiple choice, drawing of maps, filling in charts, ordering scrambled pieces of texts (or pictures), etc. Important point to consider: though reading is an individual activity, the teacher can encourage students to co-operate in the exchange of information by working in pairs or groups when checking and exchanging information, comparing notes, problem solving,etc.

4. Reading activities The instructions and examples in italics, refer to the newspaper text The Hungry Tomato which is in the Bank of Materials. Here are examples of task-sheets that the teacher could construct for reading texts if the textbook does not contain such exercises. Not all the examples should be used for one text. Pre-reading - Predicting: by looking over the text and pictures, headlines e.g.: Look over the text quickly. Does it come from: a. a novel b. a magazine c. a newspaper Read the headline/Look at the pictures. Do you expect the passage to be: a. serious b humorous While-reading - Skimming for gist: The teacher may ask students to read quickly and: - identify pictures - find key words -give or select a title -answer gist questions e.g.: Which is the best description of the passage. Is it about:

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a. a man who was killed and eaten by a tomato? b. a man who wanted to kill and eat a giant tomato? - Scanning for specific information: The teacher may ask the students to: - answer T/F questions - answer open ended questions - complete tables, grids - order information in the text e.g. How many people are mentioned by name in the passage? ----------------------------Three different places are mentioned. List them below. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Reading for detail: The teacher may ask the students to: - answer open ended questions - answer T/F questions - complete notes or summary e.g. Read the text carefully to answer the following questions. Tick the two most important pieces of information in this passage: a. Eric is British b. Eric ran away from the tomato c. Eric has two children d. The tomato wanted to eat Eric. True or false? a. Eric claimed a killer tomato was chased off an allotment. b. Experts believe that a deranged botanist could have produced the killer tomato.

- Deducing meaning from context: The teacher may ask students to -label a diagram -match words with definitions -match words with paraphrases e.g. Match the words to their synonyms: allotment disturbed deranged expert boffin vegetable garden -Understanding text structure: The teacher may ask students to: -re-order sentences, paragraphs -find/use cohesive devices by giving such tasks as the following: Find the link words: a. Eric was forced to run for his life------------the tomato attacked him.

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b. People probably think that Eric was joking---------------he knew what he had seen. Who is the person referred to by I in the paragraph under Balloons (I looked out.....) Order the main stages in the organisation of the passage: -------------description of the event in detail ------------scientific explanation -----------summary of the story NOTE: A good lesson is one which balances the skills practised. Therefore reading should not take up a whole lesson. ________________________________________________________________________ TASK: In your group discuss and give examples of possible follow-up activities involving other skills than reading. ________________________________________________________________________ TEN TIPS FOR TEACHING READING 1. In the absence of interesting texts, very little is possible. 2. The primary activity of a reading lesson should be learners reading texts. 3. Growth in language ability is an essential part in the development of reading ability. 4. Classroom procedure should reflect the purposeful, task-based, interactive nature of real reading. 5. Teachers must learn to be quiet: all too often, teachers interfere with and so retard their learners reading development by being too dominant and by talking too much. 6. Exercise types should, as far as possible, approximate to cognitive reality. 7. A learner will not become a proficient reader simply by attending a reading course or by working through a reading textbook. 8. A reader contributes meaning to a text. 9. Progress in reading requires learners to use their ears, as well as their eyes. 10. Using a text does not necessarily equal teaching reading.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Doff,A. Gairns,R.&Redman,S., Harmer,J Haycraft,J., Ur,P. Wallace,C., 1988, Teach English, CUP 1986, Working with Words, CUP. 1991, A Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman 1978, An Introduction to English Language Teaching, Longman. 1996, A Course in Language Teaching, CUP. 1992, Reading, OUP.

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UNIT VIII TEACHING WRITING ... writing maketh ... an exacte man. Francis Bacon

Aims: to raise student-teachers awareness of the elements involved in the process of writing to provide student-teachers with some examples of classroom writing activities 1 What writing involves Writing involves four elements: the writer, the process, the product and the reader. This means that there are aspects which the writer has to deal with (spelling, choice of vocabulary, grammar, syntax, discourse elements, text organisation), that there are stages in the process of writing (brainstorming, planning, drafting, writing, editing), and that the writer has to have in mind the audience to whom he addresses the written product. The teaching of writing addresses all levels of language ability and ages, starting with copying and dictations for young learners and ending with students producing whole texts. The role of the teacher is to help and encourage students throughout this process by setting meaningful and specific tasks to be done in the classroom as well as outside it. 2. Teaching writing It is important to teach writing as a skill in itself because good writing is not merely written oral work nor is there an automatic transfer of ability from speaking to writing. Writing is an excellent follow-up to many classroom activities, such as listening, reading comprehension or oral composition (by using visual aids). It is important to mention that writing is also a classroom activity, not only home assignment. Writing in the classroom can also help to vary the pace in-between activities that involve intensive oral work. In the communicative approach writing is seen as a process of communication in which the writer has to ask him/herself the following questions: Why am I writing this? (purpose) Who will read it? (audience) How will I write it? (pre-writing, drafting, revising, re-writing)

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How can the teacher help students become good writers? by making students aware of the differences between speaking and writing:

SPEAKING -natural activity - ephemeral - instant feed-back (i.e.listener present) -bad grammar normal, acceptable repetition, mistakes, unfinished sentences, changes in mid-sentence - paralinguistic features are used to aid expression - expressive features used to communicate: - stress, intonation, variation in volume pauses

WRITING -unnatural activity - recorded on paper or computer disk - delayed feed-back -bad grammar not acceptable depends on the style and the intended reader - punctuation serves this function - punctuation and stylistic devices

by devising and using controlled (guided) tasks which practise a wide range of writing skills by making students aware of the stages of the writing process and by practising them in the classroom

2. Writing activities As we have already mentioned the teaching of writing can start at the lower level of language competence. Here is a list of activities (tasks) for primary level and beyond primary level: 1. Copy (words and sentences) 2. Drawing and labelling (an image and writing the words for each part of the picture) 3. Gap-filling (short texts with words missing) 4. Unscrambling sentences (ordering words in a sentence) 5. Sequencing and copying jumbled sentences (ordering and copying the sentences into paragraphs or coherent text) 6. Dictation 7. Parallel paragraphs (a paragraph is given to Ss as a model and they re-write it using personal data) 8. Poems (elicit vocabulary items on a theme; students organise them into a poem) 9. Dialogue writing (one student writes or addresses his/her partner in writing and the partner answers) 10.Class story (use of the new vocabulary in the production of a text written on the blackboard and copied by the students)

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11. Copy and correct (teacher provides texts with mistakes and students have to correct them) Beyond primary level: 1. Guided composition (the teacher provides key words, pictures, question prompts and the students write) 2. Letter exchanges (students write short letters to each other) 3. Other functional writing tasks: - form-filling - telephone messages - formal letters - writing to the problem page of a newspaper (a group of students think of a personal problem and write to a newspaper asking for help from the readers; the other group of students answer by giving advice). 4. Free composition involves creative writing on a certain topic (e.g. Describe your town, etc.). Free writing can create problems to students because they would probably make many mistakes and find the task frustrating thus not learning very much from it. For the teacher, it is difficult to correct free compositions because of their variety and time constraints. Solutions: the teacher might give a short text as a model, can do oral preparation for the writing and can limit the number of words or lines to be written.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Campbell,C and Kryszewska,H.. Doff. A. Harmer, J. Haycraft, J. Morgan, J.& Rinvolucri,M. Ur, P. Wright, A. Wright,A.;Betteridge,D & Buckby,M. 1992, Learner-Based Teaching, OUP 1988, Teach English, CUP 1991, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman 1978, An Introduction to English Language Teaching,Longman 1983, Once Upon a Time. Using Stories in the Language Classroom, CUP 1996, A Course in Language Teaching, CUP 1989, Pictures for Language Learning, CUP 1979, Games for Language Learning, CUP

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UNIT IX LESSON PLANNING To fail to plan is to plan to fail

Aims: to raise student-teachers awareness of the necessity of planning a lesson in advance and of the components of a lesson; to help student-teachers to plan lessons and to distinguish both the various stages of the lesson and the relationship between them; to provide student teachers with models of lesson plans;

1. Planning a lesson The best teachers are those who think carefully about what they are going to do in their classes and who plan how they are going to organise the teaching and learning (J.Harmer, 1991:256). Furthermore, teachers should also consider the reasons for doing what they have planned. The things that a teacher might think of when planning a lesson are: students language level, the aims of the lesson, the new language (vocabulary, grammar, language functions), the skills to be taught, stages of the lessons, activities, timing for each activity, materials to be used, interaction, anticipated problems. We shall discuss all these issues in turn. Students language level: although textbooks are chosen according to the students age and language level (see Unit X), an important factor in the success of a lesson is the teachers ability to plan everything bearing in mind the age and level of the students. We refer here to the fact that the materials and activities should neither be too easy, not too difficult for the students in order to ensure successful learning opportunities. In this respect, it is recommendable for the teacher to adapt the textbook to the needs of the class. Aims of the lesson: according to Adrian Doff (1988), it is important to see first what the general aim of the lesson is. For example, a lesson may focus on a particular topic, so its aim could be to learn the names of colours, or to practise language for giving directions. If the lesson focuses on a particular structure its aim could be to describe actions using the past simple or to practise describing past events. When the lesson

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focuses on a skill its aim could be to understand spoken instructions and to fill in a chart or to express opinions about advantages/disadvantages of television. The aims could be general aims of the lesson and specific aims of each stage and activity. Here are some examples of general and specific aims: _____________________________________________________________________ TASK: Read the list through and decide with your partner which of the aims could be general and which specific. I. AIMS IN TERMS OF SKILLS: 1. To stimulate conversation by having Ss add a sentence to an imaginative serial story; 2. To provide Ss with listening practice for the general idea by listening to a conversation; 3. To read for specific information; 4. To activate Ss imagination by predicting the content of the reading text; 5. To provide written practice through the use of imaginative telegrams; 6. To provide written practice through the creative use of hypothetical situations. 7. To provide Ss with oral practice about a topic; 8. To provide Ss with an opportunity to follow explicit directions and commands using a physical action activity (game); 9. To stimulate discussion through the use of problem solving techniques related to an imaginative crime; 10. To provide oral practice and encourage free conversation based on an assigned topic. II. AIMS FOR LANGUAGE VOCABULARY: 1. To encourage Ss to guess the meaning of new vocabulary from contextual clues; 2. To reinforce high-frequency vocabulary items by providing common associations for each item; 3. To provide practice in identifying and recording the names of a variety of common objects; GRAMMAR: 1. To recognise various structural categories and to provide examples for each one; 2. To review the letters of the alphabet and to practise using the present continuous form of the verb with noun combinations; 3. To practise comparative and superlative forms using realia and pictures. Reference source: G.McCallum, 1980, 101 Word Games, Oxford: OUP ____________________________________________________________________

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In order to clarify the idea of aim of a lesson, consider the following examples of teachers who state the aim of their lesson as an answer to the question: What are you going to teach today?: Teacher A: Were doing lesson fifteen. Its question and answer practice using the substitution table. Teacher B: Were going to practise present simple questions with When..., and time expressions. Teacher C: Were going to practise asking and answering questions using the present simple, so that students learn to talk about everyday activities and when they do them. (Adapted from: A.Doff,1996: 95) _____________________________________________________________________ TASK: Read the comments of the three teachers, discuss them with your partner and decide which teacher has the clearest idea of the aim of the lesson and why. _____________________________________________________________________ New language: it is important for the teacher to know what the structural and lexical content of his/her lesson is. In terms of the structural content students should be taught the form, the meaning and the use of the grammatical structure. In terms of the lexical content, the teacher should decide on which vocabulary items are new to the students and which should only be activated. (see Unit on Vocabulary). Skills: when planning a lesson the teacher should make sure that it is balanced from the point of view of the skills practised, i.e. a lesson does neither necessarily focus on one skill only, nor does it contain all the four skills. Usually, a lesson can focus on one skill, with complementary activities on other skills. For example, if the main focus of a lesson is listening, the pre-listening stage can practise speaking to discuss the topic, the listening stage itself can have a writing component (e.g., filling in tables, note-taking,etc), and the follow up to the listening could be another writing activity as homework. Stages of the lesson: ordering activities within a lesson is an important step in lesson planning. Thus, the main stages of a lesson are: 1. Introduction (Lead-in/Warmer): this is the stage in which the teacher introduces the topic of the lesson by various procedures, e.g. discussion with students or questions to help the students predict the topic 2. Presentation: the presentation of the new lexical and grammatical content does not necessarily constitute a fixed stage at the beginning of a lesson. There could be more than one presentation, depending on how many new content areas the teacher wants to introduce. The presentation is usually a lock-step activity (the teacher works with the whole class and the interaction is T-Ss.).

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For more details on how to present new vocabulary items and grammar structures see Unit III and Unit IV. 3. Practice: in this stage the students practise the structures or vocabulary items presented in the previous stage. The activities should range from controlled (when the teacher knows exactly what the students will produce) to free (when students are encouraged to be creative). In terms of skill practice, it is important to bear in mind that any skill should have some pre- activities and should be followed by post-activities (Follow-up). For example, pre reading activities could include prediction of the topic, discussions on what students already know about the topic, etc., the while-reading activities could be different tasks to be done on the text, and the follow-up could be a written assignment. In case the activity is organised in pairs or groups, it is important that the teacher check the achievement of the task by asking students to report on their work. 4. Homework: the homework must be planned in advance by the teacher in order to become a relevant and useful activity for the students. It can be the follow-up of a skill practice activity. Here are some things to remember about homework assigning: - it must not be left for the last moment of the lesson; - depending on the age and language level of the students, it must be done orally in class (at least partially) and at least one example should be provided by the teacher. NOTE: For practising the identification of the stages of a lesson, refer to the activity in the Bank of materials. Activities: they can include vocabulary and grammar exercises as well as skill practice. They should be graded from simple to more complex and from controlled to free. The teacher should make sure that there is a balance in terms of the pace of the activities, i.e. very alert activities could be integrated with more relaxing ones. Timing: it is an important element to consider when planning a lesson because the teacher should know how many activities are manageable within the 50 minutes available. The time allotted to each activity depends on the time it takes students to perform it. It is advisable for the teacher to give sufficient time to students to think and work out the activity and to take into account the age and language level of the students. In most cases students should know in advance how long they can take to fulfil the task. Another issue to consider when timing the activities is the students different rhythm in doing a task. Some students may finish earlier than others, so the teacher should be prepared with extra-activities for the quick students and help the slower ones.

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Materials: the textbook is not the only resource for the teacher. Other materials to supplement the textbook include: visuals, realia, audio/video recordings, tasksheets devised by the teacher,etc. The use of such supplementary material depends on the age, language level of the students and also on the textbook itself. For example, in the case of young learners, the more visual and auditive material the teacher uses, the more the students understand and learn. Interaction: it refers to the way in which the teacher manages the organisation of the activity in terms of participants role in the activity. For example, in the introduction stage, the teacher interacts with the whole class, so the interaction is T to Ss. In the practice stage, students can work in pairs (S to S) or groups (S to Ss). When the teacher checks the achievement of a task, the interaction might be S to Ss and S to T. Though pair work and group work are important elements (but not the only ones) in communicative teaching, they should be used in a relevant way for the students to enable them to use the language and to communicate with each other. A lesson should be balanced from the point of view of the types of interaction. Anticipated problems: when planning a lesson, the teacher should predict problems that the students might encounter in learning. For example, in the teaching of the Present Perfect, the students might find it difficult to differentiate between present time activities and past time activities. Consequently the teacher might plan more activities to help the students understand the difference.

2. Writing a lesson plan Lesson plans are personal tools for the teacher but also official school documents and therefore their format can range from simple, sketchy notes, to well-developed lesson plans. When lesson plans are meant to be submitted to school authorities as documents, they must have a certain format. For example, the heading should include: name of the teacher, date, class, aims, content and stages of the lesson, anticipated problems, materials,etc. There is not a fixed format for the writing of a lesson plan. See the Bank of materials for models. 3. Tips for lesson planning be flexible (do not necessarily stick to the plan); keep your plans for the following school year (be ready to adapt them); think of extra activities (for quicker students or in case you have spare time); think of activities you can sacrifice (in case you have planned to much); write your comments on the plan (for further reference); dont forget FUN.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Doff,A. Harmer,J. Underwood,M. Ur,P.

1996, Teach English,CUP 1991, The Practice of English Language Teaching,Longman 1989, Effective Class Management,Longman 1996, A Course in Language Teaching, CUP

UNIT X TEXTBOOK EVALUATION ...a central feature of all teacher training and development should be to help teachers become better consumers of textbooks by teaching them how to select and use textbooks effectively (Hutchinson,T.&Torres,E., The Textbook as Agent of Change, ELT Journal, 1994,Oct.,vol.48/4 OUP)

Aim: to help student-teachers to evaluate textbooks Textbooks are the main teaching resource for teachers in Romania, since the educational policy is based on materials authorised by the Ministry of Education. However, the last few years have brought sweeping changes in the teaching of English in this country, and teachers of English have the chance of choosing between several alternative textbooks offered either by Romanian or British authors. Consequently, selecting the most suitable textbook for classroom use has become an issue to consider for every teacher and school authority. According to Hutchinson and Waters the process of textbook evaluation is a matching process: matching needs to available solutions(1989:97). As the quotation shows, in selecting textbooks, there are two things that the teacher has to consider: on the one hand, the needs analysis which should indicate the age, language level, previous knowledge, interests of the students, and on the other hand, the solutions which the textbook itself offers. By solutions we understand such textbook features as: availability intended target learner layout/graphics accessibility linkage selection/grading physical characteristics appropriacy authenticity sufficiency cultural bias educational validity
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stimulus/practice/revision flexibility guidance overall value for money (The checklist has been slightly adapted from: Sheldon,L.E., Evaluating ELT Textbooks and Materials, in ELT Journal, Oct.,1988,vol.42/4, OUP) Availability for inspection before actual use in the classroom. In other words, this points to whether it is easy to obtain sample copies and support material for inspection, or to contact the publishers/authors in case teachers want further information about the content, approach, or pedagogical details of the book. Intended target learner refers to the existence of a clear specification in the textbook of the target age range, culture, assumed background, probable preferences, and interests of the learner. This textbook feature also includes evaluating the content of the textbook in terms of reference to examination requirements. Layout/graphics points to the optimum density and mix of text and graphical material on each page, and to how appealing, colourful and nice the artwork and typefaces are. Accessibility tells the teacher such things as: the clear organisation of the material, indexes, vocabulary lists, section headings,and other methods of signposting the content that allow the student to use the material easily, especially for revision or self-study purposes. Such signposts could also include clear marking of the skills and interaction involved in the various activities (listening, reading, group-work, pair-work,etc.). Linkage is the feature that shows the teacher whether the units and exercises in the textbook connect in terms of theme, situation, topic, pattern of skill development, or grammatical/lexical progression. Another relevant aspect is whether the textbook is a link with the previous textbooks. It is the teachers job to find out if the textbook fits the level of the students, in terms of what the students have already learned so that there is neither an overlap nor a too large gap as far as the language input is concerned. Selection/grading is the way in which the new linguistic items are introduced, practised, or recycled by the textbook. In other words, whether the textbook shows a systematic way of selecting and grading the activities. (e.g. from simple to more complex, from controlled to free). Physical characteristics: though it may seem trivial, the following characteristics should be taken into account: space for the students to write in the book, its being robust, too large or too heavy, the possibility of using it more than once, especially if it is marked by previous students, etc.

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Appropriacy shows whether the material is substantial and interesting enough to hold the attention of learners and also whether the language input is pitched at the right level of maturity and language level of the students. Authenticity defines the textbook content as being realistic, taken from L1 material not initially intended for ELT purposes. Authentic textbooks should exploit language in a communicative or real-world way and contain texts which are not unacceptably simplified or artificial (for e.g. in the use of whole sentence dialogues). Sufficiency indicates whether the book is complete enough to stand on its own or whether the teacher must produce a lot of auxiliary material to make it workable. Cultural background points to the textbook containing information about social, historical, geographical realities of the English speaking countries. Teachers should avoid books that contain stereotyped, inaccurate, condescending or offensive images of gender, race, nationality, social class, etc. Educational validity refers to whether the textbook takes account of broader educational concerns (e.g., the nature and role of learning skills, concept development in younger learners, the function of knowledge of the world, the exploitation of sensitive issues, such as sex, racism, etc.). Stimulus/practice/revision help the teacher evaluate if the course material is interactive, if there are sufficient opportunities for the learner to use his/her English so that effective consolidation may take place. Moreover, the can observe whether there is allowance made for revision, testing, and on-going evaluation of exercises and activities, especially in large group situations. A textbook containing ready-made achievement texts or selfchecks may be very helpful for the hardpressed teachers. Flexibility is the necessary feature for the textbook to accommodate such practical constraints as the availability of audio-visual equipment, class size, teacher preparation time and student homework time, the possibility of modifying the material as required by the local situation. Guidance refers to the components of the course material accompanying the textbook: Teachers Guide, cassettes, Practice Book. Overall value for money shows whether the textbook is cost-effective, easy to use and successful in terms of time, labour and money. These textbook features should not be taken as compulsory rules in textbook evaluation since this activity is essentially a subjective one. But at the very least, perhaps the use of similar evaluative parameters will help to make it [evaluation], when time and circumstances allow, a more coherent, thoughtful enterprise than it often is at present (Sheldon,1988:245).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sheldon, L.E. Evaluating ELT textbooks and materials, in ELT Journal, vol.42/4, Oct., 1988, OUP

BANK OF MATERIALS

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UNIVERSITATEA TRANSILVANIA BRASOV FACULTATEA DE STIINTE CATEDRA DE LIMBI STRAINE

METODICA PREDARII LIMBII ENGLEZE

GHID PENTRU STUDENTI

AUTORI: Asist. univ. Liliana Coposescu Asist. univ. Gabriela Cusen

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