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Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 14411452 www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

ASEAN towards clean and sustainable energy: Potentials, utilization and barriers
N.W.A. Lidula, N. Mithulananthan, W. Ongsakul, C. Widjaya, R. Henson
Energy Field of Study, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand Received 28 May 2006; accepted 26 July 2006 Available online 27 October 2006

Abstract This paper reports the outcome of the project on Capacity building in formulating harmonized policy instruments for the promotion of Renewable Energy and Energy Efciency in the ASEAN member countries. With the growing concerns about green house gas (GHG) emission and consequent climate change, renewable energy sources have become more attractive option for electricity generation around the world. Studies have been made on the status of renewable energy potential and utilization, major barriers in promoting renewable energy in ASEAN countries, major energy policies to overcome barriers, and existing renewable energy and energy efciency policies in ASEAN countries. Paper concludes that ASEAN has not utilized its renewable energy resources anywhere near to the potential. Analysis found that the key factor that has to be amended is policies and regulations in renewable energy and energy efciency at both country level and regional level. But, ASEAN is not yet ready for the full harmonization of the policies. However, it recommends that, with the project outputs it is possible to focus on the specic policy instruments common to most of the member countries, such that it could use to augment ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) initiatives. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Renewable energy; Energy efciency; ASEAN; Policies

Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 2 524 5405; fax: +66 2 524 5439.

E-mail address: mithulan@ait.ac.th (N. Mithulananthan). 0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2006.07.007

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1. Introduction In the light of concerns about global warming due to human enhancement of the greenhouse effect, there is a clearly growing concern about how energy needs are addressed on a sustainable basis. Considering also the ever increasing fossil fuel prices and the fact that countries in ASEAN region are richly endowed with renewable energy sources, renewable energy sources have become a more attractive option for electricity generation in the ASEAN region. Despite a long-term effort in the ASEAN region, renewable energy sources and energy efciency are not yet utilized to anywhere near their potential. With the Kyoto Protocol entering into force on 16 February 2005, the ASEAN countries are well positioned to be beneted from Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects, especially in the areas of renewable energy and energy efciency. However, there is a need to build capacity in each country to adapt policies and regulations, harmonize policy instruments and achieve local terms to promote these concepts. The project on Capacity building in formulating harmonized policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in the ASEAN member countries was carried out to bring ASEAN policy makers in energy, together and give them a chance to freely pour out ideas to further promote renewable energy and energy efciency and give practical recommendations. This 1-year project was funded by the European Commission through its EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF), one of the many initiatives and cooperations among the EU and ASEAN in the eld of sustainable development [1]. 2. Renewable energy potential and utilization Renewable Energy sources are abundantly available in most of the member countries of ASEAN. However, present energy situation indicates that ASEAN countries largely rely on conventional sources of energy. Fig. 1 shows the energy utilization in ASEAN countries in year 2005. New renewables indicated in the graph are mainly geothermal in Indonesia and Philippines and modern biomass in Thailand. Looking at this situation from another perspective, there is a big opportunity in promoting new renewables in the years to come. This indicates the importance of analyzing the status of different renewable energy sources in ASEAN countries. Table 1 summarizes the solar photovoltaic potentials and utilization in ASEAN countries. Being in tropical region, all ASEAN countries receive very high daily solar radiation, averaging more than 4.5 kWh/m2. According to the table, solar photovoltaic technologies are widely used in Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, and Vietnam compared to other ASEAN countries. However, high solar radiation with large land area, points out that the solar resource is underutilized in the ASEAN region. Wind power potential and its utilization are given in Table 2. Table reveals that selected areas in the region have good wind power potential. According to Ref. [14], the mountains of central, southern and coastal areas of Vietnam, central Laos, and central and western Thailand have found to be having good to excellent wind resource areas for large-scale wind generation. Ref. [14] also indicates that north and northeast areas of Philippine is having a good wind potential. Wind measurement, project studies and development are actively undertaken in the Philippines, Vietnam and Thailand. However, Table 2 clearly shows how far the ASEAN

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100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
ar m a a R ei ne di si PD or si nd nm ne bo ay Br ap pi ai et do am ilip ng Th La Vi AS ya al o EA un na la N a e Si
Utilization

In

Hydroelectric

New Renewables (1)

Ph

Fig. 1. Present energy utilization in ASEAN countries (2005) [2]. Table 1 Potential and utilizationsolar photovoltaic [211] Country Name Land area (km2) Solar PV Potential solar radiation (kWh/m2/day) No information 5 (69 h) 4.8 4.54.7 4.5 5.1 No information 5.1 5 (45.9 h)

Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam

5765 181,035 1,890,000 236,800 330,257 298,170 697.1 513,254 330,363

Conventional thermal

Hybrid system (2.4 kW solar & 80 kV A diesel) 700 kW solar PV 5 MW 285 kW solar PV 1.5 MWp (PV stand alone) 450 kWp (grid-connected PV) 1 MW (centralized solar PV) 90 kWp 6 MW 0.6 MW (solar PV)

countries are lagging in wind power developments and how much more the countries can exploit the wind resource that is considered to be a cost free fuel with no delivery cost. Hydropower resources are also plenty in most of the ASEAN countries and its exploitation is signicant in Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, which is clearly summarized in Table 3.

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1444 N.W.A. Lidula et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 14411452 Table 2 Potential and utilizationWind [211,14] Country Wind Potential Brunei Cambodia Theoretical 1.3 GW (78 m/s) 120 MW (89 m/s) Theoretical Signicant (36 m/s) Theoretical 24 GW (78 m/s) 2.7 MW (89 m/s) Some small islands Theoretical76,600 MW Technical7404 MW Theoretical 3 GW (78 m/s) 52 MW (89 m/s) Technical1600 MW Theoretical 103 GW (78 m/s) 8.7 MW (89 m/s) Technical 452 MW (49 m/s) Utilization (MW)

Indonesia Lao PDR

0.5

Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand

0.15 1.18 0.5

Vietnam

However, there is still a considerable gap between the technical potential and utilization of hydropower in the ASEAN countries. Nevertheless hydropower technologies are well proven. Thus, it is necessary to analyze the situation to ll-up the wasting potentialutilization gap. The composition of biomass resources in ASEAN vary from one member country to another due to differences in the production structures of agriculture, forestry, livestock and industry. Table 4 shows the biomass potential and utilization in the ASEAN countries. According to Table 4, biomass resource potential is high in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. The biomass resources in ASEAN are mainly from Rice husk, Bagasse and Palm Oil waste. It clearly shows how much biomass energy is wasted in the potential among the member countries. Indonesia and Malaysia have used less than 1% of their potential of biomass resources. Having comparatively less potentials Thailand has utilized 8% while Vietnam has utilized 12.5% of their potential Biomass resources. This indicates the necessity of a region-wise analysis to make a maximum utilization of the resource.

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N.W.A. Lidula et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 14411452 Table 3 Potential and utilizationhydro power [211] Country Hydro power Potential Brunei Cambodia Technical 300 MW(mini/micro/Pico) 10,000 MW (large) Technical 75,000 MW (large) 459 MW (mini/micro) Theoretical 26,500 MW Technical 18,000 MW Technical 29,000 MW (large) Technical 11,223 MW (large & small) 1847 MW (mini) 27 MW (micro) Technical 700 MW (small) Technical 8001400 MW (total small) 90150 MW(Pico) 300600 MW(isolated mini-grids) 400600 MW(grid-based mini) Utilization 1 MW (mini/micro/Pico) 20 MW (large) 4200 MW (large) 64 MW (mini/micro) 615 MW (large) 13 MW (mini/micro/Pico) 1515 MW(total) 2026 MW(large) 40 MW(mini) 1445

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Philippines

2867 MW(total) 139 MW(small) 110115 MW (total small) 3075 MW (Pico) 20 MW (isolated mini-grids) 60 MW (grid-based mini)

Singapore Thailand Vietnam

Indonesia and Philippines are among the geothermal areas in the world with uids above 200 1C at economic depths for electricity production. Philippines has the second highest geothermal power capacity in the world next to the US while Indonesia also has a high geothermal power capacity. Table 5 is a summery of geothermal and biogas potentials and utilization in the ASEAN region. According to Table 5, when geothermal utilization is considered Indonesia has used only 3% of its potential while Philippines have well utilized up to 74% of its potential. Though, Thailand has very less potential, its utilization is nearly 19%. Vietnam has not exploited its signicant potential of the geothermal resource. These factors point-out that technologies have not transferred among the countries. Most of the ASEAN countries being agricultural, there is a considerable biogas potential in the region. However, there is less information, which is summarized in Table 5. The available information indicates that utilization of biogas for power generation is

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1446 N.W.A. Lidula et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 14411452 Table 4 Potential and utilizationBiomass [211,13] Country Biomass Potential Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Philippines Singapore Thailand Vietnam Technical700 MW Technical49,810 MW Technical29,000 MW Commercial20 MW Wood waste Technical7000 MW Technical400 MW Utilization 312 MW 211 MW 220 MW 560 MW 50 MW

Table 5 Potential and utilizationGeothermal and Biogas [212,15] Country Geothermal Potential (MW) Utilization (MW) 802 1931 Biogas Potential Utilization (MW)

Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Philippines

Technical27,000 2600

Singapore Thailand Vietnam

5.3 Technical200340

228 ktoe/yr (Animal waste) 7324.65 TJ/yr (Animal waste) No information Waste generated by livestock farms & poultry 278 MW 19.14 pJ

14 plants ranging 1216 m3 1 PP in a palm oil mill 653 operational biogas systems 20 MW

comparatively less. Harnessing electricity from agricultural waste and animal waste would not only be a path to clean energy, but it would also be excellent way of waste management. Considering all factors discussed above, it reveals that renewable energy resources utilization in ASEAN region is at a minimum level compared to their potentials. With the construction of ASEAN Power Grid (APG), which is going to be one of the major energy infrastructures in the world, by 2020, there is a very good market for renewable energy trading among the member countries. The member countries blessed with ample renewable energy resource can sell energy to the energy hungry countries. To move towards in the path of sustainable energy or so-called green power, it is necessary to identify and analyze the barriers which caused the potential-utilization gap of renewable energy sources in ASEAN countries.

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3. Major barriers in promoting renewable energy in ASEAN countries Table 6 summarizes the barriers in promoting renewable energy in ASEAN region. It is clear from the table that some of the barriers are common to most of the countries in the ASEAN. For example lack of funding, lack of experience and knowledge and limited policy frameworks are the most common. On the other hand, some barriers are country specic while others being technology specic barriers. Non-existence of economically viable renewable energy resources is specic to Singapore while, inappropriate distribution facilities is specic to Lao PDR. Mostly, high investment cost becomes a barrier in Solar PV technology while low efciency is a specic drawback in biomass power generation. Most of these barriers can be addressed by improvement in policies and regulations in renewable energy and energy efciency. Amendment of policies and regulations should be done both in country level and regional level, to be more supportive towards the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency. Some countries like Thailand and Malaysia have already implemented such policies in place.

4. Major energy policies to overcome barriers Policies have already been set up in ASEAN region level under the ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) 20042009. For the Energy Sector of ASEAN, the Senior Ofcials on Energy Meeting (SOME) has the overall responsibility in the supervision, coordination and implementation of ASEAN cooperation programs, projects and activities. The ASEAN Ministers on Energy Meeting (AMEM) provides the issues and concerns of common interest and set policy and program directions in ASEAN energy cooperation. Specialized bodies such as the ASEAN Centre for Energy (ACE), the Energy Efciency and Conservation Sub-Sector Network (EE&C-SSN), the Renewable Energy Sub-Sector Network (RE-SSN), the Sub-Committee on Non-Conventional Energy Research (SCNER) under the ASEAN Committee on Science and Technology, and the newly established Regional Energy Policy and Planning Sub-Sector Network (REPP-SSN) are involved in the formulation and implementation of ASEAN energy cooperation activities. The ASEAN Secretariat provides facilitation, coordination and advisory support to these specialized bodies in their implementation activities [16]. Under APAEC, program area no. 4 covers EE&C while program area no. 5 covers the renewable energy. Ref. [16] discusses the strategies under each program area in detail. To summarize, program area no. 4 consists of six strategies, namely: (1) continuation of information sharing and networking; (2) continuation of ASEAN energy standards and labelling; (3) expansion of private sector involvement; (4) capacity building; (5) promotion of Energy Service Companies (ESCO) business; and (6) promotion of energy efciency in the transport sector. Six strategies under program area no. 5 are: (1) development of a policy and institutional framework for the development of renewable energy; (2) promotion of the development and contribution of renewable energy in energy supply; (3) further strengthening of information networking in renewable energy; (4) promotion of intra-ASEAN cooperation on ASEAN-made products and services; (5) promotion of the utilization of biomass-based cogeneration technology; and (6) promotion of the utilization of bio-fuels.

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Table 6 Major barriers in promoting renewable energy in ASEAN [39] Description 1 2 3 4 5 Lack of experience and awareness in technology and management Lack of funding or nancing difculties Limited policy framework Lack of institutional, nancial and technical structures to promote RE Reliance on national grid and lack of private sector participation ( no market infrastructure) Inadequate data and information Reluctance to invest because of high investment cost Low efciency or quality of some RE Insignicant utilization of RE (not nancially sustainable) Lack of research personal or trained man power and lack of R&D in some RE Fossil fuel subsidies Taxes on imported equipment or no waiver on taxes Inappropriate distribution facilities Political involvement in reform agenda Legislation issues in connecting RE to National grid Objections from the public to have power plants in the area Lack of government support No economically viable RE High total installed capacity resulting no requirement of new power plants Lao PDR | | | Vietnam | | | | | Cambodia | | | | | | | Malaysia Indonesia Thailand | | | | | Philippines Brunei | | | | | | Singapore

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European Union (EU) has been a major source of nancing for energy projects including renewable energy, and EE&C in the ASEAN. The EU has extended funding assistance through the ACE. One such program being implemented by ACE is the ECASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) launched in March 2002. It is a cooperation program between the EC and ASEAN to facilitate partnerships between ASEAN and European organizations in developing specic joint projects in four categories, namely: (1) market awareness; (2) institutional frameworks; (3) feasibility studies; and, (4) demonstration projects. The project on Capacity building in formulating harmonized policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in the ASEAN member countries is also funded by the EAEF [16]. Though, there are policies in ASEAN level, in taking the actions under each strategy, they should be able to address the country- and technology-specic barriers. Not only that but also countrys legislations and policies should support the strategies and programs towards clean energy. This project has identied some major policy instruments to overcome the barriers mentioned in Table 6. In the concept of renewable energy: RE Bills, non-fossil fuel obligations and power sector restructure/reform are the legislative options and; Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS), Small and Very Small Power Producers (SPP/VSPP) and Small Renewable Energy Program (SREP) are the probable policy instruments. Also nancial assistance in terms of loans, incentives and grants are also considered. Legislative options, Demand Side Management (DSM) programs and energy conservations have been identied as probable policy instruments in EE&C.

5. Renewable energy policies of ASEAN countries Table 7 summarizes the renewable energy policies that have been implemented in ASEAN countries. Brunei and Singapore do not have any specic policy on renewable energy yet. Brunei is a country rich in oil and natural gas reserves. Thus, renewable energy is not yet given importance. On the other hand, Singapore does not have any economically viable renewable energy sources and the requirement in introducing new renewable energy sources are at minimum level since Singapores installed capacity is much higher than the peak demand. Among the ASEAN countries Philippines has implemented most of the renewable energy policy instruments in interest. There are many steps taken under non-fossil fuel obligations in Philippines, including social cost pricing, diversify the energy mix supporting renewable energy and priorities in the national list for energy sources, which covers new and/or renewable energy sources and natural gas, etc. RE Bills have implemented to overcome the barriers imposed by existing laws, regulations, policies and procedures, which restrict entry of fresh capitals into power sector in renewable energy. Power sector restructuring or reforming is an interest only in Philippines and Indonesia targeting the private sector participation in renewable energy use. RPSs species a requirement, which is stated as new investment in power generation capacity must set aside a certain percentage of capacity for developing renewable energy sources additional to the investment in conventional energy sources. RPS has been implemented only in Thailand and Philippines. Small-Power-Producers (SPPs) are encouraged by the governments of Thailand and Indonesia by implementing required

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1450 N.W.A. Lidula et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 14411452 Table 7 Renewable energy policies implemented in the ASEAN countries [39] Options Malaysia Indonesia Lao PDR Cambodia Vietnam Thailand Philippine Brunei Singapore

Through legislation RE bills Non-fossil fuel | obligations Power sector restructure/ reform Programs RPS SPP, VSPP SREP

| |

| | |

| | | | |

| |

Financial assistance Loans, | incentives, grants

policies. SREP has only implemented in Malaysia targeting to encourage and intensify the utilization of renewable energy in power generation. Financial assistance provided by countries differs to each other. Thailand has introduced many aspects of nancial support to renewable energy, namely: subsidies to SPPs which use renewable energy, funds for research and development in areas related to renewable energy technologies and nancial incentives via various agencies that adopts or implements renewable energy projects in form of tax exemption, low interest rates and guaranteed power price. Tax exemptions and low interest loans are practiced in all the ASEAN countries except Lao PDR. Lao PDR is still setting up strategies to provide nancial support to renewable energy technologies. Although Vietnam allows loans at lower interest rates, only short-term loans are available for renewable energy projects. 6. EE policies of ASEAN countries Another important aspect of sustainable energy is the energy efciency. EE&C policies implemented in ASEAN countries are shown in Table 8. All the ASEAN countries except Brunei have implemented decrees and laws supporting EE&C programs. Indonesia, Thailand and Philippine have already implemented most of the EE&C policy instruments under consideration. Energy efcient uorescent lamp programs, street lights programs and energy efcient ballast programs are the most common lighting programs implemented. Only Thailand and Philippines have implemented high efcient refrigeration and air condition (AC) programs. Except Lao PDR and Vietnam, all other ASEAN countries have implemented many DSM programs in energy efcient buildings. Promotion of energy efciency in building design and material choice and Zero Energy Ofce (ZEO) building concept are some of the practised methods of DSM in buildings. Labelling programs such as

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N.W.A. Lidula et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 14411452 Table 8 EE&C policies implemented in the ASEAN countries [39] Options Malaysia Indonesia Lao Cambodia Vietnam Thailand Philippine Brunei Singapore PDR | | | | | | | | 1451

Through legislation Programs DSM Lightning Refrigeration and AC Building Labelling Standardization Energy conservation Other Financial assistance

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household electronic equipment labelling, air conditioner labelling and motor labelling are carried out in the countries Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippine and Singapore. Technical standards for energy equipments are specied by the governments of Malaysia, Indonesia and Cambodia. Energy conservation is practised only in Indonesia, Vietnam and Thailand. There are several other EE&C programs carried out by all the ASEAN countries. These includes programs on capacity building in EE&C, energy audits, upgrade of power generation and transmission, vehicle efciency standards and testing, introduction of high efcient motors and variable speed drives in the industrial sector, attitude creation programs, industrial cost reduction programs and low efciency buy-back programs. Most of these programs are carried out in Thailand, but other ASEAN countries have also implemented one or more of these programs. Lao PDR, Cambodia and Brunei do not provide any specic nancial assistance towards EE&C. Income tax exemption and import duty and sales tax exemption, government subsidies as partnership in capacity building programs, provide savings incentives for customers using high efcient equipment, EE&C promotion funds and simple tariff systems are the nancial assistances towards EE&C that have been practiced in the other ASEAN countries. 7. Conclusion ASEAN countries are enriched with renewable energy resources. Among the ASEAN countries, Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam are blessed with most of the types of renewable energy sources. However, it was revealed from the project that almost all the renewable energy sources in the region are underutilized. Analysis showed that the key factor blocking the ASEANs path towards clean energy is improper policies and regulations, which needs to be amended supporting renewable energy and energy efciency in the countries. When the barriers to implement renewable energy technologies and existing policies are considered, it can be concluded that ASEAN is not yet ready for

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full harmonization of the policies. The project outputs, which were discussed above, reveals that although there is a great variation across ASEAN member countries in approaching renewable energy and energy efciency, some areas could be found common to most of the countries. The project outputs some valuable inputs to the workings of RESSN and EE&C SSN. With the projects outputs it is possible to focus on the specic policy instruments common to most of the member countries, such that it could use to augment APAEC initiatives. References
[1] COGENEnergy Field of studyAIT. Press Release, Boost to Sustainable Energy in ASEAN Countries, 2005. [2] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in the ASEAN Member Countries, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, May 2005. [3] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Lao PDR, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [4] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Vietnam, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [5] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Cambodia, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [6] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Malaysia, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [7] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Indonesia, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [8] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Thailand, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [9] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Philippines, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [10] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Brunei Darussalam, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [11] COGENenergy eld of studyAIT. Overview of policy instruments for the promotion of renewable energy and energy efciency in Singapore, EC-ASEAN Energy Facility (EAEF) Project 62-2003, 2005. [12] International Geothermal Association. /http://iga.igg.cnr.it/geoworld/geoworld.php?sub=elgen&country= thailandS. Retrieved on 9th December 2005, 2005. [13] Guillermo RB. Renewable energy utilization in the ASEAN-presentation, Presented at the preparatory meeting for the National Sustainable Energy Research Congress, 2 April, 2002, Manila, Philippines. /http:// www.aseanenergy.org/publication/papers.htmS. Retrieved on 16 December 2005, 2002. [14] Cabrera MI, Lefevre T. Overview of wind energy in Southeast Asia. Retrieved on 16th December 2005 from /http://www.ec-asean-greenippnet.work.net/dsp_page.cfm?view=page&select=126S, 2002. [15] Susan Crawford, Strengthening Thailands energy security and sustainability. /http://www.business-in-asia. com/energy/strenthen_sustainability.htmS. Retrieved on 9 December 2005, 2005. [16] ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) 20042009, Proceedings of the 22nd ASEAN Ministers on Energy Meeting, 2004.