INVESTIGATION OF AL WELDING THROUGH MIG WELDING PROCESSES

by Mert C. Karakaplan

A thesis submitted to Materials Science and Enviroment Faculty of Technical University of Cluj-Napoca in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering.

Spring 2013

Copyright 2013 Mert C. Karakaplan All Rights Reserved

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my research advisor Prof. Dr. Marius Bodea who have provided much needed support and guidance during my project over this past semester. He did everything as much as he could , about the welding research of mine. Without helps from him, It wouldnt have been able to accomplish what I have. I also would like to thank the Material Science Engineering Department of Technical University of Cluj-Napoca due to their helps with laboratory. And, I would like thank my family for making my Erasmus experience possible. They supported me until my this age as best as they could do. In this past year, I achieved all my aims which I wanted to be mine. They were with me to be able to make them real, with their intangible and tangible supports.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES..5 LIST OF FIGURES..5 ABSTRACT... 8 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Friction Welding9 1.1.1. Metallurgical Parameters of Joining Dissimilar Materials...............................................................................10 1.1.2. Friction Stir Welding......... 13 1.1.2.1. Process Principles...15 1.1.2.2. Applications of FSW..20 1.2. TIG Welding..27 1.2.1. Applications.27 1.2.2. Process Parameters...31 1.2.3. Shielding Gas, Gas Selection and Use.36 1.3. MIG Welding 37 1.3.1. 1.3.2. 1.3.3. 1.3.4. Process Parameters...38 Equipment41 Process Requirements and Applications .44 Safety...47

1.4. Ultrasonic Welding48 1.4.1. Equipment and Process Parameters.49 1.4.2. USW Procedures..52

1.5. Aluminum...53 1.5.1. 1.5.2. 1.5.3. 1.5.4. Aluminum Production..55 Aluminum Alloys.56 Aluminum Joining....57 Aluminum Anodization....58

2. EXPERIMENTATION AND MATERIALS 2.1. Application of Al Welds....59 2.2. Samples Preparation For Metallographic Analysis..60
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2.3. Hardness Test.....65 2.4. SEM Analysis67 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Welded Material.68 3.2. Metallographic Investigation.....71 3.3. Results of Hardness Test....77 3.4. SEM Analysis....78 4. CONCLUSIONS...87 REFERENCES....90

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1- Parameters for inertia, drive friction welding of two 25-MM (1-In) diam bars made of dissimilar metals...10 Table 2- Key benefits of friction stir welding (FSW) 15 Table 3- Welding temperature range of various alloys17 Table 4- Classification of alloying elements in selected tungsten alloys electrodes for GTAW applications...30 Table 5- Suitability of types of current fro GTAW of selected materials31 Table 6- Typical parameters for automatic how wire GTAW.34 Table 7- Tungsten selection and preparation.36 Table 8 - Shielding gas selection and use..37 Table 9- Shielding gases and gas mixtures for GMAW46 Table 10- Selection of gases for GMAW with short circuiting transfer. 47 Table 11- Chemical composition of used Aluminum59 Table 12- Parameters of process60 Table 13- The optimum parameters of process68 Table 14- Composition of filler wire for welding69 Table 15- Aluminum profile mechanical properties78 Table 16- EDX chemical compositions found in area presented in Fig. 59 85

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1- Schematic showing fundamental step in the friction welding process. 9 Figure 2- Cross section of an inertia, drive FRW joint between vanadium and A 21-6-9 stainless steel.12 Figure 3- Schematic drawing of friction stir welding......13 Figure 4-Various micro structural regions in the transverse cross section of a friction stir welded material...14 Figure 5- Joint configurations for friction stir welding. ...15 Figure 6- Fatigue life evaluation of AA5059. ...16 Figure 7- Pin-tool geometries for FSW tools. ..17 Figure 8- Some of the basic tool shapes for friction stir welding.18 Figure 9- Demographics of friction stir welding (FSW) licensees as of January 200520 Figure 10- Research and prototype manufacturing units at EADS in association with LInstitute dSoudure in France, Alenia Spazio in Italy and EADS Ottobrunn in Germany22 Figure 11- Flat panel field after welding. Instead of using wide profiles, the panel is made from relatively narrow (120 mm) extrusions. ..23 Figure 12- Fully automatic manufacturing cell for production of car components.24 Figure 13- Etched microstructure on cast aluminum..24
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Figure 14- A butt and overlap weld of circular canister...26 Figure 15- Friction stir processed piston...26 Figure 16- Schematic showing key components and parameters of the GTAW process27 Figure 17- Starting current waveforms of the two power sources to show relative response times of each source. ....29 Figure 18- Schematic showing exploded view of key components comprising a GTAW manual torch..29 Figure19- Effect of polarity on GTAW weld configuration when using direct current..32 Figure 20- Weld configuration as a function of type of current.32 Figure 21- Schematic showing key components and parameters of a GTAW hot wire system ...34 Figure 22- Deposition rates for GTAW with cold hot filler wire on a steel work piece......................................... 35 Figure 23- Connection diagrams, 1 liter per minute flow rate. Water in through water line Water out through power cable. Schematic of GMAW process Metal transfer as described by Northgroup equation DCEP means Direct Current Electrode Positive35 Figure 24- Schematic of GMAW process.39 Figure 25Metal transfer as described by Northgroup equation. 40 Figure 26- Semiautomatic gas metal arc welding installation..41 Figure 27- Automatic gas metal arc installation...42 Figure 28- Typical semiautomatic air-cooled, curved-neck gas metal arc welding gun...42 Figure 29- Bead contour and penetration patterns for various shielding gases43 Figure 30- Relative effect of O2 versus CO2 additions to the argon shield.45 Figure 31- Two versions of an ultrasonic welding system used for spot welding applications...45 Figure 32- Plot of welding machine power consumption versus material thickness for selected metals joined by ultrasonic welding.50 Figure 33- Ultrasonic wire welder used to bond wires for microelectronic applications...50 Figure 34- Annual world production of primary aluminum. Source: Aluminum Association, Inc..51 Figure 35- MIG weld sample. Anodized aluminum for industrial applications, metallic light constructions.55 Figure 36- Horizontal sections from the sample, it shows the position of welding. 59 Figure 37- 50X , parent material, HAZ, welded part and dark inclusions....60 Figure 38- Relation between Brinell hardness and tensile strength. 65 Figure 39- Schematic representation in aluminum welds using different shielding gases.66 Figure 40- Welded sample with defect.67 Figure 41- Welded sample with better quality. 70 Figure 42- Schematic showing of welding...70 Figure 43- Welded sample with some defects. 70 Figure 44- Welded sample with better quality appearance......................................................71
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Figure 45- Welded material with 50X zoom from optical microscope. ...72 Figure 46- Welded zone with 100X zoom. Oxide filaments, welding beads and grain boundaries can be seen..74 Figure 47- HAZ with 200X zoom with partial welding bead, grain boundaries. 74 Figure 48- Welding Welding zone with 200X zoom. Grain boundaries after recrystallization are evident.. ..........................................................................................................75 Figure 49- Section Welding zone with 500X zoom, grain boundaries.. ...76 Figure 50- Welding Welding zone with 1000x zoom, grain boundaries and micro porosity..76 Figure 51Oxide filaments entrapped in the fillet weld of Al alloy.......77 Figure 52- SEM Section of material with hardness values.. ...78 Figure 53- SEM SEM picture, 100 m scale, porosities and cracks .................................................................................................................. 79 Figure 54- SEM picture, 200 m scale, large pores into material weld upper substrates...79 Figure 55- SEM picture, scale is 200 m, fusion zone...81 Figure 56- SEM picture, scale is 100 m, weld bead.. 81 Figure 57- SEM picture, scale is 20 m, reverse slip bands hypothesis in HAZ. Orientation of pores. ........82 Figure 58- SEM picture, scale is 10 m, Details at higher magnification of the dendritic formations founded in the dark inclusions. .....83 Figure 59- EDX SEM picture, scale is 100 m, zone with 3D dendrites...83 Figure 60- EDX analysis and maps of elements distribution in an area that present 3D dendritic formations, X300, SEM analysis.. .......84 Figure 61 - Al-Mg Equilibrium Phase Diagram......89

ABSTRACT
MIG, the welding process which can be applied for many kind of materials, was used on 6XXX series of aluminum to perform a joining to be able to investigate hardships and trials of MIG welding on aluminum type of metal when its used instead of TIG process for nonspeficif applications. Because when its preferred instead of TIG, one of the major issue with MIG process for aluminum is implementation part( Handicraft requirements etc). No attention on purpose paid to surface cleaning. Different welding techniques have been used on this case and the sample has been examined by optical microscope, SEM, EDX and hardness test. As results of tests, first of all, it was shown that MIG is tricker method than TIG throughout implementation of welding. Not to pay attention to surface cleaning caused dendritic structures which were located as small clusters on the surface due the NaCl droplets which were identified by EDX chemical composition analysis. Also, SEM analysis rendered possible to determine dendritic structures, inclusions which we couldnt have determined without SEM. And there was the chance to examine hardness of a metal part which had been produced by mechanical extrusion method. Different hardness values were obtained on the parent material because of extrusion. In the fusion zone of the material, as expected there was decrease of hardness because of incidents which occure during heating and cooling cycles.

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Friction Welding

Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process in which the heat for welding is produced by the relative motion of the two interfaces being joined [1]. The American companies Caterpillar, Rockwell International, and American Manufacturing Foundry all developed machines for this process. Patents were also issued throughout Europe and the former Soviet Union. The most extensive historical records are kept with the American Welding Society[2]. This method relies on the direct conversion of mechanical energy to thermal energy to form the weld, without the application of heat from any other source. Under normal conditions no melting rotating work piece under constant or gradually increasing pressure until the interface reaches the welding temperature. The rotational speed, the axial pressure, and the welding time are the principal variables that are controlled in order to provide the necessary combination of heat and pressure to form the weld. These parameters are adjusted so that the interface is heated into the plastic temperature range where welding can take place. Once the interface is heated, axial pressure is used to bring the weld interfaces into intimate contact. During this last stage of the welding process, atomic diffusion occurs while the interfaces are in contact, allowing a metallurgical bond to form between the two materials. [1]

Figure 1- Schematic showing fundamental step in the friction welding process. (A) one work piece is rotated, and the other work piece is held stationary. (B) both work pieces are brought together, and axial force is applied to begin the upsetting process. (C) work piece rotation is stopped, and the upsetting process is completed. [1]

Friction welding involves heat generation through friction abrasion heat dissipation, plastic deformation, and chemical interdiffusion. The interrelation among these factors during
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FRW to complications when trying to develop predictive models of the friction welding process. However, from a qualitative standpoint the process is well understood through empirical FRW studies that have been performed on a wide variety of materials. Five qualitative factors influence the quality of a friction weld; Relative velocity of the surfaces Applied pressure Surface temperature Bulk material properties Surface condition and presence of surface films

1.1.1. Metallurgical Parameters of Joining Dissimilar Materials Friction welding can be used to join a wide range of similar and dissimilar materials. Metals, ceramics, metal-matrix composites (MMC), and polymers have all been joined by FRW, and many of the dissimilar-metal combinations that cannot be joined by conventional fusion welding techniques are readily joined by FRW methods. This section summarizes some of the metals that have been joined by FRW and discusses the metallurgical considerations that govern the properties of the resulting weld. [1] While many similar-metal FRW joints are produced because of economic considerations, many dissimilar-metal FRW joints are produced because there are no alternative welding methods that can be used. Examples of these types of joints include dissimilar-metal combinations with widely different melting points and dissimilar-metal combinations that form incompatible phases when fusion welded. Table 1 gives parameters used for inertia welding several common dissimilar material combinations. [1]
Table 1- Parameters for Inertia-Drive friction welding of two 25-MM (1-In) diam bars made of dissimilar metals [1]

(A) Moment of inertia of the (B) Total shortening of the workpieces during welding (C) Sum of heating time plus welding time

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(D) The 22 KN (5000 LBF) force is applied during the heating stage of the weld; force is subsequently to 67 KN (15000 LBF) near the end of the weld.

Low-Carbon Steels to Medium-Carbon Steels. In general, low- and medium-carbon steels are joined to each other under a wide range of conditions, and high-carbon steels are readily joined to alloy steels using friction welding. High-speed tool steels are welded to alloy steel shanks for numerous machine-tool applications. Steel with carbon contents as high as 1.0%, such as 52100 steel, can be joined to lower-carbon alloys. Pre weld heat treating may be required in some cases to better match the properties at the interface, and post weld heat treatment may be required in some cases to temper the interface region of the high-carbon steel grades. [1] Stainless Steels to Other Selected Metals. Stainless steel alloys are comparatively easy to friction weld to other metals. For example, austenitic stainless steel to low-alloy steel titanium and copper to stainless steel and 1100 aluminum to stainless steel are examples of transition joints that are made by FRW. Titanium can be welded to stainless steel with extreme care and other incompatible dissimilar combinations may be successfully welded using interlayer techniques. [1] Such transition joints can often be used as interlayer for the friction welding of incompatible materials. For example, it is difficult to weld 5083 aluminum directly to stainless steel. However, by first friction welding aluminum alloy 1100 to the stainless steel, and machining the 1100 aluminum alloy back to an interlayer thickness of about 1 mm (0.04 in.), the 5083 aluminum alloy can be joined to the stainless steel via this 1100 interlayer with high joint efficiencies . Problems common to welding of dissimilar material, in general, the same problems encountered when welding similar materials must be addressed when welding dissimilar materials. However, some problems are associated only with the welding of dissimilar materials or are greatly magnified during the welding of dissimilar materials. These factors include joint interfaces, low-melting phases, brittle phases, and different thermal expansions. Joint Interfaces. While most similar-material welds are made with little concern for surface preparation, highly dissimilar-metal combinations are more sensitive. This happens for various reasons. In stainless steel to aluminum alloy welds, the oxide surface that forms on the aluminum picks up contaminants such as water and hydrocarbons, forming extremely tenacious surface layers. If this layer is not removed prior to welding, poor structural welds may occur. In stainless steel to refractory metal alloy welds, the oxide on the faying surfaces again contain contaminants such as water and hydrocarbons. The contaminants in this case are likely to alloy into the finished weldment. [1] This alloying causes a reduction of structural integrity through the formation of lowmelting or brittle phases at the weld interface. Surface-treated interfaces frequently cause problems during FRW. Steels that have been carburized or nitrided, titanium alloys that have been nitrided, and other hard faced alloys are difficult to friction weld due to the inherently low friction coefficient and low forgeability. The repeatability of welds made on materials with hard surface layers is difficult to characterize due to several factors, including coating
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thickness, coating quality, and physical properties of the coating. In most instances, weldability is improved if the surface-treated area is removed from the faying surface before welding. [1] Other weld combinations may be affected by contaminants at the weld interface. Examples include sulfur and phosphorus in iron-base alloys and bismuth in copper alloys. These contaminants may cause problems with hot shortness in very low concentrations. It is imperative that good cleaning practices be implemented when materials may have been contaminated with these elements or with material containing these elements. Brittle Phase Formation. Many materials, when combined, are susceptible to the formation of brittle phases. In some combinations, this occurs during the welding cycle; in others, service conditions after welding cause the problem. Two main reasons exist for brittle phase formation in friction welds: Surface contaminants that embrittle the weld interface Formation of intermetallic phases between normal constituents of the alloys being welded [1]

Intermetallic phase formation is common when welding refractory metal alloys to stainless steel alloys and in several other systems. In the case of stainless steels to refractory metals, phase or similar phases may occur upon welding at the interface. Proper weld procedure development reduces the amount of brittle phases that are formed, but typically does not eliminate their formation completely. Properly developed welds have satisfactory structural properties, because only small, noncontinuous areas of the brittle phase are present at the weld interface. Figure 2(a) shows an inertia-drive welded joint between vanadium and 21-6-9 stainless steel. The interface is smooth and shows no areas of brittle phases. Electron microscopy techniques are needed to find the small areas of phase present at the weld interfaces. [1]

(a)

(b)

Figure 2 Metallographic cross section of an inertia-drive FRW joint between vanadium and A 21-6-9 stainless steel. Note the excellent weld quality at the interface. (A) weld interface with no -phase growth. (B) weld interface with -phase growth (Indicated by s) and a solid solution mixing caused by chemical diffusion after exposure to C (1830 F) thermal cycle A 100 0 [1]

Caution must be used when designing components for use at elevated-temperature extremes. In many instances, material combinations in which no brittle phases form during welding are susceptible to brittle phase formation at the interface during high-temperature
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use. This is not a design issue when the welds are used for near-room-temperature applications. Figure 2(b) shows the vanadium to 21-6-9 stainless steel inertia-drive weld after a severe thermal cycle of 1000 C (1830 F) for 2 h with -phase and solid-solution growth at the weld interface. The thick layer next to the stainless steel is a solid solution of iron and vanadium. The thin layer next to the vanadium is phase and forms a continuous brittle fracture path across the weld interface. [1] 1.1.2. Friction Stir Welding FRICTION STIR WELDING (FSW) was invented at The Welding Institute (TWI) of the United Kingdom in 1991 as a solid-state joining technique and was initially applied to aluminum alloys . The basic concept of FSW is remarkably simple. A nonconsumable rotating tool with a specially designed pin and shoulder is inserted into the abutting edges of sheets or plates to be joined and subsequently traversed along the joint line (Fig. 3). Figure 3 illustrates process definitions for the tool and work piece. Most definitions are selfexplanatory, but advancing and retreating side definitions require a brief explanation. Advancing and retreating side orientations require knowledge of the tool rotation and travel directions. In Fig. 5, the FSW tool rotates in the counterclockwise direction and travels into the page (or left to right). In Fig.3 the advancing side is on the right, where the tool rotation direction is the same as the tool travel direction (opposite the direction of metal flow), and the retreating side is on the left, where the tool rotation is opposite the tool travel direction (parallel to the direction of metal flow). [3]

Figure 3 - Schematic drawing of friction stir welding

The tool serves three primary functions, that is, heating of the work piece, movement of material to produce the joint, and containment of the hot metal beneath the tool shoulder. Heating is created within the work piece both by friction between the rotating tool pin and shoulder and by severe plastic deformation of the work piece. The localized heating softens material around the pin and, combined with the tool rotation and translation, leads to movement of material from the front to the back of the pin, thus filling the hole in the tool wake as the tool moves forward. The tool shoulder restricts metal flow to a level equivalent to the shoulder position, that is, approximately to the initial work piece top surface. As a result of the tool action and

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influence on the work piece, when performed properly, a solid-state joint is produced, that is, no melting. [3] Like many new technologies, a new nomenclature is required to accurately describe observations. In FSW, new terms are necessary to adequately describe the post weld microstructures. The first attempt at classifying friction stir welded microstructures was made by Threadgill . Figure 4 identifies the different micro structural zones existing after FSW, and a brief description of the different zones is presented. Because the preponderance of work to date uses these early definitions (with minor modifications), this reference volume continues to do so. The system divides the weld zone into distinct regions, as follows: Unaffected material or parent metal: This is material remote from the weld that has not been deformed and that, although it may have experienced a thermal cycle from the weld, is not affected by the heat in terms of micro - structure or mechanical properties Heat-affected zone: In this region, which lies closer to the weld-center, the material has experienced a thermal cycle that has modified the microstructure and/or the mechanical properties. However, there is no plastic deformation occurring in this area. Thermo mechanically affected zone (TMAZ): In this region, the FSW tool has plastically deformed the material, and the heat from the process will also have exerted some influence on the material. In the case of aluminum, it is possible to obtain significant plastic strain without recrystallization in this region, and there is generally a distinct boundary be - tween the recrystallized zone (weld nugget) and the deformed zones of the TMAZ. Weld nugget: The fully recrystallized area, sometimes called the stir zone, refers to the zone previously occupied by the tool pin. The term stir zone is commonly used in friction stir processing, where large volumes of material are processed. [3]

Friction stir welding is considered to be the most significant development in metal joining in decades and, in addition, is a green technology due to its energy efficiency, environmental friendliness, and versatility. As compared to the conventional welding methods, FSW consumes considerably less energy, no consumables such as a cover gas or flux are used, and no harmful emissions are created during welding, thereby making the process environmentally friendly. Further, because FSW does not involve the use of filler metal and because there is no melting, any aluminum alloy can be joined without concern for compatibility of composition or solidification cracking issues associated with fusion welding. Also, dissimilar aluminum alloys and composites can be joined with equal ease. [3]

Figure 4 - Various microstructural regions in the transverse cross section of a friction stir welded material. A, unaffected material or parent metal; B, heat-affected zone; C, thermo mechanically affected zone; D, weld nugget[3]

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Metallurgical Benefits Solid-phase process Low distortion Good dimensional stability and repeatability No loss of alloying elements Excellent mechanical properties in the joint area Fine recrystallized microstructure Absence of solidification cracking Replace multiple parts joined by fasteners Weld all aluminum alloys Post-FSW formability

Environmental Benefits No shielding gas required Minimal surface cleaning required Eliminate grinding wastes Eliminate solvents required for degreasing Consumable materials saving, such as rugs, wire, or any other gases No harmful emissions

Energy Benefits Improved materials use (e.g., joining different thickness) allows reduction in weight Only 2.5% of the energy needed for a laser weld Decreased fuel consumption in lightweight aircraft, automotive, and ship applications

Table 2 - Key benefits of friction stir welding (FSW) [4]

Figure 5 - Joint configurations for friction stir welding. (a) Square butt. (b) Edge butt. (c) T-butt joint. (d) Lap joint. (e) Multiple lap joint. (f) T-lap joint. (g) Fillet joint. [4]

1.1.2.1.

Process Principles

Weldable alloys: In terms of high-temperature materials, FSW has been proven successful on numerous of alloys and materials, including high-strength steels, stainless steel and titanium. As what is weldable refers to the material by which the welding tool is made and how the process is applied there are really no limits to what can be achieved. Improvements on the existing methods and materials as well as new technological development, an expansion is expected. [5] The FSW process involves joint formation below the base materials melting temperature. The heat generated in the joint area is typically about 80-90% of the melting temperature.[5]

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Figure 6 - Fatigue life evaluation of AA5059. ( Red: FSW, Blue:Base material , Black:MIG) [5]

With arc welding, calculating heat input is critically important when preparing welding procedure specifications (WPS) for the production process. With FSW, the traditional components current and voltage are not present as the heat input is purely mechanical and thereby replaced by force, friction, and rotation. Several studies have been conducted to identify the way heat is generated and transferred to the joint area. A simplified model is described in the following equation:

in which the heat (Q) is the result of friction (), tool rotation speed () down force (F) and a tool geometry constant (K). The quality of an FSW joint is always superior to conventional fusion-welded joints. A number of properties support this claim, including FSWs superior fatigue characteristics. Figure 8 clearly demonstrates the improved performance of FSW compared to a MIG-welded joint on the selected base material. Tensile strength is another important quality feature. tests. [5] Welding parameters Tools: Welding tool design is critical in FSW. Optimizing tool geometry to produce more heat or achieve more efficient stirring offers two main benefits: improved breaking and mixing of the oxide layer and more efficient heat generation, yielding higher welding speeds and, of course, enhanced quality. The simplest tool can be machined from an M20 bolt with very little effort. It has proved feasible to weld thin aluminum plates, even with tooling as simple as this, although at very slow welding speeds. However, tool materials should feature relatively high hardness at elevated temperatures, and should retain this hardness for an extended period. The combination of tool material and base material is therefore always
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crucial to the tools operational lifetime. Table 4 illustrates the forging temperature range of different alloy groups. Note what useful tools forging tables are in the FSW context. [5]

Table 3- Welding temperature range of various alloys[5]

Figure 7 - Pin-tool geometries for FSW tools.

[5]

Retractable pin tool: The Retractable Pin Tool (RPT) or Adjustable Probe Tool is a machine feature in which the pin of the FSW tool may be moved independently of the tools shoulder. This permits adjustments of the pin length to be made during welding, to compensate for known material thickness variations or to close the exit hole of the weld. The advantages of RPT may be summarized as follows: Ensures full root closure of the weld Increases joint quality properties at the exit Increases the joints aesthetic properties. [5]

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Figure 8-Some of the basic tool shapes for friction stir welding. TWI. [6]

Process speed: Not so long ago, one of the main excuses for not using FSW was the claim that its welding speed was too slow for production, even though the mechanical properties of FSW welds outclass conventional joining processes for aluminum. The typical stated welding speed for 5 mm AA6082 was between 250 mm/min and 400 mm/min. This was typical for a CNC machine, not designed for the high down forces needed in FSW or the high travel speeds. With production machines, welding speeds for the above-mentioned alloy are (and have been for a number of years) almost ten times higher with 2000 mm/min a typical production speed when joining extruded profiles. In a medium-size welding workshop (between 200 and 400 blue-collar workers), time spent in welding and related functions represents roughly 15% to 20% of total manufacturing time. This suggests three alternatives for improving productivity: 1. 2. Increase the welding speed of conventional processes (GMAW, GTAW), Introduce a new welding process that offers a speed similar to conventional arc welding but that generates significant cost savings in other aspects of production, or 3. Introduce FSW, which welds 3-4 times faster than GMAW and generates significant cost savings at a later phase of the production process. [5] Thermal Management: The thermal management system consists of the tool (and connection to spindle), work piece, and backing anvil. Proper thermal management concentrates sufficient heat to the friction stir region to allow efficient thermo mechanical deformation while dissipating heat from unwanted regions in the friction stir system (e.g., spindle and machine bearings). Depending on the type of work piece material, the friction stirring tools and anvil can either be heated or cooled. Tools can be cooled by ambient air, forced air, or a circulating coolant, or tools can be electrically heated. The anvil can be cooled by ambient air, forced air, or a circulating coolant and heated with resistance heaters. In addition, thermal conductivity of the anvil and tool affects the heat input into the work piece. Aluminum and magnesium alloys are commonly friction stir welded with ambient air-cooled tools and anvils. Coolant cooling of the tool is not required with aluminum, and magnesium alloys, but the coolant does provide an equilibrium tool temperature for the entire tool usage, especially for long welds, and rapid tool changes are easily performed. Midling and Rorvik
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demonstrated that a zirconia coated steel anvil retained more heat, with the work piece allowing the tool to travel three times faster to obtain the same heat-affected zone width produced with a steel anvil.[4] A statistical analysis of nine input parameters determined that cooling the anvil had a minimal impact on the friction stir weld; in fact, tool rotation rate, travel speed, and tool depth were more important . Weld quality and performance is affected by differences in heat transfers observed when comparing the friction stir welding of flat plate versus extrusions [7]. Tool Coating: Tool coatings are commonly used for machining tools to improve tool life by decreasing tool wear and thermally protecting the tool. However, traditional coatings have difficulty surviving the aggressive thermal and stress conditions produced during friction stirring, which are extreme environments for most tool coatings, especially with composite and high temperature materials. A coating of Ti:N was used on H13 tool steel tools used to friction stir weld 2195-T8, 5083-O, 6061-T6, 2219-T8, 2024-T3, 7075-T6, and 7050-T7 Al alloys, but no comment is made on the condition of the coating after FSW (Ref 11). A B4C coating was used on H13 tool steel to reduce wear during the FSW of 6092 Al 17.5% SiC composites, but the coating was worn away after only a few centimeters of welding [9]. Proprietary General Electric chemical vapor deposition and physical vapor deposition tool coatings were used to friction stir weld Ti-17 and Ti-6-4 alloys but neither coating reduced tool wear, because minor tool wear was noticed on the pin, and debris was detected in the stir zone of the weld. Currently, there is no published work that carefully examines the benefits and impacts of tool coatings. [4] Tool Materials Characteristics : Selecting the correct tool material requires knowing which material characteristics are important for each friction stir application. Many different material characteristics could be considered important to friction stir, but ranking the material characteristics (from most to least important) will depend on the work piece material, expected life of the tool, and the users own experiences and preferences. In addition to the physical properties of a material, some practical considerations are included that may dictate the tool material selection. [4] Ambient- and Elevated-Temperature Strength Elevated-Temperature Stability Wear Resistance Tool Reactivity Fracture Toughness Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (Bi -metal Tools Mach inability Uniformity in Microstructure and Density Availability of Materials

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1.1.2.2.

Applications of FSW

Space Applications Friction Stir Welding is the most recent upgrade to the Space Shuttles gigantic External Tank, the largest element of the Space Shuttle and the only element not reusable. The new welding techniquebeing marketed to industryutilizes frictional heating combined with forging pressure to produce high-strength bonds virtually free of defects. Friction Stir Welding transforms the metals from a solid state into a "plastic-like" state, and then mechanically stirs the materials together under pressure to form a welded joint. Invented and patented by The Welding Institute, a British research and technology organization, the process is applicable to aerospace, shipbuilding, aircraft and automotive industries. One of the key benefits of this new technology is that it allows welds to be made on aluminum alloys that cannot be readily fusion arc welded, the traditional method of welding. In 1993, NASA challenged Lockheed Martin Laboratories in Baltimore, Md., to develop a high-strength, low-density, lighter-weight replacement for aluminum alloy Al 2219used on the original Space Shuttle External Tank. Lockheed Martin, Reynolds Aluminum and the labs at Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala., were successful in developing a new alloy known as Aluminum Lithium Al-Li 2195, which reduced the weight of the External Tank by 7,500 pounds (3,402 kilograms). [11] Today, the External Tank project uses the new alloy to build the Shuttles Super Lightweight Tanks. The lithium in the new lighter-weight materialaluminum lithium alloy Al-Li 2195made the initial welds of the External Tank far more complex. The repair welds were difficult to make and the joint strength of the External Tank had much lower mechanical properties. This drove up production cost on the tank. In an effort to mitigate the increased production cost and regain the mechanical properties of the earlier Al 2219 External Tank the project began researching alternative welding techniques. [11] Because Friction Stir Welding produces stronger weldsthat are easier to makethe External Tank Project Managers chose to use the process on its Super Light Weight Tank, which is made from Al-Li 2195. The Friction Stir Welding process produces a joint stronger than the fusion arc welded joint, obtained in the earlier Light Weight Tank program. A significant benefit of Friction Stir Welding is that it has significantly fewer process elements to control. In a Fusion weld, there are many process factors that must be controlledsuch as purge gas, voltage and amperage, wire feed, travel speed, shield gas, arc gap. However, in Friction Stir Weld there are only three process variables to control: rotation speed, travel speed and pressure, all of which are easily controlled. The increase in joint strength combined with the reduction in process variability provides for an increased safety margin and high degree of reliability for the External Tank. [11]

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Figure 9 - Demographics of friction stir welding (FSW) licensees as of January 2005 [4]

Civil Aviation The main rationale for employing FSW (or welding in general, for that matter) in the manufacture of aerospace components is weight savings, which translate directly into cost savings. Reducing weight enables higher speeds and/or reduced fuel consumption. Friction Stir Welding not only eliminates rivets and fasteners, but the need for an overlap sheet configuration. The butt-joint configuration also facilitates joint evaluation and quality assurance, because a homogeneous joint with full penetration eliminates crack formation. [5] The fact that FSW offers the means to join previously unweldable Al-Li (e.g. AA2195) alloys has attracted growing interest from the civil aeronautics and aerospace industries. High strength and low weight is always desirable combination. When allied to a robust welding method, this opens a whole new field of possibilities. Approval by the FAA (Federal Aviation Association), which has certified the friction stir welding process as a joining process for aircraft, signifies a major breakthrough in the field of civil aviation. The Eclipse 500 business class jet is one example where FSW is used in the production of civil aircraft. [5] Aerospace R&D Many may believe that the traditional metals for airframe structures are being pushed aside by the recent advances in composites. Major breakthroughs have certainly been achieved in these alternative materials, but important ongoing R&D, in which FSW plays a vital role, continues. Several such R&D programmes are funded by the European Commission. The great mechanical properties of FSW have always been the key justification for adopting the process. Research, driven primarily by the aerospace industry, has shown that post-weld ageing treatments can even improve these properties. In one example, material welded according to T4 status (heat treatment), then aged to T6 status, regained 100% of the parent materials ultimate tensile strength. [5]

21

The maturity of the technique has led to broader acceptance within companies such as EADS and Boeing, where FSW is now a qualified and certified process. Numerous applications are being considered, for both thin and thick sections of aluminum. Given its elimination of the need for fasteners, the future looks bright for ongoing development of FSW in the aerospace industry. A good manufacturing unit is the basis for research work. There is no use in creating excellent test values in the laboratory if the parameters and conditions cannot be transferred to production. Recognizing this, some of the leading European aerospace research units have purchased production-capable units for their R&D purposes. [5]

Figure 10 - Research and prototype manufacturing units at EADS in association with LInstitute dSoudure in France, Alenia Spazio in Italy and EADS Ottobrunn in Germany. [5]

Shipbuilding Application advances : Imagine a large catamaran that can be constructed from building blocks, just like a toy boat. All the pieces would fit perfectly together, ensuring mastery of dimensional accuracy and simplifying any necessary modifications. FSW represents a first step towards this type of construction approach in shipbuilding. The low heat input during joining assures less residual stress, resulting in precisely welded components that require minimal fit up work. The resulting savings, both in time and money, are obvious. This offers users of FSW pre-fabricates a clear competitive advantage, although documented data on actual savings is seldom reported. However, the following gives an idea of how panel producers (Midling) can benefit from the production of friction stir welded pre-fabricated panels: Industrial production featuring a high degree of Completion. Extended level of repeatability, ensuring uniform level of performance, quality and narrow tolerances. The flexible production equipment and capacity permits customized solutions without compromising delivery reliability.
22

The completed panel units have been inspected and approved by classification authorities such as DNV, RINA and Lloyds Register. The panels high degree of straightness ensures easy assembly at the yard, reducing the need for manual welding. Less supplementary work for the customer, such as floor leveling and preparation for floor coverings, offering major cost savings. [5]

Figure 11 - Flat panel field after welding. Instead of using wide profiles, the panel is made from relatively narrow (120 mm) extrusions. [5]

Automotive Industry The automotive industry, featuring large manufacturing batches, six sigma requirements and challenging material combinations, from wrought and cast aluminum to magnesium alloys, provides a perfect field for FSW applications. One good example is illustrated in Figure 12, which shows a fully automated machine for the welding of seat frames at SAPA, Sweden. The cycle time is less than one minute per seat, using dual welding heads. Welding speed depends on the alloy to be welded and tool geometry. However, speeds up to 6 meters/minute on 5 mm AA6082 are possible. The alloys, which are sensitive to heat, actually tend to demonstrate better mechanical properties when welded rapidly, since changes in the chemical composition of the material are avoided. Alloys which are difficult to join using conventional arc-welding processes can often be joined by FSW. This offers numerous possibilities, as in the construction of military vehicles. [5]

23

Figure 12 - Fully automatic manufacturing cell for production of car components.

[5]

Overlap and butt joints can be welded in all positions, as well as mixed welds (different thickness or different materials the 5000 to 6000 series, for example). Even cast aluminum components are easily welded. The microstructure and homogeneity of the cast material improves significantly when FS welded. The porosity that is typically present in castings disappears. Figure 13 shows an etched surface on a T-joint between two cast plates. The microstructure of the stir-zone is much finer-grained than the relatively coarse cast plate material, which is typical with FSW. [5]

Figure 13- Etched microstructure on cast aluminum T-joint shows that the weld area has fine-grained microstructure without porosity. The fine crack-shaped-line coming from the right indicates a poorly stirred oxide-layer, not a crack. [5]

Joining components of different thickness or dissimilar alloys is a very demanding task when utilizing arc or beam welding processes. With FSW, plates of different thickness can be joined securely with a high quality weld Overlap joints are also possible with FSW, providing an alternative solution to resistance-spot-welded or seam-welded pieces.

24

Automotive Applications In principle, all aluminum components in a car can be friction stir welded: bumper beams, rear spoilers, crash boxes, alloy wheels, air suspension systems, rear axles, drive shafts, intake manifolds stiffening frames, water coolers, engine blocks, cylinder heads, dashboards, roll-over beams, pistons, etc. Minor modifications to the structure may be needed in order to make it more suitable for FSW, but these should not be insurmountable. In larger road transport vehicle les, the scope for applications is even wider and easier to adapt long, straight or curved welds: trailer beams, cabins and doors, spoilers, front walls, closed body or curtains, drop side walls, frames, rear doors and tail lifts, floors, sides, front and rear bumpers, chassis , fuel and air con trainers, tool boxes, wheels, engine parts, etc. [12] The machine is equipped with two separate welding heads for simultaneous welding from top and bottom, to ensure symmetric heat distribution and avoid root problems. As the heat is generated on both sides, this is the fastest and most effective way to use FSW. The time-consuming plunging operation (penetration of the material) is halved (half the plate thickness), with heat generated on both sides.,[12] Tower lists the benefits of FSW as follows: Reduced weight estimated 40% vs. GMAW Improved joint efficiency (2x tensile strength of GMAW in 6000 series aluminum) Increased fatigue life (2x to 20x GMAW) No consumables (no filler wire or shielding gas required) Less distortion low heat input Improved energy efficiency Environmentally friendly no fumes or spatter.

Another application for suspension components is a three-piece suspension arm on the BMW 5-series (Sato et. al, 1998). In their case study, they have been able to improve the properties of the suspension arm. Some of the main areas of interest for such a component are of course weight, and road noise reduction capabilities. In this particular application, it was noticed that the heat imparted to the ball joint portion during welding did not exceed 120C, leaving the rubber bellows attached to this component unaffected. Welding aluminum wheels was one of the earliest automotive applications for FSW. FSW was first used for longitudinal welding of aluminum tube, which was later cut to the proper length and spin-formed to the right shape. Hydro in Norway has used FSW in attaching the inner rim to the wheel form (Figure 14). The butt and overlap welds can be fabricated in wrought and/or cast materials (Johnson et al. 1999). [13]

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Figure 14 - A butt and overlap weld of circular canister. [5]

Cast aluminum components can successfully be friction stir welded or processed to improve the quality of the cast structure, or to join inserts in the piston. In Friction Stir Processing there is no weld joint, but the tool travels on the material and stirs it and results in fine-grained microstructure, and the porosity typical to castings will vanish. The amount of potential applications in the engine of any motor vehicle alone is incredible, not to mention the cast or forged components used in load-carrying applications. An example of imp roved product quality is shown in Figure 15. More and more aluminum is used in transport vehicles to lower dead load and increase payload. The ever increasing awareness of environmental issues has also placed pressure on weight reduction in many road applications. A lorry offers countless potential applications for FSW mainly straight linear welds in the x-y plane, with easily weldable materials and thickness typically of up to 5 mm. Replacing conventional arc welding joining processes with FSW can lead to a dramatic improvement in panel straightness and reduce assembly times to a minimum.[12]

Figure 15 - friction stir processed piston. The metallographic structure was clearly improved after friction stir processing. [12]

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1.2.

TIG Welding

GAS-TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW), also known as HeliArc, tungsten inert gas (TIG), and tungsten arc welding, was developed in the late 1930s when a need to weld magnesium became apparent. Russell Meredith (Ref 1) developed a welding process using the inert gas helium and a tungsten electrode to fuse magnesium. This joining method replaced riveting as a method of building aircraft with aluminum and magnesium components. The HeliArc welding has continued to this day with many refinements and name changes, but with no change in the fundamentals demonstrated by Meredith [14] The melting temperature necessary to weld materials in the GTAW process is obtained by maintaining an arc between a tungsten alloy electrode and the work piece (Fig. 16). Weld pool temperatures can approach 2500 C (4530 F). An inert gas sustains the arc and protects the molten metal from atmospheric contamination. The inert gas is normally argon, helium, or a mixture of helium and argon. [1]

Figure 16 Schematic showing key components and parameters of the GTAW process [15]

1.2.1. Applications Gas-tungsten arc welding is used extensively for welding stainless steel, aluminum, magnesium, copper, and reactive materials (for example, titanium and tantalum). The process can also be used to join carbon and alloy steels. In carbon steels, it is primarily used for root pass welding with the application of consumable inserts or open-root techniques on pipe. The materials welded range from a few thousandths of an inch to several inches in thickness. [1] Advantages of TIG welding Produces High-Quality, Low-Distortion welds Free of the spatter associated with other methods Can be used with or without filler wire Can be used with a range of power supplies Welds almost all metals, including dissimilar ones Gives precise control of welding heat[1]

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Areas of application TIG welding is often used for jobs that demand high quality welding such as for instance: The offshore industry Combined heat and power plants The petrochemical industry The food industry The chemical industry The nuclear industry [16] Limitations of TIG welding Produces lower deposition rates than consumable electrode arc welding process. Requires slightly more dexterity and welder coordination than gas metal arc welding (GMAW) or shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) for manual welding. Less economical than consumable electrode arc welding for thick sections greater than 9.5 MM (38 IN.) Problematic in drafty environments because of difficulty in shielding the weld zone properly. [1] Additional problems with the process may include: Tungsten inclusions if the electrode is allowed to contact the weld pool. Contamination of the weld metal, if proper shielding of the filler metal by the gas stream is not maintained. Low tolerance for contaminants of filler or base metals. Contamination or porosity, caused by coolant leakage from water-cooled torches. Arc blow or arc deflection, as with other processes. [1] Materials for TIG welding The most important area of application is: Welding of thin materials in stainless steels Aluminum Nickel Nickel alloys

The increasing demands to the weld quality has made TIG welding very popular for welding of smaller tube dimensions as well as root runs in both non-alloyed and alloyed materials in heavier plates. [1] Power supplies for GTAW are usually the constant-current type with a drooping (negative) volt ampere (V-A) curve. Saturable reactors and thyristor-controlled units are the most common. Advances in the electronics industry have readily been accepted in the welding community, resulting in sophisticated, lightweight power supplies. Transistorized direct

28

current (dc) power supplies are becoming common, and the newer rectifier-inverter supplies are very compact and versatile. The inverter power supply consists of three converters: 60 HZ primary alternating current (AC) is rectified to DC Direct current is inverted to High-Frequency AC Alternating current is rectified to DV[18]

The inverter supplies can be switched from constant current to constant voltage for GMAW, resulting in a very versatile piece of equipment. The inverter-controlled power supplies are more stable and have faster response times than conventional silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) power supplies. Figure 17 compares the response of an inverter-controlled arc welding machine and a thyristor-controlled welding machine. [1]

Figure 17 Starting current waveforms of the two power sources to show relative response times of each source. (A) Thyristor-Controlled source. (B) Inverter-Controlled source. Faster response of Inverter-Controlled arc welding machine (2 ms to go from 0 to 100 A) indicates A more stable arc. [1]

Torch construction, the welding torch holds the tungsten electrode that conducts the current to the arc, and it provides a means of shielding the arc and molten metal. The major components of a typical welding torch are shown in Fig. 18. [1]

Figure 18 - Schematic showing exploded view of key components comprising a GTAW manual torch

[1]

Welding torches rated at less than 200 A are normally gas-cooled (that is, the shielding gas flows around the conductor cable, providing the necessary cooling). Water-cooled torches are used for continuous operation or at higher welding currents and are common for mechanized or automatic welding (see the section "GTAW Process Variations" in this article).
29

The cooling water may be supplied to the torch from a recirculating tank that uses a radiator or chiller to cool the water. [1] Electrodes., the nonconsumable electrodes used in GTAW are composed of tungsten or alloys of tungsten. The most common electrode is a 2% ThO2-W alloy (EWTh-2). This material has excellent operating characteristics and good stability. Thoria is radioactive, so care must be taken when sharpening electrodes not to inhale metal dust. The grindings are considered hazardous waste in some states, and disposal may be subject to environmental regulations. Lanthaniated (EWLa-1) and yttriated tungsten electrodes have the best starting characteristics in that an arc can be started and maintained at a lower voltage. Ceriated tungsten (EWCe-2) is only slightly better than the thoriated tungsten with respect to arc starting and melt-off rate. The easy starting of the lanthaniated electrode is a result of the lower work function [19] which allows it to emit electrodes readily at a lower voltage. Pure tungsten is used primarily in ac welding and has the highest consumption rate. Alloys of zirconium are also used. Tungsten electrodes are classified on the basis of their chemical composition (Table 5). Requirements for tungsten electrodes are given in the latest edition of ANSI/AWS A5.12 ("Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes for Arc Welding and Cutting"). The shape of the electrode tip can affect the resulting weld shape. Electrodes with included angles from 60 to 120 are stable and give good weld penetration depth-to-width ratios. Electrodes with smaller included angles (5 to 30) are used for grooved weld joints to eliminate arcing to the part side walls. [1]
Table 4 - Classification of alloying elements in selected tungsten alloys electrodes for GTAW applications

(A) Color may be applied in the form of bands, dots, and so on, at any point on the surface of the electrode (B) Manufacturer must identify the type and nominal content of the rare-earth oxide addition [17]

In mechanized welding, the oscillation is typically produced by moving the entire welding torch mechanically or by moving the arc plasma with the aid of an externally applied magnetic field. Oscillation allows the welding heat to be placed at precise locations. This is advantageous when welding irregularly shaped parts. The number of welding passes and total heat input can be decreased when arc oscillation is used, because it reduces the cost as well as the weld shrinkage and upsetting. stringer bead welding techniques, and arc oscillation should not be used. Externally applied magnetic fields can be used to stabilize the arc, minimize arc blow, and displace the arc plasma forward of the welding torch. This results in improved weld appearances and increased welding speeds in tube mills and other high-speed applications [20]
30

1.2.2. Process Parameters Welding current, current is one of the most important operating conditions to control in any welding operation, because it is related to the depth of penetration, welding speed, deposition rate, and quality of the weld. Fundamentally, there are but three choices of welding current: Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) Alternating current

Figures 19 and 20 show the effect of dc and ac on weld shape. Table 6 gives the recommended current relative to work piece material. [1

Table 5 Suitability of types of current fro GTAW of selected materials [1]

Note: E, excellent; G, good; NR, not recommended.

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(A) Stabilized. Do not use alternating current on tightly jigged assemblies. (B) Amperage should be about 25% higher than when DCEN is used. (C) Unless work is mechanically or chemically cleaned in the areas to be welded.

Figure 19 Effect of polarity on GTAW weld configuration when using direct current. (A) DCEN. Deep penetration, narrow melted area, approximate 30% heat in electrode and 70% heat in base metal. (B) DCEP. Shallow penetration, wide melted area, approximate 70% heat in electrode and 30% heat in base metal [1]

Figure 20 Weld configuration as a function of type of current (AC or DC) used [1]

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Alternating current is characterized as reversing the polarity of the work and electrode at 60 Hz. The rapidly changing polarity gives a cathodic cleaning action that is beneficial for oxide removal when welding aluminum and magnesium. The alternating currents result in electrode heating during the DCEP portion of each cycle. This necessitates the use of larger-diameter electrodes, normally made of pure tungsten. Variable polarity welding allows the frequency of polarity switching to be preset. This can produce the cleaning effects to ac welding and the high efficiency of dc welding. Direct current electrode negative is most often used in the GTAW process. This results in maximum application of heat to the work and maximum melting of the work piece. [1] Shielding gases, the original GTAW process used helium as the shielding gas for welding magnesium and aluminum. Today, argon is the predominant shielding gas. Argon is the least expensive of the inert gases used for shielding gas-tungsten arc welds, which is only partially responsible for its widespread use. Argon has a low ionization potential (2.52 1018 J, or 15.7 eV), making it easier to form an arc plasma than with other shielding gases. Argon is approximately 1.4 times heavier than air, so it displaces air, resulting in excellent shielding of the molten weld pool. Helium has an ionization potential of 3.92 10-18 J (24.5 eV), which results in more difficult arc initiation and operation at a higher arc voltage. The higher arc voltage, V, results in a higher heat input, Q, for a given arc length and current, I: Q = IVT copper, aluminum, and other high-conductivity materials. Helium shielding used with DCEN is very effective for welding thick aluminum. [1] Gas purity, most materials can be welded using a welding grade torch gas with a purity of 99.995% or 50 ppm impurities. However, some reactive materials (for example, titanium, molybdenum, and tantalum) require that the contaminant level be less than 50 ppm, which may require certified purity or the use of gas filters and purifiers [22]. Typical flow rates for argon are 7 L/min and 14 L/min for helium. Backup purge, protecting the molten weld pool from the atmosphere is very important in GTAW. Atmospheric contamination can result in weld cracks, porosity, scaling, and an unacceptable granular appearance. The gas cup on the welding torch is the primary outlet of shielding gas for most GTAW applications. Back side shielding is important because the presence of oxygen can reduce weld metal penetration and result in the effects mentioned above [23]. Balloon and water-soluble paper dams are sometimes used to minimize the volume to be purged. Copper backing bars and ceramics are sometimes used to hold shielding gas against the back surface of the molten weld and support the molten underbead. Reactive materials and special applications may require more elaborate shielding. This can be in the form of a simple trailing device providing the inert shielding gas or may be as elaborate as a special welding chamber equipped with gas purifiers and analyzers.
33

Specially constructed plastic bags have been used successfully to weld large, irregularly shaped components. [1] Filler metals, the thickness of the part to be welded will determine the need for filler metal additions. Material thinner than 3.2 mm can be successfully welded without filler metal additions. Filler metal, when needed, can be added manually in straight length or automatically from a roll or coil. The filler metal is normally added cold; hot wire can be used for automatic applications (Fig. 21). A welding insert is replaced filler material of several possible configurations to aid in root-pass welding.[1]

Figure 21 - Schematic showing key components and parameters of a GTAW hot wire system .

[1]

Rods. straight lengths of filler wire, typically 915 mm in length, are used for manual welding. Most straight lengths are round in cross section, but some aluminum fillers are somewhat rectangular. Cold Wire. Coiled wire may be acquired in small 100 mm spools. Larger 305 mm spools or large coils can weigh over 225 kg. The larger coils are normally used with GMAW because it requires larger quantities of filler metal. The filler wire is fed into the leading edge of the weld pool during cold-wire welding. [1] Hot wire GTAW utilizes a heated filler metal to increase the deposition rate of the process (Fig. 22). The wire is resistance heated to near the melting temperature and fed into the trailing edge of the weld pool. Deposition rates to 29 kg/h are achievable. The higher deposition rates obtained with hot wire make the process competitive for welds and overlays and improve productivity. Table 6 lists typical hot wire parameters. [1]
Table 6 - Typical parameters for automatic how wire GTAW.

[1]

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Note: Using a 4.0 to 4.8 mm diameter 2% The tungsten electrode with a 75He-25Ar shielding gas. Wire diameter: 1.14 mm

Figure 22 Deposition rates for GTAW with cold hot filler wire on a steel work piece.

[1]

Figure 23 Connection diagrams, 1 liter per minute flow rate. Water in through water line. Water out through power cable. [21]

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Table 7 Tungsten selection and Preparation[21]

1.2.3. Shielding Gas, Gas Selection and Use Like other welding processes the job of the shielding gas is to protect the weld pool from contamination from air, which can cause porosity and defects in the weld. The shielding gas is a pathway for the welding arc and will help in the starting and running of the welding arc. In all around of world the most common gas being used for TIG welding is Argon gas. [21]. Overseas Helium is also being used and in days gone by in some countries the weld process was called Heliarc welding. Each of these two gases has advantages. Because of the cost of Helium we are now seeing mixtures of Argon and Helium. This is to gain the best part of each gas. [21] Argon 1) Better arc starting 2) Good cleaning action 3) Lower arc voltage 4) Low gas flows needed Helium 1) Faster travel 2) Better penetration
36

3) Higher arc voltages

Table 8 Shielding gas selection and use[21]

1.3.

MIG Welding

GAS-METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) is an arc welding process that joins metals together by heating them with an electric arc that is established between a consumable electrode (wire) and the work piece. An externally supplied gas or gas mixture acts to shield the arc and molten weld pool. Although the basic GMAW concept was introduced in the 1920s, it was not commercially available until 1948. At first, it was considered to be fundamentally a high-current-density, small-diameter, bare-metal electrode process using an inert gas for arc shielding. Its primary application was aluminum welding. As a result, it became known as metal-inert gas (MIG) welding, which is still common nomenclature. Subsequent process developments included operation at low current densities and pulsed direct current, application to a broader range of materials, and the use of reactive gases (particularly carbon dioxide) and gas mixtures. The latter development, in which both inert and reactive gases are used, led to the formal acceptance of the term gas-metal arc welding. The GMAW process can be operated in semi-automatic and automatic modes. All commercially important metals, such as carbon steel, high-strength low-alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum, copper, and nickel alloys can be welded in all positions by this process if

37

appropriate shielding gases, electrodes, and welding parameters are chosen. Advantages. The applications of the process are dictated by its advantages, the most important of which are: [1] Electrode length does not face the restrictions encountered with shielded-metal arc welding. Welding can be accomplished in all positions, when the proper parameters are used, a feature not found in submerged arc welding. Welding speeds are higher than those of the SMAW process. Deposition rates are significantly higher than those obtained by the SMAW process. Continuous wire feed enables long welds to be deposited without stops and starts. Penetration that is deeper than that of the SMAW process is possible, which may permit the use of same-sized filet welds for equivalent strengths. Less operator skill is required than for other conventional processes, because the arc length is maintained constant with reasonable variations in the distance between the contact tip and the work piece. Minimal posweld.[1]

These advantages make the process particularly well suited to high-production and automated welding applications. With the advent of robotics, gas-metal arc welding has become the predominant process choice. Limitations. The GMAW process, like any welding process, has certain limitations that restrict its use: The welding equipment is more complex, usually more costly and less portable than SMAW equipment. The process is more difficult to apply in hard-to-reach places because the welding gun is larger than a SMAW holder and must be held close to the joint to ensure that the metal is properly shielded. The welding arc must be protected against air drafts that can disperse the shielding gas, which limits outdoor applications unless protective shields are placed around the welding area. Relatively high levels of radiated heat and arc intensity can hinder operator acceptance of the process. [1]

1.3.1. Process Fundamentals Principles of operation, GMAW is an arc welding process which incorporates the automatic feeding of a continuous, consumable electrode that is shielded by an externally supplied gas. Since the equipment provides for automatic self regulation of the electrical characteristics of the arc and deposition rate, the only manual controls required by the welder for semiautomatic operation are gun positioning, guidance, and travel speed. The arc length and the current level are automatically maintained. Process control and function are achieved through these three basic elements of equipment (See Fig. 24) The gun and cable assembly performs three functions. It delivers shielding gas to the arc region, guides the consumable electrode to the contact tip and conducts electrical power to the contact tip. When the gun switch is depressed, gas, power, and electrode are simultaneously delivered to the work and an arc is created. The wire feed unit and power source are normally coupled to provide automatic self-regulation of the arc length. The basic combination used to produce this
38

regulation consists of a constant voltage (CV) power source (characteristically providing an essentially flat volt-ampere curve) in conjunction with a constant speed wire feed unit. Some GMAW equipment, however, uses a constant current (CC) power source (characteristically providing a drooping volt-ampere curve) plus an arc voltage-controlled wire feed unit. With this latter combination, arc voltage changes, caused by a change in the arc length, will initiate a response in the wire feed unit to either increase or decrease the wire feed speed to maintain the original arc length setting. [24] The arc length self-regulation produced by the constant voltage (CV) power supplyconstant speed wire feed unit combination is described in detail in Section III. In some cases (the welding of aluminum, for example), it may be preferable to couple a constant current power source with a constant speed wire feed unit. This combination will provide only a small degree of automatic self-regulation and can be quite demanding in technique and set-up for semiautomatic welding. However, some users think this combination affords the range of control over the arc energy that is considered important in coping with the high thermal conductivity of the aluminum base metal. [24]

Figure 24 Schematic of GMAW process[1]

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Characteristics The characteristics of GMAW are best described by the five basic modes of transfer which may occur with the process. Three traditional modes of transfer are short circuiting, globular and axial spray. With more recent developments in power source technology, two higher level transfer modes, pulsed spray and Surface Tension Transfer (STT) have been developed. Even though these power sources are more expensive, the advantages enable users to easily justify the additional cost on many applications. Axial spray and globular transfer are associated basically with relatively high arc energy. With the occasional exception of the spray mode in very small diameter electrodes, both axial spray and globular transfer are normally limited to the flat and horizontal welding positions with material thickness of not less than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm). Pulsed spray transfer, in which the average energy level is reduced, is another exception (see GMAW-P). STT and traditional short circuiting transfer are relatively low energy processes generally limited to metal thickness not more than 1/8 in. (3.2mm), but is used in all welding positions. The physical weld metal transfers are understood and can be described as shown in Figure 25. Pinch force is responsible for detaching the molten metal from the electrode and propelling it across the arc to the base metal. This momentary necking of the liquid portion of the electrode is a result of the current flow. Electromagnetic forces are produced and controlled by the amount of current flowing through the electrode to the work. [24]

Figure 25 Metal transfer as described by Northgroup equation[24]

High Level Modes of Metal Transfer Spray Pulsed Spray Transfer (GMAW-P). Pulsed spray transfer (GMAW-P) is a variation of spray transfer where the power source quickly pulses between a peak and background current for a fixed period of time (See Figure 26). In doing so, there is greater control of the metal transfer. Because of this, pulse spray is capable of all position welding at a higher energy
40

level than short circuit, thus reducing the chances of cold lapping. Pulsed spray also has better arc stability at high wire feed speeds. Most power sources capable of pulse welding operate as current controlled (CC) units rather than constant voltage (CV). These high speed microprocessor controlled inverter systems are capable of switching from peak to background at over 40 kHz. This high speed switching controls the metal transfer while low speed closed loop samples voltage to control the arc length. This adaptive nature of the power source is more forgiving to contact tip to work changes. [24]

Figure 26 DCEP means Direct Current Electrode Positive[24]

1.3.2. Equipment The GMAW process can be used either semi automatically or automatically. The basic equipment for any GMAW installation consist of the following: 1. A welding gun 2. A wire feed motor and associated gears or drive rolls 3. A welding control 4. A welding power source 5. A regulated supply of shielding gas 6. A supply of electrode 7. Interconnecting cables and hoses Typical semiautomatic and automatic components are illustrated in Figs. 27 and 28. [24]

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Figure 27 Semiautomatic gas metal arc welding installation[24]

Figure 28 Automatic gas metal arc installation [24]

Semiautomatic Welding Equipment Welding gun and accessories, the welding gun (Fig. 29) is used to introduce the electrode and shielding gas into the weld zone and to transmit electrical power to the electrode. Different types of welding guns have been designed to provide maximum efficiency regardless of the application, ranging from heavy duty guns for high current, high production work to lightweight guns for low current or out-of-position welding. Water or air cooling and curved or straight nozzles are available for both heavy duty and lightweight guns. Air cooling permits operation at up to 600 amperes with a reduced duty cycle. The same current capacity is available for continuous operation with a water-cooled gun. The following are basic accessories of these arc welding guns: [24]
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Figure 29 - Typical semiautomatic air-cooled, curved-neck gas metal arc welding gun. 1. Contact tip 2. Gas nozzle 3. Electrode conduit and/or liner 4. Gas hose 5. Water hose (for water-cooled guns) 6. Power cable 7. Control switch

[24]

The contact tip, usually made of copper or a copper alloy, is used to transmit welding power to the electrode and to direct the electrode towards the work. The contact tip is connected electrically to the welding power source by the power cable. The inner surface of the contact tip is very important since the electrode must feed easily through this tip and also make good electrical contact. The literature typically supplied with every gun will list the correct size contact tip for each electrode size and material. The contact tip must be held firmly by the collet nut (or holding device) and must be centered in the shielding gas nozzle. The nozzle directs an even-flowing column of shielding gas into the welding zone. This even flow is extremely important in providing adequate protection of the molten weld metal from atmospheric contamination. Different size nozzles are available and should be chosen according to the application; i.e., larger nozzles for high current work where the weld puddle is large, and smaller nozzles for low current and short circuiting welding. [24] The remaining accessories bring the shielding gas, cooling water, and welding power to the gun. These hoses and cables may be connected directly to the source of these facilities or to the welding control. Trailing-gas shields are available and may be required to protect the weld pool during high speed welding. The basic gun uses a wire feeder to push the electrode from a remote location through the conduit, a distance of typically about 12 ft. (3.7 m). Several other designs are also available, including a unit with a small electrode feed mechanism built into the gun. This system will pull the electrode from a more distant source
43

where an additional drive may also be used to push the electrode into the longer conduit needed. Another variation is the spool-on-gun type in which the electrode feed mechanism and the electrode source are self-contained. [24] 1.3.3. Process Requirements and Applications In GMAW, by definition, coalescence of metals is produced by heating them with an arc established between a continuous, consumable filler metal electrode and the work. The shielding gas and the consumable electrode are two essential requirements for this process. [24] Shielding Gas Most metals exhibit a strong tendency to combine with oxygen (to form oxides) and to a lesser extent with nitrogen (to form metal nitrides). Oxygen will also react with carbon to form carbon monoxide gas. These reaction products are all a source of weld deficiencies in the form of: fusion defects due to oxides; loss of strength due to porosity, oxides and nitrides; and weld metal embrittlement due to dissolved oxides and nitrides. These reaction products are easily formed since the atmosphere is more or less composed of 80 percent nitrogen and 20 percent oxygen. The primary function of the shielding gas is to exclude the surrounding atmosphere from contact with the molten weld metal. [24] The shielding gas will also have a pronounced effect upon the following aspects of the welding operation and the resultant weld: 1. Arc characteristics 2. Mode of metal transfer 3. Penetration and weld bead profile 4. Speed of welding 5. Undercutting tendency 6. Cleaning action[24] The Inert Shielding Gases Argon and Helium: Argon and helium are inert gases. These gases and mixtures of the two are necessarily used in the welding of nonferrous metals and also widely used to weld stainless steel and low alloy steels. Basic differences between argon and helium are: 1. Density 2. Thermal conductivity 3. Arc characteristics[24] The density of argon is approximately 1.4 times that of air (heavier) while the density of helium is approximately 0.14 times that of air (lighter). The heavier the gas the more effective it is at any given flow rate for shielding the arc and blanketing the weld area in flat position (down hand) welding. Therefore, helium shielding requires approximately two or
44

three times higher flow rates than argon shielding in order to provide the same effective protection. Helium possesses a higher thermal conductivity than argon and also produces an arc plasma in which the arc energy is more uniformly dispersed. The argon arc plasma is characterized by a very high energy inner core and an outer mantle of lesser heat energy. This difference strongly affects the weld bead profile. The helium arc produces a deep, broad, parabolic weld bead. The argon arc produces a bead profile most often characterized by a papillary (nipple) type penetration pattern (See Fig. 30) [24]

Figure 30 - Bead contour and penetration patterns for various shielding gases.

[24]

Figure 31- Relative effect of O2 versus CO2 additions to the argon shield.

[24]

45

Table 9 - Shielding gases and gas mixtures for GMAW[24]

Mixtures of Argon and Helium: Pure argon shielding is used in many applications for welding nonferrous materials. The use of pure helium is generally restricted to more specialized areas because of its limited arc stability. However, the desirable weld profile characteristics (deep, broad, and parabolic) obtained with the helium arc are quite often the objective in using an argon-helium shielding gas mixture. The result is an improved weld bead profile plus the desirable axial spray metal transfer characteristic of argon .In short circuiting transfer, argon-helium mixtures of from 60 to 90 percent helium are used to obtain the higher heat input into the base metal for better fusion characteristics. For some metals, such as stainless and low alloy steels, helium additions instead of CO2 additions are chosen to obtain higher heat input, because helium will not produce weld metal reactions that could adversely affect the mechanical properties of the deposit. [24] Oxygen and CO2 Additions to Argon and Helium: Pure argon and, to some extent, helium produce excellent results in welding nonferrous metals. However, these shielding gases in the pure form do not produce the most satisfactory operational characteristics in welding ferrous materials. The arc tends to be erratic, accompanied by spatter with helium shielding, and shows a marked tendency to produce undercutting with pure argon shielding. Additions to argon of from 1 to 5 percent oxygen or from 3 to 10 percent CO2 (and up to 25 percent CO2) produce a very noticeable improvement. The optimum amount of oxygen or CO2 to be added to the inert gas is a function of the surface condition (mill scale) of the base metal, the joint geometry, welding position or technique, and the base metal composition. Generally, 3 percent oxygen or 9 percent CO2 is considered a good compromise to cover a broad range of these variables. Carbon dioxide additions to argon also tend to enhance the weld bead by producing a more readily defined pear-shapedbprofile (See Fig. 31). [24]
46

Carbon Dioxide.: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a reactive gas widely used in its pure form for the gas metal arc welding of carbon and low alloy steels. It is the only reactive gas suitable for use alone as a shield in the GMAW process. Higher welding speed, greater joint penetration, and lower cost are general characteristics which have encouraged extensive use of CO2 shielding gas. With a CO2 shield, metal transfer is either of the short circuiting or globular mode. Axial spray transfer is a characteristic of the argon shield and cannot be achieved with a CO2 shield. The globular type transfer arc is quite harsh and produces a rather high level of spatter. This requires that the welding conditions be set with relatively low voltage to provide a very short buried arc (the tip of the electrode is actually below the surface of the work), in order to minimize spatter. In overall comparison to the argon-rich shielded arc, the CO2shielded arc produces a weld bead of excellent penetration with a rougher surface profile and much less washing action at the extremity of the weld bead due to the buried arc. Very sound weld deposits are achieved but mechanical properties may be adversely affected due to the oxidizing nature of the arc. [24]

Table 10 - Selection of gases for GMAW with short circuiting transfer.

[24]

1.3.4. Safety The major hazards of concern during GMAW are: the fumes and gases, which can harm health; the high-voltage electricity, which can injure and kill; the arc rays, which can injure eyes and burn skin; and the noise which may be present that can damage hearing. The type and amount of fumes and gas present during welding depend on the electrode being used, the alloy being welded, and the presence of any coatings on the base metal. To guard against potential hazards, a welder should keep his head out of the fume plume and avoid breathing the fumes and gases caused by the arc. Ventilation is always required. Electrode shock can result from exposure to the high open-circuit voltages associated with welding power supplies. All electrical equipment and the work piece must be connected to an approved electrical ground. Cables should be of sufficient size to carry the maximum current required. Insulation should be protected from cuts and abrasion, and the cable should not come into contact with oils, paints, or other fluids which may cause deterioration. Work areas,
47

equipment, and clothing must be kept dry at all times. The welder should be well insulated, wearing dry gloves, rubber soled shoes, and standing on a dry board or platform while welding. [1] Radiant energy, especially in the ultraviolet range, is intense during GMAW. To protect the eyes from injury, the proper filter shade for the welding-current level selected should be used. These greater intensities of ultraviolet radiation can cause rapid disintegration of cotton clothing. Leather, wool, and aluminum-coated cloth will better withstand exposure to arc radiation and better protect exposed skin surfaces. [1] When noise has been determined to be excessive in the work area, ear protection should be used. This can also be used to prevent spatter from entering the ear. Conventional fire prevention requirements, such as removal of combustibles from the work area, should be followed. Sparks, slag, and spatter can travel long distances, so care must be taken to minimize the start of a fire at locations removed from the welding operation. For further information, see the guidelines set forth in the National Fire Protection Association Standard NFPA No. 51B, "Fire Protection in Use of Cutting and Welding Processes." Care should be exercised in the handling, storage, and use of cylinders containing high pressure and liquefied gases. Cylinders should be secured by chains or straps during handling or use. Approved pressure-reducing regulators should be used to provide a constant, controllable working pressure for the equipment in use. Lubricants or pipe fitting compounds should not be used for making any connections, as they can interfere with the regulating equipment, and in the case of oxygen service, they can contribute to a catastrophic fire. [1] 1.4. Ultrasonic Welding

ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW) is a quasi-solid-state process that produces a weld by introducing high-frequency vibration to the weldment as it is held under moderately high clamping forces. The weld is produced without significant melting of the base materials. In some respects, ultrasonic welding is an infant process that still awaits thorough exploration. A greater understanding is needed of the processes that occur at the bond interface. Specifically, the interaction of the process parameters, as well as their role in bond development, needs to be better understood. The advantages of ultrasonic welding are that it: Permits joining of thin materials to thick materials. Permits dissimilar metal joints. Provides joints with good thermal and electrical conductivity Joins metals without the heat of fusion Provides efficient energy use Typically requires no filler material, flux or special atmosphere Typically requires no special cleaning processes. Welds through most oxides.[1]

Applications: commercially successful applications generally have certain characteristics. First, joints must be lap joints, not butt joints. Second, thin sections are required adjacent to
48

the welding tip. Third, better results are obtained with nonferrous alloys. Production applications include electrical wire harnesses for the appliance and automotive industry; buss bars; fuses; circuit breakers; contacts; ignition modules; starter motors; aluminum and copper foil; battery foils; capacitors; encapsulation of explosives; microelectronic wires; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) tubing; and many others. Military applications in the aircraft industry are described in MIL-STD 1947, issued May 15, 1985. [1] 1.4.1. Equipment and Process Parameters An ultrasonic welding system requires a power supply that converts line power to the high frequency and high voltage needed by the transducer. The transducer transforms highfrequency electrical energy to vibratory energy and is incorporated into the welding head, which also provides the means (that is, either pneumatic, hydraulic, or mechanical) to clamp the workpieces. The transducer assembly also incorporates components or wave guides to transmit the energy to the desired weld area. Ultrasonic welding products a weld by oscillating shear forces at the interface between the two metals being joined while they are held together under moderate static clamping force. The resulting internal stresses result in elastoplastic deformation at the interface. Highly localized interfacial slip at the interface tends to break up oxides and surface films, permitting metal-to-metal contact at many points. As continued oscillation breaks down the points and the contact area grows, diffusion occurs across the interface to produce a structure similar to that of a diffusion weld. [1] Ultrasonic welding produces a localized temperature rise from the combined effects of elastic hysteresis, interfacial slip, and plastic deformation. The welding process is completed without having fully melted metal at the interface when the correct combination of force, power, and time parameters are used. Interface temperature rise is greater for metals with low thermal conductivity (for example, steel) than it is for metals of high conductivity. Ultrasonic welding of such high-conductivity materials consumes substantially less energy than does resistance welding. In the case of alloys that have a broad melting temperature range, it is likely that as the low end of the range is reached, a slushing condition that facilitates plasticity in the weld interface is produced. Process Variations and Limitations. Variations of the USW process produce different weld geometries. There are spot, line, continuous seam, and ring welding machines. Spot welds can be circular, elliptical, or rectangular, and solid or ring like in geometry. They are formed when the material is clamped between a shaped tip (sometimes called a sonotrode) and an anvil (Fig. 32). The tip vibrates as ultrasonic energy is momentarily introduced in a plane parallel to the interface and perpendicular to the clamping force. Although weld time varies according to the thickness and composition of the material to be joined and the power of the welding machine, most spot welds can be produced in less than 1.5 s (Fig. 33). [1]

49

Figure 32 Two versions of an ultrasonic welding system used for spot welding applications. (A) Wedge-Reed system. (B) Lateral drive system[1]

Figure 33 Plot of welding machine power consumption versus material thickness for selected metals joined by ultrasonic welding[1]

50

Continuous seam welds are produced when a disk-shaped ultrasonically vibrating roller is rotated and traversed over a work piece that is supported on a fixed anvil. Typical uses include joining foil ends in aluminum and copper foil mills. Commercial equipment is available to weld sheet thickness up to about 0.15 mm. High-frequency systems (typically, 50 kHz) permit excellent welds in even the thinnest of foils, such as 0.0043 mm without tearing or puckering. This technique is also used to join 0.038 mm aluminum interconnects to foil in photovoltaic panels. [1] Ring welds, a circular tip used on a spot welder can be used to form a ring weld. Systems designed especially for ring welding often use the torsional or circular motion of an annular-shaped tip instead of a forward and backward motion. Such a system utilizes two transducers, one of each side of a hollow reed. Each transducer produces motion 180 out of phase with the other, thus causing a torsional motion at the interface of the weldment. Ring welds with diameters up to about 50 mm and an annular weld track of about 1.25 mm have been produced in thin aluminum or copper foils. Typical applications include the encapsulation of liquid and powder propellant or explosive materials by welding a thin foil cover on a container. [1] Foils are usually 0.2 mm or less. The weld process does not produce much heat, which makes it suitable for use with heat-sensitive materials. Many small, high frequency (28 kHz) systems are in operation to hermetically seal small explosive initiators or fuses for armaments. Microelectronic Welds. fine wire bonding represents the earliest widely used USW application and still accounts for a large volume of industrial activity. Millions of wire bonds are performed daily. Figure 34 shows an ultrasonic wire welding apparatus. [1]

Figure 34 Ultrasonic wire welder used to bond wires for microelectronic applications[1]

51

Wire diameters range from less than 0.025 to 0.5 mm and the highest volume occurs in the 0.025 to 0.050 mm diameter range. Vibratory action at high frequency (typically, 60 kHz) removes surface contaminants, induces material flow, and permits a solid-state weld between the wire and either the metallized bond pad or the leads on the semiconductor package. A combination of ultrasonic and thermo compression bonding techniques, known as thermo sonic bonding, is now a popular wire bonding method. The technique involves ultrasonic welding with heated substrates, typically with interface temperatures that range from 100 to 200 C [1] 1.4.2. USW Procedures The USW process requires the overlapping of the materials to be welded. Generally, the materials need only be presented to the welder in proper orientation. Correct orientation is usually achieved by using a nest or anvil fixture, which supports the parts while they are being welded. When joining stranded wires to other solid or stranded wires or to a terminal, a "gathering" fixture must be used to pull the wires together and to exert a slight pressure while welding to prevent the wires from escaping from the intended weld area. This type of fixture is usually supplied by the manufacturer with machines intended for use with wires and can be adjusted to accommodate a wide range of sizes and combinations. [1] Special considerations described below include the condition of the surface, the use of an interlayer, and the control of resonance. Surface Condition, most of the readily weldable materials, such as aluminum, copper, or brass, can be welded as received from the mill or must be degreased with a common solvent or detergent to remove surface lubricants. Oxide coatings will disperse during the process, unless they are very thick. Heavy surface scale should be removed by mechanical abrading or chemical etching before welding. The time lapse between cleaning and welding is generally not critical, unless the atmosphere is corrosive. Some types of coatings and insulations (for example, low-temperature magnet-wire coating) may be penetrated during the welding process, whereas other types must be mechanically removed. Fairly consistent surface cleanliness and quality must be maintained to ensure uniform weld quality. [1] Welding tip and anvil tip surfaces with serrated or crosshatched patterns are useful in preventing slip between the tip and the weldment. Slip can result in a weld location between the metal and the tools, instead of at the required interface. A typical crosshatched pattern would be 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) peak-to peak and about 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) deep. [1] Special atmospheres, although ultrasonic welding does not require a special atmosphere, it may be applicable under certain conditions. For example, use of an inert gas can reduce or prevent oxidation when bonding a metal such as lithium. Ultrasonic welding is not adversely affected by the presence of an inert atmosphere. [1] Weld quality is described below in terms of influencing factors, surface appearance and deformation, and metallographic examination. Influencing factors, the quality of ultrasonic welds is affected by these parameters:
52

Composition and geometry of the weldment Hardness of the work piece Cleanliness of the weldment Selection of welding conditions, such as power, clamping force and weld time. Capacity of the tooling to properly support and clamp the parts to prevent unwanted vibration.[1]

Surfaces to be welded should be reasonably flat the parallel. This is especially critical for ring welding where a high degree of hermeticity is required. Some materials may be weldable in the as-received condition. However, a change in lubricants or other surface condition can require an adjustment in machine settings to maintain quality. Therefore, it is sometimes advisable to degrease or to abrade surfaces before welding to maintain a certain level of consistency. [1] Surface appearance and deformation, depending on the material and the tip geometry, the surface of an ultrasonic weld can leave a slight scuff mark or a significant depression. This thickness deformation is more visible in soft, ductile materials, such as soft aluminum. The actual weld interface is usually smaller than the surface impression. Harder materials generally have a shallower and smaller surface depression than soft, ductile materials. A tip surface that has serrations or a cross-hatched pattern will replicate this pattern in the surface of the weldment. A spherical radius on the tip will generally produce a deeper, bowl-shaped depression than a flat tip of the same diameter. Stranded or braided wires can be welded to form a solid cross section, if required. Slightly lower power, time, or force can give a compressed, but not solid, cross section. [1] 1.5. Aluminum

Aluminum, the second most plentiful metallic element on earth, became an economic competitor in engineering applications as recently as the end of the 19th century. It was to become a metal for its time. The emergence of three important industrial developments would, by demanding material characteristics consistent with the unique qualities of aluminum and its alloys, greatly benefit growth in the production and use of the new metal. When the electrolytic reduction of alumina (Al2O3) dissolved in molten cryolite was independently developed by Charles Hall in Ohio and Paul Heroult in France in 1886, the first internal-combustion-engine-powered vehicles were appearing, and aluminum would play a role as an automotive material of increasing engineering value. Electrification would require immense quantities of light-weight conductive metal for long-distance transmission and for construction of the towers needed to support the overhead network of cables which deliver electrical energy from sites of power generation. Within a few decades the Wright brothers gave birth to an entirely new industry which grew in partnership with the aluminum industry development of structurally reliable, strong, and fracture-resistant parts for airframes, engines, and ultimately, for missile bodies, fuel cells, and satellite components. [25]

53

The aluminum industry's growth was not limited to these developments. The first commercial applications of aluminum were novelty items such as mirror frames, house numbers, and serving trays. Cooking utensils, were also a major early market. In time, aluminum grew in diversity of applications to the extent that virtually every aspect of modern life would be directly or indirectly affected by its use. [25] Properties, among the most striking characteristics of aluminum is its versatility. The range of physical and mechanical properties that can be developed--from refined high-purity aluminum (see the article "Properties of Pure Metals" in this Volume) to the most complex alloys--is remarkable. More than three hundred alloy compositions are commonly recognized, and many additional variations have been developed internationally and in supplier/consumer relationships. Compositions for both wrought and cast aluminum alloys are provided in the article "Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys" that immediately follows. The properties of aluminum that make this metal and its alloys the most economical and attractive for a wide variety of uses are appearance, light weight, fabricability, physical properties, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance. Aluminum has a density of only 2.7 g/cm3, approximately one-third as much as steel (7.83 g/cm3), copper (8.93 g/cm3), or brass (8.53 g/cm3). It can display excellent corrosion resistance in most environments, including atmosphere, water (including salt water), petrochemicals, and many chemical systems. [25] Aluminum surfaces can be highly reflective. Radiant energy, visible light, radiant heat, and electromagnetic waves are efficiently reflected, while anodized and dark anodized surfaces can be reflective or absorbent. The reflectance of polished aluminum, over a broad range of wave lengths, leads to its selection for a variety of decorative and functional uses. Aluminum typically displays excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, but specific alloys have been developed with high degrees of electrical resistivity. These alloys are useful, for example, in high-torque electric motors. Aluminum is often selected for its electrical conductivity, which is nearly twice that of copper on an equivalent weight basis. The requirements of high conductivity and mechanical strength can be met by use of long-line, high-voltage, aluminum steel cored reinforced transmission cable. The thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys, about 50 to 60% that of copper, is advantageous in heat exchangers, evaporators, electrically heated appliances and utensils, and automotive cylinder heads and radiators. [25] Aluminum is non ferromagnetic, a property of importance in the electrical and electronics industries. It is nonpyrophoric, which is important in applications involving inflammable or explosive-materials handling or exposure. Aluminum is also nontoxic and is routinely used in containers for foods and beverages. It has an attractive appearance in its natural finish, which can be soft and lustrous or bright and shiny. It can be virtually any color or texture. Some aluminum alloys exceed structural steel in strength. However, pure aluminum and certain aluminum alloys are noted for extremely low strength and hardness. [1]

54

1.5.1. Aluminum Production All aluminum production is based on the Hall-Heroult process. Alumina refined from bauxite is dissolved in a cryolite bath with various fluoride salt additions made to control bath temperature, density, resistivity, and alumina solubility. An electrical current is then passed through the bath to electrolyze the dissolved alumina with oxygen forming at and reacting with the carbon anode, and aluminum collecting as a metal pad at the cathode. The separated metal is periodically removed by siphon or vacuum methods into crucibles, which are then transferred to casting facilities where remelt or fabricating ingots are produced. The major impurities of smelted aluminum are iron and silicon, but zinc, gallium, titanium, and vanadium are typically present as minor contaminants. Internationally, minimum aluminum purity is the primary criterion for defining composition and value. In the United States, a convention for considering the relative concentrations of iron and silicon as the more important criteria has evolved. Reference to grades of unalloyed metal may therefore be by purity alone, for example, 99.70% aluminum, or by the method sanctioned by the Aluminum Association in which standardized Pxxx grades have been established. In the latter case, the digits following the letter P refer to the maximum decimal percentages of silicon and iron, respectively. For example, P1020 is unalloyed smelter-produced metal containing no more than 0.10% Si and no more than 0.20% Fe. P0506 is a grade which contains no more than 0.05% Si and no more than 0.06% Fe. Common P grades range from P0202 to P1535, each of which incorporates additional impurity limits for control purposes. [25] Refining steps are available to attain much higher levels of purity. Purities of 99.99% are achieved through fractional crystallization or Hoopes cell operation. The latter process is a three-layer electrolytic process which employs molten salt of greater density than pure molten aluminum. Combinations of these purification techniques result in 99.999% purity for highly specialized applications. [25] Production Statistics, world production of primary aluminum totaled 17,304 thousand metric tones (17.304 106 Mg) in 1988 (Fig. 35). From 1978 to 1988, world production increased 22.5%, an annual growth rate of 1.6%. the United States accounted for 22.8% of the world's production in 1988, while Europe accounted for 21.7%. The remaining 55.5% was produced by Asia (5.6%), Canada (8.9%), Latin/South America (8.8%), Oceania (7.8%), Africa (3.1%), and others (21.3%). The total U.S. supply in 1988 was 7,533,749 Mg in 1988, with primary production representing 54% of total supply, imports accounting for 20%, and secondary recovery representing 26% . [25] The source of secondary production is scrap in all forms, as well as the product of skim and dross processing. Primary and secondary production of aluminum are integrally related and complementary. Many wrought and cast compositions are constructed to reflect the impact of controlled element contamination that may accompany scrap consumption. A recent trend has been increased use of scrap in primary and integrated secondary fabricating facilities for various wrought products, including can sheet. [25]

55

Figure 35 -Annual world production of primary aluminum. Source: Aluminum Association, Inc.

[25]

1.5.2. Aluminum Alloys It is convenient to divide aluminum alloys into two major categories: casting compositions and wrought compositions. A further differentiation for each category is based on the primary mechanism of property development. Many alloys respond to thermal treatment based on phase solubilitys. These treatments include solution heat treatment, quenching, and precipitation, or age, hardening. For either casting or wrought alloys, such alloys are described as heat treatable. A large number of other wrought compositions rely instead on work hardening through mechanical reduction, usually in combination with various annealing procedures for property development. These alloys are referred to as work hardening. Some casting alloys are essentially not heat treatable and are used only in as-cast or in thermally modified conditions unrelated to solution or precipitation effects. Cast and wrought alloy nomenclatures have been developed. The Aluminum Association system is most widely recognized in the United States. Their
56

alloy identification system employs different nomenclatures for wrought and cast alloys, but divides alloys into families for simplification (see the article "Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys" in this Volume for details). For wrought alloys a four-digit system is used to produce a list of wrought composition families as follows: [25] 1xxx Controlled unalloyed (pure) compositions 2xxx Alloys in which copper is the principal alloying element, though other elements, notably magnesium, may be specified 3xxx Alloys in which manganese is the principal alloying element 4xxx Alloys in which silicon is the principal alloying element 5xxx Alloys in which magnesium is the principal alloying element 6xxx Alloys in which magnesium and silicon are principal alloying elements 7xxx Alloys in which zinc is the principal alloying element, but other elements such as copper, magnesium, chromium, and zirconium may be specified 8xxx Alloys including tin and some lithium compositions characterizing miscellaneous compositions 9xxx Reserved for future use[25]

Casting compositions are described by a three-digit system followed by a decimal value. The decimal .0 in all cases pertains to casting alloy limits. Decimals .1, and .2 concern ingot compositions, which after melting and processing should result in chemistries conforming to casting specification requirements. Alloy families for casting compositions are: 1xx.x Controlled unalloyed (pure) compositions, especially for rotor manufacture 2xx.x Alloys in which copper is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements may be Specified 3xx.x Alloys in which silicon is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements such as copper and magnesium are specified 4xx.x Alloys in which silicon is the principal alloying element 5xx.x Alloys in which magnesium is the principal alloying element 6xx.x Unused 7xx.x Alloys in which zinc is the principal alloying element, but other alloying elements such as copper and magnesium may be specified 8xx.x Alloys in which tin is the principal alloying element 9xx.x Unused[25]

1.5.3. Joining Aluminum can be joined by a wide variety of methods, including fusion and resistance welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, and mechanical methods such as riveting and bolting. Factors that affect the welding of aluminum include: Aluminum oxide coating Thermal conductivity Thermal expansion coefficient Melting characteristics Electrical conductivity[25]

57

1.5.4. Aluminum Anodization Aluminum surface is always covered by a natural oxide layer (alumina). This layer is subject to deterioration because of its fragility caused both by the low thickness and its nonhomogenous nature. The anodizing process ( eloxation) which we perform, allow us to control the thickness of this oxide layer obtaining a homogenous and resistant layer. Using special coloring agents it is possible to color the anodized layer. The coloring of the deposited layer is an additional operation and optional. The only way to remove the color of the piece is the destruction of the anodized layer. The anodizing process ( eloxation) is finalized by the pore clogging by the hydration of the oxide layer formed. Once the pores have been clogged, a better resistance to corrosion is obtained . The layer of deposited aluminum oxide has also electric properties. The presence of the anodized layer on the surface of a piece made of aluminum prevents the electric current flow. (That is a problem when we want to weld aluminum anodized parts). The porosity of the anodized surfaces allow a very good adhering to the electrostatic field painting or when two surfaces are stuck together. The aluminum pieces have a crystalline structure depending on the thermal treatment of the pieces or the raw material they were manufactured during the anodizing treatment, further to the action of the aggressive solutions of the baths , the crystalline structure could be sometimes, made evident. The processing of the aluminum piece surfaces may hide some material defects. The irregularities of the aluminum surfaces corrected by grinding can occur again after the piece degreasing and passivating ( the micro defects of the surface are filled during the grinding and the surface looks smooth, but when the surface is cleaned by degreasing and passivating operations, removing the dust from these small holes , the micro-defect is again made evident). To be able to perform the anodizing ( eloxation) of a piece it is essential that electric contact points exist on the piece surface. At these contact points, no oxide layer is formed and so it is possible to notice white traces. The piece contact zone will be selected so that to maintain the esthetical appearance of the pieces. In the zone of the welding cords, the pieces are submitted to thermal treatment, the metal micro-structure being affected and thus there will occur obvious differences between the aluminum piece basic metal and the welded zone.. The welded sector shows a much darker color compared to the rest of the piece. Moreover, the welded sector can show an uneven appearance. The alloys of 6000 series ( magnesium and silica alloys). Their behavior at anodizing and coloring is very good and the appearance of the anodized layer is very homogenous. The pieces made of this alloy can be enameled to obtain an unpolished appearance of the surface. When the thickness of the anodized layer is higher than 30m, the piece surface gets a dark gray color. [36]
58

Chapter 2 EXPERIMENTATION AND MATERIALS

2.1. Application of Welding Experimental work performed in this study with MIG welding method. Subsequently, the sample is investigated by metallography and Brinell Hardness test. Many results are achieved, they will be shown and discussed in next chapter of thesis. The samples chemical composition is shown with Table 11.
Aluminum Association 6063T5 UNS No. Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ga V Ti Cr Other Elements 0.05 (each)

A91085

0.30

0.35

0.10

0.10

0.50

0.10

0.03

0.05

0.10

0.10

Table 11: Chemical composition of used Aluminium[25]

T5 temper 6063 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 152 MPa in thickness up to 13 mm, and 145 MPa from 0.5 to 25 mm thick, and yield strength of at least 110 MPa up to 13 mm and 103 MPa from 0.5 to 25 mm It has elongation of 8%. [25] The sample which was used for this experiment, was taken from aluminium profiles for light metallic constructions . Its also manufactured by extrusion method.

Figure 36 MIG weld sample. Anodized aluminium for industrial applications, metallic light constructions.

59

This type of Al has various key features and advantages. They are as shown below. Light weight Strength Elasticity Formability Corrosion Resistance Conductivity Linear Expansion Non toxic Reflectivity Attractive[25] And the industries they are used, Automotive and transport Building and construction General engineering Electronics Consumer goods Solar[25]
MIG weld type parameters are as show below with Table 12.

Welding Type MIG

Gas Type Argon %100

Current ( A) 110-125

Voltage (V) 20-22

Velocity(Vm/min) 0.135

Filler Wire Aluminium 4043

Table 12: Parameters of process

Joining process has been successfully accomplished by this parameters. Results of application will be discussed in next chapter.
3mm

Figure 37 Horizontal sections from the sample, it shows the position of welding.

2.2. Samples Preparation For Metallographic Analysis To make the sample ready for metallographic investigation, there are steps that must be followed to ensure a healthy and great analysis with our sample. The steps that have been followed during the examination, are mentioned as follows. 2.2.1. Sectioning Aluminum alloys can be sectioned by any standard cutting method; however, the cutting must not alter the structure or the configuration of the specimen in the plane to be examined. Because many aluminum alloys are soft, sawing or shearing should be done at a
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distance from the plane to be polished and then the intervening deformed material removed by wet grinding and polishing. An abrasive saw permits cutting closer to the plane of polishing. The temperature of the metal must not increase sufficiently during cutting to affect adversely the results of the examination. Because the grains in wrought aluminum alloys are rarely equiaxed, sections for determining grain size must be defined regarding the principal direction of working. [27] 2.2.2. Mounting Mounting, in a plastic medium to form a cylindrical piece is the accepted procedure, unless the specimen is large enough to be hand held for subsequent grinding and polishing. Standard mounting materials and methods are described in the article "Mounting of Specimens" in this Volume. Special problems relating to the selection of mounting method or material may be caused by (1) inclusion of alloys of dissimilar hardnesss in the same mount, (2) the need to maintain flatness to the edge, (3) the need to mount thin sheet specimens for polishing in a plane perpendicular to the rolled surface, and (4) the need to connect electrical leads to one or more specimens for subsequent electro polishing or electrolytic etching. The mounting medium should not be so hard that it inhibits polishing of the softest aluminum contained in the mount or so soft that it allows rounding of the metal edges. Specimen edges whose flatness must be preserved should not be placed near the outer edge of the mounting ring. [27] Thin sheet specimens can be bent or clamped in various ways, but it is most convenient to pack mount them by bolting layers together. The bolted pack can be mounted in plastic or cut to a convenient shape and size for polishing. If a bolt material other than an aluminum alloy is used, it should be coated or insulated before etching to prevent galvanic corrosion. Entrapment and seepage of liquid between layers can be minimized by immersing the pack mount in a bath of molten wax for a few minutes, removing it from the bath and cooling it until the wax has solidified, then wiping off the excess wax. Interleaving with a soft aluminum foil or thin sheet helps distinguish the interface between similar alloys, aids in revealing the thickness of anodic films, and minimizes entrapment and seepage of liquid between layers. Pack mounts are also convenient when multiple-sheet specimens are to be electro polished or electrolytically etched. Various methods are used for making electrical connections to metal mounted in plastic. One method is to make the mount electrically conductive by preparing it from an approximately equal mixture of plastic mounting powder with clean, dry aluminum chips from a band saw. When the heat or pressure of mounting must be avoided, various castable plastics can be used at room temperature. The can be used to fill in crevices and cracks by vacuum impregnation, even when thermal mounting is to be used. [29]

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2.2.3. Grinding Aluminum alloys can be ground using the same general techniques for all metals. Because aluminum alloys can be ground readily with various abrasives, selection is made on an individual basis. Generally, grinding is performed in successive steps using silicon carbide abrasive papers of 180, 220, 320, 400, and 600 grit. The starting grit size depends on the type of cut surface being removed. If the specimen has been cut with a hacksaw or band saw, 180or 220-grit paper should be used. If the specimen has been cut with a jeweler's saw or a fine abrasive or diamond wheel, initial grinding can be performed using 320-, 400-, or 500-grit paper. Silicon carbide papers in grit sizes of 800 and 1000 are available from some suppliers; these are equivalent to 10 and 5 m, respectively. Using 800- and 1000-grit silicon carbide papers, fine grinding can be achieved without using diamond abrasives. [27] These finer grit sizes cause less surface deformation and produce a more uniform surface finish than diamond abrasives, thus facilitating subsequent polishing. If these papers are used, the number of grinding steps can often be reduced to five: 220, 400, 600, 800, then 1000 grit. Motor-driven belt grinders or disk-shaped laps hasten grinding, but care must be taken to prevent overheating of the specimen. Running water suffices as a coolant and lubricant at all stages when used with a water resistant backing for abrasive materials. The specimen should be thoroughly washed after each grinding to prevent carryover of abrasive particles to the next stage. Abrasive particles embed easily into softer aluminum alloys. Therefore, kerosene, with or without dissolved paraffin, may be applied periodically to metallographic emery papers while hand grinding. During wet grindings with silicon carbide papers, however, less pressure should be applied to the specimen and adequate water should be used to flush away loose abrasive particles. [27] 2.2.4. Polishing Rough polishing is performed using a suspension of 600-grit alumina (Al2O3) powder in distilled water (50 g/500 mL H2O) on a billiard cloth fixed to a rotating wheel. Diamond abrasive of 6, 3, or 1 m (depending on the final grinding step used) on a short-nap cloth disk can also be used. The 600-grit Al2O3 is excellent for removing the thin layer of metal that smears over fine cracks and porosity during rough grinding; however, excessive time and pressure will result in rounded specimen edges and constituents in relief. These problems can be addressed with a subsequent step using 1-m diamond on a short-nap cloth. The diamond can be applied as a paste or as spray and replenished as needed to provide continued cutting action. During diamond polishing, a lubricant of kerosene or a propylene glycol solution should be added to the rotating wheel. Propylene glycol solutions are the most commonly used lubricant. Considerable hand pressure is used initially, then gradually reduced. Wheel speeds of 500 to 700 rpm are typical. For rough polishing to be successful, polishing times should range from 1 to 2 min, and short-nap cloths should be used. Specimens should be thoroughly washed or ultrasonically cleaned to remove all abrasive after rough polishing. [27]
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Chemical polishing does not level rough surfaces as efficiently as electro polishing and so generally requires a smoother starting surface. However, it is more convenient for large areas. Solutions similar to those for commercial bright dip finishing can be used. [27] One method of chemical polishing is: Solution: 1 part concentrated nitric acid (HNO3), 1 part ethanol; add 1% or less of a 30% solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Optimum concentration of H2O2 depends on the alloy being polished. Temperature: 0 C (32 F); maintain with ice bath Time: 10 to 30 min (use mechanical stirring) Comments: Start with the equivalent of a 600-grit polished surface[27]

Electrolytic polishing can be performed using commercially available equipment and polishing solutions. Typical conditions for polishing are: Electrolyte: 62 mL of a 70% solution of perchloric acid (HClO4), 700 mL ethanol, 100 mL 2- butoxyethanol (also known as butyl cellosolve and ethanol glycol monobutyl ether), and 137 mL distilled H2O Current density: 3.85 A/cm2 (24.8 A/in.2); specimen is anode Time: 20 s; from 3/0 emery-paper finish Comments: Rinse in warm water, alcohol, dry in warm air. To prevent or minimize overheating of the specimen, polish in 10-s intervals, allowing specimen to cool during "off" periods. [27]

Another commonly used electrolyte is a solution of 25 mL concentrated HNO3 in 75 mL methanol. Both solutions present the usual hazards associated with the use of acids; in addition, the HClO4 electrolytes pose special hazards. Electrolytes of HClO4 and acetic anhydride are extremely dangerous to prepare and use and can explode if improperly handled. However, the HClO4 electrolyte described above is safe to mix and to use if the precautions given in the article "Electrolytic Polishing" in this Volume are observed. For additional information, see the article "Etching" in this Volume. The time required to produce a good electrolytic polish depends on the surface finish obtained in previous mechanical grinding or polishing--the finer the finish, the shorter the time. Heating of the specimen may occur when high currents or large contact resistances are encountered. Therefore, the size of the area to be polished should be restricted; a diameter of 10 mm (0.4 in.) is typical. Moreover, good electrical contact should be established with the specimens. The point of contact and the contacting wire should be isolated from the electrolyte and any dissimilar metals, such as copper and steel. Continuous cooling of specimen or electrolyte offers additional control. [27] 2.2.5. Etching With nearly all metals and materials, and aluminum is no exception, it is always best to examine specimens after preparation, prior to etching. Some intermetallic phases are best identified in the as-polished condition, such as Si and Mg2Si. Fine cracks, voids, or cracks and
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voids associated with intermetallic particles may be easier to see before etching. Numerous etchants have been developed for revealing the microstructure of aluminum and its alloys. General-purpose etchants are used by swabbing or by immersion. Swabbing is conducting using cotton saturated with the reagent. Hold the specimen with tongs using one hand and swab with cotton, held with tongs, in the other hand. Some metallographers wrap cotton around a small piece of wood, like a popsicle stick, others use Q-tips. However, for best results, use a good grade of surgical cotton. Cosmetic cotton puffs can contain impurity fragments that may interfere with etching, or they may disintegrate readily in the strong etchants required for aluminum. Immersion is simpler. The specimen is placed in a small beaker containing about 100mL of the etchant, polishing face up, using tongs. Gently swirl the etchant or use the tongs to provide agitation. This promotes uniform etching. Surfaces must be properly cleaned before etching, or etching results will be impaired. Etching is halted when the proper degree of surface dulling is produced. The specimen is removed from the beaker, or swabbing is halted, and rinsed with running water. The specimen is then rinsed with ethanol and blown dry with warm air. [27] For many metals and alloys, there is little difference between specimens etched by swabbing vs. immersion. Generally, for metals that demonstrate good corrosion resistance by formation of a thin oxide film, swabbing produces more uniform results than immersion. Aluminum, of course, is in this category. However, for some aluminum alloys, etching by immersion with Kellers reagents will produce minor grain contrast effects, while if swabbing is used, a flat etch results. Color etchants are always used by immersion as swabbing prevents film formation or will smear any film that forms. [27] Revealing the grain boundaries in aluminum alloys can be difficult, particularly for some alloys and heat treatment conditions. As a rule, the lower alloy content grades require anodizing to reveal the grain structure with cross-polarized light. The more highly alloyed grades can be etched successfully with either Kellers reagent, the Graft-Sargent reagent, aqueous 10% phosphoric acid (50C) or a mix of 2g NaOH, 5g NaF and 93ml water (immerse 2-3 minutes). [27] Anodizing is an electrolytic etching procedure that is claimed to deposit a film on the specimen surface that reveals the grain structure when viewed with crossed polarized light. It is the most widely successful etching technique for revealing grain structures in aluminum and its alloys, but it does not work on all alloys. Of the published anodizing solutions and procedures for aluminum, Barkers reagent is the most popular. [27] After anodizing, the specimen must be viewed with polarized light; bright-field illumination reveals nothing of the grain structure (because an interference film is not produced). In crossed-polarized light, the grains are seen in shades of gray from white to black. If a sensitive tint plate is inserted, the grains are colored. The variation in gray level or color depends upon the crystal orientation of the grains. [27] Color etchants, also known as tint etchants, have not been widely used with aluminum alloys. However, the writers have had considerable success with one developed by Weck that contains 100 mL water, 4 g potassium permanganate and 1 g sodium hydroxide. The
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specimen is immersed in the solution and gently agitated until the surface is colored, usually in about 15-20 seconds. Removed the specimen, rinse in water, then alcohol, and blow dry. Color can be enhanced by examination with crossed polarized light and sensitive tint. [27] The sample that was used for experiment had all this steps. But for etching step, Hydrofluoric Acid HF, 0.5ml Distilled H2O 99.5 ml was used as etchant. As a result of metallographic preparation, appropriate and successful investigation was achieved.

Figure 38 50X , parent material, HAZ, welded part and dark inclusions.

2.3. Hardness Test Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined as the resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation. It's common in Europe to perform Brinell tests on small parts using a 1mm carbide ball and a test force as low as 1kg. These low load tests are commonly referred to as baby Brinell tests. By varying the test force and ball size, nearly all metals can be tested using a Brinell test. Brinell values are considered test force independent as long as the ball size/test force relationship is the same [29].

F 31.25kgf 5 D 2 2.5 2.5mm 2

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The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation. [28]

Figure 39 Schematic showing of Brinell hardness test method [29] The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness. A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures. [29] In the hardness test that was implemented, 31,25 / 2,5 / 10 values were used. 31,25 KGF load, 2,5 mm diameter of ball and load has been applied for 10 seconds. Detailed information and visual objects will be shown and discussed in the next chapter. 2.3.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Brinell Hardness Test Large indentation averages out local heterogeneities of microstructure. Different loads are used to cover a wide rage of hardness of commercial metals. Brinell hardness test is less influenced by surface scratches and roughness than other hardness tests. The test has limitations on small specimens or in critically stressed parts where indentation could be a possible site of failure.[29]

In Figure 40, its shown that the relation between Brinell hardness test results and tensile strength test results. It can been seen for aluminium and steel as well.
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Figure 40 - Relation between Brinell hardness and tensile strength. [28]

2.4. SEM Analysis Be able to have better visual contact with micro cracks, grain boundaries and micro porosities or any kind of occurrences on the welded defects material, analysis were made by SEM. To reach this aim, electron microscope JEOL JSM 5600-LV equipped with EDX spectrometer - Oxford Instruments was provided by Materials Science and Environment Faculty, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, was used. This experiment was made after hardness test. During the SEM analysis, there were marks from hardness test. Detailed information, pictures and explanations will be given in Results and Discussion chapter.

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Chapter 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Welded Material Initially, many Al samples were welded by MIG method. Because we had to find the optimum current, voltage and velocity values to be able to obtain good results. According to experiences that were gained, and below optimum values are shown by Table 13. Welding Type MIG Gas Type Current (Amper) 110-125 Voltage (Volt) 20-22 Filler Wire Velocity of Welding (mm/sec) 2.25

Argon %100

Aluminium 4043

Table 13: The optimum parameters of process

Aluminium is a very reactive metal, and bare aluminium will form an oxide layer in minutes. (Fortunately the oxide layer protects the aluminium from further corrosion and that's why it lasts so well). But the reactivity of aluminium poses a safety concern. Aluminium dust and shavings left over from cutting or filing can catch fire especially if mixed with steel dust when the mix is known as thermite. Aluminium welding is trickier than steel welding. There is a fine line between no penetration and blowing holes. This is due to the wonderful combination of a low melting point and high heat conductivity. It is found that using a power setting similar to the equivalent steel setting, and roughly double the steel wire speed, then moving the gun very quickly seem to do the trick. Using thicker would reduce the chance of crumpling up and reduce the wire speed. The problem with moving the gun very quickly is the weld doesn't end up TIG weld neat. Took a lot of practice to get this far. For aluminium welding it is best to hold the torch nearly vertical and weld away from yourself (push rather than pull). This ensures that you weld into the shielding gas rather than away from it. The weld to the left was made using a pull technique, and the weld to the right using a push technique. The right hand weld looks much cleaner, presumably due to a better coverage of shielding gas. Arguably a slightly higher gas flow rate would have improved the weld still further. Aluminium welding seems to be the preserve of experts. There is not a lot of reading material, and if you use the same equipment and techniques as steel welding then you'll come up against some frustrating failures. Having said all that, it's not all that bad. It's trickier than steel, so if you need to learn welding then steel is by far the best place to start. Once you can do a passable steel weld, you
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should be able to do an aluminium weld either by welding at supersonic speed or by using a brass backer to take the heat out.[30] Having managed first passable aluminium welds it can be understood why TIG is used for anything that needs to be neat. Aluminium foil can be welded with TIG. Sadly, a cheap AC TIG welder costs 5 times as much as a reasonable MIG. The 6XXX series is prone to hot cracking, but this problem can be overcome by the correct choice of joint and filler metal. Can be welded with either 5XXX or 4XXX series without cracking adequate dilution of the base alloys with selected filler wire is essential. A 4043 filler wire is the most common for use with this series. 6XXX alloys should never be welded autogenously, they will crack. [24] Filler materials composition was indicated in Table 14. Properties of this wire as follows: Smooth Bead, Good Wetting Low Column Strength Higher Penetration Lower Ductility Lower Tensile Less Prone to Porosity Anodizes a Dark Grey Much Lower Shear Strength Lower Cracking Sensitivity Lower Melting Point Narrower Melting Range[24]
%Si %Fe %Mg %Cr %Cu %Ti %Zn %Be %Others %Al

ASME %Mn Classification

ER 4043

0.05

4.56.0

0.8

0.05

0.30 0.20 0.10

(1)

0.05

Balance

Table 14: Composition of filler wire for welding (1) Beryllium shall not exceed 0.0003%.

Ar was preferred as shielding gas. Using of Ar or mixture of Ar+He were considered before experiment and argon was decided after discussion of whether it is efficient or whether it has necessary aspects. When using an Ar gas arc, the arc energy has a smaller spread than an arc of He, due to the low thermal conductivity of Ar. This aspect helps to obtain a more stable metal transfer and an axial Ar plasma arc. The shielding gas effect on aluminum welding is schematically presented in Figure 41. The penetration pattern is similar to a bottle nipple when using Ar, whereas when using He, the cross-sectional area has a parabolic penetration. [31]

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Figure 41 - Schematic representation in aluminum welds using different shielding gases [31]

In Figure 42, it describes how welding was performed. Two pieces of aluminium plates were used. The thickness of plates were 3 mm. About length of the samples, it was referred in Figure 43 and 44.

Figure 42 Schematic showing of welding

As shown by Figure 43, there is test sample. Inappropriate velocity, current and many different reasons brought us this unwanted, bad and defective joining. One of the most important agent which effected this sample, was inadequate mechanical cleaning before the welding operation.

Figure 43- Welded sample with some defects

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As demonstrated by Figure 43 and Figure 44, better and more efficient current, velocity and voltage values were applied. Also, there are better weld surface and cleaning conditions to weld those two parts.

Figure 44- Welded sample with better quality appearance

3.2. Metallographic Investigation Metallographic investigation of welded material is so important in many ways. Especially to understand about solidification, cracking behavior, porosity in the weld zone and HAZ (heat-affected zone). First of all, after welding the sample was cut at a proper size in order to prepare a suitable section. In the next step, it was grinded and mounted. Then samples were mechanically polished and etched with 0.5 pct hydrofluoric acid. As its shown by Figure 45, first microscopic picture was taken with 50X zoom. It is adequate to research and discuss about what happened in fusion zone and distinguish parent material zone, HAZ and welded zone from each other. HAZ can be easily seen in Figure 45 due to experience cycles of heating and cooling during the welding operation, arc welding on materials which have been strengthened by work hardening or precipitation hardening. These occurrences have changed its properties and now it may be extremely different than the original base alloy and the unaffected area of the base material. This condition was affected by the heat input during the welding operation. The general rule is, the higher heat input over large areas of material, the lower as-welded strength.
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Figure 45 Welded material with 50X zoom from optical microscope.

In Figure 46, 100X zoom was used to ensure better view for structure of welded zone and it was accomplished with this adjustment. Oxide filaments entrapped in the weld. Also, grain boundaries, porosity and some dark inclusions which have round shapes, can be observed through the view of surface. Generally, solidification cracking occurs when higher levels of thermal stress and solidification shrinkage are present during welding. It is influenced by a combination of mechanical, thermal, and metallurgical factors. In practice, the solidification cracking sensitivity of aluminum alloy weldments is determined by the chemical composition and weld conditions. For 6063 alloy, the greater amount of alloying additions of Mg and Si increases its cracking sensitivity. The primary methods for eliminating cracking in aluminum welds are controlling weld metal composition through filler alloy additions and using low heat input by using a special welding process. In general, the stress concentration in the welded joint of aluminum alloy is induced in two ways: thermal stress, due to the high coefficient of thermal expansion of Al and large solidification shrinkage, almost twice that of steel. If the plate is constrained during welding, the distortion will decrease; however, the residual stress in the weld zone will greatly increase. The solidification microstructure is another critical factor influencing cracking sensitivity in aluminum alloy weldments. Under higher magnification, secondary cracks and some secondary eutectic phases were observed. The secondary phase eutectic
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constituents, such as Mg2Si and Si, surround the columnar structure and constitute a significant fraction of the part surface. This implies that solidification cracks initiated at a time very close to or after final solidification. [32] It is desirable to limit porosity defects in aluminum weldments. Porosity forms when hydrogen gas is entrapped during solidification. Hydrogen is absorbed into the molten pool during welding because it is highly soluble in the molten aluminum. Forms of gas pores which were occurred during the solidification, are less than how much it is in welding zone, due to hydrogen is rejected in the solid material. When the material becomes from solid to the molten, this causes some localized super saturation, bubble nucleation, and growth. Increase of porosity is generally associated with high humidity and poor surface preparation. Usage of inert gases to shield the weld pool, can reduce the porosity. In the present study, no special attention was paid to surface cleaning. Between micro-cracks and the dark inclusions, there are smaller lines of the grain boundaries. Theyre grain boundaries which belong the HAZ and were formed by recrystallization. Recrystallization was occurred because of heating and cooling cycles. It can be considered the welding zone (Fusion zone - FS) as a small casting zone. Solidification has microstructural changes, recrystallization, grain growth, reforming of grain boundaries etc. So, it means that the fusion zone has all these occurrences as well. Since solidification of the weld metal proceeds spontaneously by epitaxial growth of the partially melted grains in the base metal, the fusion zones grain structure is mainly determined by the base metal grain structure and the welding conditions. Crystallographic effects will influence grain growth by favoring growth along particular crystallographic directions, namely the easy growth directions. Conditions for growth are optimum when one of the easy growth directions coincides with the heat-flow direction. Thus, among the randomly oriented grains in a polycrystalline specimen, those grains that have one of their <100> crystallographic axes closely aligned with heat-flow direction will be favored. Without additional nucleation, this will promote a columnar grain structure. Under certain conditions it is also possible to change the epitaxial columnar growth to equiaxed growth by inoculation or changing welding conditions.[33] In the Figure 46 are marked few material discontinuities which appear in dark gray color like: rounded dark inclusions, long filaments oxides and grain boundaries in the welding zone and HAZ. The dark inclusions may be intermetallic compounds or non-metallic inclusions. A few of them have been studied with more detailed by using SEM method, and also an EDX analysis was performed over a such area to identify composition of that area and chemical elements of it.

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Figure 46- Welded zone with 100X zoom. Oxide filaments, welding beads and grain boundaries can be seen.

That is discussed with further detailed in the sub chapter 3.5. (SEM Analysis), Figures 57 and 59. Heat-affected zone (HAZ) is one of three main zones that are formed in welded material. When heating and cooling cycles were being occurred, it was affected due to its located around of a close point to the fusion zone. The metal which is here, isnt getting molten. But it undergoes changes, different cases from welded zone in its structure.

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Figure 47 HAZ with 200X zoom with partial welding bead, grain boundaries.

The microstructural evolution of the Al-Si-Mg alloys during welding and, in particular, the reduction of tensile strength and the location of the minimum hardness values in the HAZ are to be related to the mechanisms of deterioration of constituents initially present in the alloy, due to over aging in the portion of the metal submitted to temperatures high enough to produce the evolution of precipitate, according to a well studied sequential formation ; so the hardness distribution in the HAZ of the Al-Mg-Si alloys depends on the interplay between dissolution and reprecipitation, which are competing processes. Considering the distribution of maximum temperatures reached during the welding in the HAZ, as well known, the zone is more distant from fusion line. So, the alloy was experienced a local temperature which is lower than peak temperature. Thus, the following heat affected sub-zones have been envisaged. A resolubilization zone, in the portion of metal undergoing a temperature greater of 500 C, with complete dissolution of hardening phases and possible partial fusion in the vicinity of melt zone. [34] An over-aging zone in the portion of the metal submitted to temperatures lower than required to resolubilize the precipitates, but sufficient to produce the transformation of beta phases of aluminium. This transformations are between 500-380 C and 380-240 C. [34]

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Figure 48 Welding zone with 200X zoom. Grain boundaries after recrystallization, are evident.

In Figure 49, took at higher magnification (X500), the grain boundaries that were formed because of many reasons, such as heat input, cooling and heating cycle, solidification, are more visible here. Also micro porosity (light color round shapes which have 2-3 m of diameter) can be understood better in this condition.

Figure 49 Welding zone with 500X zoom, grain boundaries.

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Figure 50 Welding zone with 1000x zoom, grain boundaries and micro porosity.

In Figure 49 and 50, at higher magnification, welding zone can be easily interpreted with pictures which are one after another presented. Some artifacts which appear darker, can be easily misidentified as cracks, but they are not something else than oxide filaments entrapped in the weld bed during solidification, Figure 51 [38].

Figure 51 - Oxide filaments entrapped in the fillet weld of Al alloy [38]

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3.3. Results of Hardness Test Hardness test was accomplished by Brinell method. 31,25 kgf load, 2,5 mm diameter of ball and 10 seconds of loading time have been applied on the sample. Test was carried out from one side of material toward other side. As its seen from Figure 51 , on the left side of the sample, the hardness is 44 HB. At the weld zone this values between 46 -48 HB. But on the right side of the sample, the main material side, hardness results have showed the changes. This changes can be explained based on production. Aluminium which was used for experiments, had been produced by extrusion method. During process of manufacturing, heterogeneous recrystallization was formed due to this undesirable structure, the sample doesnt have homogeneity. So, this causes different hardness values on the same material. In the weld zone of material, as shown by Figure 51 , it has more hardness than left side of main material but less than right side. The differences between main materials zone was occurred because of extrusion. But the diminution which is in weld zone, it was naturally formed. Because during the welding, material is getting molten. And molten material has altered microstructure, recrystallization and internal stresses due to formation of thermal stress and/or structural inconsistency. What has been told, led us to our results as shown and explained.

Figure 52 Section of material with hardness values. When material is evaluated by using results from hardness test and considered that it was produced by extrusion method, we have quite close results with Table 15. The following values are optimum, this also should be taken into account. But on the other hand, these two measurements of hardness, werent carried out in the same conditions. Thus they cannot exactly be compared. But the main value can assist us to reach one point, be able to discuss and evaluate our results. Material and Temper Tensile Strength Yield Strength Hardness 6063 T5 180 Mpa 127 Mpa 62 HB
Table 15: Aluminium profile mechanical properties

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3.4. SEM Analysis Additional information was gathered by SEM method. An electronic microscope was used, JEOL JSM 5600-LV equipped with EDX spectrometer (Oxford Instruments). A big chance was gained to be able to do more detailed examination of the welded samples.

Figure 53 SEM picture, 100 m scale, porosities and cracks.

Figure 54 SEM picture, 200 m scale, large pores onto upper substrates of welded material

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In Figure 53 and 54, large porosity and cracks, can be easily seen and commented. Pores which were occurred by entrapped hydrogen and cracks which were consisted by heating and cooling cycles. The large holes in the weld, upper layers of material were formed due to the rapid cooling of the molten pool that rapidly becomes very viscous, thus it has created large discontinuities in the material. If the heat flux is discontinuous or nonuniformly applied, the results could be defectuous for the weld quality. This is more probably to happen in vicinity of the weld surface, where the temperature gradient drops very quickly. It was thought that those large pore formations are result of bad welding technique, the welder was not an professional and this work requires special skills in order to achieve better results. In these two figures, there are two pictures taken at different magnification from the welding bed of material, close to the surface of the welded part. These zones are more susceptible to welding defects because of the rapid cooling of the material around the vicinity of the welded surface. Also the protection atmosphere (100% argon) could be part on the surface due to the entrapping air that could penetrate into the superior layers of the welding pool and weld bead. The high affinity of aluminum for oxygen makes that the material areas are exposed to oxygen due to oxidation , hence the metallic bonds which are between materials layers, were hindered. Also, the rapid decrease of the temperature in the welding pool makes the material more viscous and that could lead to formation of large zones with material discontinuities which can be detected on the upper layers of materials as shown in Fig. 53 and 54. These areas must be removed by mechanical processing such as grinding or milling. In the center of Fig. 53, it can be seen a large cavity in the weld bead and inside of it as a 3D structure, like grapes. There are also another welding defects like lack of fusion, larger pore structures and some micro cracks. The micro cracks were formed due to the hydrogen presence in the weld pool, the lack of fusion could be the effect of the oxidation on the layers of material . This lack blocks the metallic bonds between different parts of the welding pool that is too much turbulent under the electric arc. The dark islands in SEM images they might be intermetalic compounds like Al3Mg2 phase in the Al-Mg binary equilibrium diagram. However some dark inclusions come from the grinding abrasive material, like can be seen in the Fig. 53 in the upper layers of material. The grains are mainly formed by alpha phase (solid solution of Al with Mg) , because copper is not present in the material, as it can be seen by EDX analysis.

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Figure 55 SEM picture, scale is 200 m, fusion zone.

In Figure 55 and Figure 48, some porosity and cracks are evident. Good cleaning wasnt emphasized before the process. And, as it can be observed from these pictures, it has big deformations which decrease mechanical properties of material. However in the weld, the microstructure was much improved, those defects can be seen on the upper layers of the welding bed, they are almost entirely disappeared, in the Fig. 55.

Figure 56 SEM picture, scale is 100 m, weld bead.

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In figure 56, it can be observed some grains that presents a surface topography that looks like the slip planes after some mechanical deformations. The process of reverse slip which causes slip-band ridges and grooves on the surface of fatigued materials, are thought as mechanism which might be occurred by extrusion. However, the confinement of the slip occurs to a few active planes in most of the aluminium alloys due to some localized softening process. The local softening processes can be identified in some materials as recrystallization, ageing and a combination of both . In pure aluminium and some aluminium alloys, these holes may also be observed along the slip bands. [37]. In normal circumstances, the recrystalyzation process that occurs in the welded material, would eventually remove the slip bands which are existed on the grains. In the Figure 57, that structure can be seen in further detailed, the different orientations of it, joined to grains, it might be a result of polishing operation during the sample preparation of this texture. It seems more like a texture which is the result of the reverse slip which was occurred due to the localized softening process. The texture stops at the grain boundaries, and it starts at different angle with the joined grains and this might be a confirmation for the reverse slip bands hypothesis. Additionally, some different sizes of black islands can be observed but generally with rounded shapes and relatively distributed, and uniform on the welded sample surface. These formations are non-metallic inclusions, some of them originated by the abrasive material which was used in the grinding step for the samples metallgraphic preparation.

Figure 57 SEM picture, scale is 20 m, reverse slip bands hypothesis in HAZ. Orientation of pores.

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Figure 58 SEM picture, scale is 10 m, details at higher magnification of the dendritic formations founded in the dark inclusions

Figure 59 EDX SEM picture, scale is 100 m, zone with 3D dendrites

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Figure 60 EDX analysis and maps of distribution of elements in an area which present 3D dendritic formations, X300, SEM analysis.

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Spectrum

Na

Mg 3.36 3.36 3.36

Al 95.45

Cl

Total

Spectrum 1 0.42 Max. Min. 0.42 0.42

0.76 100.00

95.45 0.76 95.45 0.76

Table 16 - EDX chemical compositions found in area presented in Fig. 59

The welded aluminum sample was investigated by using electronic microscopy, SEM (scanning electron microscopy) method. Also, EDX analysis was performed in order to identify the local chemical composition and to evaluate the elements distribution within the analyzed area. The electron microscope was JEOL JSM 5600-LV and equipped with EDX spectrometer (Oxford Instruments). The EDX analysis showed us that those dendrites are NaCl crystals which had probably involved from some water droplet after the cleaning operation that was immediately performed after chemical etching. The height of the dendrites are greater in the center, which gradually decrease when we look closer to edges towards the center of dendritic formations. HAZ can be seen in Figure 57. As it was emphasized in Metallographic Investigation part, HAZ was affected due to being located close to fusion zone, it means it has a relationship with heating and cooling cycles. So, it undergoes different microstructural changes. Additives in the composition of metal are also determinative for HAZ. All information for this part of welding were given in the previous parts. In the image presented in Figure 57, taken from the heat affected zone (HAZ), it can be also observed micro porosity, which seems like it has a preferential orientation such as the red line marked , along the direction of the pore distribution. Additionally, it can be seen a few droplets which were trapped inside of the molten pool that was enough cooled in order to maintain their shapes. Likely, those droplets are covered by a thin oxide layer which prevents the melting of those droplets. The droplets were taken place due to scattering of molten material in the electric arc during the welding process. In Figures 58 to 60 they are showed some zones from welded sample which presents sort of interesting 3D dendritic formations that resemble to carbon nanotubes forest, if we consider the high dendrites concentration over small areas of the sample. Also the way how it has grown( perpendicular to sample surface) causes a great resemblance between carbon nanotubes forest and the structure . At lower magnifications and resolution, those formations appear dark gray and uniformly distributed over weld bead and may be easily misinterpreted as porosity. It appears like dark inclusions, round in shape. All dark inclusions dont present such dendritic structures, some of them are intermetallic compounds which have more or less regular shapes. The accumulation of solution and heat which is ahead of the interface, can
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lead to circumstances at where the liquid is supercooled during the solidification. Thus the interface becomes unstable and inappropriate. So, in these conditions material undergoes dendritic solidification. In the SEM image of sample, also it can be observed some grain boundaries which have equiaxial shapes with an diameter about 80 to 100 m. On the sample surface it can be detected micro porosity which is occurred due to the hydrogen absorption in the weld pool. This micro porosity seems uniformly distributed in the weld bed, that is more suitable case than having cluster porosity distribution. The micro porosity might cause some problems for the welded metallic structures which are exposed to fatigue stress, such as the components used in aviation industry. For such cases, according this experiences its recommended other welding process like laser welding, electron beam welding or TIG. For usual applications where micro porosity does not trigger serious problems, MIG welding can be successfully used.

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Chapter 4 CONCLUSIONS
All results which were given in the previous part of thesis, can be categorized into three main part as conclusion. Conclusions which were gained by welded material, microscopic analysis and hardness test. In the light of these information, Welding strongly affects the material properties through the process of heating and subsequent cooling as well as the fusion process with additional filler material, inhomogeneous and different materials, chemical composition and microstructure. Because of application attributes and requirements of handicraft of MIG welding method, its not easy to perform on aluminium. Especially torch and filler metal cases are quite complicated throughout welding process. If the material which will be welded, is not special or doesnt require specific properties, MIG welded can be carried out. Otherwise experiences showed that TIG welding method or more specific methods such as friction welding, laser beam welding or electron beam welding are more suitable for aluminium. But it shouldnt be forgotten that even an aluminium foil can be welded with TIG but its five times more expensive than MIG welding is. The occurrences were happened in the material such as cracks, porosity, segregation of grain boundaries, grain growths and welding beads, they were observed by microscopic investigation. When welded material has these defects, the mechanical properties of material are strongly affected. The removal of superficial oxide protective layer from the welding parts is critical for surface cleaning before welding. Because it would diminish the hydrogen accumulation in the weld pool and the content of non-metallic inclusions. The cracks which are located in the material are produced due to thermal stresses, solidification shrinkage and also the brittle inclusions in the welding bed, which act as nucleations point for micro-cracks. The dissolved hydrogen would enhance the crack propagation through the weld or HAZ. To avoid these defects, controlling composition of filler metal and using low heat input are few solutions recommended. Also, having equiaxed grains means better welding. Thus, heat and cooling cycles must be carefully arranged by heat input and output of welding. HAZ was successfully observed in the metalographic analysis. Grains in HAZ are smaller than those found in the parent material that are elongated due to the extrusion processes of the Al profiles. Due to effect of heating and cooling cycles, there are hardness and microstructure differences between HAZ and parent material. Additionally, with many of MIG processes which was done, it was seen that the size of HAZ depend on numerous of factors, including energy input, process employed, material, type of joint, number of passes etc. In the Brinell test, hardness values were obtained around range of normal 6XXX series and T5 type tempered aluminiums hardness values. In this case, it can be expressed that experiment was successfully performed with consideration of hardness. Addition to this, after welding on the parent material, different hardness values were observed. . This material was produced by mechanical extrusion method, and the method caused
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inhomogeneity in the hardness value distribution. Also making hardness test led us about tensile strength of material. As its submitted in the thesis, there is a correlation between tensile strength and hardness. It can be understood that good tensile strength values are obtained with the process. SEM analysis assisted to us about comprehension of pores and cracks on the surface of the sample. Porosities, cracks and dendritic structures were easily observed through the facilities that are provided by SEM. If its desired to do more examinations on welded material, its required to use SEM as one of the best analysis method. The protective layer obtained by anodisation or eloxation it should be removed before welding. Because of anodized layer that we had on the material before welding, electric current flow was prevented by this layer and large amounts of oxides were entrapped in the molten pool which has formed in solidification process.Some oxide filaments that were observed by SEM analysis. Those oxide filaments appear as darker color curves which are located on some fusion zones. And this shows us that this part of material must be properly removed from the surface and then it would be possible to obtain better mechanical properties for the welds.

For future studies, aluminium welding can be performed with friction stir welding that is newer and advanced technology than MIG or TIG welding. As the literature suggests that the fine grained friction stir welded aluminium alloys might exhibit improved strength as well as ductility, hence mechanical testing of these friction stir welded plates such as high temperature tensile testing, microhardness testing, deformation mapping etc. are another area of interest. Further studies may be done, considering most of the welding parameters, on a wider range of values. Fatigue analysis, shear tests can be carried out. Higher thickness aluminium plates can be welded by employing double sided FSW. It can be tried to use tools made from different materials to improve the quality of the joints. Also, further investigations on the forces which are generated during single and multiple passes might be very beneficial for different alloys at different conditions and for different process parameters. Welding of materials like copper, titanium, and magnesium by using friction stir welding is another area , if its desired to be interested in.

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ANNEXE

Figure 61 Al-Mg Equilibrium Phase Diagram[35]

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