A Summer Internship Project Report

On Analysis of Variation of Brake Reaction Time in Simulated Conditions on the Basis of Human and Traffic Factors

Submitted By Abhishek Ashish 10CE30001 Dual-Degree in Civil Engineering

Under The Supervision Of Dr. Neelima Chakrabarty

Co-Guide: Ms. Kamini Gupta

Traffic Engineering & Safety Department Central Road Research Institute, Mathura Road, New Delhi -110025 July, 2013
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Acknowledgements
I express my profound sense of gratitude to Dr. Neelima Chakrabarty, Traffic Engineering & Safety Department, for giving me the opportunity to carry out this study and for her systematic guidance, valuable advice and constant encouragement throughout this work. I am indebted to Ms. Kamini Gupta, Senior Technical Officer, Traffic Engineering & Safety Department, for her valuable suggestions and supervision during the course of this work. I express my sincere thanks to Mr. Ankit Bhatnagar, Research Intern, for the valuable help and teachings rendered by him throughout this work. I am very much thankful to Prof. Sudeshna Mitra, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Kharagpur for encouraging and providing me with an opportunity of summer internship. I would like to express my sincere thanks to all my friends and all the CRRI Staffs who helped me directly or indirectly in completion of this study. Finally, I would like to place on record my gratefulness to my Parents who gave me constant encouragement throughout my career.

CRRI, New Delhi July 2013

Abhishek Ashish

CONTENTS
S. No. Topic
Acknowledgment Abstract 1.0 1.1. 1.2. 1.3 2. 3. 4. 5. 5.1. Introduction Factors Affecting Brake Reaction Time Methods of Measurement Need for the Study Objective(s) of the Study Methodology Tools Used Results and Inferences Reaction Time of Individual Driver in Respective Terrains 5.2. Variation Analysis of Reaction Time in Different Terrains 5.3. 5.4. Brake Reaction Time Variation with Age Variation Analysis of Reaction Time For Different Age Group 5.5 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Brake Reaction Time for Casual Drivers Conclusions of the Study Validation of the Study Limitations of the Study Recommendations Bibliography 18 20 21 21 21 22 22 15 16 13

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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to take into account the various human and traffic factors that play a pivotal role in the determination of the brake reaction time, that is, the period from the time that a threat appears to the moment a driver takes certain actions on vehicle controls to avoid an accident, and to consequentially develop a database for driver brake reaction time in simulated conditions analyzed on the basis of such accounted for human factors and traffic conditions. Methodology: In the study various tests were conducted on 35 drivers under simulated driving conditions in simulated arterial and highway traffic conditions. Results: The brake reaction time of the drivers calculated came out to be quite varied from a value as low as 0.6 seconds to as high as 1.8 seconds in simulated conditions. The differences due to the factor of terrain were insignificant and can be discarded as mere chance however, the age group if accounted for above 40 shows significant variability but, it was insignificant below the age of 40.
Keywords: BRT= Brake Reaction Time, Simulated Conditions, Driving Simulator.

1. Introduction
The growing road network, motorization and urbanization, as evident by the 10% compound annual growth of motor vehicle population during the 2000-2009, were inevitable if India were to sustain its growing economy and be in the race to pursue its dream of being a developed nation. Table 1.1 Accident Statistics of Past Few Years1* Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 No. Of Accidents 4,84,704 4,86,384 4,99,628 4,97,686 Death Toll 1,19,860 1,25,660 1,34,513 1,42,485 Injuries 5,23,193 5,15,458 5,27,512 5,11,394

Statistics Issued by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways

Table 1.1 represents the skyrocketing accident statistics of past few years in India. If the statistics of year 2011 alone are to be considered; it can be said that one road accident is occurring per minute, resulting in a loss of at least Rs. 1 lakh crore per year. So it has become imminent that immediate measures be taken, rules be formulated and devices be improvised so as to reduce the probability of such unfortunate events and for this to happen, enormous amount of research has to be done to get the essentials of the whole phenomenon of road traffic incidents from the nature of the road to the working mechanism of the automobile, weather conditions and behavioral, physiological and psychological workings of the drivers. Previous studies and statistical data [1] [2] have affirmed that most of the accidents could be attributed to the action of the person driving the vehicle and chiefly among them that holds the most prominence is the reaction time, that is the period from the time a threat appears to the moment a driver takes certain actions on vehicle controls to avoid an accident [3], or rather put as a summation of perception time and foot movement time [4] [5], with values, that could vary from as low as 0.15 seconds to as high as several seconds depending on the task and conditions. This plays an important role in the understanding of the translation of driver behavior into road accidents. The brake reaction time is constituted from components such as mental processing time, movement time, and device response time [6]. The reaction time was further classified as brake reaction time and acceleration and deceleration time by [7]. The brake reaction time occurs when the lead vehicle is braking and its brake light is on, while the acceleration deceleration time occurs when the driver reacts to adjust his/her speed using the gas pedal only. The focus of this study was brake reaction time which is used as design parameter for highway and arterial roads to provide safe stopping sight distance and headlight sight distance. 1.1.Factors Affecting Brake Reaction Time There are several factors that affect the brake reaction time [6], such as, expectancy, urgency, cognitive load, visibility etc. It was also
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suggested by [8] that the operational coefficients and delay characteristics of humans can vary rapidly due to changes of factors such as task demands, motivation, workload and fatigue. Tests performed in this study focused on the dependency of brake reaction time upon human factors that includes age and experience and traffic conditions consisting of highway and arterial traffic simulated conditions. 1.1.1. Influence of Age It might appear superficially that the growing age is detrimental to the brake reaction time, but various studies done on the subject matter fails to bring any concrete proof to this presumption. In fact, studies give mixed insight on the significance age holds in variation of brake reaction time, as can be seen in the study conducted by [9] that found no effect of age on reaction time on the other hand similar study conducted by [10] concluded that older drivers react slowly in some cases. [11] Also found differences between the average reaction time of the elderly persons age and others were very large especially under stationary mental calculation scenario and driving mental calculation scenario. Such variations in the results of similarly conducted studies on the viability of the age factor on the brake reaction time as suggested by [6] could be work of: biased sampling, old people with better health drive like young people, and experience and more practice which compensate for the age factor. It was found that older drivers compensate for their poorer braking response time by driving slower [12]. Older drivers also compensate for their slower mental processing time by considering an obstacle a high urgency one, which when confronted by young drivers; they would treat it as a low urgency obstacle. In spite of these mixed findings, it could not be altogether ignored that aging causes vision loss and slower mental processing time that results in slower braking response especially in low visibility conditions like night and poor weather conditions.

1.1.2. Influence of Predictability It has been proven in various studies [13] that the brake reaction times for expected and unexpected stimuli are different. A study [14] also concluded that perception-reaction time increased significantly as uncertainty increased. A recent study using both a real driving environment and a simulator [15] shows that reaction time of drivers is much lower in case of anticipated stimulus as compared to their reaction time in unanticipated scenarios. After careful observations of the tests performed, it was found that classifying the obstacles into three groups would result in a much better characterization of brake reaction time: a) Predictable b) Unpredictable c) Long distance visible obstacles 1.2.Methods of Measurement As suggested by recent studies, [3] [6], there are three general methods for the measurement of brake reaction time: Measurement of Brake Reaction Time (BRT) in laboratory setting Measurement of B.R.T on roads or research/test tracks Measurement of B.R.T under simulated conditions

1.2.1. Measurement of Reaction Time in Laboratory Setting Tests for evaluating reaction time in the CSIR-CRRI Traffic Psychology Laboratory are aimed at assessing psycho-motor capacity of a driver within the scope of driving a vehicle. These tests are characterized by a standard methodology and norms for assessment their results.

Fig. 1.2.1 Driver Performing on Simple Reaction Time Tester

As shown in the Fig. 1.2.1, a driver is performing on a Simple Reaction Time Tester, in which the driver has to react for only one stimulus at a time by pressing brake pedal attached with the equipment. Fig. 1.2.2 Discriminative R.T. Tester

The Discriminative Reaction Time tester (Fig. 1.2.2) is used to measure reaction time for multiple or more than one stimuli. This equipment is used to measure eye to hand and eye to foot movements of the driver. The driver has to complete the preliminary and final test phase simultaneously. In the test phase the visual as well as auditory stimuli are provided by the system through automatic display. To measure the alertness of the driver also false stimuli are given between the presentations of true stimuli. Total sixteen trails are given in final test phase.

1.2.2. Experiment on roads or research/test tracks: When testing on roads or test tracks, measured reaction times are results of multiple and complex stimuli as well as the way driver reacts is also beyond prediction as he has to work perceive, identify, recognize (volition) and react with the vehicle controls (pedal brake, hand brake lever or steering wheel).In many cases when the driver reacts slowly than the desired reaction time or he underestimates the speed and overestimates the distance then the accident chance increases. So it is very difficult to measure the reaction times for complex stimulus such as the case in most of the road accidents, reason being the danger to the life of the driver. With the help of sophisticated inbuilt or fitted equipment, e.g. V Box some reactions of the drivers are possible to measure. Fig. 1.2.3 Screenshot from a Video Box Monitoring

Video Box is one of the methods of analyzing driver behavior in real life scenario, in which all the required movements and actions of driver as well as the vehicle is recorded and the video footage is analyzed later on to get essential results. Fig. 1.2.3 shows a screenshot of drivers leg work in a vehicle from Video Box footage. 1.2.3. Measurement of Brake R.T under simulated conditions With the development of simulation techniques computer productivity has increase of to generate images; has notably increased the use of virtual research environment for testing drivers driving simulators. Their use increases the independence of weather conditions, promotes the growth of reproducibility of results and test conditions [3], [16]. The use of driving simulator also allows us to implement virtually any scenario without jeopardizing safety of the driver which cannot be achieved on real life scenarios.

1.3.Need for the Study Timely brake reaction is an important factor to avoid collision or road accidents. Present study not only highlights the impact of human characteristic and environmental factors on brake reaction time but also analyzes the variation of the brake reaction times under various traffic scenarios. The study will be helpful to find out different perspectives of brake reaction time for future study.

2. Objective(s) of the Study

The major objectives of this study were: To analyze the impact of human and traffic factors on the brake reaction time under simulated traffic conditions. To compare the brake reaction time of specially and normally trained drivers.

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 Analyzing and developing the data bank to determine the variation in reaction time across human and traffic factors.

3. Methodology
The tests for this study were conducted on a Zen driving simulator, installed at CSIR- CRRI with a total sample space of 30 specially trained and 5 casual drivers within age group 23 - 41. The simulated environment brought to existence by the simulator with clear weather conditions in both highway and arterial terrain having high traffic density was used to measure the reaction time of drivers by jotting down the instant of onset of an obstacle and the moment the drivers applied brakes as the counter-action and analyzing the difference in these two instants. The obstacles were characterized as predictable, unpredictable and long distance visible obstacles to get a better perspective of driver behavior. The recorded reaction times were analyzed to determine the variation across terrains and human factors.

4. Tools Used 4.1. Zen Driving Simulator

For this study a Zen Driving Simulator, a product of Zen Technologies was used. The simulator provides a driving station with a seat for the driver, safety belt and realistic controls. Zen DS key features essential for this project were: Offers realistic operating environment and ergonomics. Intelligent Traffic Models in driving scenes. Provides a variety of terrains and driving conditions. Record/playback facility can be used to detect errors of each driver.

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Fig 4.1.1 a Driver on the Simulator Installed at CSIR-CRRI

5. Results and Inferences

The obstacles classified into three groups were distributed among highway and arterial terrain with the following frequency: Table 5.1 Obstacle Distribution in Different Terrains S. No. 1 2 Traffic Condition Highway City Area Total Sudden Obstacles 53 26 79 Long Distance Visible Obstacles 32 26 58 Predictable Obstacles 9 0 9
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As the table suggests the frequency of predictable obstacles are considerably less as compared to sudden and long distance visible obstacles. The reason being that predictable obstacles occur only in the case of long queues or jam conditions which were absent in other cases. A total of 30 specially trained drivers were studied, out of which data for 7 drivers were inadmissible in both terrains, either because they were very unfamiliar with simulated environment or felt uncomfortable driving on the driving simulator or due to lack of any braking instance in their driving. Out of the 23 drivers left 6 drivers data in arterial terrain and 6 in highway terrain were inadmissible due to lack of braking instances in their drive. 5.1.Reaction Time Of Individual Driver In Respective Terrains Table 5.1.1 Brake Reaction Time of Individual Drivers in City Area S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Age(yrs.) 41 32 39 29 30 33 29 35 34 36 31 41 38 38 30 36 30 B.R.T(Seconds) 1.6 1.80 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.8 1.1 1.0 1.4 0.7 1.3 1.2 0.8 1.4 0.7 0.8 0.8

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Table 5.1.1 shows the individual reaction time of drivers in arterial terrain along with their respective ages. As it can be observed that the reaction time varies within the bounds of 0.7 seconds to 1.8 seconds. The average of these reaction times is 1.1 seconds. Table 5.1.2 Brake Reaction Time of Individual Drivers on Highway S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Age(yrs.) 32 31 32 39 29 30 29 40 35 36 31 30 38 41 30 36 30 BRT (seconds) 1.5 1.4 1.6 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.4 1.6 0.6 1.6 1.6 1.2 1.7 1.4 1.1 1.2 1.3

Table 5.1.2 shows the distribution of reaction time of individual drivers in highway terrain with their corresponding ages. Here also reaction time varied between the limits of 0.6secs and 1.7secs.The average of these reaction times is 1.3 sec. The average brake reaction time in both arterial and highway terrain are all in the range of the reaction times determined by previous studies in this field e.g. 1.3 to 1.4 sec [17]. Ranjitkar et al. also found the reaction time to be varying between 1.27 to 1.55 seconds using a graphical method in stability analysis of car-following behaviors, and based on carfollowing data collected on a test track [18]. Another car-following study also estimated the mean value of reaction time to be 1.34 seconds [19].
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The following bar chart is the graphical representation of the brake reaction times of drivers for whom the data was available for both terrains. This gives a better perspective of the variation of BRT within the terrains. Figure 5.1.1 Bar Chart of Reaction Time in Different Terrains
1.80 1.60 1.40 Brake Reaction Time 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Driver No. BRT in Highway

BRT in City Area

Observing the bar chart at a glance, it can be said that the brake reaction time in highways is higher as compared to its value in arterial terrain. 5.2. Variation of Analysis (ANOVA) of Reaction time in Different Terrains To gain further insight on the variation of reaction times F and t-tests were performed on the acquired data with the null hypothesis that the difference in the reaction time was due to terrains and not due to mere chance.

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Table 5.2.1 Statistical Summary Terrain Mean Sum Arterial 1.14 19.30 Highway 1.31 22.30

Table 5.2.2 Summary: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Source B/W Means Within Traffic Conditions Total Df 1 32 33 SS 0.26 3.46 3.72 MS(V) 0.26 0.11

F calculated has a value of 2.36 for the given data however F from chart for the given degrees of freedom (1 & 32) at 0.05 level is 4.15 and at 0.01 level is 7.52, and so the null hypothesis was not confirmed. For further satisfaction t-test was executed and it was evident that tcalc which was 1.54 was less than tabled t even at 0.10 level for the given degree of freedoms which is 1.70. This confirmed that the differences in the value of reaction time are merely due chance, although test does show that the difference of 0.17 seconds will occur more than 10 times in 100 trials. 5.3. Brake Reaction Time Variation With Age To evaluate the effect of age on the brake reaction times, driver ages were divided into 4 groups of 5 years starting from 25 and up to 45: Age Group A B C D Interval(yrs.) 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45

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Followings table and bar chart present the statistics of brake reaction time variation with age:

Table 5.2.1 Brake Reaction Time with Age Age Group A B C D BRT in City Area (seconds) 1.0 1.3 0.9 1.4 BRT in Highway(seconds) 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.5

It is discernible that reaction time increases as the age increases except for the anomaly in the case of age group C. This bar chart can make the differences more recognizable. Fig. 5.3.1 Bar Chart of BRT for different age group

1.60 Brake Reaction Time (seconds) 1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 A B Age Group BRT in City BRT in Highway C D

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This anomaly can be explained if it is considered that the experience of the drivers superseded the effect of age on mental processing as suggested by [6] and [12] in their studies.

5.4.Variation Analysis of Reaction Time for Different Age Group: To confirm that the variation was significant or not variation of analysis tests were on the recorded data. First the analysis was performed on individual terrains separately. Table 5.4.1 Statistical Summary of BRT in Arterial Terrain Age-group Sum Mean A 2.1 1.05 B 8.8 1.26 C 5.6 0.93 D 2.8 1.40

Table 5.4.2 Summary: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Source B/W Means Within Traffic Conditions Total Df 3 15 18 SS 0.50 1.60 2.10 MS(V) 0.17 0.11

Fcalc for this variation was found to be 1.54 which is not comparable to that of the Ftable which are 3.29 at 0.05 level and 5.42 at 0.01 level for the given degrees of freedom and so the difference in the reaction times of different age groups are not significant. Table 5.4.3 Statistical Summary of BRT on Highways Age-group Sum Mean A 2.4 1.20 B 10.7 1.34 C 6.2 1.24 D 3 1.5

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Table 5.4.4 Summary: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Source B/W Means Within Traffic Conditions Total Df 3 15 18 SS 0.13 1.23 1.36 MS(V) 0.04 0.08

In this analysis as well Fcalc which was 2, is not comparable to that of the Ftable values which are, 8.72 at 0.05 level and 26.91 at 0.01 level; for the given degrees of freedom. And finally analysis of variance test was performed on the cumulative data from both the terrains on the basis of age:

Table 5.4.3 Statistical Summary of BRT (Cumulative) Age-group Sum Mean A 4.50 1.13 B 19.50 1.30 C 11.80 1.07 D 5.80 1.45

Table 5.4.6 Summary: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Source B/W Means Within Traffic Conditions Total Df 3 32 35 SS 0.58 3.13 3.72 MS(V) 0.19 0.10

Even for this test the Fcalc (1.9) value was insignificant as compared to Ftable values (2.90 at 0.05 level and 4.47 at 0.01 levels). So, to determine if, there was any significant difference between two particular age groups ttests were performed. The results are as follow.

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Table 5.4.4 t test on the Basis of Age Age Groups A&B B&C C&D SED Significant Mean Difference D0.1 0.18 0.12 0.18 0.31 0.20 0.31 D0.05 0.37 0.24 0.37 D0.01 0.49 0.33 0.49 0.18 0.23 0.38 Mean Difference

From the results we can say that reaction time variation among the age groups of 35-40 and 40-45 only is significant at 0.05 level showing that the ages effect on mental processing time overrode the effect of experience and had an adverse effect on brake reaction time and for rest of the age groups there was no significant variation in brake reaction time . 5.5.Brake Reaction Time for Casual Drivers A total of 5 private car owners performed tests on the simulator. Following are the brake reaction times for the casual drivers Table 5.5.1 Brake Reaction Time of Drivers in Both Terrains S. No. 1 2 3 4 BRT on Highway (seconds) 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.3 BRT in City Area (seconds) 1.3 1.2 1.5 0.9

As it is apparent from the table 5.5.1, there is no significant variability across the terrains. The average brake reaction time in arterial terrain was found to be 1.2 seconds on the other hand it was 1.3 seconds for highways which are not much different than that of the specially trained drivers which were 1.1 seconds and 1.3 seconds in arterial and
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highway terrain respectively. These similarities might be due to the reason that these drivers were significantly younger than the drivers which were tested in the specially trained group.

6. Conclusions of the Study

The study concluded that the reaction time of the drivers varied from a value as low as 0.6 seconds to as high as 1.8 seconds in simulated conditions. Average brake reaction time for specially trained drivers was 1.1 seconds and 1.3 seconds while for casual drivers it was 1.2 seconds and 1.3 seconds in arterial and highway terrains respectively. Although, there was not a significant variability in brake reaction time in different terrains but there was a significant effect of age but that too only after an age of 40 years and not before that.

7. Validation of the Study

Brake reaction time is one of the major causes of generation of accident risk. So, it is necessary to determine as deft estimate as possible for the reaction time. The use of simulated environments was justified in the study performed by (McGehee et.al, 2002) that the mean values of reaction times in a simulator and on a test track were almost identical in several instances and, more frequently, were well within the confidence intervals. Also the results in this study is well within the reaction time estimate that is currently in use by IRC for road designs that is 2.5 seconds.

8. Limitations of the Study

The study was performed on a very limited sample of drivers due to shortage of time. Also drivers of all age group were not available for the study which limited the availability of data even more.

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9. Recommendations
This study can give much better insight on the variation of BRT with respect to age and traffic conditions if performed on a larger scale. Gender analysis can also be done as sensitivity interpretations. As the results obtained from simulated conditions cannot be taken for granted as the correct representation of drivers reaction time, so it is essential to validate the results using surveys in field settings on same drivers so that there is less room for human error.

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[10] N. Broen and D. Chiang , "Braking response times of 100 drivers in the avoidance as measured in driving simulator," In Proc. of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, pp. 900-904, 1996. [11] M. Hiroshi and M. Katsuya , "Difference of drivers' reaction times according to age and mental workload," Accident Analysis and Prevention, pp. 567-575, 2008. [12] H. Summala and I. Koivisto, "Unalerted drivers' brake reaction times: Older drivers compensate their slower reaction times by driving more slowly," 1990. [13] D. Fambro, R. Koppa, D. Picha and K. Fitzpatrick, "Driver perception-brake response in stopping sight distance situations, TRR - 1628," Transportation Research Board, 1998. [14] L. Warshawsky-Livne and D. Shinar, "Effects of uncertainty, transmission type, driver age and gender on brake reaction time," Journal of Safety Research 33, pp. 117-128, 2002. [15] T. Magister, R. Krulec, M. Batista and L. Bogdancovic, "The driver reaction time measurement experiences," in Innovative Automotive Technology, Bled, 2005. [16] D. McGehee, E. Mazzae and G. Baldwin, "Driver reaction time in crash avoidance research: validation of a driving simulator study on a test track," in 14th Triennial Congress of the International Ergonomics Association and the 44th Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, San Diego, 2000. [17] W. Winsum and W. Brouwer, "Time headway in car following and operational performance during unexpected braking," Perceptual and Motor Skills, pp. 1247-1257, 1997. [18] P. RAnjitkar, T. Nakatsuji, Y. Azuta and G. Gurusinghe, "Stability analysis based on instantaneous driving behavior using car-following data," Transportation Research Record, pp. 140-151, 2003. [19] K. Ahmed, "Modeling Drivers' Acceleration and lane changing behavior," PhD Thesis, MIT, 1999. [20] V. McGehee and et.al, "Comparison of Driver Braking Responses in a High Fidelity Driving Simulator and on a Test Track-National Highway," Traffic Safety Administration, 2002. *Statistics from Road Accidents in India, Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi, 2011

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