Copyright200813,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.

AllRightsReserved

MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
Algebra

Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version2.5
April2,2013

Page Description
Chapter1:Basics
9 OrderofOperations(PEMDAS,ParentheticalDevice)
10 GraphingwithCoordinates(Coordinates,PlottingPoints)
11 LinearPatterns(Recognition,ConvertingtoanEquation)
12 IdentifyingNumberPatterns
13 CompletingNumberPatterns
14 BasicNumberSets(SetsofNumbers,BasicNumberSetTree)
Chapter2:Operations
15 OperatingwithRealNumbers(AbsoluteValue,Add,Subtract,Multiply,Divide)
16 PropertiesofAlgebra(Addition&Multiplication,Zero,Equality)
Chapter3:SolvingEquations
18 SolvingMultiStepEquations
19 TipsandTricksinSolvingMultiStepEquations
Chapter4:Probability&Statistics
20 ProbabilityandOdds
21 ProbabilitywithDice
22 Combinations
23 StatisticalMeasures
Chapter5:Functions
24 IntroductiontoFunctions(Definitions,LineTests)
25 SpecialIntegerFunctions
26 OperationswithFunctions
27 CompositionofFunctions
28 InversesofFunctions
29 TransformationTranslation
30 TransformationVerticalStretchandCompression
31 TransformationHorizontalStretchandCompression
32 TransformationReflection
33 TransformationSummary
34 BuildingaGraphwithTransformations
Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
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Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter6:LinearFunctions
35 SlopeofaLine(MathematicalDefinition)
36 SlopeofaLine(RiseoverRun)
37 SlopesofVariousLines(8Variations)
38 VariousFormsofaLine(Standard,SlopeIntercept,PointSlope)
39 SlopesofParallelandPerpendicularLines
40 Parallel,PerpendicularorNeither
41 Parallel,CoincidentorIntersecting
Chapter7:Inequalities
42 PropertiesofInequality
43 GraphsofInequalitiesinOneDimension
44 CompoundInequalitiesinOneDimension
45 InequalitiesinTwoDimensions
46 GraphsofInequalitiesinTwoDimensions
47 AbsoluteValueFunctions(Equations)
48 AbsoluteValueFunctions(Inequalities)
Chapter8:SystemsofEquations
49 GraphingaSolution
50 SubstitutionMethod
51 EliminationMethod
52 ClassificationofSystemsofEquations
53 LinearDependence
54 SystemsofInequalitiesinTwoDimensions
55 ParametricEquations
Chapter9:Exponents(Basic)andScientificNotation
56 ExponentFormulas
57 ScientificNotation(Format,Conversion)
58 AddingandSubtractingwithScientificNotation
59 MultiplyingandDividingwithScientificNotation
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Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter10:PolynomialsBasic
60 IntroductiontoPolynomials
61 AddingandSubtractingPolynomials
62 MultiplyingBinomials(FOIL,Box,NumericalMethods)
63 MultiplyingPolynomials
64 DividingPolynomials
65 FactoringPolynomials
66 SpecialFormsofQuadraticFunctions(PerfectSquares)
67 SpecialFormsofQuadraticFunctions(DifferencesofSquares)
68 FactoringTrinomialsSimpleCaseMethod
69 FactoringTrinomialsACMethod
70 FactoringTrinomialsBruteForceMethod
71 FactoringTrinomialsQuadraticFormulaMethod
72 SolvingEquationsbyFactoring
Chapter11:QuadraticFunctions
73 IntroductiontoQuadraticFunctions
74 CompletingtheSquare
75 TableofPowersandRoots
76 TheQuadraticFormula
77 QuadraticInequalitiesinOneVariable
79 FittingaQuadraticthroughThreePoints
Chapter12:ComplexNumbers
80 ComplexNumbersIntroduction
81 OperationswithComplexNumbers
82 TheSquareRootofi
83 ComplexNumbersGraphicalRepresentation
84 ComplexNumberOperationsinPolarCoordinates
85 ComplexSolutionstoQuadraticEquations
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Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter13:Radicals
86 RadicalRules
87 SimplifyingSquareRoots(ExtractingSquares,ExtractingPrimes)
88 SolvingRadicalEquations
89 SolvingRadicalEquations(PositiveRoots,TheMissingStep)
Chapter14:Matrices
90 AdditionandScalarMultiplication
91 MultiplyingMatrices
92 MatrixDivisionandIdentityMatrices
93 Inverseofa2x2Matrix
94 CalculatingInversesTheGeneralCase(GaussJordanElimination)
95 DeterminantsTheGeneralCase
96 CramersRule2Equations
97 CramersRule3Equations
98 AugmentedMatrices
99 2x2AugmentedMatrixExamples
100 3x3AugmentedMatrixExample
Chapter15:ExponentsandLogarithms
101 ExponentFormulas
102 LogarithmFormulas
103 e
104 TableofExponentsandLogs
105 ConvertingBetweenExponentialandLogarithmicForms
106 ExpandingLogarithmicExpressions
107 CondensingLogarithmicExpressions
108 CondensingLogarithmicExpressionsMoreExamples
109 GraphinganExponentialFunction
110 FourExponentialFunctionGraphs
111 GraphingaLogarithmicFunction
114 FourLogarithmicFunctionGraphs
115 GraphsofVariousFunctions
116 ApplicationsofExponentialFunctions(Growth,Decay,Interest)
117 SolvingExponentialandLogarithmicEquations
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Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter16:PolynomialsIntermediate
118 PolynomialFunctionGraphs
119 FindingExtremawithDerivatives
120 FactoringHigherDegreePolynomialsSumandDifferenceofCubes
121 FactoringHigherDegreePolynomialsVariableSubstitution
122 FactoringHigherDegreePolynomialsSyntheticDivision
123 ComparingSyntheticDivisionandLongDivision
124 ZerosofPolynomialsDevelopingPossibleRoots
125 ZerosofPolynomialsTestingPossibleRoots
126 IntersectionsofCurves(GeneralCase,TwoLines)
127 IntersectionsofCurves(aLineandaParabola)
128 IntersectionsofCurves(aCircleandanEllipse)
Chapter17:RationalFunctions
129 DomainsofRationalFunctions
130 HolesandAsymptotes
131 GraphingRationalFunctions
131 SimpleRationalFunctions
132 SimpleRationalFunctionsExample
133 GeneralRationalFunctions
135 GeneralRationalFunctionsExample
137 OperatingwithRationalExpressions
138 SolvingRationalEquations
139 SolvingRationalInequalities
Chapter18:ConicSections
140 IntroductiontoConicSections
141 ParabolawithVertexattheOrigin(StandardPosition)
142 ParabolawithVertexatPoint(h, k)
143 ParabolainPolarForm
144 Circles
145 EllipseCenteredontheOrigin(StandardPosition)
146 EllipseCenteredatPoint(h, k)
147 EllipseinPolarForm
148 HyperbolaCenteredontheOrigin(StandardPosition)
149 HyperbolaCenteredatPoint(h, k)
150 HyperbolainPolarForm
151 HyperbolaConstructionOvertheDomain:0to2
152 GeneralConicEquationClassification
153 GeneralConicFormulaManipulation(Steps,Examples)
154 ParametricEquationsofConicSections
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Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter19:SequencesandSeries
155 IntroductiontoSequencesandSeries
156 FibonacciSequence
157 SummationNotationandProperties
158 SomeInterestingSummationFormulas
159 ArithmeticSequences
160 ArithmeticSeries
161 PythagoreanMeans(Arithmetic,Geometric)
162 PythagoreanMeans(Harmonic)
163 GeometricSequences
164 GeometricSeries
165 AFewSpecialSeries(,e,cubes)
166 PascalsTriangle
167 BinomialExpansion
168 GammaFunctionandn !
169 GraphingtheGammaFunction
170 Index
UsefulWebsites
http://www.mathguy.us/
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
http://www.purplemath.com/
http://www.math.com/homeworkhelp/Algebra.html
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissitecontains
definitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
PurpleMathAgreatsitefortheAlgebrastudent,itcontainslessons,reviewsandhomework
guidelines.Thesitealsohasananalysisofyourstudyhabits.TaketheMathStudySkillsSelf
Evaluationtoseewhereyouneedtoimprove.
Math.comHasalotofinformationaboutAlgebra,includingagoodsearchfunction.
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,basedonthe
author'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandinmath
tutoring.Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
-7-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
SchaumsOutlines



Algebra 1 , by James Schultz, Paul Kennedy, Wade Ellis Jr, and Kathleen Hollowelly.
Algebra 2 , by James Schultz, Wade Ellis Jr, Kathleen Hollowelly, and Paul Kennedy.
Although a significant effort was made to make the material in this study guide original, some
material from these texts was used in the preparation of the study guide.
AnimportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolmathstudentisaSchaumsOutline.Eachbook
inthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarioustopicsinthecourseandasubstantialnumberof
problemsforthestudenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthebook,sothestudent
canseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Noble,Bordersandotherbooksellers.
Note: This study guide was prepared to be a companion to most books on the subject of High
School Algebra. In particular, I used the following texts to determine which subjects to include
in this guide.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
OrderofOperations

Tothenonmathematician,theremayappeartobemultiplewaystoevaluateanalgebraic
expression.Forexample,howwouldon llowing? eevaluatethefo
S 4 7 + 6 S
2

Youcouldworkfromlefttoright,oryoucouldworkfromrighttoleft,oryoucoulddoany
numberofotherthingstoevaluatethisexpression.Asyoumightexpect,mathematiciansdo
notlikethisambiguity,sotheydevelopedasetofrulestomakesurethatanytwopeople
evaluatinganexpressionwouldgetthesameanswer.

PEMDAS
Inordertoevaluateexpressionsliketheoneabove,mathematicianshavedefinedanorderof
operationsthatmustbefollowedtogetthecorrectvaluefortheexpression.Theacronymthat
canbeusedtorememberthisorderisPEMDAS.Alternatively,youcouldusethemnemonic
phrasePleaseExcuseMyDearAuntSallyormakeupyourownwaytomemorizetheorderof
operations.ThecomponentsofPEMDASare:

P AnythinginParenthesesisevaluatedfirst.
Usuallywhentherearemultiple
operationsinthesamecategory,
forexample3multiplications,
theycanbeperformedinany
order,butitiseasiesttowork
fromlefttoright.
E ItemswithExponentsareevaluatednext.
M Multiplicationand
D Divisionareperformednext.
A Additionand
S Subtractionareperformedlast.

ParentheticalDevice.Ausefuldeviceistouseapplyparenthesestohelpyouremember
theorderofoperationswhenyouevaluateanexpression.Parenthesesareplacedaroundthe
itemshighestintheorderofoperations;thensolvingtheproblembecomesmorenatural.
UsingPEMDASandthisparenthe solvetheexpressionaboveasfollows: ticaldevice,we
InitialExpression: S 4 7 +6 S
2

Addparentheses/brackets: + | (S
2
)]
Note:Anyexpressionwhichis
ambiguous,liketheoneabove,is
poorlywritten.Studentsshouldstrive
toensurethatanyexpressionsthey
writeareeasilyunderstoodbyothers
andbythemselves.Useofparentheses
andbracketsisagoodwaytomake
yourworkmoreunderstandable.
= (S 4 7) 6
SolveusingPEMDAS: ) = (84) + (6 2S
+ (1Su) = (84)
FinalAnswer = 2S4
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Algebra
GraphingwithCoordinates

Graphsintwodimensionsareverycommoninalgebraandareoneofthemostcommon
algebraapplicationsinreallife.
y

Coordinates
Quadrant2 Quadrant1
Theplaneofpointsthatcanbegraphedin2dimensionsis
calledtheRectangularCoordinatePlaneortheCartesian
CoordinatePlane(namedaftertheFrenchmathematician
andphilosopherRenDescartes).
x
Quadrant3 Quadrant4
Twoaxesaredefined(usuallycalledthexandyaxes).
Eachpointontheplanehasanxvalueandayvalue,writtenas:(xvalue,yvalue)
Thepoint(0,0)iscalledtheorigin,andisusuallydenotedwiththeletterO.
Theaxesbreaktheplaneinto4quadrants,asshownabove.TheybeginwithQuadrant1
wherexandyarebothpositiveandincreasenumericallyinacounterclockwisefashion.

PlottingPointsonthePlane
Whenplottingpoints,
thexvaluedetermineshowfarright(positive)orleft(negative)oftheoriginthepointis
plotted.
Theyvaluedetermineshowfarup(positive)ordown(negative)fromtheoriginthepointis
plotted.

Examples:
Thefollowingpointsareplottedinthefigureto
theright:
A=(2,3) inQuadrant1
B=(3,2) inQuadrant2
C=(2,2) inQuadrant3
D=(4,1) inQuadrant4
O=(0,0) isnotinanyquadrant

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Algebra
LinearPatterns

RecognizingLinearPatterns
Thefirststeptorecognizingapatternistoarrangeasetofnumbersinatable.Thetablecan
beeitherhorizontalorvertical.Here,weconsiderthepatterninahorizontalformat.More
advancedanalysisgenerallyusestheverticalformat.
Considerthispattern:
xvalue 0 1 2 3 4 5
yvalue 6 9 12 15 18 21

Toanalyzethepattern,wecalculatedifferencesofsuccessivevaluesinthetable.Theseare
calledfirstdifferences.Ifthefirstdifferencesareconstant,wecanproceedtoconvertingthe
patternintoanequation.Ifnot,wedonothavealinearpattern.Inthiscase,wemaychoose
tocontinuebycalculatingdifferencesofthefirstdifferences,whicharecalledsecond
differences,andsoonuntilwegetapatternwecanworkwith.
Intheexampleabove,wegetaconstantsetoffirstdifferences,whichtellsusthatthepattern
isindeedlinear.
xvalue 0 1 2 3 4 5
yvalue 6 9 12 15 18 21

FirstDifferences 3 3 3 3 3

ConvertingaLinearPatterntoanEquation
Creatinganequationfromthepatterniseasyifyouhave
constantdifferencesandayvaluefo scase, rx=0.Inthi
Theequationtakestheformy = mx + h,where
mistheconstantdifferencefromthetable,and
bistheyvaluewhenx=0.
Intheexampleabove,thisgivesustheequation:y = 3x + .
Finally,itisagoodideatotestyourequation.Forexample,ifx = 4,theaboveequationgives
y = (S 4) + 6 = 18,whichisthevalueinthetable.Sowecanbeprettysureourequationis
correct.
Note:Ifthetabledoesnothavea
valueforx=0,youcanstillobtain
thevalueofb.Simplyextendthe
tableleftorrightuntilyouhavean
xvalueof0;thenusethefirst
differencestocalculatewhatthe
correspondingyvaluewouldbe.
Thisbecomesyourvalueofb.
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ADVANCED
n
n
2
n
2
n
2
IdentifyingNumberPatterns
Inthepatterntotheleft,noticethatthefirstandsecond
differencesappeartoberepeatingtheoriginalsequence.When
thishappens,thesequencemayberecursive.Thismeansthat
eachnewtermisbasedonthetermsbeforeit.Inthiscase,the
equationis:y
n
=y
n1
+y
n2
,meaningthattogeteachnewterm,
youaddthetwotermsbeforeit.
3
1
1
3
5
7
17 2
9
26 2
11
Whenlookingatpatternsinnumbers,isisoftenusefultotakedifferencesofthenumbersyou
areprovided.Ifthefirstdifferencesarenotconstant,takedifferencesagain.
2
3
5 2
5
10 2
7
2
2
2
2
2
37
5
2
7 2
4
11 4
8
19 8
16
35 16
32
3 1
2
5 1
3
Inthepatterntotheleft,noticethatthefirstandsecond
differencesarethesame.Youmightalsonoticethatthese
differencesaresuccessivepowersof2.Thisistypicalforan
exponentialpattern.Inthiscase,theequationis:y=2
x
+3 .
Whenfirstdifferencesareconstant,thepatternrepresentsa
linearequation.Inthiscase,theequationis:y=2x5 .The
constantdifferenceisthecoefficientofxintheequation.
Whenseconddifferencesareconstant,thepatternrepresentsa
quadraticequation.Inthiscase,theequationis:y=x
2
+1 .The
constantdifference,dividedby2,givesthecoefficientofx
2
inthe
equation.
Algebra
8 2
5
13 3
8
21
Whentakingsuccessivedifferencesyieldspatternsthatdonotseemtolevelout,thepattern
maybeeitherexponentialorrecursive.
2
1
67
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n n
n
2

3
n
2

3
n
2

3
n
2

3
n
2

3
n
2

3
CompletingNumberPatterns
Algebra
Thefirststepincompletinganumberpatternistoidentifyit.Then,workfromtherighttotheleft,fillingin
thehighestorderdifferencesfirstandworkingbackwards(left)tocompletethetable.Belowaretwo
examples.
1
7
6 12
19 6
25 18
123
214
6
25
1
7
6 12
19
214
37
25 18
37
6
62 24
61 6
123 30
91
6
62 24
61 6
123
Considerintheexamplesthesequencesofsix
numberswhichareprovidedtothestudent.Youare
askedtofindtheninthtermofeachsequence.
Example1 Example2
2
3
5
1
62 8
13
21
2
1
3 1
2 0
5 1
3 1
8
1
2 0
5 1
3 1
2
5 1
13 3
8
21
3
5
8 2
5 1
13 3
8 2
21
Step1:Createatableofdifferences.Takesuccessive
differencesuntilyougetacolumnofconstant
differences(Example1)oracolumnthatappearsto
repeatapreviouscolumnofdifferences(Example2).
Step2:Inthelastcolumnofdifferencesyoucreated,
continuetheconstantdifferences(Example1)orthe
repeateddifferences(Example2)downthetable.
Createasmanyentriesasyouwillneedtosolvethe
problem.Forexample,ifyouaregiven6termsand
askedtofindthe9thterm,youwillneed3(=96)
additionalentriesinthelastcolumn.
1 2
7
24 8
6
2
1
3
6
30
91 6
214
6
6
3
2
61
1
6 12 3 1
19 6 2
Step3:Workbackwards(fromrighttoleft),fillingin
eachcolumnbyaddingthedifferencesinthecolumn
totheright.
169 6 21
123 30 13 3
91
0
25 18 5 1
37 6 3 1
62
36 21 5
127 6 13
8 2
214
6 5 1
Columnn:214+127=341;341+169=510;510+217=727
Thefinalanswerstotheexamplesaretheninthitemsineachsequence,theitemsin boldred.
Intheexampletotheleft,thecalculationsare
performedinthefollowingorder:
Column
2
:30+6=36;36+6=42;42+6=48
Column:91+36=127;127+42=169;169+48=217 5
510 48 55 13
217 34
727 89
341 42 34 8
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Algebra
BasicNumberSets

NumberSet Definition Examples

NaturalNumbers(or,
CountingNumbers)
Numbersthatyouwouldnormally
countwith.
1,2,3,4,5,6,
WholeNumbers
Addthenumberzerotothesetof
NaturalNumbers
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,
Integers
Wholenumbersplusthesetof
negativeNaturalNumbers
3,2,1,0,1,2,3,
RationalNumbers
Anynumberthatcanbeexpressed
intheform
u
b
,whereaandbare
integersandb = . u -
2
S
Allintegers,plusfractionsand
mixednumbers,suchas:
,
17
6
, S
4
S

RealNumbers
Anynumberthatcanbewrittenin
decimalform,evenifthatformis
infinite.
Allrationalnumbersplusroots
andsomeothers,suchas:
2, 12
3
,,e

BasicNumberSetTree
RealNumbers
Rational Irrational
Integers Fractionsand
MixedNumbers
Whole Negative
Numbers Integers
Natural Zero
Numbers
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Algebra
OperatingwithRealNumbers

AbsoluteValue

Theabsolutevalueofsomethingisthedistanceitisfromzero.Theeasiestwaytogetthe
absolut anum oelimin e ign.A l values ositiveor0. evalueof berist at itss bso ute arealwaysp
|-S| = S |S| = S |u| = u -
3
4

=
3
4
|1.S| = 1.S

AddingandSubtractingRealNumbers

(-6 -9 ) + (-S) =
12 + 6 = 18
AddingNumberswiththeSameSign:
Addthenumberswithoutregard
tosign.
Givetheanswerthesamesignas
theoriginalnumbers.
Examples:
(-6) + S = -S
(-7) + 11 = 4
AddingNumberswithDifferentSigns:
Ignorethesignsandsubtractthe
smallernumberfromthelargerone.
Givetheanswerthesignofthenumber
withthegreaterabsolutevalue.
Examples:
(-6 S ) - (-S) = (-6) + S = -
1S - 4 = 1S + (-4) = 9
SubtractingNumbers:
Changethesignofthenumberornumbersbeingsubtracted.
Addtheresultingnumbers.
Examples:

MultiplyingandDividingRealNumbers

(-6 ) 18 ) (-S = +1
12 S = +4 = 4
8 =
the
sign
Givetheanswera+sign.
NumberswiththeSameSign:
Multiplyordivide numbers
withoutregardto .
Examples:
( -6) (S) = 18
12 (-S) = -4
-
NumberswithDifferentSigns:
Multiplyordividethenumberswithout
regardtosign.
Givetheanswerasign.
Examples:
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Algebra
PropertiesofAlgebra

PropertiesofAdditionandMultiplication.Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:

Property DefinitionforAddition DefinitionforMultiplication

ClosureProperty o + bisarealnumber o bisarealnumber
IdentityProperty o + u = u + o = o o 1 = 1 o = o
InverseProperty o + (-o) = (-o) + o = u
For o = u, o
1
o
=
1
o
o = 1
CommutativeProperty o + b = b + o o b = b o
AssociativeProperty (o + b) + c = o + (b + c) (o b) c = o (b c)
DistributiveProperty o (b + c) = (o b) + (o c)

PropertiesofZero.Foranyrealnumbera:
Multiplicationby0 o u = u o = u
0DividedbySomething
For o = u,
0
u
= u
Divisionby0
u
0
is unuefineu (even if a = u)

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Algebra
PropertiesofAlgebra

OperationalPropertiesofEquality.Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:

Property Definition
AdditionProperty I o = b, tbcn o + c = b + c
SubtractionProperty I o = b, tbcn o - c = b - c
MultiplicationProperty I o = b, tbcn o c = b c
DivisionProperty I o = b onJ c = u, tbcn o c = b c

OtherPropertiesofEquality.Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:

Property Definition
ReflexiveProperty o = o
SymmetricProperty I o = b, tbcn b = o
TransitiveProperty I o = b onJ b = c, tbcn o = c
SubstitutionProperty If o = b, then eithei can be substituteu foi the
othei in any equation (oi inequality).

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Algebra
SolvingMultiStepEquations

ReversePEMDAS
OnesystematicwaytoapproachmultistepequationsisReversePEMDAS.PEMDASdescribes
theorderofoperationsusedtoevaluateanexpression.Solvinganequationistheoppositeof
evaluatingit,soreversingthePEMDASorderofoperationsseemsappropriate.
Theguidingprinciplesintheprocessare:
Eachstepworkstowardisolatingthevariableforwhichyouaretryingtosolve.
EachstepundoesanoperationinReversePEMDASorder:
Subtraction Addition
Division Multiplication
Exponents Logarithms
Parentheses RemoveParentheses(andrepeatprocess)
Inverses
Inverses
Note:Logarithmsarethe
inverseoperatortoexponents.
Thistopicistypicallycoveredin
thesecondyearofAlgebra. Inverses
Thelistaboveshowsinverseoperationrelationships.Inordertoundoanoperation,you
performitsinverseoperation.Forexample,toundoaddition,yousubtract;toundodivision,
youmultiply.Hereareacoupleofexamples:

Example2
Solve: 2 2 5 5 3
Step1:Add3 3 3
Result: 2 2 5 2
Step2:Divideby2 2 2
Result: 2 5 1
Step3:Removeparentheses
Result: 2 5 1
Step4:Subtract5 5 5
Result: 2 6
Step5:Divideby2 2 2
Result: 3

Inverses
Example1
Solve: 3 4 14
Step1:Add4 4 4
Result: 3 18
Step2:Divideby3 3 3
Result: 6
Noticethatweaddandsubtractbeforewe
multiplyanddivide.ReversePEMDAS.
Withthisapproach,youwillbeableto
solvealmostanymultistepequation.As
yougetbetteratit,youwillbeabletouse
someshortcutstosolvetheproblemfaster.
Sincespeedisimportantinmathematics,learningafewtipsandtrickswithregardtosolving
equationsislikelytobeworthyourtime.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Example1
Solve:
2
3
x = 8
Multiplyby
3
2
:
3
2

3
2

Result: x =
3
2
8 =
24
2
= 12
Explanation:Since
3
2
isthereciprocalof
2
3
,
whenwemultiplythem,weget1,and
1 x = x.Usingthisapproach,wecanavoid
dividingbyafraction,whichismoredifficult.
Example2
Solve: -
1
4
x = -2
Multiplyby-4: (-4) (-4)
Result: x = (-2) (-4) = 8
Explanation:-4isthereciprocalof-
1
4
,so
whenwemultiplythem,weget1.Notice
theuseofparenthesesaroundthenegative
numbertomakeitclearwearemultiplying
andnotsubtracting.
Example3
Solve: 2 (2x + S) - S = -S
Step1:Eliminateparentheses
Result: 4x + 1u - S = -S
Step2:Combineconstants
Result: 4x + 7 = -S
Step3:Subtract7 -7 - 7
Result: 4x = -12
Step4:Divideby4 4 4
Result: x = -S
Algebra
TipsandTricksinSolvingMultiStepEquations

FractionalCoefficients
Fractionspresentastumblingblocktomanystudentsinsolvingmultistepequations.When
stumblingblocksoccur,itisagoodtimetodevelopatricktohelpwiththeprocess.Thetrick
shownbelowinvolvesusingthereciprocalofafractionalcoefficientasamultiplierinthe
solutionprocess.(Rememberthatacoefficientisanumberthatismultipliedbyavariable.)

AnotherApproachtoParentheses
IntheReversePEMDASmethod,parentheses
arehandledafterallotheroperations.
Sometimes,itiseasiertooperateonthe
parenthesesfirst.Inthisway,youmaybeable
torestatetheprobleminaneasierformbefore
solvingit.
Example3,atright,isanotherlookatthe
probleminExample2onthepreviouspage.
Usewhicheverapproachyoufindmosttoyour
liking.Theyarebothcorrect.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ProbabilityandOdds

Probability

Probabilityisameasureofthelikelihoodthataneventwilloccur.Itdependsonthenumberof
outcomesthatrepresentthee onterms, ventandthetotalnumberofpossibleoutcomes.Inequati
P(euent) =
numher u uutcumex reprexent|ng the euent
numher u tuta| puxx|h|e uutcumex

Example1:Theprobabilityofaflippedcoinlandingasaheadis1/2.Therearetwoequallylikelyevents
whenacoinisflippeditwillshowaheadoritwillshowatail.So,thereisonechanceoutoftwothat
thecoinwillshowaheadwhenitlands.

P(bcoJ) =
1 outcomc o o bcoJ
2 totol possiblc outcomcs
=
1
2

Example2:Inajar,thereare15bluemarbles,10redmarblesand7greenmarbles.Whatisthe
probabilityofselectingaredmarblefromthejar?Inthisexample,thereare32totalmarbles,10of
whicharered,sothereisa10/32(or,whenred bility sele tingaredmarble. uced,5/16)proba of c
P(rcJ morblc) =
1u rcJ morblcs
S2 totol morblcs

=
1u
S2
=
S
16

Odds

Oddsaresimilartoprobability,exceptthatwemeasurethenumberofchancesthataneventwilloccur
relativetothenumberofchancesthattheeventwillnotoccur.
Oddx(euent) =
numher u uutcumex reprexent|ng the euent
numher u uutcumex NOT reprexent|ng the euent

Intheaboveexamples,
0JJs(bcoJ) =
1 outcomc o o bcoJ
1 outcomc o o toil

=
1
1
0JJs(rcJ morblc) =
1u rcJ morblcs
22 otbcr morblcs
=
1u
22
=
S
11

Notethatthenumeratorandthedenominatorinanoddscalculationaddtothetotalnumberof
possibleoutcomesinthedenominatorofthecorrespondingprobabilitycalculation.

Tothebeginningstudent,theconceptofoddsisnotasintuitiveastheconceptofprobabilities;
however,theyareusedextensivelyinsomeenvironments.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ProbabilitywithDice

SingleDie
Probabilitywithasingledieisbasedonthenumberofchancesofaneventoutof6possible
outcomesonthedie.Forexample:
P(2) =
1
6
P(oJJ numbcr) =
3
6
=
1
2
P(numbcr < S) =
4
6
=
2
3

TwoDice
Probabilitywithtwodiceisbasedonthenumberofchancesofaneventoutof36possible
outcomesonthedice.Thefollowingtableofresultswhenrolling2diceishelpfulinthisregard:
1
st
Die
2
nd
Die 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 S 4 S 6 7
2 S 4 S 6 7 8
3 4 S 6 7 8 9
4 S 6 7 8 9 1u
5 6 7 8 9 1u 11
6 7 8 9 1u 11 12
Theprobabilityofrollinganumberwithtwodiceisthenumberoftimesthatnumberoccursin
thetable,dividedby36.Herearetheprobabilitiesforallnumbers2to12.
P(2) =
1
36
P(S) =
4
36
=
1
9
P(8) =
5
36
P(11) =
2
36
=
1
18

P(S) =
2
36
=
1
18
P(6) =
5
36
P(9) =
4
36
=
1
9
P(12) =
1
36

P(4) =
3
36
=
1
12
P(7) =
6
36
=
1
6
P(1u) =
3
36
=
1
12

P(oJJ numbcr) =
18
36
=
1
2
P(numbcr Ji:isiblc by S) =
2+5+4+1
36
=
12
36
=
1
3

P(c:cn numbcr) =
18
36
=
1
2
P(numbcr Ji:isiblc by 4) =
3+5+1
36
=
9
36
=
1
4

P(numbcr Ji:isiblc by 6) =
5+1
36
=
6
36
=
1
6

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
Combinations

SingleCategoryCombinations

Thenumberofcombinationsofitemsselectedfromaset,severalatatime,canbecalculated
relativelyeasilyusingthefollowingtechnique:

Technique:Createaratiooftwoproducts.Inthenumerator,startwiththenumberof
totalitemsintheset,andcountdownsothetotalnumberofitemsbeingmultipliedis
equaltothenumberofitemsbeingselected.Inthedenominator,startwiththe
numberofitemsbeingselectedandcountdownto1.

Example:Howmany
combinationsof3itemscan
beselectedfromasetof8
items?A nswer:
8 7 6
S 2 1

= S6

Example:Howmany
combinationsof4itemscan
beselectedfromasetof13
item : s?Answer
1S 12 11 1u
4 S 2 1

= 71S

Example:Howmany
combinationsof2itemscan
beselectedfromasetof30
items? : Answer
Su 29
2 1

= 4SS

MultipleCategoryCombinations

Whencalculatingthenumberofcombinationsthatcanbecreatedbyselectingitemsfrom
severalcategories,thetechniqueissimpler:

Technique:Multiplythenumbersofitemsineachcategorytogetthetotalnumberof
possiblecombinations.

Example:Howmanydifferent
pizzascouldbecreatedifyou
have3kindsofdough,4kinds
ofcheeseand8kindsof
toppings?
Answer:
S 4 8 = 96

Example:Howmanydifferent
outfitscanbecreatedifyou
have5pairsofpants,8shirts
and4jackets?

Answer:
S 8 4 = 16u

Example:Howmanydesigns
foracarcanbecreatedifyou
canchoosefrom12exterior
colors,3interiorcolors,2
interiorfabricsand5typesof
wheels?Answer:
12 S 2 S = S6u

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
StatisticalMeasures

Statisticalmeasureshelpdescribeasetofdata.Adefinitionofanumberoftheseisprovidedinthetablebelow:
Concept Description Calculation Example1 Example2
DataSet Numbers 35,35,37,38,45 15,20,20,22,25,54
Mean Average
Addthevaluesand
dividethetotalbythe
numberofvalues
35
5
35 37 38 45
38
15 1
6
8 22 22 25 54
26
Median
(1)
Middle
Arrangethevaluesfrom
lowtohighandtakethe
middlevalue
(1)

37 21
(1)

Mode Most
Thevaluethatappears
mostofteninthedata
set
35 20
Range Size
Thedifferencebetween
thehighestandlowest
valuesinthedataset
4535=10 5415=39
Outliers
(2)
Oddballs
Valuesthatlookvery
differentfromtheother
valuesinthedataset
none 54

Notes:
(1) Ifthereareanevennumberofvalues,themedianistheaverageofthetwomiddlevalues.InExample2,themedianis21,
whichistheaverageof20and22.
(2) Thequestionofwhatconstitutesanoutlierisnotalwaysclear.Althoughstatisticiansseektominimizesubjectivityinthe
definitionofoutliers,differentanalystsmaychoosedifferentcriteriaforthesamedataset.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
IntroductiontoFunctions
Definitions
ARelationisarelationshipbetweenvariables,usuallyexpressedasanequation.
Inatypicalxyequation,theDomainofarelationisthesetofxvaluesforwhichy
valuescanbecalculated.Forexample,intherelationy = xthedomainisx u
becausethesearethevaluesofxforwhichasquarerootcanbetaken.
Inatypicalxyequation,theRangeofarelationisthesetofyvaluesthatresultforall
valuesofthedomain.Forexample,intherelationy = xtherangeisy ubecause
thesearethevaluesofythatresultfromallthevaluesofx.
edoma AFunctionisarelationinwhicheachelementinth inhasonlyone
correspondingelementintherange.
AOnetoOneFunctionisafunctioninwhicheachelementintherangeisproducedby
onlyoneelementinthedomain.
FunctionTestsin2Dimensions
VerticalLineTestIfaverticallinepassesthroughthegraphofarelationinanytwolocations,
itisnotafunction.Ifitisnotpossibletoconstructaverticallinethatpassesthroughthegraph
ofarelationintwolocations,itisafunction.
HorizontalLineTestIfahorizontallinepassesthroughthegraphofafunctioninanytwo
locations,itisnotaonetoonefunction.Ifitisnotpossibletoconstructahorizontallinethat
passesthroughthegraphofafunctionintwolocations,itisaonetoonefunction.
Examples:

Figure1: y
2
= x
Notafunction.
Failsverticallinetest.

Figure2: y = x
2

Isafunction,butnotaone
toonefunction.
Passesverticallinetest.
Failshorizontallinetest.
Figure3: y = x
3

Isaonetoonefunction.
Passesverticallinetest.
Passeshorizontallinetest.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SpecialIntegerFunctions
GreatestIntegerFunction
AlsocalledtheFloorFunction,thisfunctiongivesthe
greatestintegerlessthanorequaltoanumber.There
aretwocommonnotationsforthis,asshowninthe
examplesbelow.
Notationandexamples:
|S.S] = S |-2.7] = -S |6] = 6
|2.4j = 2 |-7.1j = -8 |uj = u
Inthegraphtotheright,noticethesoliddotsontheleftofthesegments(indicatingthepointsare
included)andtheopenlinesontherightofthesegments(indicatingthepointsarenotincluded).
LeastIntegerFunction
AlsocalledtheCeilingFunction,thisfunctiongivesthe
leastintegergreaterthanorequaltoanumber.The
commonnotationforthisisshownintheexamples
below.
Notationandexamples:
|S.S] = 4 |-2.7] = -2 |6] = 6
Inthegraphtotheright,noticetheopendotsonthe
leftofthesegments(indicatingthepointsarenotincluded)andthecloseddotsontherightofthe
segments(indicatingthepointsareincluded).
NearestIntegerFunction
AlsocalledtheRoundingFunction,thisfunctiongives
thenearestintegertoanumber(roundingtotheeven
numberwhenavalueendsin.5).Thereisnoclean
notationforthis,asshownintheexamplesbelow.
Notationandexamples:
nint(S.S) = 4 nint(-2.7) = -S nint(6) = 6
Inthegraphtotheright,noticetheopendotsonthe
leftofthesegments(indicatingthepointsarenot
included)andthecloseddotsontherightofthesegments(indicatingthepointsareincluded).
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
OperationswithFunctions
FunctionNotation
(x) = x
2
+2 g(x) = e
x
+|n(x) h(x) = -3x +4
Functionnotationreplacesthevariableywithafunctionname.Thexinparenthesesindicates
thatxisthedomainvariableofthefunction.Byconvention,functionstendtousethelettersf,
g,andhasnamesofthefunction.
OperationswithFunctions
( +g)(x) = x
2
+x
( -g)(x = x -x -2
x
)
2
( g)( ) = x
3
+x
2
-x -1
_

g
] (x) = x -1, witb x = -1
AddingFunctions ( +g)(x) = (x) +g(x)
SubtractingFunctions ( -g)(x) = (x) -g(x)
MultiplyingFunctions ( g)(x) = (x) g(x)
DividingFunctions
_

g
] (x) =
(x)
g(x)
, g(x) = u
Thedomainofthecombination
offunctionsistheintersection
ofthedomainsofthetwo
individualfunctions.Thatis,
thecombinedfunctionhasa
valueinitsdomainifandonlyif
thevalueisinthedomainof
eachindividualfunction.
Examples:
Let: Then: (x) = x
2
-1
g(x) = x +1

Notethatin[
]
g
(x)thereistherequirementx = -1.Thisisbecauseg(-1) = uinthe
denominatorwouldrequiredividingbyu,producinganundefinedresult.
OtherOperations
Otheroperationsofequa : lityalso holdforfunctions,for example
=
3
(x) ((x))
3
= (x) (x) (x)
(x) (g(x) +b(x)) = (x) g(x) +(x) b(x)

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
CompositionofFunctions
InaCompositionofFunctions,firstonefunctionisperformed,andthentheother.The
notationforcompositionis,forexample:(g(x)) oi ( u g)(x).Inbothofthesenotations,
thefunctiongisperformedfirst,andthenthefunctionfisperformedontheresultofg.
Alwaysperformthefunctionclosesttothevariablefirst.
DoubleMapping
Acompositioncanbethoughtofasadoublemapping.Firstgmapsfromitsdomaintoits
range.Then,fmapsfromtherangeofgtotherangeoff:

Example:Let (x) = x
2

n a d g(x) = x +1
Then:
2
( u g)(x) = (x +1)
And: (g u )(x) = x
2
+1

TheWordsMethod
Intheexample,
Thefunction sayssquaretheargument.
Thefunctiongsaysadd1totheargument.
Sometimesitiseasiertothinkofthefunctionsin
atherthanintermsofanargumentlikex. wordsr
saysadd1first,thensquaretheresult. ( u g)
(g u )sayssquarefirst,thenadd1totheresult.
Usingthewordsmethod,

f g
Calculate:(g o )(-2)
f:squareit(-2)
2
= 4
g:add1toit 4 +1 = 5
Calculate:( o g)(12yz)
g:add1toit + (12yz) 1
f:squareit (12yz +1)
2

Rangeofg
Domainoff
Domainofg Rangeoff
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
InversesofFunctions
Inorderforafunctiontohaveaninverse,itmustbeaonetoonefunction.Therequirement
forafunctiontobeaninverseis:
( u
-1
)(x) = (
-1
u )( x) = x
Thenotation
-1
(x)isusedforthe of Inverse Function (x).
Anotherwayofsayingthisisthatif(a) = h,then
-1
(h) = aforallainthedomainof.
DerivinganInverseFunction
Thefollowingstepscanbeusedtoderiveaninversefunction.Thisprocessassumesthatthe
originalfunctionisexpressedintermsof(x).
Makesurethefunctionisonetoone.Otherwiseithasnoinverse.Youcanaccomplish
thisbygraphingthefunction applyingtheverticalandhorizontallinetests. and
Substitutethevariableyfor(x).
Exchangevariables.Thatis,changeallthexstoysandalltheystoxs.
Solveforthenewyintermsofthenewx.
(Optional)Switchthee tionifyoulike. xpressionsoneachsideoftheequa
Replacethevariableywith the function notation
-1
(x).
Checkyourwork.
Examples:
(
-1
o )(x) =
(x) +1
2
=
(2x -1) +1
2
= x
Derivethe ver : in seof (x) = 2x -
Substituteyfor(x):
1
y = 2x - 1
Exchangevariables: x = 2y - 1
Add1: 2y x + 1 =
Divideby2:
x+1
2
= y
Switchsides:
x+1

y =
2

ChangeNotation:
-1
(x) =
x+1
2

Tochecktheresult,notethat:

(
-1
o )(x) = S(x) -6 = S_
1
S
x +2] -6 = x
Derivethe ver : in seof (x) =
3
1
x +
Substituteyfor(x):
1
2
y =
3
x + 2
Exchangevariables:
1
x =
3
y + 2
Subtract2:

x - 2 =
1
3
y
Multiplyby3:

Sx - 6 = y
Switchsides: y = Sx - 6
ChangeNotation:
-1
(x) = 3x -
Tochecktheresult,notethat:
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
TransformationTranslation
ATranslationisamovementofthegraphofarelationtoadifferentlocationintheplane.It
preservestheshapeandorientationofthegraphonthepage.Alternatively,atranslationcan
bethoughtofasleavingthegraphwhereitisandmovingtheaxesaroundontheplane.
InAlgebra,thetranslationsofprimaryinterestaretheverticalandhorizontaltranslationsofa
graph.
VerticalTranslation
Startingform: y = (x)
VerticalTranslation: y = (x) +k
Ateachpoint,thegraphofthetranslationiskunitshigheror
lowerdependingonwhetherkispositiveornegative.The
letterkisusedasaconventionwhenmovingupordown.In
algebra,kusuallyrepresentsayvalueofsomeimportance.
Note:
Apositivek thegraphup. shifts
Anegativekshiftsthegraphdown.
HorizontalTranslation
Startingform: y = (x)
HorizontalTranslation: y = (x -h)
Ateachpoint,thegraphofthetranslationishunitsto
theleftorrightdependingonwhetherhispositiveor
negative.Theletterhisusedasaconventionwhen
movingleftorright.Inalgebra,husuallyrepresentsan
xvalueofsomeimportance.
Note:
Apositiveh thegraphtotheleft. shifts
Anegativehshiftsthegraphtotheright.
Forhorizontaltranslation,thedirectionofmovementofthegraphiscounterintuitive;be
carefulwiththese.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
TransformationVerticalStretchandCompression
AVerticalStretchorCompressionisastretchorcompressionintheverticaldirection,relative
tothexaxis.Itdoesnotslidethegrapharoundontheplanelikeatranslation.Analternative
viewofaverticalstretchorcompressionwouldbeachangeinthescaleoftheyaxis.
VerticalStretch
Startingform: y = (x)
VerticalStretch: y = a (x), a > 1
Ateachpoint,thegraphisstretchedverticallybyafactorof
a.Theresultisanelongatedcurve,onethatexaggeratesall
ofthefeaturesoftheoriginal.
VerticalCompression
Startingform: y = (x)
VerticalCompression: y = a (x), < o < 1
Ateachpoint,thegraphiscompressedverticallybya
factorofa.Theresultisaflattenedoutcurve,onethat
mutesallofthefeaturesoftheoriginal.
Note:Theformsoftheequations
forverticalstretchandvertical
compressionarethesame.The
onlydifferenceisthevalueof"a".

Valueof"a"in
y = a (x)
ResultingCurve
a < u reflection
a = xaxis
1 < o < compression
a = 1 originalcurve
a > 1 stretch
-30-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
TransformationHorizontalStretchandCompression
AHorizontalStretchorCompressionisastretchorcompressioninthehorizontaldirection,
relativetotheyaxis.Itdoesnotslidethegrapharoundontheplanelikeatranslation.An
alternativeviewofahorizontalstretchorcompressionwouldbeachangeinthescaleofthex
axis.
HorizontalStretch
Note:Theformsoftheequations
forthehorizontalstretchandthe
horizontalcompressionarethe
same.Theonlydifferenceisthe
valueof"h".
Startingform: y = (x)
HorizontalStretch: y = (hx), < h < 1
Ateachpoint,thegraphisstretchedhorizontally
byafactorof
1
b
.Theresultisawidenedcurve,one
thatexaggeratesallofthefeaturesoftheoriginal.
HorizontalCompression
Startingform: y = (x)
HorizontalCompression: y = (hx), h > 1
Ateachpoint,thegraphiscompressedhorizontallybya
factorof
1
h
.Theresultisaskinniercurve,onethatmutes
allofthefeaturesoftheoriginal.
Valueof"h"in
y = (hx)
ResultingCurve
h < u reflection
h = hoiizontal line
< h < 1 stretch
h = 1 originalcurve
h > 1 compression

Note:Forhorizontalstretchandcompression,thechangeinthegraphcausedbythevalue
ofbiscounterintuitive;becarefulwiththese.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
TransformationReflection
AReflectionisaflipofthegraphacrossamirrorintheplane.Itpreservestheshapethe
graphbutcanmakeitlookbackwards.
InAlgebra,thereflectionsofprimaryinterestarethereflectionsacrossanaxisintheplane.

XAxisReflection
Startingform: y = (x)
xaxisReflection: y = -(x)
Notethefollowing:
Ateachpoint,thegraphis
reflectedacrossthexaxis.
Theformofthetransformationis
thesameasaverticalstretchor
compressionwitha = -1.
Theflipofthegraphoverthex
axisis,ineffect,avertical
transformation.
YAxis Reflection
Startingform: y = (x)
yaxisReflection: y = (-x)
Notethefollowing:
Ateachpoint,thegraphis
reflectedacrosstheyaxis.
Theformofthetransformationis
thesameasahorizontalstretch
orcompressionwithh = -1.
Theflipofthegraphoverthey
axisis,ineffect,ahorizontal
transformation.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
Transform
Startingform: y = (x)
ationsSummary
Forpurposesofthefollowingtable,thevariableshandkarepositivetomaketheformsmore
likewhatthestudentwillencounterwhensolvingproblemsinvolvingtransformations.
TransformationSummary
FormofTransformation ResultofTransformation
y = (x) +k Verticaltranslationupkunits.
y = (x -k ) Verticaltranslationdownkunits.
y = (x +h) Horizontaltranslationlefthunits.
y = (x -h) Horizontaltranslationrighth its. un
y = a (x), a > 1 Verticalstretchbyafactorofo.
y = a (x), < o < 1 Verticalcompressionbyafactorofo.
y = (hx), h > 1 Horizontalcompressionbyafactorof
1
b
.
y = (hx), < b < 1 Horizontalstretchbyafactorof
1
b
.
y = -(x) Reflectionacrossthexaxis(vertical).
y = (-x) Reflectionacrosstheyaxis(horizontal).

Transformationsbasedonthevalues
ofaandb(stretches,
compressions,reflections)canbe
representedbythesegraphics.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
BuildingaGraphwithTransformations
Thegraphofanequationcanbebuiltwithblocksmadeupoftransformations.Asanexample,
wewillbuildthegraphofy = -2(x -S)
2
+4.

Step2:Translate3unitsto
therighttogetequation:
y = (x - 3)
2

Step1:Startwiththebasic
quadraticequation:y = x
2

Step3:Stretchverticallyby
afactorof2togetequation:
y = 2(x -3)
2

Step4:Reflectoverthe
xaxistogetequation:
y = -2(x -3)
2

Step5:Translateup4
unitstogetequation:
y = -2(x -3)
2
+ 4
FinalResult:Showthegraph
ofthefinalequation:
y = -2(x -3)
2
+ 4
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SlopeofaLine

Theslopeofalinetellshowfastitrisesorfallsasitmovesfromlefttoright.Iftheslopeis
rising,theslopeispositive;ifitisfalling,theslopeisnegative.Thelettermisoftenusedas
thesymbolforslope.

Thetwomostusefulwaystocalculatetheslopeofalinearediscussedbelow.

MathematicalDefinitionofSlope
Thedefinitionisbasedontwopointswith
coordinates(x
1
, y )and(x
2
, y
2
).Thedefinition,
then,is:
1
m =
y
2
- y
1
x
2
- x
1

Comments:
Youcanselectany2pointsontheline.
Atablesuchastheoneatrightcanbehelpfulfordoing
yourcalculations.
Notethatm =
y
2
- y
1
x
2
- x
1
impliesthat m =
y
1
- y
2
x
1
- x
2
.
So,itdoesnotmatterwhichpointyouassignasPoint1
andwhichyouassignasPoint2.Therefore,neitherdoes
itmatterwhichpointisfirstinthetable.
ItisimportantthatonceyouassignapointasPoint1andanotherasPoint2,thatyouuse
theircoordinatesintheproperplacesintheformula.
xv lue a yvalue
Point2 x
2
y
2

Point1 x
1
y
1

Difference x
2
-x
1
y
2
-y
1

Examples:
Forthetwolinesinthefigureabove,wegetthefollowing:

GreenLine:m =
8
4
= 2 RedLine:m =
-4
8
= -
1
2

GreenLine xvalue yvalue

PointA 1 4
PointC 3 4
Difference 4 8
RedLine xvalue yvalue
PointD 4 2
PointB 4 2
Difference 8 4
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SlopeofaLine(contd)

RiseoverRun
Anequivalentmethodofcalculatingslopethatismore
visualistheRiseoverRunmethod.Underthis
method,ithelpstodrawverticalandhorizontallines
thatindicatethehorizontalandverticaldistances
betweenpointsontheline.
Theslop ca ecanthenbe lculatedasfollows:
m =
r|xe
run
=
|ength u uert|ca| ||ne
|ength u hur|zunta| ||ne

Theriseofalineishowmuchitincreases(positive)ordecreases(negative)betweentwo
points.Therunishowfarthelinemovestotheright(positive)ortheleft(negative)between
thesametwopoints.
Comments:
Youcanselectany2pointsontheline.
Itisimportanttostartatthesamepointinmeasuringboththeriseandtherun.
Agoodconventionistoalwaysstartwiththepointontheleftandworkyourwaytothe
right;thatway,therun(i.e.,thedenominatorintheformula)isalwayspositive.Theonly
exceptiontothisiswhentheruniszero,inwhichcasetheslopeisundefined.
Ifthetwopointsareclearlymarkedasintegersonagraph,theriseandrunmayactuallybe
countedonthegraph.Thismakestheprocessmuchsimplerthanusingtheformulaforthe
definitionofslope.However,whencounting,makesureyougettherightsignfortheslope
oftheline,e.g.,movingdownasthelinemovestotherightisanegativeslope.
Examples:
Forthetwolinesinth o : efigureabove,wegetthefoll wing
GreenLine:m =
r|xe rum(-4) tu 4
=
8
= 2
run rum (-3)tu 1 4
Noticehowsimilarthe
calculationsintheexamples
areunderthetwomethods
ofcalculatingslopes.
RedLine:m =
a|| rum 2 tu (-2)
run rum (-4) tu 4
=
-4
8
= -
1
2

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SlopesofVariousLines

m = unJcincJ
lineisvertical

Whenyoulookataline,you
shouldnoticethefollowing
aboutitsslope:
Whetheritis0,positive,
negativeorundefined.
Ifpositiveornegative,
whetheritislessthan1,
about1,orgreaterthan1.
Thepurposeofthegraphson
thispageistohelpyougetafeel
forthesethings.
Thiscanhelpyoucheck:
Givenaslope,whetheryou
drewthelinecorrectly,or
Givenaline,whetheryou
calculatedtheslope
correctly.

m = -2
4
S
(big ncgoti:c)
lineissteepandgoingdown
m = S
1
2
(big positi:c)
lineissteepandgoingup

m = 1
linegoesupata45angle

m = -1
linegoesdownata45angle

m = -
S
17
(smoll ncgoti:c)
lineisshallowandgoingdown
m =
2
11
(smoll positi:c)
lineisshallowandgoingup
m = u
lineishorizontal
-37-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
VariousFormsofaLine

TherearethreeformsofalinearequationwhicharemostusefultotheAlgebrastudent,each
ofwhichcanbeconvertedintotheothertwothroughalgebraicmanipulation.Theabilityto
movebetweenformsisaveryusefulskillinAlgebra,andshouldbepracticedbythestudent.

StandardForm
Standa mples rdFormExa
Sx + 2y = 6
2x - 7y = 14
TheStan r o alinearequationis: da dForm f
Ax +By = C
whereA,B,andCarerealnumbersandAandBarenotbothzero.
Usuallyinthisform,theconventionisforAtobepositive.
Why,youmightask,isthisStandardForm?Onereasonisthatthisformiseasilyextendedto
additionalvariables,whereasotherformsarenot.Forexample,infourvariables,theStandard
Formwouldbe:Ax +By +Cz +Dw = F.Anotherreasonisthatthisformeasilylendsitself
toanalysiswithmatrices,whichcanbeveryusefulinsolvingsystemsofequations.

SlopeInterceptForm
Slope ples InterceptExam
y = -Sx + 6
y =
S
4
x - 14
TheSlopeInterceptFormofalinearequationistheonemost
familiar ents.Itis: tomanystud
y = mx +h
wheremistheslopeandbistheyinterceptoftheline(i.e.,the
valueatwhichthelinecrossestheyaxisinagraph).mandbmustalsoberealnumbers.

PointSlopeForm
ThePointSlopeFormofalinearequationistheoneusedleastby
thestudent,butitcanbeveryusefulincertaincircumstances.In
particular,asyoumightexpect,itisusefulifthestudentisaskedfor
theequationofalineandisgiventhelinesslopeandthe
coordin e.Theformoftheequationis:
P ointSlopeExamples
(y -S) = 2 (x +4)
(y + 7) = S _x -
2
S
]
atesofapointonthelin
(y -y
1
) = m(x -x
1
)
wheremistheslopeand(x
1
, y
1
)isanypointontheline.Onestrengthofthisformisthat
equationsformedusingdifferentpointsonthesamelinewillbeequivalent.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SlopesofParallelandPerpendicularLines

ParallelLines
Twolines iftheirslopesareequal. areparallel
Iny = mx +bform,ifthevaluesofmare
thesame.
Example: y = 2x -S anu
y = 2x +1
InStandardForm,ifthecoefficientsofxand
yareproportiona ions. lbetweentheequat
Example:Sx -2y = S anu
4y = 6x - -7
Also,ifthelinesarebothvertical(i.e.,their
slopesareundefin d e ).
Example: anu x = -S
x = 2
PerpendicularLines
Twolinesareperpendiculariftheproductoftheir
slopesis-1.Thatis,iftheslopeshavedifferent
signsand tiveinverses. aremultiplica
Iny = mx +bform,thevaluesofm
multiplytoget-1..
Example: anu y = 6x +S
y = -
1
6
x -S
InStandardForm,ifyouaddtheproductof
thexcoefficientstotheproductofthey
coefficientsandgetzero.
Example: anu 4x +6y = 4
Sx -2y = S because(4 S) +(6 (-2)) = u
Also,ifonelineis misundefined)andonelineishorizontal(i.e.,m = u). vertical(i.e.,
Example: anu x = 6
y = S
-39-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
Parallel,PerpendicularorNeither
Thefollowingflowchartcanbeusedtodeterminewhetherapairoflinesareparallel,
perpendicular,orneither.

yes
yes
no
no
Arethe
slopesofthe
twolinesthe
same?
First,putbothlinesin:
y = mx +h form.
Isthe
productof
thetwo
slopes =1?
Result:The
linesare
neither.
Result:The
linesare
parallel.
Result:Thelines
are
perpendicular.
-40-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
Parallel,CoincidentorIntersecting
Thefollowingflowchartcanbeusedtodeterminewhetherapairoflinesareparallel,
coincident,orintersecting.Coincidentlinesarelinesthatarethesame,eventhoughtheymay
beexpresseddifferently.Technically,coincidentlinesarenotparallelbecauseparallellines
neverintersectandcoincidentlinesintersectatallpointsontheline.

Theintersectionofthetwolinesis:
Forintersectinglines,thepointofintersection.
Forparallellines,theemptyset,{ ].
Forcoincidentlines,allpointsontheline.

yes yes
no no
Arethe
slopesofthe
twolinesthe
same?
First,putbothlinesin:
y = mx +h form.
Arethey
interceptsof
thetwolines
thesame?
Result:The
linesare
coincident.
Result:The
linesare
parallel.
Result:The
linesare
intersecting.
-41-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
PropertiesofInequality

Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:

Property Definit on i
Addition
Property
I o < b, tbcn o +c < b +c
I o > b, tbcn o +c > b +c

Subtraction
Property
I o < b, tbcn o -c < b -c
I o > b, tbcn o -c > b -c

Multiplication
Property
Forc , > u
I o < b, tbcn o c < b c
I o > b, tbcn o c > b c
Forc , < u
o I < b, tbcn o c > b c
I o > b, tbcn o c < b c
Division
Property
For u c > ,
I o < b, tbcn o c < b c
I o > b, tbcn o c > b c
For u c < ,
I o < b, tbcn o c > b c
I o > b, tbcn o c < b c
Note:allpropertieswhichholdfor<alsoholdfor,andallpropertieswhichholdfor>
alsoholdfor.
Thereisnothingtoosurprisingintheseproperties.Themostimportantthingtobeobtained
fromthemcanbedescribedasfollows:Whenyoumultiplyordivideaninequalitybya
negativenumber,youmustflipthesign.Thatis,<becomes>,>becomes<,etc.
Inaddition,itisusefultonotethatyoucanfliparoundanentireinequalityaslongasyoukeep
thepointyp thesigndirectedatthesam .Examples: artof eitem
isthesameas x 4 > x < 4
Sx -2 < y isthesameas y > Sx -2
Onewaytorememberthis
isthatwhenyoufliparound
aninequality,youmustalso
fliparoundthesign.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GraphsofInequalitiesinOneDimension

Inequalitiesinonedimensionaregenerallygraphedonthenumberline.Alternatively,ifitis
clearthatthegraphisonedimensional,thegraphscanbeshowninrelationtoanumberline
butnotspecificallyonit(examplesofthisareonthenextpage).
OneDimensionalGraphComponents
Theendpoint(s)Theendpointsfortherayorsegmentinthegraphareshownaseither
openorclosedcircles.
o Ifthepointisincludedinthesolutiontotheinequality(i.e.,ifthesignisor),the
circleisclosed.
o Ifthepointisnotincludedinthesolutiontotheinequality(i.e.,ifthesignis<or>),
thecircleisopen.
ThearrowIfallnumbersinonedirectionofthenumberlinearesolutionstothe
inequality,anarrowpointsinthatdirection.
o For<orsigns,thearrowpointstotheleft().
o For>orsigns,thearrowpointstotheright().
Thelineinasimpleinequality,alineisdrawnfromtheendpointtothearrow.Ifthereare
twoendpoints,alineisdrawnfromonetotheother.
Examples:

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
CompoundInequalitiesinOneDimension

Compoundinequalitiesareasetofinequalitiesthatmustallbetrueatthesametime.Usually,
therearetwoinequalities,butmorethantwocanalsoformacompoundset.Theprinciples
describedbeloweasilyextendtocaseswheretherearemorethantwoinequalities.
CompoundInequalitieswiththeWordAND
Anexam n qualitieswiththe wouldbe: ple ofcompoundi e wordAND
x < 12 onJ x 2 or 2 x < 12
Thesearethesameconditions,
expressedintwodifferentforms.
(SimpleForm) (CompoundForm)
Graphically,ANDinequalitiesexistatpointswherethegraphsoftheindividualinequalities
overlap.Thisistheintersectionofthegraphsoftheindividualinequalities.Belowaretwo
examplesofgraphsofcompoundinequalitiesusingthewordAND.

AtypicalANDexample:Theresultisa
segmentthatcontainsthepointsthatoverlap
thegraphsoftheindividualinequalities.
ANDcompoundinequalitiessometimesresult
intheemptyset.Thishappenswhenno
numbersmeetbothconditionsatthesametime.
CompoundInequalitieswiththeWordOR
Graphically,ORinequalitiesexistatpointswhereanyoftheoriginalgraphshavepoints.This
istheunionofthegraphsoftheindividualinequalities.Belowaretwoexamplesofgraphsof
compoundinequalitiesusingthewordOR.

AtypicalORexample:Theresultisapairof
raysextendinginoppositedirections,witha
gapinbetween.
ORcompoundinequalitiessometimesresultin
thesetofallnumbers.Thishappenswhenevery
numbermeetsatleastoneoftheconditions.

-44-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
InequalitiesinTwoDimensions
Graphinganinequalityintwodimensionsinvolvesthefollowingsteps:
Graphtheunderlyingequation.
Makethelinesolidordottedbasedonwhethertheinequalitycontainsan=sign.
o Forinequalitieswith<or>thelineisdotted.
o Forinequalitieswithorthelineissolid.
Determinewhethertheregioncontainingthesolutionsetisabovethelineorbelowthe
line.
o Forinequalitieswith>ortheshadedregionisabovetheline.
o Forinequalitieswith<ortheshadedregionisbelowtheline.
Shadeintheappropriateregion.
Example:
Graphthesolutionsetofthefollowingsystemofinequality: 1
Step1:Graphtheunderlying
equation.
Step2:Determinewhethertheline
idordotted: shouldbesol
1 the>signdoesnot
contain=,sothelineisdotted
Step3:Determinetheregiontobe
shadedbasedonthesigninthe
equation:
1 the>signindicates
shadingabovetheline

Thesolutionsetistheshadedarea.

-45-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GraphsofInequalitiesinTwoDimensions

Lexx Than (<)

DashedLine
BelowtheLine
6reater Than (>)
DashedLine
AbovetheLine
Lexx Than ur Fqua| ()
SolidLine
BelowtheLine
6reater Than ur Fqua| ()
SolidLine
AbovetheLine
-46-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
AbsoluteValueFunctions

Equations
GraphsofequationsinvolvingabsolutevaluesgenerallyhaveaVpattern.Wheneveryousee
aVinagraph,thinkabsolutevalue.Ageneralequationforanabsolutevaluefunctionisof
theform:
y = |m(x -h)| +k ur y = -|m(x -h)| +k
where,
the sign inuicates whethei the giaph opens up (+ sign) oi uown (- sign).
|m|istheabsolutevalueoftheslopesofthelinesinthegraph.
(h,k)isthelocationofthevertex(i.e.,thesharppoint)inthegraph.

Examples:

Equation: y = |x -1| +2
veitex = (1, 2)
m = 1; |slopes| = 1
uiaph opens up
Equation: y = |-2(x + 1)| - S
veitex = (-1, -S)
m = -2; |slopes| = 2
uiaph opens up
Equation: y = -
4
3
[x -
3
2
+ S
veitex = (
3
2
, S)
m =
4
3
; |slopes| =
4
3

uiaph opens uown
-47-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
AbsoluteValueFunctions(contd)

Inequalities
Sinceapositivenumberandanegativenumbercanhavethesameabsolutevalue,inequalities
involvingabsolutevaluesmustbebrokenintotwoseparateequations.Forexample:
x -S < 4
Thefirstnewequationissimplytheoriginal
equationwithouttheabsolutevaluesign.
|x -S| < 4
Note:theEnglishispoor,butthemath
iseasiertorememberwiththistrick!
Equation1
Solve: 4 x - S <
Step1:Add3 +S + S
Result: x < 7
Equation2
Solve: x - S > -4
Step1:Add3 +S + S
Result: x > -1
x -S > (-4)

Signthatdetermines
useofANDorOR
Inthesecondnewequation,twothings
change:(1)thesignflips,and(2)thevalueon
therightsideoftheinequalitychangesitssign.
Atthispointtheabsolutevalueproblemhasconvertedintoapairofcompoundinequalities.
Next,weneedtoknowwhethertouseANDorORwiththeresults.Todecidewhichword
touse,lookatthesignintheinequality;then
UsethewordANDwithlessthandsigns.
UsethewordORwithgreatorsigns.
Thesolutiontotheaboveabsolutevalueproblem,then,isthesameasthesolutiontothe
followin t alities: g se ofcompound inequ
x < 7 onJ x > (-1) Thesolutionsetisallxintherange(1,7)

Note:thesolutionsettothisexampleisgiveninrangenotation.Whenusingthisnotation,
useparentheses()wheneveranendpointisnotincludedinthesolutionset,and
usesquarebrackets[]wheneveranendpoint dinthesolutionset. isinclude
Alwaysuseparentheses()withinfinitysigns(- or ).
Therange:x < 6 x 2 onJ
Notation:|2, 6)
Therange:x -2
Notation:(-, -2]
Examples:

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SystemsofEquations
Asystemofequationsisasetof2ormoreequationsforwhichwewishtodetermineall
solutionswhichsatisfyeachequation.Generally,therewillbethesamenumberofequations
asvariablesandasinglesolutiontoeachvariablewillbesought.However,sometimesthereis
eithernosolutionorthereisaninfinitenumberofsolutions.

Therearemanymethodsavailabletosolveasystemofequations.Wewillshowthreeofthem
below.

GraphingaSolution
Inthesimplestcases,asetof2equationsin2unknownscanbesolvedusingagraph.Asingle
equationintwounknownsisaline,sotwoequationsgiveus2lines.Thefollowingsituations
arepossiblewith2lines:
Theywillintersect.Inthiscase,thepointofintersectionistheonlysolution.
Theywillbethesameline.Inthiscase,allpointsonthelinearesolutions(note:thisis
aninfiniteset).
Theywillbeparallelbutnotthesameline.Inthiscase,therearenosolutions.
Examples

SolutionSet:
Allpointsontheline.
Althoughtheequationslook
different,theyactually
describethesameline.

SolutionSet:
Thepointofintersection
canbereadoffthegraph;
thepoint(2,0).

SolutionSet:
Theemptyset;
theseparallellines
willnevercross.
-49-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SystemsofEquations(contd)
SubstitutionMethod
IntheSubstitutionMethod,weeliminateoneofthevariablesbysubstitutingintooneofthe
equationsitsequivalentintermsoftheothervariable.Thenwesolveforeachvariableinturn
andchecktheresult.Thesteps sareillustratedintheexamplebelow. inthisproces
Example:Solveforxandyif: y = -x +2
and:2x = 3y +9.

Step1:Reviewthetwoequations.Lookforavariablethatcanbesubstitutedfromone
equationintotheother.Inthisexample,weseeasingleyinthefirstequation;thisisaprime
candidateforsubstitution.
Wewillsubstitute(-x +2)fromthefirstequationforyinthesecondequation.
Step2: substitution. Performthe
2x = 3y +9becomes:2x = 3(-x +2) +9
Step3: l e uationforthesinglev e t. So vetheresulting q ariabl thatis lef
+9 x +15 2x = 3(-x +2) 2x = -3
9 5 2x = -3x + + 5x = 1
2x = -3x +15 x = 3
Step4:Substitutetheknownvariableintooneoftheoriginalequationstosolveforthe
remaini
Afterthisstep,thesolutionistentativelyidentifiedas:
x = 3, y = -1,meaningthepoint(3,1).
ngvariable.
y = -x +2
) +2 y = -(3
y = -1
Step5:ChecktheresultbysubstitutingthesolutionintotheequationnotusedinStep4.Ifthe
solutioniscorrect,theresultshouldbeatruestatement.Ifitisnot,youhavemadeamistake
andshould o rworkcarefully. checky u
y 2x = 3 +9
) +9 2(3) = 3(-1
= -3 +9

Sincethisisatruemathematical
statement,thesolution(3,1)can
beacceptedascorrect.
-50-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SystemsofEquations(contd)
EliminationMethod
IntheSubstitutionMethod,wemanipulateoneorbothoftheequationssothatwecanadd
themandeliminateoneofthevariables.Thenwesolveforeachvariableinturnandcheckthe
result.Thisisanoutstandingmethodforsystemsofequationswithuglycoefficients.The
stepsinthisprocessareillustratedintheexamplebelow.Notetheflowofthesolutiononthe
page.
Example:Solveforxandyif: y = -x +2
and:2x = 3y +9.

Step6:Checktheresultbysubstituting
thesolutionintotheequationnotusedin
Step5.Ifthesolutioniscorrect,the
resultshouldbeatruestatement.Ifitis
not,youhavemadeamistakeandshould
checkyourwork.

x
2x -3y = 9
+ y = 2
Step1:Rewritetheequationsin
standardform.
Step2: Multiplyeachequationbyavalue
selectedsothat,whentheequationsareadded,
avariablewillbeeliminated.
(Multiplyby2) 2x +2y = 4
(Multiplyby1) -2x +3y = -9
Step5:Substitutetheresultinto
oneoftheoriginalequationsand
solvefortheothervariable.
y = -x +2
-1 = -x +2
x -1 = 2
x = 3
2x +2y = 4
0 -2x+

3y=-9
5y = -5
Step3: Addtheresultingequations.
5y = -5
y = -1
Step4: Solveforthevariable.
2x = 3y +9
2(3 9 ) = 3(-1) +
= -3 +9
Sincethisisatruemathematicalstatement,the
solution(3,1)canbeacceptedascorrect.
-51-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SystemsofEquations(contd)
ClassificationofSystems
Therearetwomainclassificationsofsystemsofequations:Consistentvs.Inconsistent,and
Dependentvs.Independent.
Consistentvs.Inconsistent
ConsistentSystemshaveoneormoresolutions.
InconsistentSystemshavenosolutions.Whenyoutrytosolveaninconsistentsetof
equations,youoftengettoapointwhereyouhaveanimpossiblestatement,suchas
1 = 2.Thisindicatesthatthereisnosolutiontothesystem.
Dependentvs.Independent
LinearlyDependentSystemshaveaninfinitenumberofsolutions.InLinearAlgebra,a
systemislinearlydependentifthereisasetofrealnumbers(notallzero)that,when
theyaremultipliedbytheequationsinthesystemandtheresultsareadded,thefinal
resultiszero.
LinearlyIndependentSystemshaveatmostonesolution.InLinearAlgebra,asystemis
linearlyindependentifitisnotlinearlydependent.Note:sometextbooksindicatethat
anindependentsystemmusthaveasolution.Thisisnotcorrect;theycanhaveno
solutions(seethemiddleexamplebelow).Formoreonthis,seethenextpage.
Examples

OneSolution
Consistent
Independent
NoSolution
Inconsistent
Independent
InfiniteSolutions
Consistent
Dependent

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ADVANCED
Algebra
LinearDependence
o

n
=1
= u
LineardependenceisaconceptfromLinearAlgebra,andisveryusefulindeterminingif
solutionstocomplexsystemsofequationsexist.Essentially,asystemoffunctions
|
isdefined
to e ofrealnumbersa
|
(notallzero) suchthat: belinearlydepend ntifthereis aset ,
o
1

1
+o
2

2
+o
3

3
+ +o
n

n
= uor,insummationnotation,
Ifthereisnosetofrealnumbersa
|
,suchthattheaboveequationsaretrue,thesystemissaid
tobelinearlyin e e n . d p nde t
Theexpressiono
1

1
+o
2

2
++o
n

n
iscalledalinearcombinationofthefunctions

.The
importanceoftheconceptoflineardependenceliesintherecognitionthatadependent
systemisredundant,i.e.,thesystemcanbedefinedwithfewerequations.Itisusefultonote
thatalinearlydependentsystemofequationshasadeterminantofcoefficientsequalto0.
Example:
Considerthefo w ions: llo ingsystemofequat

1
= 3x -2y +z +1
-2
Noticethat:
3
=
1
+2
2
.
Therefore,thesystemislinearly
dependent.

2
= -x +y +2z

3
= x +5z -3
Check th th coeffi nt atrix: ing edeterminantof e cie m
= _
S -2 1
-1 1 2
1 u S
_ = 1
-2 1
1 2
- u
S 1
-1 2
+ S
S -2
-1 1
= 1(-S) +u(7) +S(1) = u.
ItshouldbenotedthatthefactthatB = u issufficienttoprovelineardependenceonlyifthere
arenoconstanttermsinthefunctions(e.g.,iftheprobleminvolvesvectors).Ifthereare
constantterms,itisalsonecessarythatthesetermscombineproperly.Thereareadditional
techniquestotestthis,suchastheuseofaugmentedmatricesandGaussJordanElimination.
MuchofLinearAlgebraconcernsitselfwithsetsofequationsthatarelinearlyindependent.If
thedeterminantofthecoefficientmatrixisnonzero,thenthesetofequationsislinearly
independent.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SystemsofInequalitiesinTwoDimensions
Systemsofinequalitiesaresetsofmorethanoneinequality.Tographasystemofinequalities,
grapheachinequalityseparately(includingshadingintheappropriateregion).Thesolutionset,
then,iseithertheoverlapoftheregionsoftheseparateinequalities(ANDSystems)orthe
unionoftheregionsoftheseparateinequalities(ORSystems).

Examples:
Graphth tofthe emofinequa esolutionse followingsyst lities:
(a) y 2x -SANDy > -x +1 (b)y 2x -SORy > -x +1

Step1:Graphtheunderlyingequations.
Step2:Determinewhethereachlineshouldbe
solidordotted:
y 2x -Sthesigncontains=,sothe
lineissolid
y > -x +1the>signdoesnotcontain=,
sothelineisdotted
Step netheregionstobeshadedbasedonthesignsintheequations: 3:Determi
thesignindicatesshadingbelowtheline y 2x -S
y > -x +1the>signindicatesshadingabovetheline
Step4:Determinethefinalsolutionset.
(a) IftheproblemhasanANDbetween
theinequalities,thesolutionsetisthe
overlapoftheshadedareas(i.e.,the
greenpartinthegraphbelow).
(b) IftheproblemhasanORbetween
theinequalities,thesolutionsetisthe
unionofalloftheshadedareas(i.e.,
thebluepartinthegraphbelow).

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra Algebra
ParametricEquations ParametricEquations
ParametricEquationsin2dimensionsarefunctionsthatexpresseachofthetwokeyvariables
intermsofaoneormoreothers.Forexa
ParametricEquationsin2dimensionsarefunctionsthatexpresseachofthetwokeyvariables
intermsofaoneormoreothers.Forexample, mple,
x = -t +1
y = 2t -3
x = -t +1
y = 2t -3
Parametricequationsaresometimesthemostusefulwaytosolveaproblem. Parametricequationsaresometimesthemostusefulwaytosolveaproblem.
PythagoreanTriples PythagoreanTriples
Asa xample,thefollowingparametricequationscanbeusedtofindPythagoreanTriples: Asa xample,thefollowingparametricequationscanbeusedtofindPythagoreanTriples: n e
Letx, tberelativelyprimeintegersandletx > t.Then,thefollowingequationsproduceaset
ofintegervaluesthatsatisf
n e
Letx, tberelativelyprimeintegersandletx > t.Then,thefollowingequationsproduceaset
ofintegervaluesthatsatisf ythePythagorean Theorem:
a = x
2
-t
2
h = 2xt c = x
2
+t
2

ythePythagorean Theorem:
a = x
2
-t
2
h = 2xt c = x
2
+t
2

Examples: Examples:
s s t t a a b b c c Pytha r nship Pytha r nship go eanRelatio go eanRelatio
3 2 5 12 13 S
2
+12
2
= 1S
2

4 3 7 24 25 7
2
24
2
2S
2
+ =
5 2 21 20 29 21
2
+2u
2
= 29
2

5 3 16 30 34 16
2
+Su
2
= S4
2

CreatingaStandardEquationfromParametricEquations
Tocreateastandardequationfromasetof
parametricequationsintwodimensions,
Example:Createastandardequationforthe
parametr e ic quations:
r inthe ,weget
x = -t +1 y = 2t -3 x = -t +1 y = 2t -3
Solvingfo t : firstequation
t = -x +1 t = -x +1
Substituting tiongives: intothesecondequa
ion
y = 2(-x +1) -3 y = 2(-x +1) -3
Cleaningthisup, weseek: seek: wegetthesolut
y = -2x -1 y = -2x -1
Solveoneparametricequationfort.
Substitutethisvalueoftintotheother
equation.
Cleanuptheremainingexpressionas
necessary.
Note:anyothermethodofsolving
simultaneousequationscanalsobeusedfor
thispurpose.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ExponentFormulas
Word Description
of Property
Math Description
of Property
Limitations
on variables
Examples
Product of Powers
a
)

4 3 7

x
5
x
-8
= x
-3

p
a
q
= a
(p+q

x x = x
Quotient of Powers
a
p
a
q
= a
(p-q)

a =
y
5
y
2
= y
3

Power of a Power
(a
p
)
q
= a
(pq


(z
4
)
3
= z
(x
-3
)
-5 15

)
12
= x
Anything to the zero power is 1
a

= 1 a =
91

= 1
(xyz
3
)

= 1, ifx, y, = z
Negative powers generate the
a
(-p)
=
a
p
reciprocal of what a positive
power generates
1

a =
x
(-3
3
)
=
x
1

_
1
x
]
-5
= x
5

Power of a product (a h)
p
= a
p
h
p

(3y)
3
= 27y
3

|(x +1)z]
4
= ( )
4
z
4
x +1
Power of a quotient [
a
h

p
=
a
p
h
p


[
x
4
h =

3
=
x
3
4

Converting a root to a power
a
n
= a
(
1
n
, )

n =
x = x
1
2
,

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ScientificNotation

Format
Anumberinscientificnotationhastwoparts:
Anumberwhichisatleast1andislessthan10(i.e.,itmusthaveonlyonedigitbefore
thedecimalpoint).Thisnumberiscalledthecoefficient.
Apowerof10whichismultipliedbythefirstnumber.
Herearea fregular scientificn i fewexampleso
S
numbersexpressedin
u.u .
-4

otat on.
= 1 S2 = .2 x 1u
1

1,42u,uuu = 1.42 x 1u
6

uuS4 = S 4 x 1u
1uuu = 1 x 1u
3

1 x 1u
0

-4Su = -4.S x 1u
2

Howmanydigits?Howmanyzeroes?
Thereareacoupleofsimplerulesforconvertingfromscientificnotationtoaregularnumberor
forconvertingfromaregularnumbertoscientificnotation:
Ifaregularnumberislessthan1,theexponentof10inscientificnotationisnegative.
Thenumberofleadingzeroesintheregularnumberisequaltotheabsolutevalueof
thisexponent.Inapplyingthisrule,youmustcountthezerobeforethedecimalpointin
theregularnumber.Examples:
OriginalNumber Action Conversion
0.00034 Count4zeroes 3.4x10
4

6.234x10
8
Add8zeroesbeforethedigits 0.00000006234
Ifthenumberisgreaterthan1,thenumberofdigitsafterthefirstoneintheregular
numberisequaltotheexponentof10inthescientificnotation.
OriginalNumber Action Conversion
4,800,000 Count6digitsafterthe4 4.8x10
6

9.6x10
3
Add3digitsafterthe9 9,600
Asageneralrule,multiplyingbypowersof10movesthedecimalpointoneplacefor
eachpowerof10.
o Multiplyingbypositivepowersof10movesthedecimaltotheright.
o Multiplyingbynegativepowersof10movesthedecimaltotheleft.
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Algebra
AddingandSubtractingwithScientificNotation
Whenaddingorsubtractingnumbersinscientificnotation:
Adjustthenumberssotheyhavethesamepowerof10.Thisworksbestifyouadjust
therepresentationofthesmallernumbersothatithasthesamepowerof10asthe
largernumber.Todothis:
o Callthedifferencebetweentheexponentsof10inthetwonumbersn.
o Raisethepowerof10ofthesmallernumberbyn,and
o Movethedecimalpointofthecoefficientofthesmallernumbernplacesto
theleft.
Addthecoefficients,keepingthepowerof10unchanged.
Iftheresultisnotinscientificnotation,adjustitsothatitis.
o Ifthecoefficientisatleast1andlessthan10,theanswerisinthecorrectform.
o Ifthecoefficientis10orgreater,increasetheexponentof10by1andmovethe
decimalpointofthecoefficientonespacetotheleft.
o Ifthecoefficientislessthan1,decreasetheexponentof10by1andmovethe
decimalpointofthecoefficientonespacetotheright.
Examples:
S.2 x 1u
3
u.S2 x 1u
4
+9.9 x 1u
4
+9 9 . u x 1u
4

10. 22 x 1u
4
= 1.u22 x 1u
5

Explanation:Aconversionofthesmaller
numberisrequiredpriortoaddingbecausethe
exponentsofthetwonumbersaredifferent.
Afteradding,theresultisnolongerinscientific
notation,soanextrastepisneededtoconvertit
intotheappropriateformat.

6.1 x 1u
-2
6.1 x 1u
-2
+2.S x 1u
-2
+2 .S x 1u
-2
8. 4 x 1u
-2

1.2 x 1u
-8
1.2u x 1u
-8

-4.S x 1u
-9
-u.4S x 1u
-8

8
u.7S x 1u
-
= 7.S x 1u
-9

Explanation:Noconversionisnecessary
becausetheexponentsofthetwonumbersare
thesame.Afteradding,theresultisinscientific
notation,sonoadditionalstepsarerequired.
Explanation:Aconversionofthesmaller
numberisrequiredpriortosubtractingbecause
theexponentsofthetwonumbersaredifferent.
Aftersubtracting,theresultisnolongerin
scientificnotation,soanextrastepisneededto
convertitintotheappropriateformat.
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Algebra
MultiplyingandDividingwithScientificNotation

Whenmultiplyingordividingnumbersinscientificnotation:
Multiplyordividethecoefficients.
Multiplyordividethepowersof10.Rememberthatthismeansaddingorsubtracting
theexponentswhilekeepingthebaseof10unchanged.
o Ifyouaremultiplying,addtheexponentsof10.
o Ifyouaredividing,subtracttheexponentsof10.
Iftheresultisnotinscientificnotation,adjustitsothatitis.
o Ifthecoefficientisatleast1andlessthan10,theanswerisinthecorrectform.
o Ifthecoefficientis10orgreater,increasetheexponentof10by1andmovethe
decimalpointofthecoefficientonespacetotheleft.
o Ifthecoefficientislessthan1,decreasetheexponentof10by1andmovethe
decimalpointofthecoefficientonespacetotheright.
Examples:
4 x 1u
6

S x 1u
-4

Explanation:Thecoefficientsaremultipliedand
theexponentsareadded.Aftermultiplying,the
resultisnolongerinscientificnotation,soan
extrastepisneededtoconvertitintothe
appropriateformat.
2u x 1u
2

= 2.u x 1u
3

1.2 x 1u
-2
2.u x 1u
-6

2. 4 x 1u
-8

Explanation:Thecoefficientsaremultipliedand
theexponentsareadded.Aftermultiplying,the
resultisinscientificnotation,sonoadditional
stepsarerequired.

S.S x 1u
4

Explanation:Thecoefficientsaredividedand
theexponentsaresubtracted.Afterdividing,
theresultisnolongerinscientificnotation,so
anextrastepisneededtoconvertitintothe
appropriateformat.
S.S x 1u
-
u.6 x 1u
6
= 6.u x 1u
5

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
IntroductiontoPolynomials

WhatisaPolynomial?
Apolynomialisanexpressionthatcanbewrittenasatermorasumofterms,eachofwhichis
theproductofascalar(thecoefficient)andaseriesofvariables.Eachofthetermsisalsocalled
amonomial.
Examples(allofthesearepolynomials):
Monomial Sx -4x
12
y
3

Binomial 2x +8 1 Sxyz
7
-12xyz
Trinomial x
2
-6x +9 x
5
+7x
4
-Sx
3

Other x
4
-4x
3
+6x
2
-4x +1 -2xyz +6xz
2
+Syz -8xz +2z
5

Definitions:
Scalar:Arealnumber.
Monomial:Polynomialwithoneterm.
Binomial:Polynomialwithtwoterms.
Trinomial:Polynomialwiththreeterms.

DegreeofaPolynomial
Thedegreeofamonomialisthesumoftheexponentsonitsvariables.
Thedegreeofapolynomialisthehighestdegreeofanyofitsmonomialterms.
Examples:
Polynomial Degree P a olynomi l Degree
6 u Sx
3
yz +6x
2
yz
3
6
Sx 1 1Sxy z
7
-12xyz 9
Sxyz S x
5
+7x
4
-Sx
3
S

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
AddingandSubtractingPolynomials

Problemsaskingthestuden writteninlinearform: ttoaddorsubtractpolynomialsareoften

Auu: (Sx
3
+2x -4) +(-2x
2
+4x +6)
Theproblemismuchmoreeasilysolvediftheproblemiswrittenincolumnform,witheach
polynomialwritteninstandardform.
Definitions
StandardForm:Apolynomialinstandardformhasitstermswrittenfromhighestdegreeto
lowestdegreefromlefttoright.
Example:Thestandardformof(x +Sx
2
+4)is(Sx
2
+x +4)
LikeTerms:Termswiththesamevariablesraisedtothesamepowers.Onlythenumerical
coefficientsaredifferent.
Example:2xz
5
,-6xz
5
,andxz
5
areliketerms.
AdditionandSubtractionSteps
Step1:Writeeachpolynomialinstandardform.Leaveblankspacesformissingterms.For
example,ifadding(Sx
3
+2x -4),leavespaceforthemissingx
2
term.
Step2:Ifyouaresubtracting,changethesignofeachtermofthepolynomialtobesubtracted
andaddinstead.Addingismucheasierthansubtracting.
Step3:Placethepolynomialsincolumnform,beingcarefultolineupliketerms.
Step4:Addthepolynomials.
Examples:

Add: (Sx
3
+ 2x - 4) + (-2x
2
+ 4x + 6)
Sx
3
+2x -4
+ -2x
2
+4x +6
Sx
3
-2x
2
+6x +2
Subtrat:
Solution:
(Sx
3
+ 2x - 4) - (-2x
2
+ 4x + 6)
Sx
3
+2x -4
+

2x
2
-4x -6
Sx
3
+2x
2
-2x -1u

Solution:
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
MultiplyingBinomials

Thethreemethodsshownbelowareequivalent.Usewhicheveroneyoulikebest.
FOILMethod
FOILstandsforFirst,Outside,Inside,Last.TomultiplyusingtheFOILmethod,youmakefour
separatemultiplicat a lts. ionsand ddtheresu
Example:Mult y (Sx -4) ipl (2x +S)
First:
(2x +S) (Sx x +9x -12 -4) = 6x
2
-8
= 6x
2
+x -12
Theresultisobtainedbyaddingtheresultsof
the4separatemultiplications.
FOIL
2x Sx = 6x
2

Outside: 8x 2x (-4) = -
Inside: = 9 S (Sx) x
Last: S (-4) = -12

BoxMethod
TheBoxMethodisprettymuchthesameastheFOILmethod,exceptforthepresentation.In
theboxmethod,a2x2arrayofmultiplicationsiscreated,the4multiplicationsareperformed,
andtheresultsarea dded.
Example:Multiply(2x +S) (Sx -4)
Multiply
3x -4
2x 6 x
2
-8x
+3 9x -12
(2x +S) (Sx x +9x -12 -4) = 6x
2
-8
= 6x
2
+x -12
Theresult isobtainedbyaddingtheresultsof
the4separatemultiplications.

StackedPolynomialMethod

(2x +S)
( Sx -4)
-12 -8x
6x
2
+9x
6x
2
+ x -12
Athirdmethodistomultiplythebinomials
likeyouwouldmultiply2digitnumbers.
Thenamecomesfromhowthetwo
polynomialsareplacedinastackin
preparationformultiplication.
Example:Multiply(2x +S) (Sx -4)
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
MultiplyingPolynomials

Ifthepolynomialstobemultipliedcontainmorethantwoterms(i.e.,theyarelargerthan
binomials),theFOILMethodwillnotwork.Instead,eithertheBoxMethodortheStacked
PolynomialMethodshouldbeused.Noticethateachofthesemethodsisessentiallyawayto
applythedistributivepropertyofmultiplicationoveraddition.

Themethodsshownbelowareequivalent.Usewhicheveroneyoulikebest.

BoxMethod
TheBoxMethodisthesameforlargerpolynomialsasitisforbinomials,excepttheboxis
bigger.Anarrayofmultiplicationsiscreated;themultiplicationsareperformed;andliketerms
areadded.
Example:Multiply(x
3
-2x
2
+2x +S) (2x
2
-Sx -4)
Mu ply lti
2x
2
-3x -4
x
3
2x
5
-Sx
4
-4x
3
- 2x
2
-4x
4
+6x
3
+ 8x
2
+2x +4x
3
- 6x
2
-8x
+3 +6x
2
-9x -12
(x
3
- -4) 2x
2
+2x +S) (2x
2
-Sx
=
5
2x
4
-4x
4
-Sx

3
+ 6x +4x
3
- 4x
3

+6x
2
-6x
2
+8x
2
-9x -8x
Results:

StackedPolynomialMethod

Results:
x
3
-2x
2
+2x +S
-S 2x
2
x -4
-12 - 4x
3
+8x
2
-8x
-6 -9x -Sx
4
+ 6x
3
x
2
+ 4x 2x
5
-4x
4 3
+6x
2
2x
5
-7x
4
+6x
3
+8x
2
-17x -12
IntheStackedPolynomialMethod,the
polynomialsaremultipliedusingthesame
techniquetomultiplymultidigitnumbers
Onehelpfultipistoplacethesmaller
polynomialbelowthelargeroneinthe
stack.
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Algebra Algebra
DividingPolynomials DividingPolynomials

Dividingpolynomialsisperformedmuchlikedividinglargenumberslonghand. Dividingpolynomialsisperformedmuchlikedividinglargenumberslonghand.
LongDivisionMethod LongDivisionMethod
Thisproce Thisprocessisbestdescribedbyexample:
Example:(2x
3
+Sx
2
+x -2) (x +2)
ssisbestdescribedbyexample:
Example:(2x
3
+Sx
2
+x -2) (x +2)
x +22x
3
+Sx
2
+x -2
2x
2
x +22x
3
+Sx
2
+x -2
2x
2
x +2 +x -2 2x
3
+Sx
2
2x
3
+4x
2

x
2
+x -2
2x
2
+x -1
x +2 +x -2 2x
3
+Sx
2
2x
3
+4x
2

2
Step1:Setupthedivisionlikeatypicallonghand
divisionproblem.
Step1:Setupthedivisionlikeatypicallonghand
divisionproblem.
Step2:Dividetheleadingtermofthedividendby
theleadingtermofthedivisor.Placetheresult
flikedegreeofthedividend.
Step2:Dividetheleadingtermofthedividendby
theleadingtermofthedivisor.Placetheresult
flikedegreeofthedividend. above thetermo
(2x
3
) x = 2x
2

above thetermo
(2x
3
) x = 2x
2

Step3:Multiplythenewtermontopbythedivisor
andsubtractfrom
Step3:Multiplythenewtermontopbythedivisor
andsubtractfromthedividend.
(2x
2
)(x +2) = 2x
3
+4x
2

thedividend.
(2x
2
)(x +2) = 2x
3
+4x
2

Step4:Repeatsteps2and3ontheremainderof
thedivisionuntiltheproblemiscompleted.
Step4:Repeatsteps2and3ontheremainderof
thedivisionuntiltheproblemiscompleted.
x
2
+x -
x
2
+
Thisprocessresultsinthefinalanswerappearing
a
Thisprocessresultsinthefinalanswerappearing
a
2x

bovethedividend,sothat:
(2x
3
+Sx
2
+x -2) (x +2) = 2x
2
+x -1
bovethedividend,sothat:
(2x
3
+Sx
2
+x -2) (x +2) = 2x
2
+x -1
-x -2
-x - 2
u
r
u
Remainders Remainders
Iftherewerearemainder,itwouldbeappendedto
theresultoftheproblemintheformofafraction,justlikewhendividingintegers.Fo
example,intheproblemabove,iftheremainderwere3,thefraction
3
x+2
Iftherewerearemainder,itwouldbeappendedto
theresultoftheproblemintheformofafraction,justlikewhendividingintegers.For
example,intheproblemabove,iftheremainderwere3,thefraction
3
x+2
wouldbeaddedto
theresultofthedivision.(2x
3
+Sx
2
+x +1) (x +2) = 2x
2
+x -1 +
3
x+2

Alternatives
Thisprocesscanbetedious.Fortunately,therearebettermethodsfordividingpolynomials
thanlongdivision.TheseincludeFactoring,whichisdiscussednextandelsewhereinthis
Guide,andSyntheticDivision,whichisdiscussedinthechapteronPolynomialsIntermediate.
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Algebra
FactoringPolynomials

Polynomialscannotbedividedinthesamewaynumberscan.Inordertodividepolynomials,it
isoftenusefultofactorthemfirst.Factoringinvolvesextractingsimplertermsfromthemore
complexpolynomial.
GreatestCommonFactor
TheGreatestCommonFactorofthetermsofapolynomialisdeterminedasfollows:
Step1:FindtheGreatestCommonFactorofthecoefficients.
Step2:FindtheGreatestCommonFactorforeachvariable.Thisissimplyeachvariabletaken
tothelowestpowerthatexistsforthatvariableinanyoftheterms.
Step3:MultiplytheGCFofthecoefficientsbytheGCFforeachvariable.
uCF (18, 42, Su) = 6
)
3
uCF (x
5
, x
3
, x
8
= x
uCF (y
6
, y
7
, 1) = 1
uCF (z, z
3
, z
6
) = z
So,uCF (polynomial) = 6x
3
z
Example:
FindtheGCFof(18x
5
y
6
z +42x
3
y
7
z
3
+Sux
8
z
6
)
TheGCFofthecoefficientsandeachvariableareshown
intheboxtotheright.TheGCFofthepolynomialisthe
productofthefourindividualGCFs.
FactoringSteps
Step1:FactoroutofalltermstheGCFofthepolynomial.
Note:Typicallyonly
steps1and2are
neededinhighschool
algebraproblems.
Step2:Factoroutoftheremainingpolynomialanybinomialsthatcanbe
extracted.
Step3:Factoroutoftheremainingpolynomialanytrinomialsthatcan
beextracted.
Step4:Continuethisprocessuntilnofurthersimplificationispossible.
Examples:
Factor:
2
y Sx
4
y -18x
3
y + 27x

2
+ 9) = Sx
2
y (x - 6x
= Sx
2
y (x - S)
2

Thefactoringofthebluetrinomial(2
nd
line)into
thesquareofabinomialistheresultof
recognizingthespecialformitrepresents.Special
formsareshownonthenexttwopages.
Factor:
3
6x
3
y
3
- 24xy

2
= 6xy
3
(x - 4)
= 6xy
3
(x + 2)(x - 2)
Thefactoringofthebluebinomial(2
nd
line)into
binomialsoflowerdegreeistheresultof
recognizingthespecialformitrepresents.Special
formsareshownonthenexttwopages.

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Algebra
SpecialFormsofQuadraticFunctions

Itishelpfultobeabletorecognizeacouplespecialformsofquadraticfunctions.Inparticular,
ifyoucanrecognizeperfectsquaresanddifferencesofsquares,yourworkwillbecomeeasier
andmoreaccurate.
PerfectSquares
Perfectsquaresareoftheform: a
2
+2ah +h
2
= (a + h)
2
a
2
-2ah +h
2
= (a - h)
2

IdentificationandSolution
Thefollowingstepsallowthestudenttoidentifyandsolveatrinomialthatisaperfectsquare:
Step1:Noticethefirsttermofthetrinomialisasquare.Takeitssquareroot.
Step2:Noticethelasttermofthetrinomialisasquare.Takeitssquareroot.
Step3:Multiplytheresultsofthefirst2stepsanddoublethatproduct.Iftheresultisthe
middletermofthetrinomial,theexpressionisaperfectsquare.
Step4:Thebinomialinthesolutionisthesumordifferenceofthesquarerootscalculatedin
steps1and2.Thesignbetweenthetermsofthebinomialisthesignofthemiddle
termofthetrinomial.

4x
2
12xy + 9y
2

Example:

4x
2
= _2x9y
2
= _3y
Noticethatthemiddletermisdoubletheproduct
ofthetwosquareroots(2xand3y).Thisisa
telltalesignthattheexpressionisaperfectsquare.

Identifythetrinomialasaperfectsquare:
the ofthefirstandlast rms.Theyare2xandSy. Take squareroots te
Testthemiddleterm.Multiplytherootsfromthepreviousstep,thendoubletheresult:
(2x Sy) 2 = 12xy.Theresult(witha-signinfront)isthemiddletermofthe
originaltrinomial.Therefore,theexpressionisaperfectsquare.
Toexpressthetrinomialasthesquareofabinomial:
Thesquarerootsofthefirstandlastterms(2xandSy)make thebinomialweseek. up
Wemaychoosethe gnofthefirstterm,soletsc oosethe+sign. si h
Havingchosenthe+signforthefirstterm,thesecondtermofthebinomialtakesthe
signofthemiddleterm trinomial refore,theresultis: oftheoriginal (-).The
4x
2
-12xy +9y
2
= (2x -3y)
2

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Algebra
SpecialFormsofQuadraticFunctions
DifferencesofSquares
Differencesofsquaresareoftheform: a
2
-h
2
= (a +h) (a -h)
Thesearemucheasiertorecognizethantheperfectsquaresbecausethereisnomiddleterm
tocons is ider.Noticewhythere nomiddleterm:
(a + h) (a - h) = a
2
+ah -ah -h
2
= a
2
-h
2

thesetwo
termscancel
Identification
Toseeifanexpressionisadifferenceofsquares,youmustansweryestofourquestions:
1. Arethereonlytwoterms?
2. Istherea-signbetweenthetwoterms?
3. Isthefirsttermasquare?Ifso,takeitssquareroot.
4. Isthesecondtermasquare?Ifso,takeitssquareroot.
Thesolutionistheproductofa)thesumofthesquarerootsinquestions3and4,andb)the
differenceofthesquarerootsinsteps3and4.
Note:Atelltalesignofwhenanexpressionmightbethedifferenceof2squaresiswhenthe
coefficientsonthevariablesaresquares:1,4,9,16,25,36,49,64,81,etc.
Examples:
(1) x 2x -5y) 4
2
-25y
2
= (2x +5y) (

(2) -4 = x +7 x -7 x
2
9 ( ) ( )
(3) 1 9
2
( z) ( ) 8 - z = 9 +3 9 -3z
(4)
x
2
9

-
y
2
1
= [
x
3
+
y
4
[
x
3
-
y
4

a
2
+h
2
= (a +h|) (a -h|)
ADVANCED:Overthefieldofcomplexnumbers,itisalsopossibletofactorthesumof2squares:
Thisisnotpossibleoverthefieldofrealnumbers.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
coefficient
ofx
sign1 sign2
constant
Example:Factorx
2
- 3x - 28
Thenumbersweseekare
4and-7because:
4 (-7) = -28,and

= (x ) (x )
= (x - ) (x )
= (x - ) (x+ )
4 - 7 = -S

= (x - 7) (x + 4)
(x -7) (x +4)
= x
2
+ 4x - 7x - 28
= x
2
- Sx - 28

Algebra
FactoringTrinomialsSimpleCaseMethod

AcommonprobleminElementaryAlgebraisthefactoringofatrinomialthatisneithera
perfectsquarenoradifferenceofsquares.
Considerthesimplecasewherethecoefficientofx
2
is1.Thegeneralformforthiscaseis:
(x + p) (x + q) = x
2
+ (p +q)x + (pq)

Inordertosimplifytheillustrationoffactoringapolynomialwherethecoefficientofx
2
is1,we
willusetheorangedescriptorsaboveforthecomponentsofthetrinomialbeingfactored.
SimpleCaseMethod
Step1:Setupparenthesesforapairofbinomials.Putxinthe
lefthandpositionofeachbinomial.

Step2:Putsign1inthemiddlepositionintheleftbinomial.

Step3:Multiplysign1andsign2togetthesignfortheright
binomial.Remember:
(+) (+) = (+) (-) (-) = (+)
(+) (-) = (-) (-) (+) = (-)
Step4:Findtwonumbersthat:
(a)Multiplytogettheconstant and ,
(b)Addtogetthecoefficientof x

Step5:Placethenumbersinthebinomialssothattheirsigns
matchthesignsfromSteps2and3.Thisisthefinal
answer.

Step6:Checkyourworkbymultiplyingthetwobinomialstosee
ifyougettheoriginaltrinomial.

Fillin:
___ ___ =___
___ + ___ =___
-68-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Example:Factorx
2
- x - 2

6x
2
- x -2
-12
(-4) S = -12
(-4) +S = -1
6x
2
- 4x + Sx - 2
(6x
2
-4x) + (Sx - 2)
2x(Sx - 2) + 1(Sx - 2)

= (2x + 1) (3x -2)
(2x +1) (Sx - 2)
= 6x
2
- 4x + Sx - 2
= 6x
2
- x -2

Algebra
FactoringTrinomialsACMethod

Therearetimeswhenthesimplemethodoffactoringatrinomialisnotsufficient.Primarilythis
occurswhenthecoefficientofx
2
isnot1.Inthiscase,youmayusetheACmethodpresented
here,oryoumayuseeitherthebruteforcemethodorthequadraticformulamethod
(describedonthenextcoupleofpages).

ACMethod
TheACMethodderivesitsnamefromthefirststepofthe
process,whichistomultiplythevaluesofoandcfromthe
generalformofthequadraticequation:y = ax
2
+ hx + c

Step1:Multiplythevaluesofoandc.
Step2:Findtwonumbersthat:
(a) Multiplytogetthevalueof ac ,
and
(b)Addtogetthecoefficientof x

Step3:Splitthemiddletermintotwoterms,withcoefficients
equaltothevaluesfoundinStep2.(Tip:ifonlyoneof
thecoefficientsisnegative,putthattermfirst.)

Step4:Groupthetermsintopairs.

Step5:Factoreachpairofterms.

Step6:Usethedistributivepropertytocombinethe
multipliersofthecommonterm.Thisisthefinal
answer.
Step7:Checkyourworkbymultiplyingthetwobinomialsto
seeifyougettheoriginaltrinomial.

Fillin:
___ ___ =___
___ + ___ =___
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
FactoringTrinomialsBruteForceMethod

Whenthecoefficientofx
2
isnot1,thefactoringprocessbecomesmoredifficult.Therearea
numberofmethodsthatcanbeusedinthiscase.
Ifthequestionbeingaskedistofindrootsoftheequation,andnottofactorit,thestudentmay
wanttousethequadraticformulawheneverthecoefficientofx
2
isnot1.Evenifyouare
requiredtofactor,andnotjustfindroots,thequadraticformulamaybeaviableapproach.
BruteForceMethod
Example:Factor4x
2
+ 4x -3
whichequat
Combinationsthatproduceaproduct
of4are:
1 anu 4or2 anu 2
Combinationsthatproduceaproduct
of-Sare:
-1 anu Sor1 a u -S n
(x - 1)(4x + S)
(x + 1)(4x - S)
S - 1
S + 1

(x + )(4x )

(x - )(4x )
(2x -1)(2x +S)
+1 (2x )(2x -S)
(x - 1)(4x +S) = 4x - x -S
2
2
(x + 1)(4x -S) = 4x + x -S
2
(x + S)(4x -1) = 4x + 11x -S
2
(x - S)(4x +1) = 4x - 11x -S
(2x - 1)(2x +S) = 4x
2
+ 4x -S
= 4 (2x + 1)(2x -S) x
2
- 4x -S
(2x - 1)(2x + 3) = 4x
2
+ 4x - S
Thismethodisexactlywhatitsoundslike.Multipleequationsarepossibleandyoumusttry
eachofthemuntilyoufindtheonethatworks.Herearethestepstofinding ions
arecandidatesolutions:
Step1:Findallsetsofwholenumbersthatmultiplyto
getthecoefficientofthefirstterminthe
trinomial.Ifthefirsttermispositive,youneed
onlyconsiderpositivefactors.
Step2:Findallsetsofwholenumbersthatmultiplyto
getthecoefficientofthelastterminthe
trinomial.Youmustconsiderbothpositiveand
negativefactors.
Step3:Createallpossibleproductsofbinomialsthat
containthewholenumbersfoundinthefirst
twosteps.
Step4:Multiplythebinomialpairsuntilyoufindone
thatresultsinthetrinomialyouaretryingto
factor.
Step5:Identifythecorrectsolution.
NoticethepatternsinthecandidatesolutionsinStep4.Eachpairofequationsisidenticalexceptfor
thesignofthemiddletermintheproduct.Therefore,youcancutyourworkinhalfbyconsideringonly
oneofeachpairuntilyouseeamiddletermcoefficientthathastherightabsolutevalue.Ifyouhave
everythingrightbutthesignofthemiddleterm,switchthesignsinthebinomialstoobtainthecorrect
solution.Remembertocheckyourwork!
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
FactoringTrinomialsQuadraticFormulaMethod

QuadraticFormulaMethod
TheQuadraticFormulaisdesignedspecificallytofindrootsofaseconddegreeequation.
However,itcanalsobeusedasabackdoormethodtofactorequationsofseconddegree.The
stepsare:
Step1:Applythequadraticformula therootsoftheequation. todetermine
Step2:Puteachrootinto m:(x -root) = u. thefor
Step3:Showthetwo(x -root)binomialsasaproduct.Notethatthesebinomialsmay
containfractions.Wewilleliminatethefractions,ifp sible,inthenextstep. os
Step4:Multiplythebinomialsin tep3bythecoefficientofx
2
thefollowingway: S
(a) Breakthecoefficientofx
2
intoitsprimefactors.
(b) Allocatetheprimefactorstothebinomialsinawaythateliminatesthefractions.
Step5:Checkyourwork.
Example:
Factor:4x
2
+4x -3
Step1:x =
-b_b
2
-4uc
2u
=
-4_4
2
-4(4)(-3)
2(4)
=
-4_64
8
=
-4_8
8
= -
3
2
oi
2
1

Step2: t nscontainingrootsare:[x +
3
2
Thetwoequa io = u anu [x -
1
2
= u.
Step3:[x +
3
2
[x -
1
2

Step4:Thecoefficientofx
2
intheoriginalequationis4,and4 = 2 2.Aninspectionofthe
binomialsinStep3indicatesweneedtomultiplyeachbinomialby2inorderto
eliminatethefractions:
2 [x +
3
2
= (2x +S) and 2 [x -
1
2
= (2x -1)
Sothat: 4x
2
+4x S - = (2x +3) (2x -1)infactoredform
Step5:Check(usingFOIL)(2x +S) (2x -1) = 4x
2
-2x +6x -S = 4x
2
+4x -S,
whichistheequationweweretryingtofactor.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra Algebra
SolvingEquationsbyFactoring SolvingEquationsbyFactoring

Thereareanumberofreasonstofactorapolynomialinalgebra;oneofthemostcommon
reasonsistofindthezeroesofthepolynomial.Azeroisadomainvalue(e.g.,xvalue)for
whichthepolynomialgeneratesavalueofzero.Eachzeroisasolutionofthepolynomial.
Thereareanumberofreasonstofactorapolynomialinalgebra;oneofthemostcommon
reasonsistofindthezeroesofthepolynomial.Azeroisadomainvalue(e.g.,xvalue)for
whichthepolynomialgeneratesavalueofzero.Eachzeroisasolutionofthepolynomial.
Infacto polynomialszeroes.Considerthefollowing: Infacto polynomialszeroes.Considerthefollowing: redform,itismucheasiertofind a
(x -2)(x +4)(x -8)(x -n)(x +S)isthefactoredformofapolynomial.
redform,itismucheasiertofind a
(x -2)(x +4)(x -8)(x -n)(x +S)isthefactoredformofapolynomial.
Ifanumberofitemsaremultipliedtogether,theresultiszerowheneveranyoftheindividual
itemsiszero.Thisistrueforconstantsandforpolynomials.Therefore,ifanyofthefactorsof
thepolynomialhasavalueofzero,thenthewholepolynomialmustbezero.Weusethisfact
tofindzeroesofpolynomialsinfactoredform.
Ifanumberofitemsaremultipliedtogether,theresultiszerowheneveranyoftheindividual
itemsiszero.Thisistrueforconstantsandforpolynomials.Therefore,ifanyofthefactorsof
thepolynomialhasavalueofzero,thenthewholepolynomialmustbezero.Weusethisfact
tofindzeroesofpolynomialsinfactoredform.
Example1: Example1:
Findthezeroesofy = (x -2)(x +4)(x -8)(x -n)(x +S). Findthezeroesofy = (x -2)(x +4)(x -8)(x -n)(x +S).
Step1:Setthe Step1:Settheequationequaltozero.
(x -2)(x +4)(x -8)(x -n)(x +S) = u
equationequaltozero.
(x -2)(x +4)(x -8)(x -n)(x +S) = u
Step2:Thewh iszerowheneveranyofitsfactorsiszero.Fortheexample,this
occurs
Step2:Thewh iszerowheneveranyofitsfactorsiszero.Fortheexample,this
occurs
oleequation
when:
or
oleequation
when:
or (x -2) = u,
or
(x -2) = u,
or (x +4) = u,
or
(x +4) = u,
or
Thesolutionset,then,is:
ventionally,thexvalu
x = {2, -4, 8, n, -S]
or,morecon esareput
innumerical largest:
(x -8) = u,
or
(x -8) = u,
or (x -n) = u,
(x +S) = u
(x -n) = u,
(x +S) = u
orderfromsmallestto
x = { -4, -S, 2, n, 8]
Thesolutionsetcontainsthetwo
domainvaluesthatmaketheoriginal
equationzero,namely:
x = {1, 6]

x = {1, 6]

Example2: Example2:
Findthezeroesofy =
2
Findthezeroesofy =
2
x -7x +6
u
x -7x +6
u x
2
-7x +6 =
(x -6)(x -1) = u
x
2
-7x +6 =
(x -6)(x -1) = u

(x u (x u

(x u (x u -6) = -1) =
x = 6 x = 1
-6) = -1) =
x = 6 x = 1
SetNotation: Wemaylisttheset
ofsolutionstoaproblemby
placingthesolutionsinbraces{},
separatedbycommas.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
IntroductiontoQuadraticFunctions
StandardFormofaQuadraticFunction
TheStandard a lis: Formof seconddegreepolynomia
y = ax
2
+hx +c with o = u
Anequationofthisformiscalledaquadraticfunction.
Thegraphofthisequationiscalledaparabola.
Upordown?
Thedirectioninwhichtheparabolaopensonagraphis
basedon n(+or-)ofointheequation. thesig
If theparabolapointsdownanditopensup. o > u,
Ifo < u,theparabolapointsupanditopensdown.
Ifyouforgetthisrule,justrememberthatupordown
dependsonthesignofo,anddoaquickgraphofy = x
2
,
where(o = +1)onyourpaper.

VertexandAxisofSymmetry
InStandardForm,thevertexoftheparabolahascoordinates:[
-b
2u
, ywhereyiscalculated
bysubstituting[
-b
2u
forxintheequation.Thevertexiseitherthehighestpointonthegraph
(calledamaximum)orthelowestpointonthegraph(calledaminimum).Italsoliesontheaxis
ofsymmetryo h. fthegrap
Theequationx = [
-b
2o
iscalledtheaxisofsymmetryoftheparabola.
VertexFormofaQuadraticFunction
Asecondusef ertexForm: ulformofaquadraticfunctionisbasedonthevertex,andiscalledV
y = a(x -h)
2
+k wheie (h, k) is the veitex of the paiabola
ItispossibletoconvertfromStandardFormtoVertexFormandfromVertexFormtoStandard
Form.Bothareequallycorrect.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
CompletingtheSquare

AveryusefulmethodforsolvingquadraticequationsisCompletingtheSquare.Infact,thisis
themethodusedtoderivethequadraticformulafromthegeneralquadraticequationin
StandardForm.ThestepsinvolvedinCompletingtheSquareandanexampleareprovided
below:
Considerthestartingequation: ax
2
+h = x +c
Step1:Modifytheequationsothatthecoefficientofx
2
is1.Todothis,simplydividethe
wholeequationbythevalueofo.

Example: Considert eequation: S h x

2
+18x -21 = u
DividebyStoget: x
2
+ 6x - 7 = u

Step2:Getridofthepesk constant.Wewillgene e y rat ourown.

Example: Add 7tobothsides: x
2
+6x = 7

Step3:Calculateanewconstant.Therequiredconstantisthesquareofonehalfofthe
coefficientofx Add thsidesoftheequation. . ittobo
Example: x
2
+6x = 7
= S,S
2
= 9. uaretheresult:
6
2
Halfit,thensq
Result: x
2
+6x +9 = 7 +9

Step4:Recognizethelefthandsideoftheequationasaperfectsquare.Afterall,thatwasthe
reasonwesele onstantthewaywedid. ctedthe newc
Example: (x +S)
2
= 16

Step5:Takethesqua .Rememberthe_signontheconstantterm. reroot ofbothsides

Example: (x +S)
2
= _16
x +S = _4

Step6:Breaktheresu ionintotwosepar s,andsolve. ltingequat ateequation

Example: x + x + S = 4 S = -4
x = -7 x = 1
Solution: x = {-7, 1]

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013

Algebra
TableofPowersandRoots

SquareRoot Number Square Cube 4

th
Power
1 = 1.uuu
1 1
2
= 1 1
3
= 1 1
4
= 1
2 = 1.414
2 2
2
= 4 2
3
= 8 2
4
= 16
S = 1.7S2
S S
2
= 9 S
3
= 27 S
4
= 81
4 = 2.uuu
4 4
2
= 16 4
3
= 64 4
4
= 2S6
S = 2.2S6
S S
2
= 2S S
3
= 12S S
4
= 62S

6 = 2.449
6 6
2
= S6 6
3
= 216 6
4
= 1,296
7 = 2.646
7 7
2
= 49 7
3
= S4S 7
4
= 2,4u1
8 = 2.828
8 8
2
= 64 8
3
= S12 8
4
= 4,u96
9 = S.uuu
9 9
2
= 81 9
3
= 729 9
4
= 6,S61
1u = S.162
1u 1u
2
= 1uu 1u
3
= 1,uuu 1u
4
= 1u,uuu

11 = S.S17
11 11
2
= 121 11
3
= 1,SS1 11
4
= 14,641
12 = S.464
12 12
2
= 144 12
3
= 1,728 12
4
= 2u,7S6
1S = S.6u6
1S 1S
2
= 169 1S
3
= 2,197 1S
4
= 28,S61
14 = S.742
14 14
2
= 196 14
3
= 2,744 14
4
= S8,416
1S = S.87S
1S 1S
2
= 22S 1S
3
= S,S7S 1S
4
= Su,62S

16 = 4.uuu
16 16
2
= 2S6 16
3
= 4,u96 16
4
= 6S,SS6
17 = 4.12S
17 17
2
= 289 17
3
=4.91S 17
4
= 8S,S21
18 = 4.24S
18 18
2
= S24 18
3
= S,8S2 18
4
= 1u4,976
19 = 4.SS9
19 19
2
= S61 19
3
= 6,8S9 19
4
= 1Su,S21
2u = 4.472
2u 2u
2
= 4uu 2u
3
= 8,uuu 2u
4
= 16u,uuu

21 = 4.S8S
21 21
2
= 441 21
3
= 9,261 21
4
= 194,481
22 = 4.69u
22 22
2
= 484 22
3
= 1u,648 22
4
= 2S4,2S6
2S = 4.796
2S 2S
2
= S29 2S
3
= 12,167 2S
4
= 279841
24 = 4.899
24 24
2
= S76 24
3
= 1S,824 24
4
= SS1,776
2S = S.uuu
2S 2S
2
= 62S 2S
3
= 1S,62S 2S
4
= S9u,62S

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
TheQuadraticFormula

TheQuadraticFormulaisoneofthefirstdifficultmathformulasthatstudentsareaskedto
memorize.Masteringtheformula,thoughdifficult,isfullofrewards.Byknowingwhyitworks
andwhatthevariouspartsoftheformulaare,astudentcangeneratealotofknowledgeina
shortperiodoftime.

Foraquadraticfunctionoftheform: x
2
+hx +c y = a
Theformulafortheroots(i.e.,wherey=0)is: x =
-h _

h
2
-4ac
2a

Quadratic
Formula

HowManyRealRoots?
Thediscriminantisthepartundertheradical: h
2
-4ac
Ifthediscriminantisnegative,thequadraticfunctionhas0realroots.Thisisbecausea
negativenumberundertheradicalresultsinimaginaryrootsinsteadofrealroots.In
thiscasethegraphthegraphwillnotcrossthexaxis.Itwillbeeitherentirelyabovethe
xaxisorentirelybelowthexaxis,dependingonthevalueofa.
Ifthediscriminantiszero,thequadraticfunctionhas1realroot.Thesquarerootof
zeroiszero,sotheradicaldisappearsandtheonlyrootisx = [
-b
2o
.Inthiscase,the
graphwillappeartobounceoffthexaxis;ittouchesthexaxisatonlyonespotthe
valueoftheroot.
Ifthediscriminantispositive,thequadraticfunctionhas2realroots.Thisisbecausea
realsquarerootexists,anditmustbeaddedintheformulatogetonerootand
subtractedtogettheotherroot.Inthiscase,thegraphwillcrossthexaxisintwo
places,thevaluesoftheroots.
WherearetheVertexandAxisofSymmetry?
Thexcoordinateofthevertexisalsoeasilycalculatedfromthequadraticformulabecausethe
vertexishalfwaybetweenthetworoots.Ifweaveragethetworoots,the_portionofthe
formuladisappearsandtheresultingxvalueisx = [
-b
2o
.Theyvalueofthevertexmuststill
becalculated,butthexvaluecanbereaddirectlyoutofthequadraticformula.
Also,oncethexvalueofthevertexisknown,theequationfortheaxisofsymmetryisalso
known.Itistheverticallinecontainingthevertex: x = [
-b
2o
.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
QuadraticInequalitiesinOneVariable
Solvetheinequalityoftheform:ox
2
+bx +c u
Step1:If"o"isnegative,multiplythewholeinequalityby" 1".Thiswillmaketheproblem
easiertoworkwith t ethe y. .Don forgettochang sign oftheinequalit
Example:convert|-Sx
2
+9x -6 u]to|Sx
2
-9x +6 u]
Step2:Factoroutanyscalarsthatdivideintoallofthetermsoftheinequality.Thiswillalso
maketheproblem easiertoworkwith.
Example:factor|Sx
2
-9x +6 u] ) u] to |S(x
2
-Sx +2
thendivideby3toget:[(x
2
-Sx +2) u]
Step3:Solvetheequationthatcorrespondstotheinequality.Thesolutionsoftheequation
arethecriticalval ftheinequality ues inthesolutiono .
Example:solve[(x
2
-Sx +2) = u],whichgives:x = 1, x = 2
Thesolutiontotheinequality,whenshownonanumberline,mustbeeitheroutside
thesolutions thesolutions.Thatis,either:
Note:Thesameprocessworksfor
inequalitieswith<,,or>signs.
orbetween
(x 1 oi x 2)
(x 1 anu x 2)
But,whichone? 12

Step4:Orvs.And.Lookattheinequalityyouareworkingwith(attheendofStep2).Asin
solvinginequalitieswithabsolutevalues,usethefollowingtricktorememberifthe
answerusesOrvs.And.
Iftheinequalitycontainsa sign,useand.Think:lessth <
Iftheinequalitycon n a>sign,us .Think:great
and
or tai s eor
Dontforgettouse, insteadof theoriginalinequality. <, >iftheyarein
Example:Usingthismethod,westartwith|x
2
-Sx +2 u]andnotethe<partof
theinequality.Thismeanstheresultintheexamp e(x 1 and x 2). lewouldb
Inintervalnotationthissolutionsetisshow ] nas: x e |1, 2
Insetnotation,thissolutionisshownas:{x | 1 x 2]

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
QuadraticInequalitiesinOneVariable(contd)

Step5:CheckingyourOrvs.Anddecision.ThesolutionstotheequationinStep3break
thenumberlineinto3distinctpieces;intheexample:
Lessthan1 a bc
Between1and2
Morethan2 12

Testtoseeiftheoriginalinequalityiscorrectforanumberineachofthesesegmentsof
thenumberline.Althoughyoucouldtestaderivationoftheoriginalinequality(e.g.,
afterSteps1or2),itisbesttoworkwiththeoriginalwhencheckingyourwork.
So,youmighttestvalueslikethefollowing:
a. Lessthan1:trythevalue0
b. Between1and2:trythevalue
3
2

c. Morethan2:trythevalueS
Intheexample,youfindthat
3
2
works,butuandSdonotwork.Theanswermustthen
beinthemiddleinterval.ThismatchestheanswerobtainedinStep4.

Step5Alternative:Anotherwaytocheckyourwork.
Analternativewaytocheckyourworkistographthe
equationcorrespondi ngtotheinequality.
Usetheequation(x
2
-Sx +2) ufromStep2
onlyifyouaresureyouperformedSteps1and2
correctly.
Thegraphofthecorrespondingequationisatright.
Noticethattheportionofthegraphthatisbelow
zeroistheportionbetween1and2.
Theportionofthegraphbelowthexaxis
iswherethe(x
2
-Sx +2) u
Becausethesignincludestheequalssign,the
endpointsoftheintervalsareincludedinthesolutionset.
Therefore, einequalityis: thesolutionofth
{x | 1 x 2]
ThismatchestheanswerobtainedinStep4.


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Version 2.5 4/2/2013

ADVANCED
Algebra
FittingaQuadraticEquationthroughThreePoints
Ittakesthreepointstodefineaquadraticequation,justlikeittakes2pointstodefinealine.In
general,ittakes(n+1)pointstodefineapolynomialofdegreen.
Startingwith:
thebasicquadraticequation:y = ox
2
+bx +c,and
threepoints:(x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
), (x
3
, y
3
),
itispossibletocalculatethecoefficientsofthequadraticequationbysubstitutinginthexand
yvaluesofthe3pointstocreateasystemof3equationsin3unknowns:
y
1
= ox
1
2
+bx
1
+c
y
2
= ox
2
2
+bx
2
+c
y
3
= ox
3
2
+bx
3
+c
Now,thatsalotofsymbols,soletslookatanexample.
Example:
Findthequadraticequationthatpassesthroughthethreepoints:
(-1, -8), (1, 4), (2, 1S)
Usingthebasicquadraticequation,andsubstitutinginxvaluesandyvalues,weget3
equationsin3unknowns:
-8 = o -b +c
4 = o + b + c
1S = 4o + 2b +c

These3equationscanbesolvedbyeliminatingvariablesorbyusingCramersRule,whichever
thestudentfindsmorecomfortable.Solvingbyeithermethodgives:
a = 1, h = , c = -3
Sothat: y = x
2
+x -3

Theoddthingaboutthisprocessisthatinmostalgebraproblemsthestudentisaskedtosolve
forxory,butthatisnotthecaseincurvefitting.Instead,thestudentisaskedtoderivea
quadraticequationgiven3setsofxsandys,whichrequiressolvingfora,h,andcinstead.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ComplexNumbersIntroduction

Definitio
| = -1
ns
.
ImaginaryNumbe th c beexpressedintheformo iwhereaisreal. rAnynumber at an
Examples:-7,6i,-2S,S i
ComplexNumber m r canbeexpressedintheformo +biwherea,barereal. Anynu be that
Examples:6 +2 i, 6
3
+Si
Note:allrea ersandallimaginarynumbersarealsocomplexnumbers. lnumb
Intheformo +bi,
calledtherealpartofthecomplexnumber,and ois
biiscalledtheimaginarypartofthecomplexnumber.
AbsoluteValueofaComplexNumber
Theabsolutevalueofacomplexnum agnitude.Algebraically,itis: berisalsocalleditsm
|o +bi| = o
2
+b
2

ConjugateofaComplexNumbe r
Theconjugateofacomplexnumber(o +bi)isdenoted(o +bt)

;(o +bt)

= (o -bi).
Examples:

Commentsaboutconjugates:
1. Thecon f is dwith. jugateo aconjugate thenumberyoustate
(o +bt)

= (o -bi),(o -bt)

= (o +bi),
Comp ber lexNum Conjugate Comp umber lex N Conjugate
2 +Si 2 -Si -6 +i -6 -i
6i -6i
2 +2i 2 -2i
2 2
7 +Si 7 -Si
2. Thepro er. ductofconjugatesisarealnumb
(o +bi) (o -bi) = (o
2
+b
2
)
3. Conjuga same lutevalue. tenumbershavethe abso
|o +bi| = |o -bi| = o
2
+b
2

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
OperationswithComplexNumbers

AddingandSubtracting
AddorsubtractboththeRealandImaginaryparts:
(o +bi) +(c +Ji) = (o +c) +(b +J)i
+ + c) +(b -J)i (o bi) -(c Ji) = (o -
Example: (1 -Si) +(-S +6i) = (-2 +Si)
Multiplying
Step1:Multiplylik oumultiplybinomials. ey
Step2:Substitute-1fori
2
andsimplify.
( (oJ +bc)i o +bi) (c +Ji) = (oc -bJ) +
Example: (1 -Si) (-S +6i) = - 1 S +6i +9
= -S +6i +
= 1S +1Si
i - 8i
2

9i +18
Dividing
Step1:Multiplybyafractionwhosenumeratoranddenominatoraretheconjugateofthe
originalexp denominator. ressions
Step2:Substitute-1fori
2
andsimplify.

Theresultingcomplexnumberwillhaveadenominatorthatisfreeofimaginarynumbers.
Rememberthem u ethod,nottheform la!
(o +bi)
(c +Ji)

=
(o +bi)
(c +Ji)

(c -Ji)
(c -Ji)
= _
(oc +bJ)
(c
2
+J
2
)
_ +_
(bc -oJ)
(c
2
+J
2
)
_ i

Example:
(1 -Si)
(-S +6i)
=
(1 -Si)
(-S +6i)

(-S -6i)
S - (- 6i)
=
-S -6i +9i +18i
2
-S6i
2
9

=
-S -6i +9i -18
9 + S6
=
-21 +Si
4S
=
-7
15
+
1
15
|

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ADVANCED
Algebra
TheSquareRootofi

If| = -1,whatis|?
Thisisaninterestingquestionandsolvingitwillillustrateaveryusefulmethodinworkingwith
complexnumbers.Youcanusethismethodtocalculatethesquarerootofanycomplex
number.
Recallthateachcomplexnumberisoftheformo +bi,whereaandbarereal.
Wewantacomplexnumberthat,w squared, i. hen generates
So,wewanttocalculateaandbsuch +
2
= i that(o bi)
Letssolvethatequation:
2
(o +bi) = i
(o +bi) (o +bi) = i
= i o
2
+obi +obi +b
2
i
2
(o
2
-b
2
) +2obi = i
Now,breakthisinto2equatio realpar fortheimaginarypart. ns, oneforthe t,andone
Herearethe2equations: ( = uand2o o
2
-b
2
) b = 1

2 2
andb =
1
2u
o = b
Results:
i = __
2
2
+
2
2
i_
-i = __
2
2
+
2
2
i_

Substitutingforb,
2
1
u
o = [
2

2

o =
4u
2
2
1

Sinceo = u,andoisreal, o
4
=
1
4

cIds
----- o =
2
2
1

cIds
----- o =
2
2
oi o = -
2
2

Sinceo
2
= b
2
b = o oi b = -o
So,ourcandidatesfor i are:
2
[
2
+
2
2
i oi [
2
2
-
2
2
i oi [-
2
2
+
2
2
i oi [-
2
2
-
2
2
i
Letstrythem:
2
[
2
+
2
2
i = [-
2
2
2
-
2
2
i = i
[
2
2

2
-
2
2
i
2
= [-
2
2
+
2
2
i
2
i = -
So,wehavefoundnotonlythetwosquarerootsofi,but
alsothetwosquarerootsof i.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ComplexNumbersGraphicalRepresentation
Complexnumbersoftheformo +bicanberepresentedonasetofaxesthatrepresentReal
andImaginarynumbersinsteadofxandy.ConsiderthecomplexnumberS +4i.Itwould
looklikethisonasetofReal(R)andImaginary(I)axes:
I
4i

R
3
Graphical
representationof
S +4i

PolarCoordinates
Representedinthismanner,complexnumbershaveinterestingproperties(seethenextpage
forsomeofthese).Eachcomplexnumbercanbethoughtofasnotonlyapairofrectangular
coordinates,e.g.,(3,4),butalsoasasetofpolarcoordinateswithmagnitude(i.e.,length)pand
angle0.Then,tomultiplycomplexnumbers,youmultiplytheirmagnitudesandaddtheir
angles.

Powersofi
Thisisausefulbitofinformationforseeingthevalueof|
n
ingraphicalterms.Sincei = -1,
algebra have: ically,we
i = -1 i
2
= -1 i
3
= -i i
4
= 1
i
5
= -1

i
6
= - i
7
= -i i
8
= 1etc. 1
Since|hasmagnitude1,allpowers|
n
alsohavemagnitude1.Eachsucceedingpowerof|,
then,resultsonlyinachangeoftheangle,andcanbeconsidereda90rotationinthe
coordinateplanecontainingtheRealandImaginaryaxes,likeso:

I I I I

R R R R

| |
2
= -1 |
3
= - |
4
= 1 |
Thisshowstherotatingpatterninthevaluesofthepowersof|every4increments.After4
rotationsyoureturntowhereyoustarted.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ADVANCED
Algebra
ComplexNumberOperationsinPolarCoordinates

PolarCoordinates
Ifacomplexnumberisexpressedintermsofitspolarcoordinates,manycalculationsaremade
mucheasier.First,letsinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenapointsrectangularcoordinates
(x, y)anditspola coordinates(p, 0). r
Themagnitude,, isthedistanceofthepointfromthe
origin: p = x
2
+y
2

Theangle,,istheanglethelinefromthepointtothe
originmakeswiththepositiveportionofthexaxis.
Generally,this otdegrees. angle isexpressed in radians,n
tan0 =

x
oi 0 = tan
-1
[

Convers rcoordin gularcoordinatesisstraightforward: ionfrompola atestorectan

x = p cos 0andy = p sin0

Example:Intheillustrationabove,th shownhas: epoint

Rectangularcoordinates: ) (-4, 4
PolarCoordinates: (42,
3n
2
)
ComplexNumberFormulas:
Toseehowusefulthis the rcomplexnumbers: canbe, consider following formulasfo
Multiplication: (p
1
, 0
1
) (p
2
, 0
2
) = ((p
1
p
2
), (0
1
+0
2
))
So,tomultiply r udesandaddtheirangles.
Noteon|:
Sinceiinpolarcoordinatesis[1,
n
2
,
Usingtherootformula,i = [_1,
n
4

Inrectangularcoordinates,then,
| = _[
2
2
+
2
2
|
complexnumbers, youmultiplythei magnit
Division: (p
1
, 0
1
) (p
2
, 0
2
) = ((p
1
p
2
), (0
1
-0
2
))
So,todividecomplexn idetheirmagnitudesandsubtracttheirangles. umbers,youdiv
Powers: (p, 0)
n
= (p
n
, ( n 0))
Thisresultsdire m ultiplicationrule. ctlyfro them
Roots: (p, 0)
n
= [ p
n
, (0 n)
ctlyfro thepo Thisresultsdire m werruleifthe
exponentisafraction.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ComplexSolutionstoQuadraticEquations
Overthefieldofrealnumberstherearenorootstoaquadraticfunctionifthediscriminantis
lessthanzero.Overthefieldofcomplexnumbers,however,suchaquadraticfunctionhastwo
roots.
QuadraticRefresher
Foraquadraticfunctionoftheform: x
2
+hx +c y = a
Theformulafortheroots(i.e.,wherey=u)is: x =
-h _

h
2
-4ac
2a

Thediscriminantisthepartundertheradical: h
2
-4ac
HowManyRoots?
Thefollowingtabletellsushowmanyrealorcomplexrootsexistforafunction,basedonits
discriminant:

Note:becauseofthe_signinthequadraticformula,whenthereare2complexrootsthey
areconjugates.
Valu o ant e fDiscrimin NumberofRoots
b -4oc < u
2
2complex
b -4oc = u
2
1real
b
2
-4oc > u 2real
Quadratic
Formula
Example1:
2
1 Solvex -2x + u = u
x =
-b _b
2
-4oc
2
=
2 _(-2)
2
-4(1)(1u)
2(1)
=
2 _-S6
2
=
2 _6i
2
= 1 _3|
o
Example : + 2 Solve2x
2
4x +7 = u
x =
-b _b
2
-4oc
2o
=
-4 _(4)
2
-4(2)(7)
2(2)
=
-4 _-4u
4
=
-4 _21ui
4
= -1 _
1
2
|

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
RadicalRules

SimpleRulesInvolvingRadicals

G e eneralRadical Rul Ru u Roots leforSq are Example

o b
n

= o
n
b
n
o b = o

b 12 = 4 S = 2S
_
o
b
n
=

o
n
b
n
_
o
b
=

o
b
_
S
4
=
S
4
=
S
2

Notealsothat:

o
n
= o
(
1
n
, )
e.g.,

o

= o
(
1
2
, )
,sotherulesforexponentsalsoapplyforroots.

RationalizingtheDenominator

Mathematiciansprefertokeepradicalsoutofthedenominator.Herearetwo
methodstoaccomplishthis,dependingonwhatsinthedenominator.

Case1:Simpleradicalinthedenominator.Solution:multiplythebeginning
expressionbyafrac h f radical edbyitself. tionw ich istheof ending divid
Example:
2+3
45
=
2+3
45

5
5
=
25+15
20

Case2:Numberandradicalinthedenominator.Solution:multiplybythe
beginningexpressionbyafractionwhichisdesignedtoeliminatetheradicalfrom
thedenominator.Thenumeratoranddenominatorofthefractionarecreatedby
changingthesignbetween n be e o the um r andth radicalintheden minator.
Example:
7
3-5
=
7
3-5

3+5
3+5
=
37+35
9-5
=
37+35
4


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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SimplifyingSquareRootsTwoMethods

Method1:ExtractingSquares

Inthismethod,youpullsquaresoutfromundertheradical.Thisisthequickest
methodifyouarecomfortablewithwhatthesquaresareandwithdividingthem
outoflargernumbers.
11 = 121
2

2

12 = 144
2
1S = 169
2
14 = 196
2
1S = 22S
2
16 = 2S6
2
17 = 289
2
18 = S24
2
19 = S61
2u
2
= 4uu
1 = 1
2

2

2 = 4
2
S = 9
2
4 = 16
2
S = 2S
2
6 = S6
2
7 = 49
2
8 = 64
9
2
= 81
1u
2
= 1uu

Examples: (1)98 = 49 2
= 72
(2)96uu = 1uu 96
16

6 = 1uu
6 = 1u 4
= 4u6

Method2:ExtractingPrimeNumbers

IfyouarenotcomfortablewithMethod1,youcanpull
primenumbersoutfromundertheradicalandpairthem
uptosimplifyt r hesquare oot.
Example: S4 = 2 27
= 2 S 9
Method2maytakealotlongerthan
Method1,butitworks.Agoodusefor
Method2iswhenyoutryusingthe
quickerMethod1butgetstuckthen
workingwithprimescangetyouback
ontracktowardsolvingtheproblem.

= 2 S S S
= 2 (S S) S
= 2 ( ) S S
S = S 2
= S 6

Notethatthelaststepis torecombineroots
thatdonotcomeinpairs.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SolvingRadicalEquations
Whenanequationinvolvesradicals,theradicalsmustbeeliminatedinordertoobtaina
solution.Theonespecialthingabouttheseequationsisthat,intheprocessofeliminatingthe
radical,itispossibletoaddanothersolutionthatisnotasolutiontotheoriginalproblem.
SolutionsthatareaddedbytheprocessusedtosolvetheproblemarecalledExtraneous
Solutions.Attheendoftheproblem,wemustcheckforextraneoussolutionsandeliminate
them.
SolvingaRadicalEquation
Thestepstosolvinganequationinvolvingradicalsare:
Isolatetheradicalononesideoftheequation.Todothis,addorsubtractanyvariables
orconstantsthatareonthesamesideoftheequationastheradical.
Iftheradicalisasquareroot,squarebothsidesoftheequation.Iftheradicalisacube
root,cubebothsides,etc.Thisshouldgetridoftheradical.
Ifthereareanyradicalsremainingintheproblem,repeatthefirsttwostepsuntilthey
aregone.
Solvetheequationthatremains.
Checkallsolutionstotheproblemusingtheequationintheoriginalstatementofthe
problem.
Discardextraneousroots.
Example:Solve4x +S = x
StartingProblem: 2x +6 +1 = x
Subtract1frombothsides: 6 2x + = x -1
Squareboth i es: +1
Ifweallowed2(-1) +to
be2,theequationwould
workand1wouldworkasa
solution.However,the
squarerootofanumberis
definedtobethepositive
rootonly.So,1failsasa
solutiontotheproblem.
s d 2x +6 = x
2
-2x
Subtract2x + frombothsides: u x
2
-4x -S =
Factor: 1) = u (x -S)(x +
Obta reliminarySolutions: ] inP x = {-1, S
Test 1asasolution: + - 2(-1) 6 +1
Test5asasolution: +S
= -1 .
4(S) = S .
IdentifythefinalSolutionSet: x = 5
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra Algebra
SolvingRadicalEquations(contd) SolvingRadicalEquations(contd)
WhyOnlyPositiveSquareRoots? WhyOnlyPositiveSquareRoots?
Itisgenerallytaughtinhighschoolalgebrathatsquarerootshavebothpositiveandnegative
roots.Sowhyarewenowsayingthatthesquarerootofanumberisdefinedtobeapositive
numberonly?
Itisgenerallytaughtinhighschoolalgebrathatsquarerootshavebothpositiveandnegative
roots.Sowhyarewenowsayingthatthesquarerootofanumberisdefinedtobeapositive
numberonly?
Theanswerliesinthemissingstep,whichisoftennottaughttohighschoolstudents.What
youlearnisthis:
Theanswerliesinthemissingstep,whichisoftennottaughttohighschoolstudents.What
youlearnisthis:
I x
2
= 4, then x = _2.And,thatiscorrect,butnotbecausex
2
I x
2
= 4, then x = _2.And,thatiscorrect,butnotbecausex
2
= xwhichitdoesnot!
TheMissingStep
StartingProblem: = 4 x
2

Takesquareroots: |x| = 2
Solveforx: x = _2
Intheboxtotherightisthedevelopmentwiththe
mis step cluded.Noticethat: sing in
x
2
= |x|
Whenwetakesquareroots,wehavepositive
numbersoneachsideoftheresultingequation.
Both|x|and2arepositive.
Thetwopossiblevaluesforxcomefromsolvingthemiddleequation|x| = 2.
Thissolvestheapparentarbitrarinessofwhenarootisonlypositiveandwhenitisboth
positiveandnegative.
Inequalities
StartingProblem: < 9 x
2

Takesquareroots: |x| < S
Casei Case ii
and - x < S x < S
x < S x > -S and
Solution:{ x | -3 < x < S] < x < S]
Themissingstepalsoprovidesanexplanationforthemethodusedtosolveinequalities.
Considertheinequality:x
2
< 9.Theprocessforsolvingthiswiththemissingstepincludedis:
Noticethat|x|convertstoxinCaseIandto
x inCaseii.Bytheendoftheproblem,you
seethatthesigninCaseiihasbeenflipped
aroundfromtheoriginalproblem.Thisisnot
magic;itistheresultofTheMissingStep
beingappliedinallitsmathematicalglory!

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
MatrixAdditionandScalarMultiplication

WhatisaMatrix?

Amatrixisanorderedsetofnumberssetupina2dimensionalarray.Matricesareveryuseful
inalgebra,statisticsandotherapplicationsbecausetheyprovideaconcisewaytocarryout
morecomplexmathematicalmethodsandprocesses.

Matriceshavedimensions,expressedasthenumberofrowsxthenumberofcolumns.For
example,a2x3matrix(read2by3matrix)has2rowsand3columns.Knowingthe
dimensionsofamatrixisimportantbecausemanymatrixoperationscanonlyoccuron
matriceswithcertaindimensions.

AddingMatrices

Eachnumberinamatrixiscalledanelement.Matricesareaddedbyaddingthecorresponding
elementsinthematrices.Matricesmusthavethesamedimensionstobeadded.

Example:
j
2 -S 1
S 1 -2
[ + j
-1 2 4
-2 1 u
[ = j
1 -1 S
S 2 -2
[

1
st
row,1
st
column:2 + (1) = 1
1
st
row,2
nd
column:(S) + 2 = 1

ScalarMultiplication

Multiplyingamatrixbyascalar(i.e.,anumber)isaccomplishedbymultiplyingeachelementin
thematrixbythescalar.Thetermscalarsimplyreferstoscalingthematrixbymakingits
valueslargerorsmaller.Scalarmultiplicationcanbeperformedonmatricesofanydimensions.

Example:
S j
-1 2 4
-2 1 u
[ = j
- S 6 12
-6 S u
[

1
st
row,1
st
column:S (1) = S
1
st
row,2
nd
column:S 2 = 6

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
MatrixMultiplication

MultiplyingMatrices

Multiplicationofmatricesisamorecomplexprocess.Althoughthestudentmayfinditdifficult
atfirst,itisapowerfultoolthatisusefulinmanyfieldsofmathematicsandscience.

Matrixmultiplicationcanbeperformedonlyonmatricesthatareconformable(i.e.,compatible
insize).Inorderfortwomatricestobemultipliedtogether,thenumberofcolumnsinthefirst
matrixmustequalthenumberofrowsinthesecondmatrix.Ifanm x nmatrixismultipliedby
ann x pmatrix,theresultisanm x pmatrix.Thisisillustratedasfollows:

|m x n] |n x p] = |m x p]

Tomultiplymatrices,youmultiplytheelementsinarowofonematrixbythecorresponding
elementsinacolumnoftheothermatrixandaddtheresults.Ifrowiinthefirstmatrixis
multipliedbyrowjinthesecondmatrix,theresultisplacedinrowi,columnjoftheresulting
matrix.Theelementinpositioni, jofamatrixisoftendenoteda
|,j
.

Example1:
j
2 -S 1
S 1 -2
[ _
1 -2
2 -1
S 1
_ = j
-1 u
1 -1S
[

1
st
row,1
st
column:| 2 1j + | (S) 2j + | 1 Sj = 1
1
st
row,2
nd
column:| 2 (2) j + | (S) (1) j + | 1 1j = u
2
nd
row,1
st
column:| S 1j + | 1 2j + | (2) Sj = 1
2
nd
row,2
nd
column:| S (2) j + | 1 (1) j + | (2) 1j = 1S

Example2:
_
1 -2
2 -1
S 1
_ j
2 -S 1
S 1 -2
[ = _
-8 -S S
-1 -7 4
11 -8 1
_

Fromtheexamples,itisclearthatmatrixmultiplicationisnotcommutative.Thatis,ifwe
nametwomatricesAandB,itisnotnecessarilytruethatAB=BA.Further,ifmatricesare
notsquare(i.e.,havingthesamenumberofrowsandcolumns),matrixmultiplicationisnever
commutative;thatisABBA.
sizeofresultingmatrix
mustmatch
Noticethatmultiplyinga2x3
matrixbya3x2matrixresults
ina2x2matrix.
Noticethatmultiplyinga3x2
matrixbya2x3matrixresults
ina3x3matrix.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
MatrixDivisionandIdentityMatrices

Multiplicationanddivisionareinverseprocesseswithwhichthestudentisfamiliarwhen
workingwithrealnumbers.Multiplicationofmatrices,asdescribedaboveismuchmore
complexthanmultiplicationofrealnumbers.So,howdoyoudividematrices?

Divisionofrealnumberscanbeconsideredtheprocessofmultiplyinganumberbytheinverse
ofthenumberbywhichyouwanttodivide.Forexample:

12
3
= 12
1
3
= 4(i.e.,12dividedby3isthesameas12times
1
3
;theresultis4eitherway)
dividingby3isthesameamultiplyingbytheinverseof3,whichis
1
3

3and
1
3
aremultiplicativeinversesbecausewhenmultiplied,theyresultin1,whichis
calledthemultiplicativeidentity

Matrixdivisionworksinasimilarfashion.First,weneedtoidentifyanidentitymatrix,thenwe
needtodeterminehowtocalculateaninversematrixwhich,whenmultipliedbytheoriginal
matrix,resultsintheidentitymatrix.Onlysquarematriceshaveinverses.Identitymatrices
mustalso,bydefinition,besquare.

IdentityMatrices

Identitymatricesexistforeachsquaredimension.Identitymatriceshave1sdownthediagonal
and0sineveryotherlocation.Forexample,thefollowingareidentitymatrices,generally
denotedbytheletter"I":

I = j
1 u
u 1
[ I = _
1 u u
u 1 u
u u 1
_ I = _
1 u
u 1
u u
u u
u u
u u
1 u
u 1
_

Whenamatrixismultipliedbyanidentitymatrix,theresultistheoriginalmatrix.

Example:Ifwenameamatrix A,thenA I = I A = Aasfollows:

_
2 1 -1
S -2 1
4 u -S
_ _
1 u u
u 1 u
u u 1
_ = _
1 u u
u 1 u
u u 1
_ _
2 1 -1
S -2 1
4 u -S
_ = _
2 1 -1
S -2 1
4 u -S
_

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
Inverseofa2x2Matrix

Usingmatrixnotation:
Lettheidentitymatrixofsizen x nbecalledI
Letann x nmatrixbecalledA
LetthedeterminantofmatrixAbedenoted|A|
Lettheinverseofmatrix AbedenotedA
1

Then, A
1
A = A A
1
= I

Notallsquarematriceshaveinverses.Inorderforamatrixtohaveaninverse,itsdeterminant
mustbenonzero.Thatis,matrixAhasaninverseifandonlyif:|A| = .

FormulafortheInverseofa2x2Matrix
Ifa2x2matrixhaselementsa,h,candd,suchthatA = j
a h
c d
[,then:
Inwords,theinverseiscalculatedasfollows:
Fromtheoriginalmatrix,switchelementsaandd,andchangethesignsofbandc.
Dividetheresultingmatrixbythedeterminantoftheoriginalmatrix.(Note:the
determinantofamatrixisascalar).

ThedeterminantofmatrixA = j
a h
c d
[,iscalculatedas|A| =
a h
c d
= ad - hc.

Example:2x2MatrixInverseCalculation

Let: A = j
4 -1
-2 1
[

Then: |A| =
4 -1
-2 1
= (4 1) - ((-1) (-2)) = 2

So: A
1
=

j
1 1
2 4
[

4 -1
-2 1

=
j
1 1
2 4
[
2

Finally,checktomakesure: A
1
A = A A
1
= I

j
. 5 . 5
1 2
[ j
4 -1
-2 1
[ = j
1
1
[andj
4 -1
-2 1
[ j
. 5 . 5
1 2
[ = j
1
1
[

A
1
= j
. 5 . 5
1 2
[
A
1
=
j
d -h
-c a
[

a h
c d

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
CalculatingInversesTheGeneralCase

Thecalculationoftheinverseofamatrixofsizegreaterthan2x2canbeperformedbya
processcalledGaussJordanElimination.Theprocessisalsocalled,moregenerically,Row
Reduction.Inthisprocess,youbeginwithtwosidebysidematrices,theoneyouwantto
invert(thesubjectmatrix)andtheidentitymatrixofthesamesize.Operationsareperformed
onbothmatrices,graduallyconvertingtheoriginalmatrixtotheidentityMatrix.

Allowableoperationsare:
Multiplyingordividingarowbyascalar(i.e.,anumber).
Switchingrows.
Addingorsubtractingamultipleofonerowtoorfromanother.

Whenthisprocessiscomplete,theoriginalidentitymatrixhasbeenconvertedtotheinverse
matrix.Belowisanexampleofthedevelopmentofaninverseofa3x3matrixusingthis
process:

Startwiththeidentity
matrixtotherightofthe
originalsubjectmatrix.
Endwiththeinverse
matrixtotherightofthe
newidentitymatrix.
Eachoperation
performedontheoriginal
subjectmatrixisalso
performedontheoriginal
identitymatrix.
ADVANCED
-94-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
DeterminantsTheGeneralCase

Determinantsareveryusefulinmatrixoperations.Thedeterminantofa2x2matrixisdefinedtobe:
|A| =
a h
c d
= ad - hc
Inwords,thediagonalsaremultipliedandtheproductofseconddiagonalissubtractedfromthe
productofthefirstdiagonal.Thisprocessisgeneralizedindeterminantsoflargermatricesusingwhat
arereferredtoasminors.Aminoriswhatisleftofadeterminantwhentherowandcolumnofthe
elementareeliminated.
Thedeterminantofamatrixcanbecalculatedbyselectingarowandmultiplyingeachelementofthe
rowbyitscorrespondingminor.Theresultsarealternatelyaddedandsubtractedtogetthevalueofthe
determinant.Thesignoftheeachtermisdeterminedbytherowandcolumninwhichitresides.The
signfortheelementinrowmandcolumnnis(-1)
(m+n)
.Thefollowingmatricesofsignsshowhow
theyareappliedtoeachrowelement:
2x2: j
+ -
- +
[ 3x3: _
+ - +
- + -
+ - +
_ 4x4: _
+ -
- +
+ -
- +
+ -
- +
+ -
- +
_
Usingminorsofthefirstrowtoevaluatea3x3matrix,
_
a
1
h
1
c
1
a
2
h
2
c
2
a
3
h
3
c
3
_ = a
1
_
h
2
c
2
h
3
c
3
_ - h
1

a
2
c
2
a
3
c
3
+c
1
_
a
2
h
2
a
3
h
3
_
Or,usingminorsofthesecondcolumntoevaluatethesame3x3matrix,
_
a
1
h
1
c
1
a
2
h
2
c
2
a
3
h
3
c
3
_ = -h
1

a
2
c
2
a
3
c
3
+ h
2

a
1
c
1
a
3
c
3
- h
3

a
1
c
1
a
2
c
2

Theresultsofthecalculationwillbethesame,regardlessofwhichrowisselected,becauseofthepower
ofmatricesanddeterminants.
Examplefora3x3matrixusingminorsofthefirstrow:
_
S 1 1
1 -2 -1
-2 2 S
_ = S
-2 -1
2 S
- 1
1 -1
-2 S
+1
1 -2
-2 2

= S(-4) - 1(1) +1(-2) =

Thesameprocessisfollowedforlargerdeterminants.Forexample,a5x5determinantisfirstreduced
toasumoffiveelementseachmultipliedbytheir4x4minors.Eachofthe4x4minorsisreducedtoa
sumoffourelementseachmultipliedbytheir3x3minors,etc.Theprocessiscalculationintensive;
todayitwouldtypicallybeperformedusingacomputer.
Note:thisisthematrixthatforms
thedenominatorinthesolutionof
thesystemofequationsinthe
CramersRuleexample.
-15
ADVANCED
-95-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
CramersRule2Equations

CramersRuleprovidesapowerfulandsimplewaytosolvesystemsoftwoorthreelinear
equations.Inlargersystemsofequations,itisausefulwaytosolveforjustoneofthe
variables,withouthavingtosolvetheentiresystemofequations.Tosolveanentiresystemof
fourormoreequations,abettertechniquewouldbeGaussJordanElimination,especiallyifthe
studentisaidedbyacomputerandspreadsheetsoftwaresuchasMicrosoftExcel.

CramersRuleworksaslongasthedeterminantofvariablecoefficients(i.e.,thedeterminantin
thedenominator)isnonzero.Ifthisdeterminantiszero,thenthereisnouniquesolutionto
thesystemofequations.

GeneralCasefor2Equationsin2Unknowns

Thestandardformoftheequationsis: o
1
x + b
1
y = k
1

o
2
x + b
2
y = k
2

Usingdeterminantnotation,CramersRulestatesthatthesolutionsforxandyare:

x =
_
k
1
b
1
k
2
b
2
_
_
u
1
b
1
u
2
b
2
_
y =
_
u
1
k
1
u
2
k
2
_
_
u
1
b
1
u
2
b
2
_

Noticethatthedeterminantsinthedenominatorsarethesame;thecolumnsinthese
determinantsarethecoefficientsofthevariablesintheequations.Thedeterminantsinthe
numeratorsarealmostthesameastheonesinthedenominators;theonlydifferenceisthat
thecolumnofcoefficientsassociatedwiththevariablebeingevaluatedisreplacedbythe
equationsconstantterms.

Example:Considertheseequations: Sx - 6y = 18
x - Sy = 7
Then,
x =

18 -6
7 -3

3 -6
1 -3

=
-12
-S
= 4 y =

3 18
1 7

3 -6
1 -3

=
3
-3
= -1

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
CramersRule3Equations

GeneralCasefor3Equationsin3Unknowns

Thestandardformoftheequationsis: o
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z = k
1

o
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z = k
2

o
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
z = k
3

Usingdeterminantnotation,CramersRulestatesthatthesolutionsforx, yandzare:

x =
_
k
1
b
1
c
1
k
2
b
2
c
2
k
3
b
3
c
3
_
_
u
1
b
1
c
1
u
2
b
2
c
2
u
3
b
3
c
3
_
y =
_
u
1
k
1
c
1
u
2
k
2
c
2
u
3
k
3
c
3
_
_
u
1
b
1
c
1
u
2
b
2
c
2
u
3
b
3
c
3
_
z =
_
u
1
b
1
k
1
u
2
b
2
k
2
u
3
b
3
k
3
_
_
u
1
b
1
c
1
u
2
b
2
c
2
u
3
b
3
c
3
_

Asinthecasewithtwoequations,thedeterminantsinthedenominatorsareallthesame;the
columnsinthesedeterminantsarethecoefficientsofthevariablesintheequations.The
determinantsinthenumeratorsarealmostthesameastheonesinthedenominators;theonly
differenceisthatthecolumnofcoefficientsassociatedwiththevariablebeingevaluatedis
replacedbytheequationsconstantterms.

Example:Considertheseequations: Sx + y + z = 7
x - 2y - z = -2
-2x + 2y + Sz = -4

Usingdeterminantnotation:

x =
_
7 1 1
-2 -2 -1
-4 2 3
_
_
3 1 1
1 -2 -1
-2 2 3
_
y =
_
3 7 1
1 -2 -1
-2 -4 3
_
_
3 1 1
1 -2 -1
-2 2 3
_
z =
_
3 1 7
1 -2 -2
-2 2 -4
_
_
3 1 1
1 -2 -1
-2 2 3
_

Performingtherequiredcalculations,weobtaintheuniquesolution:

Notethatthedeterminantof
variablecoefficientsmustbenon
zeroinordertouseCramers
Rule.Ifthisdeterminantiszero,
thereisnouniquesolutiontothe
systemofequations.
x =
-30
-15
= 2 y =
-45
-15
= S z =
30
-15
= -2
ADVANCED
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
AugmentedMatrices
SolvingSimultaneousEquations
Onerelativelyadvancedmethodofsolvingsimultaneousequationsisthroughtheuseofan
AugmentedMatrix.Amatrixisconsideredaugmentedifitconsistsofthematrixofthe
coefficientsofthevariables,augmentedbytheconstantterms.Inorderforasystemof
equationstobesolvedinthisform,theymustbewritteninstandardform.
Example:

GaussJordanElimination
AprocesscalledGaussJordanElimination(GJE)isusedtomanipulatetheaugmentedmatrixto
obtainasolutiontotheequations.GJEisalsocalledRowReductionbecauseeachstepadjusts
thevaluesinonerowoftheaugmentedmatrix.Attheendoftheprocess,therowsofthe
coefficientmatrixarereducedtotheIdentityMatrix.
Thefollowingmanipulationsoftherowsareallowed:
Multiplyingordividingarowbyascalar(i.e.,anumber).
Switchingrows.
Addingorsubtractingamultipleofonerowtoorfromanother.
Whenthisprocessiscomplete,theconstantcolumnoftheaugmentedmatrixhasbeen
convertedtothesolutionofthesystemofequations.Whydoesthiswork?Theprocessusedis
essentiallythesameassolvingasystemofequationsbytheeliminationmethod.InGJE,you
ignorethevariablenamesbyusingmatrices,butthemanipulationsarethesame.

InverseMatrix
ThisprocesscanalsobeusedtodevelopanInverseMatrix.Todothis,
Placeanidentitymatrixtotherightoftheaugmentedmatrixatthestart.
Performallrowoperationsonthismatrixasyouprogress.
Attheend,theoriginalidentitymatrixwillhavebeenconvertedtotheinversematrix.
Inthefollowingexamples,augmentedmatricesaremanipulatedtodevelopsolutionsto
systemsofequationsandidentitymatricesareconvertedtoinversematrices.
ADVANCED
j
-1 S 1S
2 -1 4
[
Theaugmented
matrixwouldbe:
Tosolvethe
system:
-x + Sy = 1S
2x - y = 4
-98-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ActionTaken Why?
Start x y =
StartingAugmentedMatrix 2 8 36 1 0
1 5 10 0 1
AdjustTopRow
(Row1)(a
11
)>Row1 Togeta"1"incolumn1 1 4 18 0.5 0
Row2(nochange) 1 5 10 0 1
Adjust2ndRow
Row1(nochange) 1 4 18 0.5 0
(Row2)(a
21
*Row1)>Row2 Togeta"0"incolumn1 0 1 8 0.5 1
Adjust2ndRow
Row1(nochange) 1 4 18 0.5 0
(Row2)(a
22
)>Row2 Togeta"1"incolumn2 0 1 8 0.5 1
AdjustTopRow
(Row1)(a
12
*Row2)>Row1 Togeta"0"incolumn2 1 0 50 =x 2.5 4
Row2(nochange) 0 1 8 =y 0.5 1
MatrixInverseTest
2 8 2.5 4 1 0
1 5 0.5 1 0 1
ActionTaken Why?
Start x y =
StartingAugmentedMatrix 1 3 13 1 0
2 1 4 0 1
AdjustTopRow
(Row1)(a
11
)>Row1 Togeta"1"incolumn1 1 3 13 1 0
Row2(nochange) 2 1 4 0 1
Adjust2ndRow
Row1(nochange) 1 3 13 1 0
(Row2)(a
21
*Row1)>Row2 Togeta"0"incolumn1 0 5 30 2 1
Adjust2ndRow
Row1(nochange) 1 3 13 1 0
(Row2)(a
22
)>Row2 Togeta"1"incolumn2 0 1 6 0.4 0.2
AdjustTopRow
(Row1)(a
12
*Row2)>Row1 Togeta"0"incolumn2 1 0 5 =x 0.2 0.6
Row2(nochange) 0 1 6 =y 0.4 0.2
MatrixInverseTest
1 3 0.2 0.6 1 0
2 1 0.4 0.2 0 1
OriginalMatrix InverseMatrix ProductMatrix
InverseMatrix OriginalMatrix ProductMatrix
Problem:solvethefollowingsetofsimultaneousequationsusingrowreduction
(formallycalledGaussJordanElimination)
x+3y=13
2xy=4
Algebra
2x2AugmentedMatrixExamples
AugmentedMatrix InverseMatrix
InverseMatrix
InverseMatrix
InverseMatrix
AugmentedMatrix
Problem:solvethefollowingsetofsimultaneousequationsusingrowreduction
(formallycalledGaussJordanElimination)
2x+8y=36
x+5y=10
-99-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ActionTaken Why?
StartingAugmentedMatrix x y z =
StartingAugmentedMatrix 2 1 3 7 1 0 0
1 4 2 17 0 1 0
3 1 2 2 0 0 1
WorkDown
Row1*1/2>Row1 Togeta"1"incolumn1 1 0.5 1.5 3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2(newRow1)>Row2 Togeta"0"incolumn1 0 4.5 3.5 20.5 0.5 1 0
Row3(3*newRow1)>Row3 Togeta"0"incolumn1 0 2.5 2.5 12.5 1.5 0 1
WorkDown
Row1(nochange) 1 0.5 1.5 3.5 0.5 0 0
SwitchRows2and3 NewRow2lookseasiertoworkwith 0 2.5 2.5 12.5 1.5 0 1
SwitchRows2and3 NewRow2lookseasiertoworkwith 0 4.5 3.5 20.5 0.5 1 0
WorkDown
Row1(nochange) 1 0.5 1.5 3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2/2.5>Row2 Togeta"1"incolumn2 0 1 1 5 0.6 0 0.4
Row3*2>Row3 Togetridofthefractions 0 9 7 41 1 2 0
WorkDown
Row1(nochange) 1 0.5 1.5 3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2(nochange) 0 1 1 5 0.6 0 0.4
Row3(9*Row2)>Row3 Togeta"0"incolumn2 0 0 2 4 4.4 2 3.6
WorkDown
Row1(nochange) 1 0.5 1.5 3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2(nochange) 0 1 1 5 0.6 0 0.4
Row3*.5>Row3 Togeta"1"incolumn3 0 0 1 2 2.2 1 1.8
WorkUp
Row1(Row3*1.5)>Row1 Togeta"0"incolumn3 1 0.5 0 0.5 2.8 1.5 2.7
Row2+Row3>Row2 Togeta"0"incolumn3 0 1 0 3 1.6 1 1.4
Row3(nochange) 0 0 1 2 2.2 1 1.8
WorkUp
Row1+(Row2*.5)>Row1 Togeta"0"incolumn2 1 0 0 1 =x 2 1 2
Row2(nochange) 0 1 0 3 =y 1.6 1 1.4
Row3(nochange) 0 0 1 2 =z 2.2 1 1.8
MatrixInverseTest
2 1 3 2 1 2 1 0 0
1 4 2 1.6 1 1.4 0 1 0
3 1 2 2.2 1 1.8 0 0 1
InverseMatrix ProductMatrix OriginalMatrix
2xy+3z=7
x+4y2z=17
3x+y+2z=2
Problem:solvethefollowingsetofsimultaneous
equationsusingrowreduction(formallycalled
GaussJordanElimination)
Algebra
3x3AugmentedMatrixExample
AugmentedMatrix InverseMatrix
InverseMatrix
-100-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ExponentFormulas
Word Description
of Property
Math Description
of Property
Limitations
on variables
Examples
Product of Powers
a
p
a
q
= a
(p+q)

x
4
x
3
= x
7

x
5
x
-8
= x
-3

Quotient of Powers
a
p
a
q
= a
(p-q)

a =
y
5
y
2
= y
3

Power of a Power
(a
p
)
q
= a
(pq)


(z
4
)
3
= z
12

(x
-3
)
-5
= x
15

Anything to the zero power is 1
a

= 1 a =
91

= 1
(xyz
3
)

= 1, ifx, y, z =
Negative powers generate the
reciprocal of what a positive
power generates
a
(-p)
=
1
a
p

a =
x
(-3)
=
1
x
3

_
1
x
]
-5
= x
5

Power of a product (a h)
p
= a
p
h
p

(3y)
3
= 27y
3

|(x +1)z]
4
= (x +1)
4
z
4

Power of a quotient [
a
h

p
=
a
p
h
p

h =
[
x
4

3
=
x
3
4

Converting a root to a power
a
n
= a
(
1
n
, )

n =
x = x
1
2
,

-101-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
LogarithmFormulas
Word Description
of Property
Math Description
of Property
Limitations
on variables
Examples
Definition of logarithm (lug
h
x = a)implies(h
a
= x)
h, x > u
h = 1
lug
3
x = 4 mplies3
4
= x i
lug
7
(-49) fined isunde
Log (base anything) of 1 is
zero
lug
h
1 =
h > u
h = 1
lug
32
1 =
ln 1 =
Exponents and logs are
inverse operators, leaving
what you started with
h
(lug
h
x)
= x
h, x > u
h = 1
3
(lug
3
92)
= 92
e
(|nx)
= x
Logs and exponents are
inverse operators, leaving
what you started with
lug
h
(h
x
) = x
h, x > u
h = 1
lug

(
xyz
) = xyz
ln (e
4y
) = 4y
The log of a product is the
sum of the logs
lug
h
(m n) =lug
h
m+lug
h
n
m, n, h > u
h = 1
lug
2
(32x) =5 +lug
2
x
ln (8e) =ln(8) +1
The log of a quotient is the
difference of the logs
lug
h
[
m
n
=lug
h
m-lug
h
n
m, n, h > u
h = 1
lug
3
_
3
x
] =1 -lug
3
x
ln_
12
e
] =ln(12) -1
The log of something to a
power is the power times the
log
lug
h
(m
p
) =p lug
h
m
m, h > u
h = 1
lug
4
(x
23
) =23 lug
4
x
ln (3
z
) =z ln(3)
Change the base to whatever
you want by dividing by the
log of the old base
lug
h
m =
lug
a
m
lug
a
h

m, a, h > u
a, h = 1
lug
1
x =
lug
1
x
2

-102-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ADVANCED
Algebra
e

Whatise?
eisatranscendentalnumber,meaningthatitisnottherootofanypolynomialwith
integercoefficients.
eisthebaseofthenaturallogarithms.

WhatMakesesoSpecial?
eshowsupoverandoverinmathematics,especiallyinregardtolimits,derivatives,and
integrals.Inparticular,itisnoteworthythat:

c = lim
n
_1 +
1
n
]
n
c = lim
n
_
n
n!
n
]
J
Jx
(c
x
) = c
x
_
Jx
x
c
1
= 1
Perhaps,mostinterestingly,thefollowingequation,calledEulersEquation,relatesfive
seeminglyunrelatedmathematicalconstantstoeachother.
e
|a
+ 1 =
SomeSeriesRepresentationsofe

c =
1
k!

k=0
= 1 +1 +
1
2
+
1
6
+
1
24
+
1
12u
+

c = _
(-1)
k
k!

k=0
_
-1
=
1
1 -1 +
1
2
-
1
6
+
1
24
-
1
12u
+

DecimalExpansion
c =2.7 1828 1828 4S9u 4S2S SS6u 2874 71SS 2662 4977 S724 7u9S 6999 S9S7 4966
The web site http:antwip.gsfc.nasa.govhtmltestgifcitye.2mil shows the uecimal
expansion of e to ovei 2 million uigits.

Therearemanymoreseriesinvolvinge.
Asamplingoftheseisprovidedat:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/e.html.
-103-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
TableofExponentsandLogarithms

= 1 lug
2
1 =
2
1
= 2 lug
2
2 = 1
2
2
= 4 lug
2
4 = 2
2
3
= 8 lug
2
8 = 3
2
4
= 1 lug
2
1 = 4
2
5
= 32 lug
2
32 = 5
2

= 4 lug
2
4 =
2
7
= 128 lug
2
128 = 7
2
8
= 25 lug
2
25 = 8
2
9
= 512 lug
2
512 = 9
2
1
= 1024 lug
2
124 = 1

3

= 1 lug
3
1 =
3
1
= 3 lug
3
3 = 1
3
2
= 9 lug
3
9 = 2
3
3
= 27 lug
3
27 = 3
3
4
= 81 lug
3
81 = 4
3
5
= 243 lug
3
243 = 5

= 1 lug
4
1 =
4
1
= 4 lug
4
4 = 1
4
2
= 1 lug
4
1 = 2
4
3
= 4 lug
4
4 = 3
4
4
= 25 lug
4
25 = 4

= 1 lug
5
1 =
5
1
= 5 lug
5
5 = 1
5
2
= 25 lug
5
25 = 2
5
3
= 125 lug
5
125 = 3
5
4
= 25 lug
5
25 = 4

= 1 lug

1 =

1
= lug

= 1

2
= 3 lug

3 = 2

3
= 21 lug

21 = 3

= 1 lug
7
1 =
7
1
= 7 lug
7
7 = 1
7
2
= 49 lug
7
49 = 2
7
3
= 343 lug
7
343 = 3

= 1 lug
8
1 =
8
1
= 8 lug
8
8 = 1
8
2
= 4 lug
8
4 = 2
8
3
= 512 lug
8
512 = 3

= 1 lug
9
1 =
9
1
= 9 lug
9
9 = 1
9
2
= 81 lug
9
81 = 2
9
3
= 729 lug
9
729 = 3

= 1 lug
1
1 =
1
1
= 1 lug
1
1 = 1
1
2
= 1 lug
1
1 = 2
1
3
= 1 lug
1
1 = 3

11

= 1 lug
11
1 =
11
1
= 11 lug
11
11 = 1
11
2
= 121 lug
11
121 = 2
11
3
= 1331 lug
11
1331 = 3

Definition:h
a
= c ifandonlyiflug
h
c = a
-104-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ConvertingBetweenExponentialandLogarithmicForms

Toconvertbetweenanexponentialexpressionandalogarithmicexpression,itisoftenhelpful
tousethefirstlastmiddleruletoperformtheconversion.Ifnecessasy,settheexpression
equaltoxbeforeapplyingtherule.
Note:thefirstlastmiddlerulerequiresthatthelogarithmicorexponentialportionofthe
expressionbeonthelefthandsideoftheequation.
h
x
= a
log
h
a = x
Converting from Exponential Form
to Logarithmic Form

using firstlastmiddle
Examples:
1) Converttheexpression,2
5
= S2to
logarithmicform.
Firstis2,lastis32andmiddleis
5.
So,wehave:|ug
2
32 = 5
2) Converttheexpression,7
3
= S4Sto
logarithmicform.
0sing fiistlastmiuule,
7
3
= S4Sconvertsto:log
7
S4S = S
So,wehave:|ug
7
343 = 3

log
h
a = x
h
x
= a
Converting from Logarithmic Form
to Exponential Form

using firstlastmiddle
Examples:
1) Solveforx:log
4
64 = x.
Firstis4,lastisxandmiddleis
64.So,4
x
= 64.
Then,4
1
= 4; 4
2
= 16; 4
3
= 64
So,wehave:x = 3
2) Solveforx:lnc = x
(rememberlnisshorthandforlog
c
)
0sing fiistlastmiuule,
log
c
c = xconvertsto: c
x
= c
So,wehave:x = 1
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ExpandingLogarithmicExpressions

Expandingalogarithmicexpressionisaprocessbestdescribedbyexample.Eachstepofthe
processisdescribedandillustratedintheexamplebelow.
Expand:log
2
[
6u
3
b
2
c
3
9c

Step1:Simplifytermsintheoriginalexpression,ifpossible:
log
2
[
6u
3
b
2
c
3
9c

= log
2
[
2u
3
b
2
3c
4

Step2:Writethelogofalloftheitemsinparenthesesinthesimplifiedexpression:
log
2
2 log
2
o log
2
b log
2
S log
2
c
Step3:Writetheexponentsfromthesimplifiedexpressionascoefficientsofeachlog:
log
2
2 3log
2
o 2log
2
b log
2
S 4log
2
c
Step4:Writethesigns(+foritemsinthenumerator;-foritemsinthedenominator):
log
2
2 + Slog
2
o + 2log
2
b - log
2
S - 4log
2
c
Step5:Simplifytermsinthesolution,ifpossible:
1 + Slog
2
o + 2log
2
b - log
2
S - 4log
2
c
Result: log
2
[
6u
3
b
2
c
3
9c

= 1 + Slog
2
o + 2log
2
b - log
2
S - 4log
2
c
Whenexpanded:
Eachiteminthenumeratorwillbecomeatermprecededbya+sign
Eachiteminthedenominatorwillbecomeatermprecededbyasign.
Allexponentsbecometermcoefficientsinexpandedform.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
CondensingLogarithmicExpressions

Condensingalogarithmicexpressionisaprocessbestdescribedbyexample.Eachstepofthe
processisdescribedandillustratedintheexamplebelow.

Condense:1 + 2 log
7
(2x) - log
7
Sy + 4 log
7
z
Step1:Reviewtheexpressionandidentifyeachelement.
Theargumentofeachlogwillbecomethebaseofanexponentialterm.
Thecoefficientofeachlogwillbecomeanexponentonthatterm
Thesignofeachtermdetermineswhethertheexponentialtermgoesinthe
numerator(+)ordenominatorofthecondensedexpression.

1 + 2 log
7
(2x) - log
7
Sy + 4 log
7
z

Step2:Setupthelogexpressionwiththeproperbaseandparenthesestocontainthevarious
terms.Ifthereisatleastonenegativesign,setupafractioninsidetheparentheses:
log
7
[



Step3:Convertanyconstantstopowersofthebaseofthelog:
log
7
[
7
1



Step4:Bringineachtermcontainingavariableasanexponentialexpressionwiththeproper
exponentandbase:
log
7
[
7 (2x)
2
z
4
3

Step5:Simplifytotheextentpossible:
log
7
[
7 (2x)
2
z
4
3
= log
7
[
74x
2
z
4
3
= log
7
[
28 x
2
z
4
3

indicatesthataterm
goesinthedenominator
+indicatesthataterm
goesinthenumerator
exponents Whencondensed,eachtermwill
becomeexponentialinform.All
termsinthenumeratorwillbe
multipliedtogether.Alltermsin
thedenominatorwillbemultiplied
together.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
CondensingLogarithmicExpressionsMoreExamples

Suggestionsfordoingproblems:
Useparenthesesliberallytohelpyourselfseewhatisgoingonintheproblem.
Dotheproblemsonestepatatime,workingcarefullydownthepage.
Leaveyourselfalotofroomtodothework;theremaybealotofsteps.

Someadditionalexamplestohelpseehowthevariousrulesfittogether:
(8 log
b
x) + _
1
4
log
b
y] - (2 log
b
z) = log
b
_
x
8
y
[
1
4

z
2
_
6 + ln(Sc
5
) = 6 + (lnS) + ln(c
5
) = 11 + ln S
2 + S log
4
(x
2
) + log
12
1 = log
4
(16) + log
4
(x
6
) + u = log
4
(16x
6
)
log
100
x + log
10
x =
log
10
(x)
log
10
(1uu)
+ log
10
x =
S
2
log
10
x
log
4
_
1
16
] - 6
(Iog
6
4)
= -2 - 4 = -6

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GraphinganExponentialFunction

Graphinganexponentialorlogarithmicfunctionisaprocessbestdescribedbyexample.Each
stepoftheprocessisdescribedandillustratedintheexamplesoverthenextfewpages.

Graphthefunction:y = 3
x-1
- 2
y = 3
x-1
- 2

Step2:Selectpointsforthegraph:
xy
uy = S
0-1
- 2 = -1.67
1y = S
1-1
- 2 = -1
2y = S
2-1
- 2 = 1

Step3:Graphtheexponentialfunction:

Inselectingpointsforan
exponentialcurve,good
choicesoftenrelatetothe
valueoftheexponent.
Choosevaluesthatmake
theexponent1,0and1;or
1,0and2.
Inthisexample,selectxsothat:
x - 1 = -1 so, x = u
x - 1 = u so, x = 1
x - 1 = 1 so, x = 2
3C:Sketchinthecurve
3A:Graphthe
asymptotey = -2
3B:Graphthepoints
Step1:Thehorizontalasymptoteoccursatthe
valueoftheconstantterm.Thisisbecausethe
exponentialtermapproacheszeroasthe
exponentbecomesmoreandmorenegative.
y = -2istheasymptote.
-109-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Four Exponential Function Graphs
Impact of vaiying base (above 1 anu below 1)

(x) = _
1
3
]
x

(x) = 3
x
(x) = - 3
x

(x) = - _
1
3
]
x

Note: exponential anu logaiithmic

functions that aie inveises of
each othei (on this page anu the
one following) aie the same coloi.
= - 3
-x

= 3
-x

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GraphingaLogarithmicFunction

Method 1: Direct Method

GraphthesampleFunction:y = log
4
(x - 1) + S
y = |ug
4
(x -1) + 3

Step2:Selectpointsforthegraph:
Inselectingpointsforalogarithmiccurve,goodchoicesoftenrelatetothevalueoftheargument.
Choosevaluesthatmaketheargument1andthebaseofthelogarithm(1and4inthisexample).
xy
2 y = log
4
(2 - 1) + S = log
4
(1) +S = 3
S y = log
4
(S - 1) + S = log
4
(4) + S = 4

Step3:Graphthelogarithmicfunction:

3C:Sketchinthecurve
Inthisexample,selectxsothat:
x - 1 = 1 so, x = 2
x - 1 = 4 so, x = S
Seewhathappenswhenwedothis
inthetabletotheright:
3A:Graphthe
asymptotex = 1
3B:Graphthepoints
Step1:Findtheverticalasymptoteatthevalueof
xthatmakestheargumentofthelogzero.
x -1 = u so, x = 1istheasymptote.
Notethattwopointsmaybesufficient tographthecurveif wehavealsodrawntheasymptote.
Byselectingxssothatthevaluesinparenthesesare 1and
thebaseofthelog,thecalculationofysbecomeseasy.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GraphingaLogarithmicFunction(contd)
Natural Logarithm Notation: ln ( )
"ln" standsforlogarithmusnaturalis(Latinfornaturallogarithm)andisthelogarithmwithbase"c".
Thelnnotationwasinventedinthelate1800s,whenalotofworkwasdonebyhand(therewereno
electroniccalculatorsorcomputers).Thosewhoworkedwithlogarithmsoftenusednaturallogarithms
extensively,sothisshorthandnotationbecamequitepopular,andhassurvivedtothisday.
So,whenyousee:ln ( ) thinklog
c
( ).
Method 1: Direct Method when the base of the logarithm is e
y = ln (x - 1) + 3

Step2:Selectpointsforthegraph:
Inselectingpointsforalogarithmiccurve,goodchoicesoftenrelatetothevalueoftheargument.
Choosevaluesthatmaketheargument1andthebaseofthelogarithm(1andeinthisexample).
xy
2 y = ln (2 -1) +S = ln (1) + S = 3
S.7 y = ln (c + 1 - 1) + S = ln (c) + S = 4

Step3:Graphthelogarithmicfunction:

3C:Sketchinthecurve
Inthisexample,selectxsothat:
x -1 = 1 so, x = 2
x -1 = e so, x = c +1
Youneedtoknowthatc ~ 2.7.
So,c +1 ~ S.7.
3A:Graphthe
asymptotex = 1
3B:Graphthepoints
Step1:Findtheverticalasymptoteatthevalueof
xthatmakestheargumentofthelogzero.
x -1 = u so, x = 1istheasymptote.
Notethattwopointsmaybesufficient tographthecurveif wehavealsodrawntheasymptote.
Byselectingxssothatthevaluesinparenthesesare 1and
thebaseofthelog,thecalculationofysbecomeseasy.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GraphingaLogarithmicFunction(contd)

Method 2: DoubleInverse Method

Step1:Findtheinversefunction: y = |ug
4
(x - 1) +3
Switchvariables: x = log
4
(y - 1) +S
Subtracttheconstant: -S - S
Result: x -S = log
4
(y - 1)
Takepowersofthelogbase: 4
x-3
= 4
Iog
4
(-1)

Simplify: 4
x-3
= y - 1
Subtracttheconstant: +1 + 1
ResultingINVERSEFunction: 4
x-3
+1 = y or y = 4
x-3
+ 1

Step3:Selectpointsforthegraph:
xy
2y = 4
2-3
+ 1 = 1.2S
Sy = 4
3-3
+ 1 = 2
4y = 4
4-3
+ 1 = S

Step4:Switchthexandyvaluestogetpointsforthelogarithmicfunction: xy
1. 252
23
Step5:Graphthelogarithmicfunction: 54

5C:Sketchinthecurve
Inselectingpointsforan
exponentialcurve,good
choicesoftenrelatetothe
valueoftheexponent.
Choosevaluesthatmake
theexponent1,0and1;or
1,0and2.
Inthisexample,selectxsothat:
x - S = -1 so, x = 2
x - S = u so, x = S
x - S = 1 so, x = 4
5A:Graphthe
asymptotex = 1
5B:Graphthepoints
Step2:Findthevertical
asymptoteatthevalueofx
thatmakestheargumentof
thelogzero.
x - 1 = u
so, x = 1istheasymptote.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Four Logarithmic Graphs
Impact of vaiying base (above 1 anu below 1)

(x) = lug
3
x (x) = lug
3
(-x)
(x) = lug
1 3
(-x) (x) = lug
1 3
x
= -lug
3
(-x) = -lug
3
(x)
Note: exponential anu logaiithmic functions that
aie inveises of each othei (on the eailiei page anu
on this one) aie the same coloi.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GraphsofVariousFunctions p
10.0
y=2
x
10.0
y=()
x
5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
10.0 10.0
y=log
2
x y=log

x
0 0
5.0
10.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
5.0
10.0
y=x

5.0
10.0
y=x
2
5.0
10.0
y=x
3
10.0
5.0
0.0
10.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
10.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ApplicationsofExponentialFunctions

ExponentialGrowthandDecay

[
cnJ
:oluc
= [
stort
:oluc
(1 + growtb)
n

[
cnJ
:oluc
= [
stort
:oluc
(1 - Jccoy)
n

InterestFormulas

Let: A(t)=Amountofmoneyattime(t)
P=Principal(startingamountofmoney);notethatP = A(u)
r=theannualrateofinterest(e.g.,4%or.04)
n=thenumberoftimesperyearthatinterestiscredited

Compoundinterestpaysinterestanumberoftimesduringtheyear;thatis,in
periodsafterthefirst,interestispaidontheoriginalamountinvestedplus
interestearnedinpriorperiods.

Compoundinterestpaidntimesayear: A(t) = P [1 +
r
n

nt

Simplecase.Ifinterestiscompoundedonanannualbasis,wegetthesimplest
formula:

Annualinterestpaidonceayear: A(t) = P (1 + r)
t

Continuouscompounding.Themorefrequentthecompoundingofinterest,the
moremoneyyouget.Thebestreturnonyourmoneyoccursifinterestis
compoundedcontinuously.Becauseofthedefinitionofthemathematical
constant"c",wegetthefollowingformula(knownasthePertformula).

Interestcompoundedcontinuously: A(t) = P (e)

rt

Note:ifyoulettheendvaluebe
representedbyA(t) andthe
startvaluebyP,yougetsimilar
formulastotheinterest
formulasbelow.
-116-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Example:
Start: -1 +
2
3
log
2
(x + 1) = 1
Add1:
2
3
log
2
(x + 1) = 2
Multiplyby
3
2
: log
2
(x + 1) = S
Exponentiate: 2
Iog
2
(x+1)
= 2
3

Simplify: (x +1) = 8
Subtract1: x = 7
Example:
Start: 2 + 4 S
(x-2)
= 11u
Subtract2:4 S
(x-2)
= 1u8
Divideby4: S
(x-2)
= 27
Takelogs: log
3
(S
(x-2)
) = log
3
27
Simplify: (x - 2) = S
Add2: x = 5
Algebra
SolvingExponentialandLogarithmicEquations
Logarithmsandexponentsareinverseoperationsinthesamewayadditionandsubtractionare,
andinthesamewaymultiplicationanddivisionare.So,toundoanexponent,youtakea
logarithm,andtoundoalogarithm,youtakeanexponent.
SolvinganExponentialEquation
Sometimesanequationhasavariableinanexponent.Tosolvethiskindofequation,follow
thesesteps:
Isolatethetermwiththeexponentononeside
oftheequation.Thatis,undoanyadditions,
subtractions,multiplications,anddivisionsin
theequation.
Takealogarithmofbothsidesoftheequation.
Usethebasethatexistsintheexponential
term.
Solvetheequationthatremains.
Note:intheexampleatright,thebaseof3isselected
forthelogarithmsbecauseitisthebaseoftheexponentintheproblem.
SolvingaLogarithmicEquation
Tosolveanequationwithalogarithminit,followthesesteps:
Isolatethelogarithmononesideofthe
equation.Thatis,undoanyadditions,
subtractions,multiplications,anddivisionsin
theequation.
Takethebaseofthelogarithmtothepowerof
bothsidesoftheequation.Usethesamebase
thatexistsinthelogarithmicterm.
Solvetheequationthatremains.
Note:intheexampleatright,thebaseof2isselected
foruseinexponentiationbecauseitisthebaseofthe
logarithmintheproblem.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
PolynomialFunctionGraphs
Definitions
LocalMaximumThelargestvaluethatafunctiontakesinaneighborhoodaroundthe
point.Theremustbesmallervaluesonbothsidesofthelocalmaximum.
LocalMinimumThesmallestvaluethatafunctiontakesinaneighborhoodaroundthe
point.Theremustbelargervaluesonbothsidesofthelocalminimum.
AfunctionisIncreasingoveranintervalifit
generateslargervaluesasxincreasesoverthe
sameinterval.
AfunctionisDecreasingoveranintervalifit
generatessmallervaluesasxincreasesoverthe
sameinterval.
Thegraphattherighthastwolocalmaximaandtwolocal
minima.Italsohasthreeintervalswhereitisincreasing
andtwointervalswhereitisdecreasing.
CharacteristicsoftheGraph faPolynomial o
IfP(x) olynomialofdegreen,then isap
P(x)iscontinuousov valuesofx. erall
Roots(i.e.,zeroes)ofP(x)existwhereverthegraphintersectsthexaxis.Thereareat
mostnofthem.
TheyinterceptofthegraphoccursatP(u),whichistheconstanttermofthe
omial. polyn
P(x)willhaveatmostn -1localextrema(eithermaximaorminima).Forexample,a
5
th
degreepolynomialwillhaveatmost4extrema;theexampleabovehas4extrema.
Ateachextreme,theslopeofalinetangenttothecurvewillbezero.However,ifthe
slopeofthetangentlinetothecurveatapointiszero,thepointisnotnecessarilyan
extreme.
Atalocalmaximum,thepolynomialmustbeincreasingontheleftanddecreasingon
theright.
Atalocalminimum,thepolynomialmustbedecreasingontheleftandincreasingon
theright.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ADVANCED
Algebra
FindingExtremawithDerivatives
Derivatives
Thederivativeofamonomialis:
d
dx
(x
n
) = nx
n-1

Thenotation
d
dx
meanstakeaderivativewithrespecttothevariablex.Weneedtoknowtwo
otherthingsaboutderivativesinordertofindextremawiththem.
Thederivativeofasum t is hesumofthederivatives.That is:
d
dx
((x) + g(x)) =
d
dx
((x)) +
d
dx
(g(x))
Derivativesprovideinformationabouttheslopesoflinestangenttothecurveateach
point.Sincetheslopeofatangentlineataminimumormaximumiszero,wecan
calculatethederivativeofapolynomialandsetitequaltozerotofindthexvaluesofits
extrema.
FindingExtremawithDerivatives
IfP(x)isapolynomial,anyextremalieatpointswhere
d
dx
(P(x)) =
Example1:Takethegeneralquadraticequation:y = ax
2
+hx +c
.
Weknowthatthegraphofthisequationhasasinglemaximumorminimumwhichisthevertex
oftheparabola.Takingaderiv ti f l ualtozero,weget: a veo thisformu aandsettingiteq
d
x d
(ax
2
+hx +c) = 2ax +h =
Solvingforx,weget:x = -
h
2a
,whichwealreadyknowisthexvalueofthevertex.
Example2:
Findlocalmaximaandm im f c x +5 in a orthe ubicequation:y = x
3
+3x
2
-9
d
dx
(x
3
+3x
2
-9x +5) = 3x
2
+x -9 =
Solvingthisforx,wefindlocalmaximaorminimamayexistatx = {-3, 1].
Onecaution:Whenaderivativeisequaltozero,itonlyprovidesthepossibilityofanextreme;
itdoesnotguaranteeanextreme.Itispossiblefortheslopeofacurvetobezeroandnothave
eitheralocalmaximumorminimum.Foranexampleofthis,lookaty = x
3
wherex = u.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra Algebra
FactoringHigherDegreePolynomials FactoringHigherDegreePolynomials
SumandDifferenceofCubes SumandDifferenceofCubes
Thesumofcubesisoftheform: Thesumofcubesisoftheform: a
3
+h
3
= (a +h) (a
2
-ah +h
2
)
Thedifferenceofcubesisoftheform: a
3
-h
3
= (a -h) (a
2
+ah +h
2
)
a
3
+h
3
= (a +h) (a
2
-ah +h
2
)
Thedifferenceofcubesisoftheform: a
3
-h
3
= (a -h) (a
2
+ah +h
2
)
Noticethefollowingaboutthesetwoformulas: Noticethefollowingaboutthesetwoformulas:
Eachformulafactorsintoabinomialandatrinomial. Eachformulafactorsintoabinomialandatrinomial.
Eachterminthebinomialisofdegree1. Eachterminthebinomialisofdegree1.
Eachterminthetrinomialisofdegree2. Eachterminthetrinomialisofdegree2.
Eachformulahasoneminussigninitsfactorization. Eachformulahasoneminussigninitsfactorization.
Ineachformula,thesecondtermofthebinomialfactortakesthesignofthesecond
termoftheoriginalexpression.
Ineachformula,thesecondtermofthebinomialfactortakesthesignofthesecond
termoftheoriginalexpression.
Identification Identification
Toseeifanexpressionisasumordifferenceofcubes,youmustansweryes
tothreequestions:
Toseeifanexpressionisasumordifferenceofcubes,youmustansweryes
tothreequestions:
Tableof
Cubes
1
3
= 1
2
3
= 8
S
3
= 27
3
4 = 64
S
3
= 12S
6
3
= 216
7
3
= S4S
3
8 = S12
9
3
= 729
1u
3
= 1,uuu
11
3
= 1,SS1
12
3
= 1,728
1. Arethereonlytwoterms? 1. Arethereonlytwoterms?
2. Isthefirsttermacube?Ifso,takeitscuberoottogetthevalueofa. 2. Isthefirsttermacube?Ifso,takeitscuberoottogetthevalueofa.
3. Isthesecondtermacube?Ifso,takeitscuberoottogetthevalueofb. 3. Isthesecondtermacube?Ifso,takeitscuberoottogetthevalueofb.
Thesolutionisbasedontheappropriateformulaabove,substitutingthecube
rootsofthetwotermsforaandb.Becareful!
Thesolutionisbasedontheappropriateformulaabove,substitutingthecube
rootsofthetwotermsforaandb.Becareful!
Note:Atelltalesignofwhenanexpressionmightbethesumordifferenceof2
cubesiswhenthecoefficientsonthevariablesarecubesandtheexponentson
thevariablesaremultiplesof3.
Note:Atelltalesignofwhenanexpressionmightbethesumordifferenceof2
cubesiswhenthecoefficientsonthevariablesarecubesandtheexponentson
thevariablesaremultiplesof3.
Examples: Examples:
(1) 2x
2
-1xy
2
+25y
4
) (1) 2x
2
-1xy
2
+25y
4
) 8x
3
+125y

= ( +5y
2
) (4x
(2) -8 x
8x
3
+125y

= ( +5y
2
) (4x
(2) -8 x x
3
= ( -2) (x
2
+2x +4)
(3) 2 -
3
( z ( +
2
x
3
= ( -2) (x
2
+2x +4)
(3) 2 -
3
( z ( +
2
7 4z = 3 -4 ) 9 +12z 1z )
(4)
x
3
21
7 4z = 3 -4 ) 9 +12z 1z )
(4)
x
3
21
+
y
3
27
= [
x

+
y
3
[
x
2
3
-
xy
18
+
y
2
9

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
FactoringHigherDegreePolynomials
VariableSubstitution
Onoccasionyouwillencounterapolynomialthatlooksfamiliarexceptthattheexponentson
thevariablesarehigherthanusual.Inthiscase,atechniquecalledVariableSubstitutionmay
beuseful.
Thestepsforvariablesubstitutionare:
Identifywhichkindofequationtheproblemresembles.
Identifywhattermsarelikelytorequiresubstitution.Oftenthereareonlyoneortwo
termsthatneedtobesubstituted.
Createnewvariablesforpurposesofsubstitution.
Rewritetheproblemintermsofthenewvariables.
Solvetheproblemintermsofthenewvariables.
Substitutetheoriginalvariablesintothesolution.
Performanyadditionalworkthatisneededbasedontheoriginalvariables.
Checkyourwork.
Example1:
Factor:x
4
+3x
2
y
2
-4y
4

Thislookslikeatypicaltrinomialfact oblemexc thelargeexponents. oringpr eptfor

Createtwonewvariables: u = y
2
u = x
2
and
Rewritetheexpression:
2
u u +3 u -4u
2

Factortheexpression: = (u +4u)(u -u)

Substituteoriginalvariables: = (x
2
+4y
2
)(x
2
-y
2
)
Performadditionalwork: = (x
2
+4y
2
)(x +y)(x -y)
Checkyourworkbymultiplyingthefactoredformtoseeifyougettheoriginalpolynomial.
Example2:
Factor:8x
3
+125y

Thislookslikeasumofcubes.
Createtwonewvariables: u u = 2xand = 5y
2

Usethesumofcubesformula: u
3
+u
3
u = (u + u) (u
2
- uu +
2
)
Substituteoriginalvariables: = (2x +5y
2
)(4x
2
-1xy
2
+25y
4
)
Checkyourworkbymultiplyingthefactoredformtoseeifyougettheoriginalpolynomial.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
FactoringHigherDegreePolynomials
SyntheticDivision
SyntheticDivisionisashortcuttodividingpolynomialsbyalinearfactor.Hereshowitworks.
Wewillusean t ss. example oillustratetheproce
Example1:(2x
3
+Sx
2
+ x +2)
2 2 S 1 2
2
2 2 S 1 2
4
2 1
2 2 S 1 2
4 2 2
2 1 1 u
x
2
x 1 iem
x -2) (
Step1:Inthelinearterm (x -r) takethevaluerasthedivisor.Intheexample,thedivisor
willbe-2.Weusetheletterrtoindicatethatthevalueisactuallyarootoftheequation.So,
insyntheticdivision,therootisusedasthedivisor.
Step2:Lineupthecoefficientsofthetermsfromhighest
degreetolowestdegreeinarowtotherightofthedivisor.If
atermismissing,useazeroforthecoefficientofthatterm.
Wewillcallthisarrayofcoefficientsthedividend.
Step3:Bringtheleadingcoefficientdownbelowtheline.
Step4:Multiplythedivisorbythenumberjustplacedbelow
thelineandputtheresultabovethelineandonecolumnto
theright.Addthetwonumbersinthatcolumntogeta
numberbelowthelineforthatcolumn.
Step5:RepeatStep4untilallofthecolumnshavebeen
completed.
Thefinalresultisasetofcoefficientsofthepolynomialthat
resultsfromthedivision.Theexponentsofthetermsofthe
resultingpolynomialbeginonelowerthanthedegreeofthe
originalpolynomial.
Intheexample,theresultis2x
2
+x -1,witharemainderof0.Theremainderof0isagood
indicationth th dproperly. at edivisionwasperforme
Example2:(x
5
+Sx
3
-4x) (x -1)
1 1 u S u 4 u
1 1 4 4 u
1 1 4 4 u u
x
4
x
3
x
2
x 1 iem
Fromthesyntheticdivisiontothe weget:
(x
5
+3x
3
-4x) (x -1)= x
4
+x
3
+4x
2
+4x
right,
Thereisnoconstanttermandnoremainderinthe
solutiontothisexample.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ComparingSyntheticDivisiontoLongDivision
AdvantagesofSyntheticDivision
Syntheticdivisionhasthefollowingadvantagesoverlongdivision:
Thedivisorisapossiblerootofthepolynomial;itisarootiftheremainderiszero.
Itisshorter.
Itismuchquicker.
Itworksbyadditionandmultiplicationinsteadofbysubtractionanddivision.Because
ofthis,itismuchlesspronetoerror.
ComparisonofMethods
Itisinstructivetocomparesyntheticdivisionandlongdivisiontogetabetterideaofwhy
syntheticdivisionworks.Considerthedivision:(2x
3
+Sx
2
+x -2) (x +2)
Thetwomethodsofperformingthisdivisionarelaidoutbelow.Noticethefollowing
correspondencesbetweentheexamples:
Rootvs.Factor.Syntheticdivisionusestherootofthe
polynomialasthedivisor.Longdivisionusesthewholefactor.
Thesignsontherootareoppositeinthetwomethods.
SyntheticDivision
2 2 S 1 2
4 2 2
2 1 1 u
Dividend.Thedividendsinthetwomethodsarethesame
(exceptthatsyntheticdivisionleavesoutthevariables).
SecondRow.Thesecondrowinsyntheticdivision
correspondstothesecondarycoefficientsof
eachdivisioninlongdivision(butwithopposite
signs).
LongDivision
2x
2
+1x -1
x +2 +1x -2 2x
3
+Sx
2
2x
3
+4x
2

-2 x
2
+1x
x
2
+2x
-1x -2
-1x -2
u
AnswerRow.Insyntheticdivisiontheanswerrow
(ofcoefficients)iscalculateddirectlybyaddingthe
valuesintherowsaboveit.Inlongdivision,itis
necessarytosubtractexpressionstodetermine
anotherexpressionthatmustbedividedbythe
divisortogetthenexttermoftheanswer.
AddingVariables.Insyntheticdivision,itis
necessarytoaddthevariablesaftertheansweris
determined.Inlongdivision,theansweris
provideddirectly.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ZeroesofPolynomials
DevelopingPossibleRoots
Ifapolynomialhastheform:
P(x) = a

x
n
+a
1
x
n-1
++a
n-1
x +a
n

Then,
P(x)willhaveexactlyn complexroots.Forexample,a5
th
degreepolynomialwillhave
exactly5complexroots.Note:someoftheserootsmaybethesame,andsomeof
maybereal. them
P(x)willhaveexactly(n -2k)realroots,wherekisawholenumber.Forexample,a
5
th
degreepolynomialwillhaveeither5realroots,3realroots,or1realroot.
DescartesRuleofSigns.(Notehowthistiesintothebull ve.) etabo
o ThenumberofpositiverealrootsofapolynomialP(x)isequaltothenumberof
signchangesinP(x),orislessthanthisbyamultip 2. leof
o ThenumberofnegativerealrootsofapolynomialP(x)isequaltothenumber
ofsignchangesinP(-x),orislessthanthisbyamultipleof2.Note:to
generateP(-x)quickly,justchangethesignsofthetermswithoddexponents.
P(x)willhaveanevennumberofnonrealroots.Forexample,a5
th
degreepolynomial
willhaveeither0nonrealroots,2nonrealroots,or4nonrealroots.Further,the
nonrealrootsexistinconjugatepairs;soif(o +bi)isarootofP(x),thensois
(o -bi).
RationalRootTheorem.Anyrationalrootshavethecharacteristicr =
Iatur uI a
n
Iatur uI a

.This
factisespeciallyusefuliftheleadcoefficientofthepolynomialis1;inthiscase,anyreal
rootsarefactorsoftheconstantterm.Thisfact,incombinationwiththeeaseof
syntheticdivision,makesfindingintegerrootsaquickprocess.
Example:
Whatcanwesayabout P -4x +4?(note:4signchanges) therootsof (x) = x
4
-2x
3
+x
2
Firs ethat P(-x) = x
4
+2x
3
+x
2
+4x +4(note:zerosignchanges) t,not
So,P(x)has4complexroots.0,2,or4ofthemarereal;allrealrootsarepositive.
Therealrootsmustbe1,2,or4(thepositivefactorsoftheconstantterm4).
Tofindoutmore,wehavetotestthepossiblerealrootvalues.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ZeroesofPolynomials
TestingPossibleRoots
Thefollowingtwo areveryusefulintestin sibleroots(ze ) olynomials. theorems gpos roes ofP
FactorTheorem:(x -r factorofapo lP(x)ifandonlyifP(r . )isa lynomia ) = u
RemainderTheorem:IfP(x)isdividedby(x -o),thentheremainderisP(o).
MethodsofTestingPossibleRoots
Ifapolynomialcanbefactored,thenfirst,factorthepolynomial;theproblemwillbeeasierto
solveafterfactoring.Inaddition,ifyouareabletoproducelinearorquadraticfactors,the
rootsofthosefactorswillberootsofthepolynomial.
Afterfactoring,thefollowingmethodscanbeusedtotestpossiblerootsofapolynomial.
Usesyntheticdivisiontotestpossibleroots.Becausesyntheticdivisionisquick,several
potentialrootscanbetestedinashortperiodoftime.
Substitute rootsintot lynomialtoseeiftheremainderiszero. possible hepo
IfP(a) = ,thenaisarootofP(x).
Graphthepolynomial.Realrootsexistwhereverthegraphcrossesthexaxis.Although
thismethodmayhelpfindtheapproximatelocationofroots,itisnotareliablemethod
fordeterminingexactvaluesofroots.
1 1 2 1 4 4
1 1 u 4
1 1 u 4 u
Example:Factorandfindtherootsof P(x) = x
4
-2x
3
+x
2
-4x +4
Tryingfirstthepossiblerootx = 1,thenthepossibleroot

Usingsyntheticdivision:
x = 2,wefindthattheybothwork. So,
P(x) = x
4
-2x
3
+x
2
-4x +4
= (x -1)(x -2)(x
2
+x +2)
2 1 1 u 4
2 2 4
1 1 2 u
Usingthequadraticformulaonthequadraticfactorinthis
expressionwe realroots.Soth fourrootsare: findtwonon e
x = ]1, 2,
-1+|7
2
,
-1-|7
2

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
IntersectionsofCurves
GeneralCase(BezoutsTheorem)
BezoutsTheoremstatesthatthemaximumnumberofintersectionsoftwodistinctcurvesin
thecomplexfieldistheproductofthedegreesofthecurves.(Note:forthesepurposes,aline
isconsideredacurveofdegree1.)Forgraphsintwodimensions,ifthedegreesoftwodistinct
curvesarerands,then:
Thereareatmost(r x)intersectionsofthetwocurves.
Therearealsocaseswherefewerthan(r x)intersectionsexist.
Tosolveforthepointsofintersection,eithersetthetwoequationsequaltoeachother
orusevariablesubstitution;thensolve.
Toapplythistheorem,itisusefultosetupeachcurveasanequationequaltozero.Examples
areprovidedbelowandonthepagesthatfollow.
TwoLines
Twodistinctlinesmayhaveeitherzerooronepointofintersection,asshowninthefollowing
illustrations:

Lineshavetheform:y = mx +h,sotheequationsofanytwolinescanbewrittenas:
y -m
1
x -b
1
= uandy -m
2
x -b
2
= u
Noticethatbothlinesareofdegree1;i.e.,r = 1ands = 1.UsingBezoutsTheorem:
Themaximumnumberofintersectionsis:1 1 = 1.
Theremaybelessthanoneintersection.
ParallelLines:
0pointsofintersection
IntersectingLines:
1pointofintersection
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
IntersectionsofCurves
ALineandaParabola
Thegeneralformsforalineandaparabolaare:
Line: y = mx +t
Parabola: y = ax
2
+hx +c
ForpurposesofBezoutsTheorem,theseconvertto:
Line: y -mx -t = Degree = 1
Parabola: y -ax
2
-hx -c = Degree = 2
UsingBezoutsTheorem,themaximumnumberofintersectionsis:1 2 = 2.Casesfor0,1,
and2intersectionsareprovidedbelow:

FindingthePoint(s)ofIntersection
Inordertofindanypointsofintersection,setthetwooriginalequationsequaltoeachother
andsolve:
ax
2
+hx +c = mx +t
ax
2
+(h -m)x +(c -t) =
Thisequationcanbesolvedforxbyanyofthemethodsusedtofindtherootsofaquadratic
equation.Thevalueofycanbecalculatedforeachvalueofxbysubstitutingxintoeitherof
theoriginalequations.

Note:weusethelettertinsteadof
bintheequationofalineinorderto
avoidconfusionwiththecoefficient
bintheequationofaparabola.
0pointsofintersection 1pointofintersection 2pointsofintersection
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
IntersectionsofCurves
ACircleandanEllipse
Thegeneralformsforacircleandanellipseare:
Circle: x
2
+y
2
= r
2

Ellipse:
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
h
2
= 1
ForpurposesofBezoutsTheorem,theseconvertto:
Circle: x
2
+y
2
-r
2
= Degree = 2
Ellipse:
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
h
2
-1 = Degree = 2
UsingBezoutsTheorem,themaximumnumberofintersectionsis:2 2 = 4.Casesfor0,1,2,
3and4intersectionsareprovidedbelow:

0pointsofintersection 1pointofintersection 2pointsofintersection

4pointsofintersection 3pointsofintersection
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
DomainsofRationalFunctions
RationalExpressionsarefractionswithpolynomialsinboththenumeratoranddenominator.If
therationalexpressionisafunction,itisaRationalFunction.
FindingtheDomainofaRationalFunction
Thedomain(e.g.,xvalues)ofarationalfunctionisthesetofallvaluesthatresultinvalidrange
values(e.g.,yvalues).Generally,therearetwosituationswhereavalueisnotincludedinthe
domainofarationalfunction:
Whenthedomainvalueresultsinarangevaluewithzerointhedenominator.
Whenthedomainvalueresultsinarangevaluecontainingthesquarerootofanegative
number.
Example1:
Considertherationalfunction:(x) =
x
2
-4
x+2
.
Sincetherearenosquareroots,theonlyvalueforwhich
wecannotcalculate(x)iswherex +2 = or,where
x = -2.Sothedomainisallrealxexceptx = -2,or:
{x | x = -2]
Noticetheholeinthegraphofthefunction.This
indicatesthatthefunctiondoesnothaveavaluefor
x = -2.
Example2:
Considerthefunction:(x) =

x+3
x-2

Thisfunctionhasnovalidxvaluesforx < -Sbecause
theywouldgeneratethesquarerootofanegative
numberinthenumerator.Inaddition,thedenominator
wouldbezeroifx = 2.Sothedomainisallrealx
greaterthan3exceptx = 2,or:
{x | x > -S onJ x = 2]

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
HolesandAsymptotes
Holes
Aholeinagraphexistswheneverafactor(x -a)isinboth
thenumeratoranddenominatorofarationalfunction,as
longasthereisnoverticalasymptoteat x = a.
Example:Inthefunction(x) =
x
2
-4
x+2
thefactor(x +2)is
inboththenumeratorandthedenominator.Infact,the
functioncanbereducedto(x) = x -2exceptatthepoint
x = -2wherethefunctionisundefined.
VerticalAsymptotes
Averticalasymptoteexistswheneverafactor(x -a)isinthedenominatorbutnotinthe
numeratorofarationalfunction.
Example:Inthefunction(x) =
2x
2
-4x+1
x
2
-3x+2
thefactors
(x -1)and(x -2)areinthedenominatorbutnotinthe
numeratorofthefunction.Thelocationofthevertical
asymptotesareshownasreddottedlinesatx = 1andx = 2
inthegraphatright.
HorizontalAsymptotes
Therearethreeseparatecasesforhorizontalasymptotesofarationalfunction
P(x)
Q(x)
:
1. IfthedegreeofP(x) >thedegreeofQ(x),thereisnohorizontalasymptote.
2. IfthedegreeofP(x) = the degree ofQ(x),ahorizontalasymptoteexistsattheline:
y =
|ead cue|c|ent u P(x)
|ead cue|c|ent u Q(x)
.
3. IfthedegreeofP(x) <thedegreeofQ(x),ahorizontalasymptoteexistsattheliney = .
Example:Inthefunction(x) =
2x
2
-4x+1
x
2
-3x+2
thedegreesofthepolynomialsinthenumerator
anddenominatorarethesame,andtheratiooftheirleadcoefficientsis
2
1
= 2.Thelocationof
thehorizontalasymptoteisshownasthereddottedliney = 2inthegraphabove.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GraphingRationalFunctions
Rationalfunctionsareoftwotypes:
Simplerationalfunctionsareoftheformy =
a
x-h
+koranequivalentformthatdoesnot
containapolynomialofdegreehigherthan1(i.e.,nox
2
, x
3
, ctc.justxsandconstants).
Generalrationalfunctionsareoftheformy =
P(x)
Q(x)
whereeitherP(x) or(x)isa
polynomialofdegree2orhigher(i.e.,containsanx
2
, x
3
, ctc.).
Ingeneral,itisagoodideatofindtheasymptotesforafunctionfirst,andthenfindpointsthat
helpgraphthecurve.Thedomainandanyholestypicallyfalloutduringthisprocess.The
rangeandtheendbehaviorbecomeidentifiableoncethefunctionisgraphed.
SimpleRationalFunctions
Ifyoucanputarationalfunctionintheform y =
a
x-h
+k,hereswhatyouget:
VerticalAsymptote:Occursatx = h.Theverticalasymptoteiseasytofindbecauseitoccurs
atx = b.Atthisvalueofx,thedenominatorisb -b = u,andyoucannotdividebyzero.
Hence,asxapproaches b,thedenominatorof
u
x-h
becomesverysmall,andthegraphshoots
offeitherupordown.
HorizontalAsymptote:Occursaty = k.Thefunctioncannothaveavalueofy = kbecause
thatwouldrequiretheleadterm,
u
x-h
tobezero,whichcanneverhappensinceo = u.
Hence,thefunctionwillapproachy = k,butwillneverreachit.
Domain:AllRealx = h.Novalueofxexistsataverticalasymptote.
Range:AllRealy = k.Novalueofyexistsatahorizontalasymptoteinsimplerational
functions.
Holes:None.
EndBehavior:Bothendsofthefunctiontendtowardthehorizontalasymptote,so:
Ax x

-, y

k and Ax x

, y

k

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SimpleRationalFunctionsExample
Example:y =
5
x-1
-2
First,notethath = 1andk = -2
VerticalAsymptote:Occursatx = 1becauseifx = 1,thedenominator,x -1,wouldbe
zero.
HorizontalAsymptote:Occursaty = -2becausetheleadterm,
5
x-1
,canneverbezero.
Hence,thefunctioncanapproachy = -2,butwillneverreachit.
Domain:AllRealx = 1.Novalueofxexistsataverticalasymptote.
Range:AllRealy = -2.Novalueofyexistsatahorizontalasymptoteinasimplerational
function.
Holes:None.
EndBehavior:Bothendsofthefunctiontendtowardthehorizontalasymptote,so:
As x

-, y

-2 and As x

, y

-2
Graphing:
Step1.Graphtheverticalandhorizontalasymptotes
(thedashedhorizontalandverticallinesshown).
Step2.Picksomexvaluesandcalculatethe
correspondingyvalues.Iliketopickacoupleofx
valuestotheleftoftheverticalasymptote(x = 1)and
acoupleofxvaluestoitsright.So,letstrysome.
x
y =
5
x -1
-2
2 -S.67
1 -4.S
0 -7
2 S
3 u.S
4 -u.SS
Step3.Drawacurveoneachsideof
theverticalasymptote:throughthe
pointsonthatsideandapproaching
boththehorizontalandvertical
asymptotes.
Notethatthedotattheintersectionof
theasymptoteshascoordinates(b, k).
Recallthatthesimplerational
formis:y =
a
x-h
+ k
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GeneralRationalFunctions
Generalrationalfunctionsareoftheform:y =
P(x)
Q(x)

Theeasiestwaytographageneralrationalfunctionistofactorboththenumeratorand
denominatorandsimplifybyeliminatingidenticalfactorsinthenumeratoranddenominator.
Example:iny =
(x+3)(x+2)
(x-1)(x+2)
the(x +2)inthenumeratoranddenominatorcanbe
eliminatedtoobtainthefunctiontobegraphed:y =
(x+3)
(x-1)
.
VerticalAsymptotesandHoles:Anyroot(alsocalledazero)ofthedenominatorofarational
function(priortosimplification)willproduceeitheraverticalasymptoteorahole.
VerticalAsymptote:Ifrisarootofthedenominatorisalsoarootofthesimplified
denominator,thenx = risaverticalasymptoteofthefunction.
Hole:Ifrisarootofthedenominatorandisnotarootofthesimplifieddenominator,
thenx = rdefinesthelocationofaholeinthefunction.
HorizontalAsymptote:Onewaytofindthehorizontalasymptotesofageneralrational
function(also,seethepageonHolesandAsymptotes,above)istoeliminatealltermsofthe
polynomialsinboththenumeratoranddenominatorexcepttheoneswiththesinglegreatest
exponentofalltheterms.Then,
Ifalltermsareeliminatedfromthenumerator,thehorizontalasymptoteoccursat
y = u.
Example:y =
x+3
x
2
-5x+


y =
nuth|ng
x
2
hasahorizontalasymptoteaty = u.
Notethatalltermsinthenumeratorwereeliminatedbecausenoneofthemhadthe
greatestexponentintherationalfunction,whichinthisexampleis2.
Ifatermremainsinboththenumeratoranddenominator,thehorizontalasymptote
occursatthereducedformoftheremainingterms.
Example:y =
2x
2
+3
3x
2
-5x+


y =
2x
2
3x
2
=
2
3
hasahorizontalasymptoteat
y =
2
3
.
Ifalltermsareeliminatedfromthedenominator,thefunctiondoesnothavea
horizontalasymptote.
Example:y =
x
2
-5x+
x-3


y =
x
2
nuth|ng
doesnothaveahorizontalasymptote.
Notethatalltermsinthedenominatorwereeliminatedbecausenoneofthemhad
thegreatestexponentintherationalfunction,whichinthisexampleis2.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GeneralRationalFunctions(contd)
Domain:ThedomainisalwaysallRealxexceptwherethereisaverticalasymptoteorahole.
Nofunctionvalueisassociatedwithxateitheraverticalasymptoteorahole(orwhenaneven
rootofanegativenumberisrequired).
Range:Therangeisabittrickier.Youwillneedtolookatthegraphtodeterminetherange.
Youmightthinkthatnoyvaluewouldexistatahorizontalasymptote,likeinsimplerational
functions.However,itispossibleforafunctiontocrossoveritshorizontalasymptoteandthen
workitswaybacktotheasymptoteasx

-orasx

.Oddbuttrue(seebelow,right).
Forodditiesintherangeofafunction,checktheseout:
y =
x
2
-5
x
2
+3
y =
-1x+5
x
2
+x+5

EndBehavior:Bothendsofthefunctiontendtowardthehorizontalasymptoteifthereisone.
However,ifthereisnotone,youmustlookatthegraphtodetermineendbehavior.Notethat
thefunctionbelowdoesnothaveahorizontalasymptote:

y =
x
3
x
2
-

Inthisfunction,
As x

-, y

-,
As x

, y

Althoughthisfunctiondoesnothavea
horizontalasymptote,itdoeshavea
nonverticalasymptote:theliney = x.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GeneralRationalFunctionsExample
Example: y =
2x
2
+x-3
x
2
-1

Factorboththenumeratorandthedenominator: y =
(x-1)(2x+3)
(x+1)(x-1)

GettheRoots:
Numcuto: x=-1.5, x=1
cnomnuto: x=-1, x=1

Simplify:Since1isarootofboththenumeratorandthedenominator,thefunctionmaybe
simplifiedasfollows:
y =
(x-1)(2x+3)
(x+1)(x-1)
=
(x-1)(2x+3)
(x+1)(x-1)
=
2x+3
x+1

VerticalAsymptotesandHoles:1and1arerootsoftheoriginaldenominator,sothey
mustbeeitherverticalasymptotesorholes.
VerticalAsymptote:Aftersimplification,thisfunctionstillcontains1asarootinthe
denominator.Therefore,x = -1isaverticalasymptoteofthefunction.
Hole:1isarootofthedenominatoroftheoriginalfunctionbutisnotarootofthe
denominatoroftherevisedfunction.Therefore,thisfunctionhasaholeatx = 1.
HorizontalAsymptote:Eliminatealltermsofbothpolynomialsexceptanywiththesingle
greatestexponentofalltheterms.Inthiscase:
y =
2x
2
x
2


y = 2 isahorizontalasymptote.Sinceatermremainsinboththe
numeratoranddenominator,thehorizontalasymptoteoccursatthereducedformof
thoseremainingterms.
Domain:AllRealxexceptwherethereisaverticalasymptoteorahole.
So,thedomainisallRealx = -1 ur 1.
Wemustgraphthefunctioninordertogetagoodlookatitsrangeandendbehavior.We
mustplotpointsonbothsidesoftheverticalasymptote.
(graphonnextpage)
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Step3.Drawacurveoneachsideoftheverticalasymptote:
throughthepointsonthatsideandapproachingboththe
horizontalandverticalasymptotes.
Step4:Drawanopencircleatthepointofanyholes.
Seethehole
at(1, 2. 5)!
Algebra
GeneralRationalFunctionsExample(contd)

Graphing:

Step1.Graphtheverticalandhorizontalasymptotes.
Step2.Picksomexvaluesoneachsideoftheverticalasymptoteandcalculatethe
correspondingyvalues.

Range:Therangemustbedeterminedfromthegraph.
Itappearsthattherangeexcludesonlythehorizontalasymptote.
Sotherangeis:allRealy = 1.

EndBehavior:Inthisfunction,
Ax x

-, y

1, Ax x

, y

1

x y =
2x +3
x +1

4 1.67
3 1.S
2 1
0 S
1 2.S(ahole)
2 2.SS
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
OperatingwithRationalExpressions
Performingoperationswithrationalexpressionsisverysimilartoperformingoperationswith
fractions.Afterall,thatsreallywhatrationalexpressionsarefractionsinvolvingpolynomials.
AdditionandSubtraction
Toaddorsubtractrationalexpressions:
Factorboththenumeratoranddenominatorasmuchaspossible.
Createacommondenominator.
Addorsubtractexpressions.
Simplify.
Example:
x
x+1
+
1
x+2

=
x+2
x+2

x
x+1
+
1
x+2

x+1
x+1

=
(x
2
+2x)+(x+1)
(x+2)(x+1)
=
(x
2
+3x+1)
(x+2)(x+1)

MultiplicationandDivision
Tomultiplyordividerationalexpressions:
Factorboththenumeratoranddenominatorasmuchaspossible.
Multiplyordivideexpressions.(Remember,todivide,flipthatguyandmultiply.)
Cancelallfactorsthatappearinboththenumeratoranddenominator.
Simplify.
Example:
x
2
+2x-8
x
2
+2x-3

x
2
+4x+3
x
2
+6x+8

=
(x+4)(x-2)
(x+3)(x-1)

(x+1)(x+3)
(x+4)(x+2)

=
(x+4)(x-2)
(x+3)(x-1)

(x+1)(x+3)
(x+4)(x+2)
=
(x-2)(x+1)
(x-1)(x+2)

Notethatyoucancrossoutcommon
factorsinthenumeratorand
denominatoracrosstheexpressions
thatarebeingmultiplied.
Afterthenumeratorsareadded,youmust
checktoseeifthenewnumeratorcanbe
factored.Ifso,furthersimplificationmay
bepossible.Note:nofurther
simplificationispossibleinthisexample.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SolvingRationalEquations
SolvingRationalEquations
Solvingrationalequationsinvolvesonemainrule:Getridofthedenominators!
Afullerlistingofthestepsinvolvedis:
Multiplybywhateverexpressionsarenecessarytoeliminatethedenominators.
Paycarefulattentiontowhichvaluesmaketheexpressionsyouuseequaltozero
(becauseyouarenotallowedtomultiplybothsidesofanequationbyzero).
Solvetheremainingproblem.
Checkeachanswertoseeifitisasolutiontotheoriginalproblem.Note:aslongasyou
donotmultiplybyzero,yoursolutionsarelikelytobevalid.

Example1:Solve
x+1
x-3
=
x-3
x+1

Firstnotethatxcannotbe3or1since
eachofthesecreatesanundefined
fractionintheoriginalproblem.
Theeasiestwaytostartthisproblemisto
crossmultiplytoget:
(x +1)
2
= (x -S)
2

Then,x
2
+2x +1 = x
2
-6x +9
So, 8x = 8
Andfinally, x = 1
Checkwork:

x+1
x-3
.
x-3
x+1

1+1
1-3
.
1-3
1+1

2
-2
=
-2
2

Example2:Solve
x
x+8
=
1
x+3

Firstnotethatxcannotbe8or3since
eachofthesecreatesanundefined
fractionintheoriginalproblem.
Theeasiestwaytostartthisproblemisto
crossmultiplytoget:
x
2
+Sx = x +8
Then,x
2
+2x -8 = u
So, (x +4)(x -2) = u
Andfinally, x = -4 ur 2
Check4:
x
x+8
.
1
x+3

-4
-4+8
.
1
-4+3

-4
4
=
1
-1

Check2:
2
2+8
.
1
2+3

2
1
=
1
5

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Case1:x -1 > u

--x > 1
Then: Sx -S > 2x -2
So, x > S
Thesolutionhererequires:
Whichsimplifiesto:x > S
x > 1 onJ x > S
Case2:x -1 < u

-- x < 1
Then: Sx -S < 2x -2
So, x < S
Thesolutionhererequires:
Whichsimplifiesto:x < 1
x < 1 onJ x < S
Algebra
SolvingRationalInequalities
SolvingRationalInequalities
SolvingRationalInequalitiesisabitmoreinvolvedthansolvingRationalEquations.Thekey
issueintheInequalitiesiswhetherinthestepwhereyoueliminatethedenominator,youare
multiplyingbyanegativenumber.Remember,whenyoumultiplybyanegativenumber,you
mustflipaninequalitysign.
Thestepsinvolvedaresimilartothoseforsolvingrationalequations:
Multiplybywhateverexpressionsarenecessarytoeliminatethedenominators.
Identifywhenthedenominatorsarepositiveandwhentheyarenegative;setupcases
foreachsituation.Withineachcase,youwillneedtomeetmultipleconditions(i.e.,
usingthewordandbetweenconditionswithinacase).
Paycarefulattentiontowhichvaluesmaketheexpressionyoumultiplyequaltozero
(becauseyouarenotallowedtomultiplybothsidesofaninequalitybyzero).
Solvetheremainingproblems.Anyofthecasesproducesvalidresults,soyoumust
combinethesolutionsforthevariouscaseswithors.
Checksampleanswersineachrangeyoudeveloptoseeiftheyaresolutionstothe
originalproblem.Alternatively,graphthesolutiontoseeiftheresultsarecorrect.
Example:Solve
(3x-5)
(x-1)
> 2
Wewanttoeliminatethedenominator(x -1)butweneedtocreate2cases:
Thecombinedresultofthetwocasesis:
x < 1 or x > S
Tochecktheresult,wegraphthefunctionandsee
whereitproducesayvalueabove2;thisistheset
ofxvalueswherethedarkgreencurveintersects
thelightgreenregioninthegraphbelow.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
IntroductiontoConicSections

Theintersectionofaconeandaplaneiscalledaconicsection.
Therearefourtypesofcurvesthatresultfromtheseintersections
thatareofparticularinterest:
Parabola
Circle
Ellipse
Hyperbola
Eachofthesehasageometricdefinition,fromwhichthealgebraic
formisderived.

GeometricDefinitions

ParabolaThe
setofallpoints
thatarethe
samedistance
fromapoint
(calledthe
focus)anda
line(calledthe
Directrix).
EllipseThesetofallpointsfor
whichthesumofthedistancesto
twopoints(calledfoci)isconstant.
CircleThesetofallpointsthatarethe
samedistancefromapoint(calledthe
center).Thedistanceiscalledtheradius.
Hyperbola
Thesetofall
pointsfor
whichthe
differenceof
thedistances
totwopoints
(calledfoci)is
constant.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ParabolawithVertexattheOrigin(StandardPosition)

HorizontalDirectrix VerticalDirectrix

CharacteristicsofaParabolainStandardPosition
HorizontalDirectrix VerticalDirectrix
Equation y =
1
4p
x
2
x =
1
4p
y
2

Ifp > u opensup opensright

Ifp < u opensdown opensleft
Eccentricity(e) c = 1
c = 1
Valueofp(inillustration) p = 1 p = 1
Vertex (u, u)theorigin (u, u)theorigin
Focus (u, p) (p, u)
Directrix y = -p x = -p
Axisofsymmetry x = u(yaxis) y = u(xaxis)

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ParabolawithVertexat(h, k)

HorizontalDirectrix VerticalDirectrix
CharacteristicsofaParabolawithVertexatPoint(h, k)
HorizontalDirectrix VerticalDirectrix
Equation
(y - k) =
1
4p
(x - b)
2
(x - b) =
1
4p
(y -k)
2

Ifp > u opensup opensright

Ifp < u opensdown opensleft
Eccentricity(e) c = 1
c = 1
Vertex (b, k) (b, k)
Focus (b, k + p) (b + p, k)
Directrix y = k - p x = b - p
Axisofsymmetry x = b y = k
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ParabolainPolarForm
HorizontalDirectrix VerticalDirectrix

CharacteristicsofaParabolasinPolarForm
HorizontalDirectrix VerticalDirectrix
Equation(simplified) r =
p
1 _ sin0
r =
p
1 _ cos 0

If" - "indenominator
opensup
DirectrixbelowPole
opensright
DirectrixleftofPole
If" + "indenominator
opensdown
DirectrixabovePole
opensleft
DirectrixrightofPole
Eccentricity(e) c = 1
c = 1
FocalParameter(p)
p =distancebetweentheDirectrixandtheFocus
Note:pinPolarFormisdifferentfrompinCartesianForm
CoordinatesofKeyPoints:(changeallinstancesofpbelowtopif+isinthedenominator)
Vertex (u, -p2) (-p2, u)
Focus (u,u) (0,0)
Directrix y = -p x = -p

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
Circles

CharacteristicsofaCircle
inStandardPosition
Equation x
2
+ y
2
= r
2

Center (u,u)theorigin
Radius r
Intheexample r = 4
CharacteristicsofaCircle
inPolarForm
Equation r = constont
Pole (u, u)
Radius r
CharacteristicsofaCircle
CenteredatPoint(h,k)
Equation (x - b)
2
+ (y - k)
2
= r
2

Center (b, k)
Radius r
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
EllipseCenteredontheOrigin(StandardPosition)
VerticalMajorAxis
HorizontalMajorAxis

CharacteristicsofanEllipseinStandardPosition
HorizontalMajorAxis VerticalMajorAxis
Intheaboveexample
o = S, b = 4, c = S o = S, b = 4, c = S
Equation
x
2
o
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1
x
2
b
2
+
y
2
o
2
= 1
Valuesof"o"and"b"
o > b
Valueof"c"
c
2
= o
2
- b
2

Eccentricity(e)
c = co u < c < 1
Center
(u,u)theorigin
MajorAxisVertices
(_o, u) (u, _o)
MinorAxisVertices
(u, _b) (_b, u)
Foci
(_c, u) (u, _c)
Directrixes(notshown) x = _oc y = _oc

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
EllipseCenteredat(h, k)
VerticalMajorAxis
HorizontalMajorAxis

CharacteristicsofanEllipseCenteredatPoint(h, k)
HorizontalMajorAxis VerticalMajorAxis
Equation
(x -b)
2
o
2
+
(y - k)
2
b
2
= 1
(x - b)
2
b
2
+
(y - k)
2
o
2
= 1
Valuesof"o"and"b"
o > b
Valueof"c"
c
2
= o
2
- b
2

Eccentricity(e)
c = co u < c < 1
Center
(b, k)
MajorAxisVertices (b _ o, k) (b, k _ o)
MinorAxisVertices (b, k _b) (b _ b, k)
Foci (b _c, k) (b, k _ c)
Directrixes(notshown) x = b _ oc y = k _ oc
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
EllipseinPolarForm(Pole=OneFocus)
VerticalMajorAxis
HorizontalMajorAxis

CharacteristicsofanEllipseinPolarForm
HorizontalMajorAxis VerticalMajorAxis
Equation r =
cp
1 _ c cos 0
r =
cp
1 _ c sin0

Valueofa o =distancefromtheCentertoeachmajoraxisVertex
Valueofc c =distancefromtheCentertoeachFocus
Eccentricity(e) c = co u < c < 1
FocalParameter(p) p = uistance fiomeach Focus to its Biiectiix = oc -c
CoordinatesofKeyPoints:
If" - "indenominator allcoordinatevaluesareshownbelow
If" + "indenominator changeallinstancesof"c", below,to" - c"
Center (c, u) (u, c)
MajorAxisVertices (c _ o, u) (u, c _o)
Foci (c _c, u) (u, c _ c)
Directrixes x = c _ oc y = c _ oc
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
HyperbolaCenteredontheOrigin(StandardPosition)
HorizontalTransverseAxis VerticalTransverseAxis

CharacteristicsofaHyperbolainStandardPosition
HorizontalTransverseAxis VerticalTransverseAxis
Intheaboveexample
o = S, b = 4, c = S o = 4, b = S, c = S
Equation
x
2
o
2
-
y
2
b
2
= 1
y
2
o
2
-
x
2
b
2
= 1
Valueofc
c
2
= o
2
+ b
2

Eccentricity(e)
c = co c > 1
Center
(u,u)theorigin
Vertices
(_o, u) (u, _o)
Foci
(_c, u) (u, _c)
Asymptotes
y = _
b
o
x
y = _
o
b
x
Directrixes(notshown)
x = _oc y = _oc
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
HyperbolaCenteredat(h, k)
HorizontalTransverseAxis VerticalTransverseAxis

CharacteristicsofaHyperbolaCenteredatPoint(h, k)
HorizontalTransverseAxis VerticalTransverseAxis
Equation
(x - b)
2
o
2
-
(y - k)
2
b
2
= 1
(y - k)
2
o
2
-
(x -b)
2
b
2
= 1
Valueofc
c
2
= o
2
+ b
2

Eccentricity(e)
c = co c > 1
Center
(b, k)
Vertices (b _ o, k) (b, k _o)
Foci (b _ c, k) (b, k _ c)
Asymptotes
(y - k) = _
b
o
(x - b)
(y -k) = _
o
b
(x - b)
Directrixes(notshown)
x = b _ oc y = k _ oc
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
HyperbolainPolarForm(Pole=OneFocus)
HorizontalTransverseAxis VerticalTransverseAxis

CharacteristicsofaHyperbolainPolarForm
HorizontalTransverseAxis VerticalTransverseAxis
Equation r =
cp
1 _ c cos 0
r =
cp
1 _ c sin0

Valueofa o =distancefromtheCentertoeachVertex
Valueofc c =distancefromtheCentertoeachFocus
Eccentricity(e) c = co c > 1
FocalParameter(p) p = uistance fiomeach Focus to its Biiectiix = c - oc
CoordinatesofKeyPoints:
If" - "indenominator allcoordinatevaluesareshownbelow
If" + "indenominator
changeallinstancesof" c", below,to"c"
Center (-c, u) (u, -c)
Vertices (-c _ o, u) (u, -c _ o)
Foci (-c _ c, u) (u, -c _ c)
Directrixes x = -c _ oc y = -c _oc
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
HyperbolainPolarForm(Pole=OneFocus)
PartialConstructionOvertheDomain:to2a
Itisinstructivetolookatpartialconstructionsofahyperbolainpolarform.Letstakealookat
acurveconstructedbyvarying0fromuto2n,quadrantbyquadrant:
urve: r =

1 - 2us 0
parameters: a = 2, c = 4, e = 2, p = 3
Intheplotsbelow,eachquadrantinthedomainisrepresentedbyaseparatecolor.The
portionofthecurveaddedineachillustrationispresentedasathickerlinethantherestofthe
curve.TheFociofthecurvearedarkbluepointsandtheDirectrixesarelightblueverticallines.

Thefinalcurvelookslikethis.
Thecurveisplottedoverthe
domainu 0 2nbutcould
alsobeplottedoverthedomain
-n 0 n.
Thecosinefunctionhasamajor
impactonhowthecurvegraphs.
Notethetwoyellowpoints
wherecos 0 = u.S.Atthese
points,thecurveisundefined.
Q I:Domainu 0 n2.Note
thatthecurvestartsoutonthe
leftandswitchestotherightat
0 = nS,wherethecurveis
undefined.

Q II:Domainn2 0 n.The
curvecontinuesontherightside
ofthegraphandgentlycurves
downtothexaxis.
Q III:Domainn 0 Sn2.
Thecurvecontinuesitsgentle
swingbelowthexaxis. Q IIIis
essentiallyareflectionofthe
curveinQ IIoverthexaxis.
Q IV:DomainSn2 0 2n.
Thecurvecontinuesontheright
andswitchestotheleftat
0 = SnS,wherethecurveis
undefined.
-151-
Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Examples:

Sx - 2y - 4 = u
-2x +7y + 1 = u
Sy
2
- 2x + 7y - S = u
x
2
+4x +2y - 1 = u
4x
2
- 9y
2
-8x +27y + 2 = u
-Sx
2
+ y
2
+6x -12y - 1S = u
x
2
+ y
2
+ 4x - 1uy = u
-4x
2
- 4y
2
+ 16x -8y + S = u
Sx
2
+Sy
2
+ 2ux -12y -S = u
-x
2
- 2y
2
+8x +12y + 1S = u
Algebra
GeneralConicEquationClassification

TheGeneralCaseoftheConicEquationis:
Ax
2
+ Bxy + Cy
2
+ Dx + Fy + F =
ThesecondtermmaybeomittedifthecurveisnotrotatedrelativetotheaxesintheCartesian
Plane,givingthesimplerform:
Ax
2
+ Cy
2
+Dx + Fy +F =
ConicClassificationTree
Inthisform,itisrelativelyeasytoidentifywhichtypeofcurvetheequationrepresents,using
thefollowingdecisiontree:

no
no
no
yes
no
yes
(A = C = u)
AreAx
2
andCy
2

bothmissing?
Theequationisnot
aconic.Itisaline.
AreAandC
differentnumbers?
(A = C)
(A = C)
AreAandCthe
samenumber?
(A C < u)
Arethesignson
Ax
2
andCy
2

different?
(A C = u)
IseitherAx
2
orCy
2

missing?
Theequationisa
parabola.
Theequationisa
hyperbola.
Theequationisa
circle.
Theequationisan
ellipse.
yes
yes
yes
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GeneralConicEquationManipulation

Afteraconicequationisclassified,itmustbealgebraicallymanipulatedintotheproperform.
Thestepsinvolvedare:
1. Iftherearenegativecoefficientsinfrontofthesquareterms(Ax
2
and/orCy
2
),youmay
choosetoeliminatethembymultiplyingtheentireequationby-1.
2. Groupthextermsontheleft,theytermsontheright,andmovetheconstanttothe
rightsideofthe=sign.Setupparenthesesaroundthextermsandtheyterms.
3. Factoroutthecoefficientsofthex
2
andy
2
terms.
4. Completethesquaresforboththextermsandtheyterms.Becarefultoaddthesame
numberstoboththerightandleftsidesoftheequations.
5. Reducethecompletedsquarestosquaredbinomialform.
6. Ifnecessary,dividebothsidesbytherequiredscalarandrearrangetermstoobtainthe
properform.
Example1:
Solve: Equation -Sx
2
+y
2
+ 6x - 12y -1S = u
Step1: Changesigns +Sx
2
-y
2
- 6x + 12y +1S = u
Step2: Groupvariables (Sx
2
-6x +___) - (y
2
- 12y + ___) = -1S
Step3: Factorcoefficients S(x
2
-2x +___) - (y
2
- 12y + ___) = -1S
Step4: CompleteSquares S(x
2
-2x +1) - (y
2
-12y + S6) = -1S + S - S6
Step5: ReduceSquareTerms S(x - 1)
2
- (y -6)
2
= -48
Step6: Divideby(-48) -
(x-1)
2
16
+
(-6)
2
48
= 1
RearrangeTerms
(-6)
2
48
-
(x-1)
2
16
= 1

Example2:
Solve: Equation -4x
2
-4y
2
+ 16x - 8y + S = u
Step1: Changesigns +4x
2
+4y
2
- 16x + 8y - S = u
Step2: Groupvariables (4x
2
-16x + ___) +(4y
2
+ 8y +___) = S
Step3: FactorCoefficients 4(x
2
-4x +___) + 4(y
2
+ 2y + ___) = S
Step4: CompleteSquares 4(x
2
-4x +4) + 4(y
2
+ 2y + 1) = S + 16 +4
Step5: ReduceSquareTerms 4(x - 2)
2
+ 4(y + 1)
2
= 2S
Step6: Divideby4 (x - 2)
2
+(y + 1)
2
=
25
4


Thefinalresultisahyperbola
withcenter(1,6)anda
verticaltransverseaxis.
Thefinalresultisacircle with
center(2,1)andradius
5
2
.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ADVANCED
Algebra
ParametricEquationsofConicSections

Parabola(note:4op = 1)
ParametricEquations
CenteredattheOrigin
ParametricEquations
Centeredat(h,k)
x = 2pt
y = pt
2

x = 2pt +h
y = pt
2
+k

Circle
ParametricEquations
CenteredattheOrigin
ParametricEquations
Centeredat(h,k)
x = r cux(t)
y = r x|n(t)
x = r cux(t) + h
y = r x|n(t) +k

Ellipse
ParametricEquations
CenteredattheOrigin
ParametricEquations
Centeredat(h,k)
x = a cux(t)
y = h x|n(t)
x = a cux(t) +h
y = h x|n(t) +k

Hyperbola
ParametricEquations
CenteredattheOrigin
ParametricEquations
Centeredat(h,k)
x = a xec(t)
y = h tan(t)
x = a xec(t) +h
y = h tan(t) +k

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
IntroductiontoSequencesandSeries
Definitions
ASequenceisanorderedsetofnumbers.
ATermisanelementinthesetoforderednumbers.
AnInfiniteSequencehasnoend.AFiniteSequencehasafinalterm.
AnExplicitFormulaisonethatspecificallydefinesthetermsofthesequencebasedonthe
numberoftheterm.Byconvention,thenumberofthetermisusuallyexpressedinterms
ofthevariablesnork.Wetalkofthen
th
termorthek
th
termofthesequenceorseries.
ARecursiveFormuladefinesatermbasedononeormorepreviousterms.
ASeriesisanorderedsummationofasequence.
Example(SequenceandSeries):
Considerthesequencedefinedbytheexplicitformula: t
n
= Sn +1.
Thenotationt
n
referstothen
th
termofthesequence.So,wecanconstructbothasequence
andaseriesfromthis.Herearethefirstseventermsofthesequenceandtheseries:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t
n
4 7 10 13 16 19 22
Sumoft
n
4 11 21 34 50 69 91
Example(RecursiveFormula):
OneofthesimplestandmostfamousrecursiveformulasistheFibonacciSequence,definedas:
t
n
= t
n-1
+t
n-2

Thissimplymeansthateachtermisthesumofthetwotermsbeforeit.TheFibonacci
Sequencebeginswithapairofones,andusestherecursiveformulatoobtainallotherterms:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t
n
1 1 2 3 5 8 13
Sumoft
n
1 2 4 7 12 20 33
Thissequencehassomeveryinterestingproperties,whichwillbediscussedonanotherpage.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Onewaytoexpressthisresultis:
ltm
n-
_
t
n+1
t
n
]
n
=
ADVANCED
Algebra
TheFibonacciSequence
TheFibonacciSequencewasfirstpublishedin1202byLeonardoFibonacci(ofPisa).Itstarts
withapairofonesandcontinueswiththerecursiveformula:t
n
= t
n-1
+t
n-2
.Thebeginning
ofthesequencelookslikethis:
1, 1, 2, S, S, 8, 1S, 21, S4, SS, 89, 144, 2SS, S77, 61u, 987,
PropertiesoftheFibonacciSequence
Itispossibletospendalongtimeexploringthepropertiesofthissimplesequence.Herearea
fewofthemoreinterestingproperties:
Illustration1:Addthesequencetocreateaseries.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t
n
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
x
n
1 2 4 7 12 20 33 54 88 143
Noticethat:x
n
= t
n+2
-1.
Thatis,then
th
sumisonelessthanthetermoftheoriginalsequencetwopositionsfurtherto
theright!
Illustration2:Calculatethesquaresandaddtheresultingsequencetocreateaseries.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t
n
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
t
n
2
1 1 4 9 25 64 169 441 1156 3025
S
n
1 2 6 15 40 104 273 714 1870 4895
Noticethat:S
n
= t
n
t
n+1
.
Thatis,then
th
sumofthesquaresistheproductofthetwotermsfromtheoriginalsequence,
oneofwhichisinthesamepositionandoneofwhichisonepositiontotheright!
TheGoldenRatio(f )
RatiosofsuccessivevaluesoftheFibonacciSequenceapproachtheGoldenRatio:f =
1+5
2
.
8
5
= 1.6
13
8
= 1.62S
21
13
= 1.61S
34
21
= 1.619
Theapproximatevalueoff =
1+5
2
= 1.618uS4
f
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
SummationNotationandProperties
SummationNotation
Mathematiciansarefondoffindingshorthandwaysofexpressingthings,sotheyinvented
notationforthesummationofnumbers.Ifweconsidertheseriesfort
n
= Sn +1,the
notationfortheserieswouldbe:
s
n
= (Sk -1)
n
k=1

Thissimplymeansthatthenthtermoftheseriesisdefinedbyaddingthefirstntermofthe
sequencefort
n
= Sn +1.
Example:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t
n
4 7 10 13 16 19 22
x
n
4 11 21 34 50 69 91
Notethats
3
= t
1
+t
2
+t
3
= 4 +7 +1u = 21.
Althoughitlookscomplicatedatfirst,afteryouwriteafewserieslonghand,youwillbeginto
appreciatetheshorthandnotation.
SummationProperties
Hereareacoupleofusefulpropertiesofsummations,allofwhicharebasedonthealgebraic
propertiesofaddition,multiplicationandequality.a
k
andh
k
aretwoseries.canddarereal.

Youcanfactoraconstantoutofa
summationifisafactorofalltheterms.
Thesumoftwoseriescanbebrokenout
intothesummationsforeachseries.
c a
k
= c
n
k=1
a
k
n
k=1

(a
k
+h
k
) =
n
k=1
a
k
n
k=1
+ h
k
n
k=1

(c a
k
+d h
k
) = c
n
k=1
a
k
+d
n
k=1
h
k
n
k=1

Thisisbasicallythedistributivepropertyof
multiplicationoveraddition.
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Algebra
SomeInterestingSummationFormulas
Thefollowingareafewinterestingsummationseries.Thedevelopmentofsomeserieslikethis
maybepossiblewithalgebra,butothersrequireeithercalculusorthecalculusoffinite
differences.Note:parenthesesareusedintheformulastoaidreadingthem;theparentheses
arenotrequired.
(c) = nc
n
k=1
c +c ++c = nc
(k) =
n(n +1)
2
n
k=1

1 +2 ++n =
n(n +1)
2

(k
2
) =
n(n +1)(2n +1)
6
n
k=1

1
2
+2
2
++n
2
=
n(n +1)(2n +1)
6

(k
3
) = _
n(n +1)
2
_
2
n
k=1
1
3
+2
3
++n
3
= _
n(n +1)
2
_
2

(x
k
) =
1
1 -x

k=0

1 +x +x
2
+x
3
+x
4
+ =
1
1 -x

_
x
k
k!
_ = c
x

k=0

1 +x +
x
2
2!
+
x
3
S!
+
x
4
4!
+ = c
x

_
1
k
_
x -1
x
]
k
_

k=1
= lnx or x
1
2
_
x -1
x
] +
1
2
_
x -1
x
]
2
+
1
S
_
x -1
x
]
3
+ = lnx
_(-1)
(k-1)
_
x
k
k
__ = ln (x +1)

k=1

or {-1 < x 1]
x -
x
2
2
+
x
3
S
-
x
4
4
+ = ln (x +1)
_(-1)
(k)
_
x
(2k+1)
(2k +1)!
__ = sin (x)

k=0

x -
x
3
S!
+
x
5
S!
-
x
7
7!
= sin (x)
_(-1)
(k)
_
x
(2k)
(2k)!
__ = cos (x)

k=0

1 -
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!
-
x
6
6!
+ = cos (x)
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Thesetwoequations
areequivalent.
Algebra
ArithmeticSequences
AnArithmeticSequenceisoneinwhichthetermsareseparatedbyaconstant.Theconstant,
oftenindicatedbytheletterd,iscalledtheCommonDifference.Arithmeticsequences,then
meetthecondition:
t
n+1
= t
n
+d,wheredisthecommondifference.
Example:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
t
n
9 12 15 18 21 24

FirstDifferences 3 3 3 3 3
Inthissequence,thecommondifferenceis3.Ifthereisnotacommondifference,the
sequenceisnotarithmetic.
n
th
TermofanArithmeticSequence
Theformulaforthen
th
termofanarithmeticsequenceis:
t
n
= t
1
+(n -1) d
Theproblemwiththisformulaisthe(n -1)thatgetsmultipliedbyd.Sometimesthisishard
toremember.Analternativemethodwouldbetofirstcalculateatermzero,
t

= t
1
-d
Then: t
n
= t

+n d,whichseemsanicerformula
Thevalueofthisalternativeisthatitalsoallowsthestudenttoestablishaformulain
y = mx +bformforthesequence,wheret

istheyintercept,andd,thecommondifference,
istheslope.
Example:Intheaboveexample,then
th
termofthesequencecanbewritten:
t
n
= 9 +(n -1) 3
Or,firstcalculate: t

= 9 -3 =
Then: t
n
= +3nort
n
= 3n +
Eithermethodworks;thestudentshouldusewhicheveronetheyfindmorecomfortable.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
ArithmeticSeries
AnArithmeticSeriesisthesumoftheelementsofanarithmeticsequence.Thesumofthefirst
ntermsofanarithmeticsequenceis:
x
n
= n [
t
1
+t
n
2

Inwords,thesumistheproductofnandtheaverageterm.
Sincet
n
= t
1
+(n -1) d,wecanderivethefollowingformula:
x
n
= n [t
1
+
(n-1)d
2

Or,perhapsbetter: x
n
= n [t

+
(n+1)d
2

= (n t

) + d[
n(n+1)
2

Thislastequationprovidesamethodforsolvingmanyarithmeticseriesproblems.
Example:Findthe8
th
sumofthesequencet
n
= +3n.
(Sk +6) = _6
8
t=1
_ +S _k
8
k=1
_
8
k=1

= (8 6) +S _
8 9
2
] = 48 +1u8 = 1S6

Tocheckthis,letsbuildatable:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t
n
9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
x
n
9 21 36 54 75 99 126 156


(k) =
n(n +1)
2
n
k=1

Noticethatthe lastterm
isthesumofthefirstn
integers.Thatis,
n (n +1)
n t

d
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
PythagoreanMeans
Considerasetofnvalues.Wecantakeameanofthesenvaluesinseveralways.Thethree
classicalmethodsofcalculatingameanarecalledPythagoreanMeans.
ArithmeticMean
Thearithmeticmeanistheonethatstudentsaremostfamiliarwith.Itisalsocalledthe
average.Itissimplythesumofthenitems,dividedbyn.
artthmett mean = A =
1
n
x
|
=
x
1
+x
2
++x
n
n


Example:Calculatethearithmeticmeanof5testscores:92,94,85,72,99
A =
92 + 94 + 86 +74 + 99
S
= 89
Trick:Ashortcuttocalculatinganarithmeticmean:
Estimateavaluefortheaveragebyeyeballingthevalues.For
theexampleabove,itlookslike90wouldbeagoodestimate.
Subtracttheestimatefromeachvaluetogetasetofn
differences.
Addthendifferencesanddividebyn.
Addtheresulttotheoriginalestimate.Theresultisthe
arithmeticmeanoftheoriginalsetofvalues.Intheabove
example,theresultis:9u +(-1) = 89.
GeometricMean
Thegeometricmeanisthenthrootoftheproductofthenvalues.
geumett mean = 6 = [_x
1

[
1
n

= x
1
x
2
x
n
n

Example:Calculatethegeometricmeanof2,9,and12:
6 = 2 9 12
3
= 216
3
= 6
TrickExample:
Score Valuevs.90
92 +2
94 +4
86 4
74 16
99 +9
Total 5
Average 1
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
PythagoreanMeans(contd)
HarmonicMean
Theharmonicmeanisreciprocalofthearithmeticmeanofthereciprocalsofthenvalues.It
hasapplicationsinscience.
harmunt mean = H = _
1
n

1
x

]
(-1)
=
1
1
n
[
1
x
1
+
1
x
2
++
1
x
n

=
n
[
1
x
1
+
1
x
2
++
1
x
n

Example:Sincetheharmonicmeanlookssoodd,itisusefultolookatareallifeexample.
Consideracarthattravels15milesat30milesperhour,thenanother15milesat15milesper
hour.Theaveragespeedofthecaroverthisdistanceisgeneratedbytheharmonicmean.
First,calculatetheaveragespeedfrombasicprinciples:
15milesat30milesperhourtakes30minutes.
15milesat15milesperhourtakes60minutes.
Totaltripis30milesin90minutes,foranaveragespeedof20milesperhour.
Now,calculatetheharmonicmeanofthetwospeeds:
H =
2
[
1
Su
+
1
1S

=
2
[
S
Su

=
6u
S
= 2u mpb

ComparingMeans
ComparethevaluesofthethreePythagoreanMeansof3,6,and12:
A: aiithmetic mean =
3+6+12
3
= 7
C: geometic mean = S 6 12
3
=
H: haimonic mean =
3
[
1
3
+
1
6
+
1
12

= 5
1
7

H < 0 < A
H = 6 = A
Ingeneral,itistruethat:
However,ifthevaluesbeing
averagedareallthesame,
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Thesetwoequations
areequivalent.
Algebra
GeometricSequences
AnGeometricSequenceisoneinwhichtheratioofsuccessivetermsisthesame.Theratio,
oftenindicatedbytheletterr,iscalledtheCommonRatio.Geometricsequences,thenmeet
thecondition:
t
n+1
= r t
n
,whereristhecommonratio.
Example:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
t
n
6 12 24 48 96 192

FirstRatios 2 2 2 2 2
Inthissequence,thecommonratiois2.Ifthereisnotacommonratio,thesequenceisnot
geometric.
n
th
TermofanGeometricSequence
Theformulaforthen
th
termofanarithmeticsequenceis:
t
n
= t
1
r
(n-1)

Theproblemwiththisformulaisthe(n -1)thatistheexponentofr.Sometimesthisishard
toremember.Analternativemethodwouldbetofirstcalculateatermzero,
t

=
t
1
r

Then: t
n
= t

r
n
,whichseemsanicerformula
Example:Intheaboveexample,then
th
termofthesequencecanbewritten:
t
n
= 2
(n-1)

Or,firstcalculate: t

=

2
= 3
Then: t
n
= 3 2
n

Eithermethodworks;thestudentshouldusewhicheveronetheyfindmorecomfortable.

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
GeometricSeries
AnGeometricSeriesisthesumoftheelementsofangeometricsequence.Thesumofthefirst
ntermsofangeometricsequenceis:
x
n
= t
1
[
1-r
n
1-r

InfiniteGeometricSeries
OfparticularinterestareInfiniteGeometricSeries.Theseseriesneverend;theygoonforever.
Aninfinitegeometricseriesmayhaveasumastheseriesgoestoinfinity.Thesumsalongthe
wayarecalledPartialSums.Theformulaaboveworksforthepartialsumsofaninfinite
geometricseries.
Startingwiththeaboveformula,foraseriesthatdoesnotend,considerthecasewhere|r| < 1:
S = lim
n-
_t
1
_
1 -r
n
1 -r
]_
So, S = t
1
[
1
1-r

Ther
n
termshrinksasngetslarger,andintheinfinitecase,itdisappearsaltogether.
Convergence
Aninfiniteseriesconvergesifitapproachesasinglevalueasmoretermsareadded.Otherwise
theseriesdiverges.
Example:Showexamplesofwheretheseries:[
1
1-x
= 1 +x +x
2
+x
3
+x
4
+
Forx =
1
2
theseriesgives:2 = 1 +
1
2
+
1
4
+
1
8
+
1
1
+Thislooksgood!
Forx = 2theseriesgives:-1 = 1 +2 +4 +8 +1 +Uhoh!Thislooksverywrong!
Noticethatinthisseries,thecommonratior = x.Thereasonwhythefirstvalueofxworks
andtheseconddoesnotisbecausethisseriesconvergesonlywhen|x| < 1.Thisisvery
commonforinfiniteserieswithincreasingexponents.
ThesetofvaluesforwhichaseriesconvergesiscalledtheIntervalofConvergence.Forthe
seriesintheexample,theintervalofconvergenceis|x| < 1or{ x | -1 < x < 1 ].

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
AFewSpecialSeries
SeriesInvolvinga
_
1
k
2
] =
n
2
6

k=1

1
1
2
+
1
2
2
+
1
S
2
+
1
4
2
+ =
n
2
6

_
1
k
4
] =
n
4
9u

k=1

1
1
4
+
1
2
4
+
1
S
4
+
1
4
4
+ =
n
4
9u

SeriesInvolvinge
_
1
k!
] = c

k=0

1 +1 +
1
2!
+
1
S!
+
1
4!
+
1
S!
+ = c
_
1 -2k
(2k)!
] =
1
c

k=0

1 -
1
2!
-
S
4!
-
S
6!
-
7
8!
-
9
1u!
- =
1
c

CubesofNaturalNumbers
ConsidertheSeriesofcubesofthenaturalnumbers:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t
n
= n
3
1 8 27 54 125 216 343
x
n
1 9 36 100 225 441 784
x
n
1
2
3
2

2
1
2
15
2
21
2
28
2

So,thesumsofcubesaresquares.InfactsuccessivesumsarethesquaresoftheTriangle
Numbers.TheTriangleNumbersarethesumsofthesequenceofnaturalnumbers:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t
n
= n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
T
n
1 3 6 10 15 21 28

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
P =
C
r n
2
n

Algebra
PascalsTriangle
PascalsTrianglestartswiththenumberoneatthetopandcreatesentriesinsuccessiverows
byaddingthetwonumbersaboveit.Forexample,inthe4
th
row,thenumber6isthesumof
the3toitsupperleftandthe3toitsupperright.Thetrianglecontinuesforeverandhassome
veryinterestingproperties.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

PropertiesofPascalsTriangle
TheTrianglestartswithRow0.Thenumberofarowisthevalueofthesecondnumberinthe
row.Then,ther
th
numberinrownisgivenby:
a
n,r
=
n!
r! (n -r)!
= C
r n

Thesymbol C
r n
comesfromProbabilityTheory,andrepresentsthenumberofwaysritems
canbeselectedfromasetofnitems.ThisvalueisalsoaBinomialCoefficient;thebinomial
coefficientsarethecoefficientsofthevariablesintheexpansionof(a +h)
n
.
HereareafewotherinterestingpropertiesofPascalsTriangle:
Itissymmetricalongaverticallinecontainingthetopentry.
Thentb rowcontains(n +1)elements.
Thesumoftheentriesinrownis2
n
.
Itcontainsthenaturalnumbersintheseconddiagonal.
Itcontainsthetrianglenumbersinthethirddiagonal.
C
r n+1
= C
r-1 n
+ C
r n
,whichishowthetriangleisformedinthefirstplace.
TwoOutcomeExperiments
Inatwooutcomeexperiment,likeflippingacoin,theprobabilityofan
eventoccurringexactlyrtimesinanexperimentofntrialsisgivenbythe
expressionatright.Thisisbecausethereare C
r n
outcomesforthe
eventoutofatotalof2
n
totalpossibleoutcomes.
Row0
Row1
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Algebra
BinomialExpansion

4StepstoaConstructingaBinomialExpansion(a +h)
n

1. Startwiththebinomialcoefficients
2. Addinthepowersofthefirsttermofthebinomial
3. Addinthepowersofthesecondtermofthebinomial
4. Simplify

Considerthefollowingexample:Expandandsimplify(2x -3)
4

Step1:Startwiththebinomialcoefficients

_
4
u
] + _
4
1
] + _
4
2
] + _
4
S
] + _
4
4
]

Step2:Addinthepowersofthefirsttermofthebinomial

_
4
u
] (2x)
4
+ _
4
1
] (2x)
3
+ _
4
2
] (2x)
2
+ _
4
S
] (2x)
1
+ _
4
4
] (2x)
0

Step3:Addinthepowersofthesecondtermofthebinomial

_
4
u
] (2x)
4
(-S)
0
+_
4
1
] (2x)
3
(-S)
1
+_
4
2
] (2x)
2
(-S)
2
+_
4
S
] (2x)
1
(-S)
3
+_
4
4
] (2x)
0
(-S)
4

Step4:Simplify:

= (1)(16x
4
)(1) + (4)(8x
3
)(-S) + (6)(4x
2
)(9) + (4)(2x)(-27) + (1)(1)(81)

= 1x
4
- 9x
3
+ 144x
2
- 21x + 81

Noticethefollowingabouttheexpansion:
1. Thereare(n +1)terms,wherenistheexponentofthebinomialbeingexpanded.
2. nisthetopnumberineverybinomialcoefficient.
3. Thebottomnumbersinthebinomialcoefficientscountupfrom0ton.
4. Whenatermoftheoriginalbinomialisnegative,thesignsinthesolutionalternate.
5. Theexponentofthefirsttermintheoriginalbinomialcountsdownfromnto0.
6. Theexponentofthesecondtermintheoriginalbinomialcountsupfrom0ton.
7. Theexponentsofthetwotermsintheoriginalbinomialaddtonineverytermofthe
expansion.
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ADVANCED
Algebra
GammaFunctionandn!

Definition
TheGammaFunctionisdefinedbythefollowingdefiniteintegralforx > u:
I(x) = _ e
-t
t
x-1
dt

Initially,thisintegralappearsdaunting,butitsimplifiesnicelyundercertainconditions,andhas
someveryinterestingproperties.
PropertiesandValues
ThefollowingpropertiesandvaluesoftheGammaFunctionareofparticularinterest:
I(x +1) = x !forintegervaluesofx
I(x +1) = x I(x)forvaluesofxwhere(x)exists
I[
1
2
= a
I(x) I(1 -x) =
a
stn (ax)
for{u < x < 1]
I(x) = foranyvalueofx
SomeotherfunctionsrelatetotheGammaFunction.Examples:
Dtgamma Funttun: q(x) =
I'(x)
I(x)
Beta Funttun: B(x, y) =
I(x) I(y)
I(x +y)

StirlingsFormula
Forlargevaluesofn,StirlingsFormulaprovidestheapproximation:n! ~ 2na [
n
e

Example: DirectCalculation: 1uu! ~ 9.SS26 x 1u

157

UsingStirlingsFormula: 1uu! ~ 2uu n [

100
c

100
~ 9.S248 x 1u
157

Thisrepresentsanerroroflessthan0.1%.

I(1) = ! = 1
I(2) = 1! = 1
I(3) = 2! = 2
I(4) = 3! =
I(5) = 4! = 24
I() = 5! = 12
. . .
Factorials
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
ADVANCED
Algebra
GraphingtheGammaFunction
GammaFunctionGraph
HereisagraphoftheGammaFunction.Forx > u,thefunctioniscontinuousandpasses
throughallthefactorials.
Foru < x < 1,thegraphmoves
asymptoticallyverticalasx

=u.
Forx < u,thefunctionhas
verticalasymptotesateach
integervalueandformsaU
betweentheintegers,with
alternatingpositiveandnegative
valuesbyinterval.
(x)approachesy = uasx
becomesincreasinglynegative.

CalculatingG(x)
EachvalueofG(x)canbecalculatedusingthe
definitionoftheGammaFunctionontheprevious
page.Recallthatadefiniteintegralisameasure
oftheareaunderthecurveofthefunctionbeing
integrated.Basedonthis,wehavethefollowing
examplesofG(x) valuesandgraphsthatillustrate
thecurveswhichdeterminethosevalues.

I() = ] [
e
-t
t
dt

I(1) = ]
( e
-t
) dt

I(2) = ]
( e
-t
t) dt

I(3) = ]
( e
-t
t
2
) dt

I(4) = ]
( e
-t
t
3
) dt

I(5) = ]
( e
-t
t
4
) dt

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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Page Subject
15 AbsoluteValue
AbsoluteValueFunctions
47 Equations
48 Inequalities
16 AlgebraicProperties
161 ArithmeticMean
16 AssociativeProperty
Asymptotes
148,149 ConicSections
109 ExponentialFunctions
169 GammaFunction
111113 LogarithmicFunctions
130136 RationalFunctions
167 BinomialExpansion
BoxMethod
62 MultiplyingBinomials
63 MultiplyingPolynomials
10 CartesianPlane
144 Circles
16 ClosureProperty
22 Combinations
16 CommutativeProperty
ComplexNumbers
80 AbsoluteValue
81 AddingandSubtracting
80 Conjugate
80 Definition
83 GraphicalRepresentation
81 MultiplyingandDividing
84 OperationsinPolarCoordinates
107 CondensingaLogarithmicExpression
ConicEquations
141,149 Characteristics
152 Classification
153 Manipulation
Algebra Handbook
Index
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Page Subject
Algebra Handbook
Index
ConicSections
140 Definitions
154 ParametricEquations
(alsoseeentriesforspecificcurves)
52,53 ConsistentLines
105 ConvertingBetweenExponentialandLogarithmicExpressions
10 CoordinatesinaPlane
Cramer'sRule
96 2Equations
97 3Equations
120 CubicEquationsSumandDifferenceFormulas
116 Decay(Exponential)
52,53 DependentLines
124 DescartesRuleofSigns
Determinants
93 2x2Matrix
95 GeneralCase
16 DistributiveProperty
64 DividingPolynomials
103 e
Ellipse
146 CenteredatPoint(h, k)
145 CenteredontheOrigin(StandardPosition)
147 PolarForm
72 EquationsSolvingbyFactoring
103 Euler'sEquation
106 ExpandingaLogarithmicExpression
117 ExponentialEquations
ExponentialFunctionGraphs
109 GraphingaFunction
110,115 SampleGraphs
Exponents
105 ConvertinganExponentialExpressiontoLogarithmicForm
117 ExponentialEquations
116 ExponentialFunctionsGrowth,Decay,Interest
56 Formulas
104 TableofExponents
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Page Subject
Algebra Handbook
Index
168 Factorials
Factoring
69 ACMethod
70 BruteForceMethod
71 QuadraticFormulaMethod
68 SimpleCaseMethod
156 FibonacciSequence
62 FOILMethodofMultiplyingBinomials
Functions
26 AddingandSubtracting
27 Compositions
24 Definitions
116 Exponential(Growth,Decay,Interest)
115 GraphsofVariousFunctions
28 Inverses
24 LineTests
26 MultiplyingandDividing
26 Notation
26 Operations
29 TransformationBuildingaGraph
GammaFunction
169 GammaFunctionCalculating
168 GammaFunctionDefinition
169 GammaFunctionGraphing
94 GaussJordanElimination
161 GeometricMean
156 GoldenRatio(f )
Graph(look up the type of curve you are trying to graph)
25 GreatestIntegerFunction
116 Growth(Exponential)
162 HarmonicMean
Hyperbola
149 CenteredatPoint(h, k)
148 CenteredontheOrigin(StandardPosition)
150 PolarForm
151 PolarFormConstructionOvertheDomain:0to2
80 i
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Version 2.5 4/2/2013
Page Subject
Algebra Handbook
Index
16 IdentityProperty
ImaginaryNumbers
80 i
80 Definition
83 Powersofi
82 SquareRootofi
52,53 InconsistentLines
52,53 IndependentLines
Inequalities
44 CompoundinOneDimension
43 GraphsinOneDimension
46 GraphsinTwoDimensions
45 TwoDimensions
14 Integers
IntegerFunctions
25 GreatestIntegerFunction
25 LeastIntegerFunctions
25 NearestIntegerFunctions
IntersectionofCurves
128 CircleandEllipse
126 GeneralCase
127 LineandParabola
126 Lines
16 InverseProperty
25 LeastIntegerFunctions
53 LinearDependence
LinearEquations
38 PointSlopeFormofaLine
38 SlopeInterceptFormofaLine
38 StandardFormofaLine
11 LinearPatterns
112 ln
117 LogarithmicEquations
LogarithmicFunctionGraphs
111 GraphingMethods
114,115 SampleGraphs
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Logarithms
107,108 CondensingaLogarithmicExpression
105 ConvertingaLogarithmicExpressiontoExponentialForm
106 ExpandingaLogarithmicExpression
102 Formulas
117 LogarithmicEquations
104 TableofLogarithms
64 LongDivisionofPolynomials
Matrices
90 Addition
98 AugmentedMatrices
99 AugmentedMatrixExamples(2x2)
100 AugmentedMatrixExample(3x3)
92 Division
92 IdentityMatrices
93 Inverseofa2x2Matrix
94 InverseofaGeneralMatrix
91 Multiplication
90 ScalarMultiplication
161,162 MeansPythagorean
63 MultiplyingPolynomials
MultiStepEquations
18 ReversePEMDAS
19 TipsandTricks
168 n !
112 NaturalLogarithms
14 NaturalNumbers
25 NearestIntegerFunctions
NumberPatterns
13 CompletingNumberPatterns
11 ConvertingaLinearPatterntoanEquation
12 IdentifyingNumberPatterns
11 RecognizingLinearPatterns
14 NumberSetsBasic
20 Odds
15 OperatingwithRealNumbers
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OrderofOperations
9 ParentheticalDevice
9 PEMDAS
Parabola
142 VertexatPoint(h, k)
141 VertexattheOrigin(StandardPosition)
143 PolarForm
ParallelandPerpendicularLines
39 ParallelandPerpendicularLinesSlopes
41 Parallel,CoincidentorIntersectingLinesFlowchart
40 Parallel,PerpendicularorNeitherLinesFlowchart
ParametricEquations
154 ConicSections
55 General
9 ParentheticalDevice
166 PascalsTriangle
9 PEMDAS
10 PlottingPointsonaCoordinatePlane
38 PointSlopeFormofaLine
83,84 PolarCoordinates
Polynomials
61 AddingandSubtracting
60 Definition
60 Degree
124 PolynomialsDevelopingPossibleRoots
65 Factoring
119 FindingExtremawithDerivatives
118 Graphs
65 GreatestCommonFactor
62 MultiplyingBinomials(FOIL,Box,NumericalMethods)
61 StandardForm
120 SumandDifferenceofCubes
122,123 SyntheticDivision
125 TestingPossibleRoots
121 VariableSubstitution
75 PowersandRootsTable
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Probability
20 ProbabilityandOdds
21 ProbabilitywithDice
PropertiesofAlgebra
16 PropertiesofAdditionandMultiplication
16 PropertiesofEquality
16 PropertiesofZero
PropertiesofInequality
42 AdditionandSubtraction
42 MultiplicationandDivision
161,162 PythagoreanMeans
85 QuadraticEquationsComplexSolutions
76 QuadraticFormula
QuadraticFunctions
74 CompletingtheSquare
67 DifferencesofSquares
79 FittingwithThreePoints
73 OpeningUporDown
66 PerfectSquares
73 StandardForm
73 VertexandAxisofSymmetry
73 VertexForm
77 QuadraticInequalitiesinOneVariable
88,89 RadicalEquations
138 RationalEquations
RationalExpressions
137 AdditionandSubtraction
137 MultiplicationandDivision
RationalFunctions
129 Domain
133 GeneralRationalFunctions
130 HolesandAsymptotes
132 SimpleRationalFunctions
139 RationalInequalities
14 RationalNumbers
17 ReflexiveProperty
14 RealNumbers
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Roots
124,125 Polynomials(i.e.,zeros)
86 RadicalRules
86 RationalizingtheDenominator
87 SimplifyingSquareRoots
ScientificNotation
58 AddingandSubtracting
57 ConversiontoandfromDecimals
57 Format
59 MultiplyingandDividing
Sequences
159 Arithmetic
155 Definitions
156 FibonacciSequence
163 Geometric
Series
160 Arithmetic
155 Definitions
164 Geometric
165 Special(,e,cubes)
158 SummationFormulas
157 SummationNotationandProperties
Signs
15 SignsofAddedorSubtractedNumbers
15 SignsofMultipliedorDividedNumbers
Slope
37 SlopeofaLine8Variations
35 SlopeofaLineMathematicalDefinition
36 SlopeofaLineRiseoverRun
38 SlopeInterceptFormofaLine
39 SlopesofParallelandPerpendicularLines
62 StackedPolynomialMethodofMultiplyingBinomials
63 StackedPolynomialMethodofMultiplyingPolynomials
38 StandardFormofaLine
23 StatisticalMeasures
168 Stirling'sFormula
17 SubstitutionProperty
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Summation(S)
158 Formulas
157 NotationandProperties
17 SymmetricProperty
SyntheticDivision
123 SyntheticDivisionComparisontoLongDivision
122 SyntheticDivisionProcess
SystemsofEquations
52 Classification
51 EliminationMethod
49 GraphingaSolution
50 SubstitutionMethod
54 SystemsofInequalitiesTwoDimensions
Transformations
34 BuildingaGraph
31 HorizontalStretchandCompression
32 Reflection
33 Summary
29 Translation
30 VerticalStretchandCompression
17 TransitiveProperty
14 WholeNumbers
124,125 ZerosofPolynomials
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