I

NASACONTRACTOR REPORT

LOAN
AFWL

COPY:
-I-ECHN:ICAL

F?ETlJKN TO
LiE!%El P\B

KIRTLAND

AFf3,N.

M2

ANALYTICAL STUDY OF ACOUSTO/OPTICAL HOLOGRAPHY - INTERFACING METHODS FOR ACOUSTICAL AND OPTICAL HOLOGRAPHY ND ? RESEARCH EL M. A. El-Smz
Prepared by

EL-SUM CONSULTANTS Atherton, Calif. 9402 5

for George C. MarshaN Space Flight Center

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, Di C. . DECEMBER 1976

_~

~~

TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

-1. REPORT NO. 12. GOVERNMENT ACCESSION NO. 3. RECIPIENT S CATALOG NO.

NASA CR-2775 --_~~_~ P TITLE AND SUBTITLE Analytical Study of Acousto/Optical Methods ?or Acoustical and Optical
7. 3. AUTHOR(S)

I
15. REPORT OATE ORGANIZATION CODE

Holography Holography

- Interfacing NDT Research

December 1976
6. PERFORMING 6. PERFORMING ORGANI RATION REPOR r i

H.

M.

A.

El-Sum
ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10.

M-197
WORK UNIT, NO.

PERFORMING

.2

El-Sum Consultants 74 Middlefield Road Atherton, California

SPONSORING AGENCY NAME

11.

CONTRACT

OR GRANT

NO.

94025
AND AOORESS

NAS8-31783
,S. TYPE OF REPORi 6 PERIOD COVEREI

Contractor National Aeronautics Washington, D. C.

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

and Space Administration 20546

1.1.

SPONSORING

AGENCY

CODE

Prepared under the technical Space Sciences Laboratory, - _; ~~. ..- ----.
6. ABSTRACT

monitorship of the Physics and Instrumentation Marshall Space Flight Center

Division,

This report covers a study of techniques adaptable to nondestructive acoustical and optical holography in techniques encompassed investigation which are described and summarized. report presents important remarks particular system, and conclusions bibliographies are included.

the international status of the art of acousto-optical imaging testing and, more important, to interfacing methods for nondestructive testing research. Evaluation of 20 different of varieties of detectors and detection schemes, all of Related investigation is reported in an Appendix. The on image quality, factors to be considered in designing a and recommendations for extension of this work. Three

Compatible systems to be used with the MSFC hybrid system (optical, acoustical, and correlation) are a Bragg diffraction (direct optical-acoustical interaction) scheme and the electronically focussed and scanned piezoelectric array. Both systems have sensitivity approaching 10e9 to IO- W/cm2 and resolution approaching the acoustical wavelength in the tested material, are capable of real-time display, and can be designed for use in either a pure optical or an acousto-optical mode of operation. At the same time, a portable acoustic probe, akin to the probe used in medical diagnosis, can be designed for testing large objects on site.

7:

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FOREWORD This is the final reporting on a six man-month study of the state of the art of acousto-optical holography and its application in nondestructive testing (NDT). The project was funded by MSFC-NASA under contract NAS8-31783. The goal of this project, in a broad sense, was to investigate the interfacing methods for acoustical and optical holography in NDT research in order to identify the acoustical holography schemes compatible for integration in a hybrid system utilizing other schemes (optical and correlation) for testing objects nondestructively, as envisioned by the MSFC Optics and Electra-Optics Branch (Figure 1). For completeness, the investigation encompassed a survey of various techniques of imaging, testing, and detection of flaws in materials with visual radiation, acoustics, x-rays, electrons, and infrared. However, only the nonholographic ,acousto-optical techniques which may compete favorably with the holographic schemes are included in this report. The in-depth study concentrated on the international state of the art of visualization of acoustic imaging, particularly with holography, and on evaluating the various techniques of transducing the acoustical information into optical information.

AUTHOR S

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgment is due to many industrial, academic, and publishing organizations in the U. S. and Western and Eastern Europe for collecting information that aided in preparing this report. Communications with many researchers here and abroad, particularly with G. Wade, G. W. Stroke, R. L. Kurtz, M. G. Maginess, W. Anderson, B. Auld, and P. Greguss, have been quite valuable and gratifying.

111

...

OPTICAL HNDT SYSTEF

_I I
.
P. c

ACOUSTOOPTICAL HNDT

OPTICAL zc SQ, LAW RECORDER 4

/
L.

IMAGE DATA RECEIVER

.
1

CORRELATION

MODE INDICATOR: j+o~] , j-5aaj . ._/

I,

NEED MORE DATA

J-

FIGURE 1,

Flow chart of hybrid system as conceived by MSFC-Optics

for nondestructive and Electra-Optics

testing, branch.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

CHAPTERI GENERALINTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTERII ACOUSTICAL IMAGING SYSTEMS 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 Introduction ...................... Liquid Surface Deformation (Static Ripples) ...... Bragg Diffraction or Direct Sound-Light Interaction Laser Beam Scanning .................. Electron Beam Scanning of Deformed Surface ....... Sokolov Image Tube Converter .............. Metal Fiber Face Tube Image Converter ......... Pyroelectric Image Converter and Image Storage ..... Electrostatic Transducer ................ Piezoelectric Array With Electronic Focussing and Scanning ........................ Frequency Swept Holographic Imaging .......... Zone-Plate Acoustic Imaging Devices .......... Gabor's Sonaradiographic Imaging Scheme ........ Acoustic Tomography .................. Piezoresistive Image Converter ............. Electroluminescent Acoustic-Image Detector ....... Photographic and Chemical Direct Acoustic Recording Solid and Liquid Crystal Acoustic Displays ....... .2.18.1 Dynamic Scattering ............... 2.18.2 Voltage Controlled Optical Activity ...... 2.18.3 Guest-host Interaction ............. 5 6 8 , . 10 16 16 18 20 21 22 23 26 27 30 33 33 34 34 40 41 42 42

. .

TABLE OF CONTENTS(Cont'd) Page 2.18.4 2.18.5 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 Birefringcnt Properties Direct Acousto-Optical ...................... ....... ............ Effects ......... 43 43 44 44 46 47

Pohlman Cell

Oil, Thermoplastic and Photoplastic Films Scanning and Sampling Technique ............ Recent Developments ..................

CHAPTERIII ANALYSIS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 3.1 3.2 3.3 Image Quality ..................... Comparison of Various Techniques Recommendations .................... 50 52 53 60 A-l B-l

............

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX A APPENDIX B Earlier Study of the Project Erasable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Real-Time,

Image Recording

vi

LIST OF FIGURIJS Number 1. Flow chart of hybrid system for nondestructive testing as conceived by MSFC-Optics and ElectroOptics Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liquid surface deformation acoustical (static ripples) system
. .

Page

vii 9 11 13 17 19 25 28 29 31 35 B-4 B-5

2. '3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. B-l B-2

Bragg diffraction

imaging system . . . . . . . . . . .

Pulse Bragg diffraction Laser beam scanning

system for NDT in air

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sokolov tube image converter

Piezoelectric array electronic focussing and ASW scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zone plate Fabrication Light acoustic imaging - operating arrangement
. .

of zone-plate zone-plate

transducers acoustic

. . . . . . . . . transducer . . . .

projected

Piezoelectric electroluminescent acoustic image detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operation of Ruticon image devices device . . . . . . . .

Read-out of Ruticon

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

LIST OF TABLES Number I. A-I A-II Acoustical Ultrasonic imaging methods and detection detectors .................. different applications ...... ....... Page 55 A-6 A-6

Frequency range for

Vlll

...

CHAPTERI GENERALIXTRODUCTION

The potential nondestructive ful it

of acoustical was well

holography recognized

as a diagnostic ever since the first

tool

in success-

testing

demonstration with coherent

of forming visible light.

an acoustical
(1,2)

hologram and reconstructing, the vigorous development

In fact,

of acousto/optical testing biological Acoustical

holographic

techniques

for material

nondestructive in the

is second only to the application and medical field, as evidenced

of these techniques from the yearly (4) and other advances,

symposia on national origi-

Holography, (3) the IEEE ultrasonics, conferences. holography, Technological

and international nally by acoustical

inspired

have led in many cases to further acoustical holography later. holography in NDT are: to a real-time

simplification acoustical

of the two-stage imaging, as will

be discussed advantages

Among the pertinent (1) having

of acoustical

a permanent 2-D record structure

of a 3-D image of the object), without

(both outer

shape and internal

(2)

obtaining

a good lateral

resolution

the need for

complex ultrasonic (3) obtaining short (4)

imaging optics, without the need for very

a good depth resolution of ultrasonic energy,

pulses

detection

of very weak ultrasonic

scattering

regions,

too

weak to be detected (5)

by other methods, uniformity by considering

measuring the degree of material the hologram as an interferogram,

(6)

measuring after

the uniformity

of the tested environment

object

before

and

a change in its etc.), and

(such as temperature,

pressure,

(7)

converting

the acoustical

information

into

optical

information

which may be easier use of well However, acousto/optical and what may be considered ing examples are enumerated: (1) distortion acoustical hologram, visible (2)

to interpret optical capabilities

directly techniques.

by the eye or by the

established imaging

have certain As an illustration,

limitations the follow-

disadvantages.

due to the change in wavelength wave Xs which probes the object to a much shorter image). effect light, light

(from a long and forms the a

wave XL to reconstruct

See the discussion

in Appendix I, pp. A-4, nature of the

the speckle reconstructing hologram.

produced by the coherent and the limited

aperture

of the

(3)

at certain

angles of incidence,objects,

opaque to sound

waves, become transparent duction (4) of possible

to such waves and hence the introof the image. introduces distortion with high in

misinterpretation

nonlinearity

of sound propagation

the phase of the reflected amplitude (5) acoustic factor intensity and frequency. transducers usually

waves, particularly

have an excess of 100 dB (a amplitudes, while about the

of 100,000) range of pressure modulated oscilloscope lo),

can only display films

20 dB (a factor

and photographic

have a dynamic both large it is neces-

range of only about 10 dB. (109) and small acoustic information

'Thus to display simultaneously, technique

sary to use amplitude

compression 3

or use digitizing

techniques (6) distortion to unsteady

and computer processing. due to mechanical environment, instability of tested object or

in which case special

mounting (51

may be neeced. blast of these limitations merely to emphasize the need for tested more, it object can be overcome. They are mentioned diagnose the

extreme care to correctly holographic technique.

using the acousto/optic

Furtheras a

shows the necessity testing

of using the acousto/optical means such as optical, ranging

testing

complement to other .4coustic

and correlation.

frequencies

from 100 KHz to 10 GHz have been used the choice of the proper

in NDT [see Appendix A, pp. A-6, Table 4-111; frequency required depends upon the material depth of penetration

of the object

to be used, and the the attenuation

of the probing

wave, since

of such wave is proportional Hence usually frequency

to the square power of the frequency. objects are limited to the acoustic

the normal NDT of thick

range of 100 KHz to 10 MHz, while microscopy . this

the range 10 MHz to 10 GHz is quite thin (of

is used in ultrasonic the order in this like

where the material will

of micrometers) however,

The latter

not be treated its

extensively in areas New

report;

does not diminish of crack development (e.g., photopolymer transducers, tomography,

importance in materials.

the study of the theory and/or layers, techniques

materials conversion layer

films, crystalline

pyroelectric solid focussing, in the developIII. thin

electrostatic

of CoC12*6 H20, ultrasonic focussing and scanning

zone plate still

electronic ing state,

of phased arrays) II, and evaluated

are described

in Chapter

in Chapter

CHAPTERII

ACOUSTICAL IMAGING SYSTEMS

2.1

Introduction An acoustical . . . . . imaging system consists, in general, of:

an insonifier the object a lens (not needed in some systems) a detector a display or transducer or recorder (which may be the detector immersed in a water * itself).

All

of these components are usually impedence mismatch. a composite

tank to minimize

the acoustical simple

Some of these components may be a or a collection of several

one element,

structure,

elements,

depending on the operational

function

of the whole system. as in holography; or if the

There may be, for example, more than one insonifier, the lens may be eliminated object rarely crystal, laser electric acoustical is in contact in a practical a composite or electron with in some holographic the detector; a simple

arrangements, itself

the detector chemical or solid

may be (but a liquid and a scanning

system)

emulsion, surface

of deformed liquid

beam, a sandwich of several etc.; into

materials

(e.g.,

piezo-

and electroluminescence) information is converted

the visual optical

display information

of the via a an that it

vidi con camera, an optical overlap is often

*

telescope,

or a CRT.

There is quite

between the display difficult

subsystem and the detection the two.

techniques

to separate

Acoustical imaging reveals the change in acoustical impedance in the object, and hence depends on the density of the material to be imaged and the acoustic velocity yithin this material. This is different from x-ray imaging which depends on the electron density and atomic number of the material; electron beam images (as in electron microscope) reveals*only the surface or near surface structure, and depends on the atomic. density of the material; optical images reveal only the outer shape of the object. 6

The different in a variety transmission

components of an acousto/optical on whether the object

system are arranged is to be seen in a mode the object is in

of ways, dcpcnding or a reflection

mode.

In the transmission source. If

hides the detector touch with

from the insonifying

the object

the detector, print.in

the lens is not needed and we get an arrangement optical or x-ray photography. However, if

akin to a contact the object

is separated

from the detector

then a lens is needed between otherwise, if there is

the two to cast a sharp image on the detector; no lens, on-axis formed if another the shadow cast on the detector (Gabor type) hologram.

may be a diffused acoustic

shadow, or an

An off-axis

hologram may be is biased by

the shadow of the object coherent acoustic which falls

cast on the detector insonifier

wave (from another obliquely

tuned to the In the are

same frequency) reflection

on the same detector. insonifier

mode arrangement, line.

the object,

and detector,

not in a straight focussed off-axis

The scattered by a lens; or,

wave from the object

may be an

on the detector

in the absence of a lens, a second reference

hologram is produced. if

Here again, an in-focus

acoustic

wave may be used, particularly In an earlier fied the various study systems,

hologram is to be made. classi-

(summarized in Appendix A) we broadly mainly according to the detection-display techniques,

scheme. centrating
*

Now, we shall mainly

proceed to expound the various to NDT.

con-

on those most applicable

Such a hologram is produced only if acoustic same source falls on the detector (without passing to provide the reference wave. It is assumed that waves are used to insonify the object.

radiation from the through the object) coherent acoustic

2.2

Liquid

Surface

Deformation

(Static

Ripples) (271 and the electron-beam for real-time image is at of way is

This method of acoustic scanning tube of Sokolov of ultrasonic

image conversion

are the earliest images. (11,121 surface it

to be conceived

visualization focussed each point surface

When an acoustic

onto the liquid until

causes the surface by the restoring pattern

to elevate forces

equilibrium and gr.avity.

is attained The relief

tension

formed in this incident

an analog of the pattern The deformed fluid visible 1 ight surface

of acoustic serves.as

intensity an optical

on the surface. and a

phase-object,

representation from, or refracting

of the acoustic it through,

image is produced by reflecting the surface, using one of several been (used

phase-contrast revived

imaging techniques. holography.

This technique

has recently

in acoustic

11,2,12,13)

The modern version

commercially)

is illustrated

in Figure

2, which is self-explanatory.

Refer to Appendix A, pp. A-7 - A-10 for more discussion. Instead a wire grating of the object ripples of the coherent close acoustical surface reference beam, Green (15) used image

to the liquid In this

on which the acoustic

is immersed.

way the undesired Both arrangements

high frequency produced images of

are reduced considerably.

comparable quality. Another ripples, improvement was made by N. K. Sheridan, (14) to amplify end than the low frequency the

more at the high frequency

one, and image

hence reduce the low frequency visualization. have conducting Experimental He used a thin or insulating

noise and improve the real-time layer su.rface) of a dielectric placed liquid

(which may electric field. than

in a strong pictures

verification

of the idea revealed 8

no better

LIGHT

SMALL

TANK

ST0.P .ACOUSTIC LENS

REFERENCE EjEAM ACOUSTIC TRANSDUCER .-. _ -_. .-

OBJECT

.ACOUSTIC

TRANS,

WATER . --.-.._. TANK

Figure

2.

Schematic diagram of the basic arrangement for in-focus, real-time holography with the liquid surface deformation method. The object and reference insonifiers are immersed in a large water tank. A sharp image of the object is projected on the surface of the small tank (containing a low surface tension liquid), and is biased by the coherent reference wave to form an in-focus hologram in the form of ripples on the surface. Incident from above is a light beam from an unfiltered super pressure mercury vapour source. Its diffracted components are filtered and viewed in real-time by the viewing optics.

Brenden s

and Green s,

but the sensitivity

may have been increased.

This work has been discontinued. The advantages of this (a) (b) simplicity moderate sensitivity highly (c) theoretical (O.OOiS W/cm2 is practical; (17) (0.07 voids in 4 thick
(16)

technique

are its

10

-9

W/ cm2

good resolution voids

steel

and 0.03

in 1 Al have been reported) for real-time display

(4 On the other

capacity

hand, this

scheme is most suited

for Gabor-type,

near on-

axis holography surface.

because of the limited

frequency

response of the liquid the low and and 20 cycle/cm that can be and

Depending on the surface frequency cut-offs

tension

of the liquid

high spatial respectively.

are at about 1 cycle/cm acoustic

Furthermore,

the highest

frequency

used is about 10 FMz (limited the lowest usable capillary 2.3 forces acoustic giving

by the surface frequency

tension

of the liquid)

is about 0.5 MHz (limited forces). Interaction

(18)

by the

way to gravitational or Direct principle Sound-Light

Bragg- Diffraction The operational

of Bragg-diffraction light by acoustic arrangement

imaging is based waves when proper of the system is

upon the diffraction conditions are met. 3.

of coherent A basic The object cell, with

schematic

shown in Figure filled

is placed

on a membrane in the water in the vertical wave propagating the laser Pl. direction. in the

Bragg acoustic beam interacts cell.

and insonified the acoustic

The laser acoustic

Two spherical

lenses collimate

beam, which is Bragg diffraction

then focussed by a cylindrical

lens onto the line 10

w-e------

HELIUM -NEON LASER 90 PRISMS nn n TALLY ORIENTED CYLINDRICAL LENS l

I I

CYLINDRICAL CONVERGING LENS

QUARTZ TRANSDUCER

Figure

3.

Schematic diagram of Bragg diffraction acoustical imaging system. Coherent light from the laser interacts with the acoustic wave in the Bragg acoustic cell. The light and acoustic waves are propagating perpendicular to one another. Visible image is displayed on the TV monitor

of the light shifted at its

takes place

in the acoustic light

cell.

Two first

-0rdcr

frequency light

Bragg-diffracted original frequency,

beams, I and I I, and the zero-order onto plane P 2

are projected through

Only one of the lens for aspect

diffracted ratio

beams is allowed

a second cylindrical

correction display.

and is projected

onto a vidicon

tube for real-time

television

The angle of diffraction of the light simple

in .this

scheme is a function wavelength, according

of the ratio to the

ltyavelength to the acoustic

equation: xL Sin 8 = 2x
S

(1) It is therefore Frequencies desirable to

where 8 is half use the highest

the angle of diffraction. possible acoustic frequency.

in the range the produced To over-

of 10 to 100 MHz have been used. images alriays suffer come this, with carry (since laser

At the lower frequencies, of the direct beam.

from the scattering

an ingenious light

scheme was used, where the image is recorded This recording will then beam

a biasing

wave from the laser.

the desired

image superimposed light

on a hologram of the direct frequency

the diffracted light).

has a different

from the original in the normal way

The recording

can then be reconstructed out. usefulness

and the desired

image can be filtered demonstrated of the object its

This technique needs the immersion to test Figure delay objects 4. line

in NDT.

However, it this in order

in water.

To eliminate

in air,

R. A. Smith devised

the arrangement

shown in

Electric that

energy which generates shutter 0 12

the sound is also sent to a controlling the emission

feeds an electronic

VARIABLE DELAY 4 I

r
II 1
1 TRANSDUCER] MEMBRANE

Figure

4.

Block diagram of pulsed Bragg imaging system for NDT of material that must be kept dry (i.e. not be immersed in the water filled Bragg cell). t0 The object is placed in air against the polyethylene membrane of the Bragg cell. The pulsed light from the laser is delayed so that it passes through Bragg cell only when the acoustic pulse is reflected upwards from the object. The delay time determines the plane of the object to be imaged, and the thickness of such a plane is determined by the duration of the laser light pulse.

13

of laser

light.

Uy pulsing

the laser

at some given time, sound will viewed.

subsequent from a the sound distance in

to the gcncrntion specific present distance

of sound, reflected within the object

be returned time,

At a later

in the Rragg cell Consequently,

would be reflected

from a greater

the obj ect .

the image wi 11 be a replica as time proceeds . short

of objects

located

at ever increasing light size pulse

distances

The duration

of the laser effect on the the

is made sufficiently viewed.

to have a negligible

of the range interval of the sound pulse inspected.

The range interval by the velocity range interval

is one-half

duration material from view. rise

multiplied this

of sound in the will be rejected as pulse would illumi-

Flaws outside

Flaws may be separated times will allow.

which are as close together inspection with

or fall

A complete

of an object repetitive

require nation repeated inspected.

repetitive

pulsing

of a sound transducer and laser

from the laser with increasing Pictures frequency etc.

using sound pulses delay after

pulses

which are

a given image plane has been technique silicon with rubber

have been published (231 using this of 18.7 MHz, of holes in Al block,

an acoustic strips on Al,

The resolution length extent Xs the distance

in this

arrangement

depends on the acoustic

wave-

of interaction light,

D in the Bragg cell, the distance

the angular

ZCY of the converging column, the height and the width resolutions,

R between the object

and light direction, vertical

H of the light

column in the vertical The horizontal are different: and

W of the light

cone.

6h and 6v respectively,

14

*Riixs
6h = AS ! 2 Sin cc

for

R > 2 SFn cc
(21

for

R < 2 S-n c1t

As Rii-

for

R = H

6v = A for .R << H
t

The maximum number of resolution adjacent to the light column. In this

cells

occurs when the object

is

case the number of these cells in terms of As). cells is (4)

in the vertical

direction

is equal to H (expressed direction,

In the horizontal

the number of resolution

Nh < $
S

Thus for As = 0.075 mm, 1S = 25 mm and H = 100 mm, Nh is 333. The advantage of the Bragg Diffraction (1) (2) (3) Extreme simplicity Sensitivity (comparable to the surface deformation scheme are:

less than

technique) frequencies 3 As has

High resolution

(due to the use of high acoustic system;

and which may approach As in an idealized been reported (22)) . (4) Capacity for real-time display. limited

On the other

hand, the field

of view is rather is most suited 15

and although

the

system can be used for NDT, it

for microscopy.

2.4

Laser Beam Scanning In this technique

(24,25,26,28,100,101) laser beam is used to effect optical

a scanning information or liquids.

readout

of the acoustic on solids

which is present It is mostly

in the form of limited to acoustic

dynamic ripples microscopy limitation used except acoustic

because it

has an extremely deflection thin

limited

aperture, beam.

due to the It has not been using to

of the angular for imaging.very

of the laser samples, mostly

biological,

frequencies

near 100 MHz.

Interested

readers

are referred 11. using

the literature

referenced

above, and to Appendix A, pp. its real-time operation

It has demonstrated 100 MHz, displaying tested

capability and optic

simultaneously

the acoustic

images of the 5. The

samples (25 urn thick) of this

in an arrangement technique W/cm'. however, is

shown in Figure

measured sensitivity it should

10 -3 W/cm', while

theoretically

reach about 10 -'

It has recently measured of the order acoustic using frequency

been reported,

that

displacements

were with

of magnitude of 0.07 A over 15 cm aperture

of 10 >Hz . CZ9) Argon laser to study biological

was used for scanning, 6 urn thick, and also

a moving mirror

tissues,

pattern to measure the radiation 7, 3 sensitivity was lo-" W/cm'. 2.5 Electron Instead section,

of acoustic

transducers.

This system

Beam Scanning of Deformed Surface (30) of the'laser beam scanning, discussed in the previous

electron

beams can be modulated

in phase when they scan a (focussed, unfocussed,

photocathode

on which the acoustic

object-wave

or biased by a reference of displaying either

wave) is projected. optical

This scheme is thus capable reconstruction, depending

a hologram or its 16

PHOTODIODE

AMPLIFIER

ACOUSTIC IMAGE

OPTICAL IMAGE

Figure

5.

Laser beam scanning arrangement. The laser beam, reflected from the mirror, scans the acoustic field (in the sound cwll) to be visualized. The exit pupil of the deflector is focused on of the the knife edge, and hence the position light beam remains independent of the instaneous scan angle and depends only upon the surface distortion in the sound sell. The motion of the mirror causes the light intensity to be modulated (since the knife edge is arranged to block half the light beam). This intensity modulated light is collected by a photodiode and the resulting electrical signal, which is coherent with the local sound pressure, is amplified, filtered, detected, and fed into a TV monitor. The system is also capable of producing an optical image of the specimentin the sound cell) and display it on an adjacent TV monitor.

17

on the relative 2.6 Sokolov

,location

of the photocathode

in the system s

Image Tube Converter (31,32,37,38,63) acousto/optical of Figure crystal) potential 6. It image converters. consists of a image is An

This is one of the earliest Such a tube is shown as part t rans ducer proj ected, electron emission 11 0

05

(a piezoelectric an electric

on which the acoustic pattern of that

creating

image.

beam scans the crystal which records it

and produces modulated secondary directly on a photographic film,

the image either

or projects

on the face of a CRT or a TV monitor. 6 is capable of displaying a direct

The arrangement image of the object,

shown in Figure its later on-axis with

hologram or off-axis coherent laser light

hologram which may be reconstructed in the normal fashion. simulated electronic It has also beam

been used to form holograms with (32,33,34) and temporal

reference

holograms. (35,361 technique signal lies in both the high sensitivity (30 frames of and

The advantage of this (lo-g W/cm2) of the detected

and the speed of scanning has a limited angular field

per second).

On the other hand, it

view (5 to 15 degrees from the perpendicular limited as thin anically transducer resolution. as possible, For higher resolution, it is,

to the transducer) the transducer the weaker it

should be will be mechthe

but the thinner will

and hence the smaller should operate thickness All at its

be the aperture.

Moreover,

resonance frequency,

which means that the acoustic to the equation

the transducer wavelength.

should be of the order of half are related according

these parameters distance

of the minimum resolvable

18

Figure

6.

Sokolov image tube set up for acousto-optical imaging. Immersed in the water tank (1) are two acoustic transducers(2) fed by electronic generator (3). Acoustic beams from the transducers (2) impinge upon quartz (5) which is the face of the image tube (11). One of the beams is scattered by the object (4) and the other is the reference beam. Thus an acoustic hologram is formed on (5) in the form of an electric potential pattern across (5). The electron gun (6) scans (S), inducing secondary emission which is multiplied by the electron amplified by (8) and finally multiplier(7), displayed on a TV monitor (10). Rlock (9) represents the electronic circuits for electron beam generation and deflection.

19

6(mm) = Acoustic Resolutions Again, of 3 to 5 times

2.86 frequency

(Mllz) have been reported (39) . higher than about

the acoustic rigidity,

wavelength

because of the mechanical The interest

frequencies this

10 MHz are not used. (because of its All the efforts

in improving

image converter is continuing. and thinner face

sensitivity

and real-time

capability) larger

are concentrated

on developing

plates. plate s

These special diameter

designs (37938) extend the common quartz

face 2 MHz, by

from 5 cm, used with 20 MHz.

1 MHz, to 11.5 cm, used with These results quartz scanning were attained

and even to 30 cm, used with mechanically metal grid plate. strengthening and/or modifying

the piezoelectric the electronic

face plate (37) by a scheme of the face

Other types of face plates 2.7 Metal Fiber

are discussed

below.

Face Tube Image Converter (40) Sokolov tube described to convert above utilizes the incident a piezosignal

The conventional electric into plate

(PZT-4 or quartz) signal,

acoustic

an electric

and also to serve as the interface The plate the acoustic should be as thin velocity

between the as possible, should

vacuum chamber and the water. and for maximum resolution, be about the same as that incidence for acoustic

in the plate

of the water so that

the maximum angle of to 90 as possible. and the

plane waves will

be as close

This puts severe limitation angular field of view.

on the diameter

of the face plate limitations,

To overcome these

a metal fiber

face plate (piezoelectric

is used to serve as the interface plate) and the water. 20

between the vacuum chamber face plate is

This metal fiber

made of glass centers).

clad wires

(about 0.05 mm in diameter there is no limit plates

on about 0.15 mm

Theoretically

on the size of such a plate The limit is par-

and in practice, tially

150 mm diameter

were made.

imposed by the angular Published results

deflection that

of the electronic such image converters

scanner. increase

indicate

the field

of view of the Sokolov tube, possible

does not degrade the resolution, strong vacuum boundary while transducer that will

and makes it still provide

to have a mechanically an acoustic

being free

to select

to electric

optimum image quality. Instead of the metal fiber plate discussed above, one may be able between the copper powder on the point. it

to improve the characteristic water and the piezoelectric in a casting quartz plate plastic.

acoustic (quartz)

impedence coupling plate of this by using fine material

The thickness

deposited resonant

must be an odd number of quarter has 101~absorption

wavelength

Such a face plate produces

of the incident

energy;

however,

loss of resolution

(38) , due to the increase

in thickness

of the

face plate. 2.8 Pyroelectric ---__ The scanning Image Converter beam interaction and Image Storage (41) with the piezoelectric face of theelement element is operation

Sokolov tube is such that during effective the time interval in forming for all

only the energy in the piezoelectric the scanning signal. beam is touching that

the visual practical

This characteristic

has precluded radiation

purposes the use of pulsed acoustic

in systems using Sokolov tube. difficulty and further cut-off 21 limit, improvement increasing (such as the bandwidth,

To overcome this eliminating

the high frequency

increasing electric target

the sensitivity face plate

with

the applied

frequency, sensitive

etc.)

the piezo-

was replaced

by an acoustic

pyroelectric temperature

which provides related

image storage

in the form of a spatial energy.

differential

to the absorbed acoustic pyroelectric

Only recently (42)

have such highly Thus pulsed

sensitive

materials

become available.

acoustic

radiation

can be used and the image can be stored in the pyroelectric substance, layer. triglycine (PVF2) on The

in the form of a thermal pyroelectric sulphat e . Pyrex glass. polarization Its resistivity It material

distribution

used is a crystalline

is spread as a layer Such a detector and dielectric

of pyroelectric

polymer

is thermovoltaic, constant

and has a spontaneous temperature. Pyroelectricity piezo-

which change with charge storage. materials

is high enough to permit and all pyroelectric

exists

in polymers,

exhibit

electricity

but not vice

versa. of such an image converter increases transducers with was reported (proportion at higher

The measured sensitivity -3 as 10 W/ cm2. Its sensitivity to f2), while piezoelectric

the frequency

are less sensitive and hence it

frequency.

There is no resonance effect like all thermal

has a wide frethermistors, low

quency band (just etc.),

detectors

(thermocouples,

but which have never been used because of their

extremely

sensitivity). 2.9 Electrostatic Transducer (43944) transducer array for real-time acoustical

This is a foil-electret imaging. struct plate The foil-electret a two-dimensional is divided into

microphone principle transducer array.

is employed to conthe back The second N strips of

In one design, foil. each with

NxN elements,

and one electret foil

design utilizes

a back plate

and an electret 22

mctallization is done with

arranged in an overlapping the first design only.

fashion.

Parallel

sampling

A 256 x 256 element array has at

been constructed, frequencies

(43) having

an area of (256 x 256)mm2, operating

0.5 to 2.5 blllz.

The elements here commuted at a frequency and real-time view-

of 4 KHz so that ing was-obtained. at a frequency

16 frames per second was delivered Acoustic holograms were obtained

in less than 50 sets.

of 3.5 MHz, having transducer

a dynamic range of 35 dB. arrays are used either in air or in

Such electrostatic water. water, angular

The optimum frequency

range in air

is 70 to 250 KHz and in of the

0.3 to 3.5 MHz depending on the medium attenuation

field of view. The sensitivity of this system was calculated -11 K/cm2 in water,.but measured to reach 10 -8 W/cm2 in air and 2x10 sensitivity was reported as 10 -3 W/cm2 only. Eighteen cm demountable with such a foil-

sealed image converters electret 2,lO transducer array

of the Sokolov type were built as face plates. With Electronic face plate (44) Focussing

Piezoelectric ~- Array ~__.

and Scanning (45-50) imaging 1.6. of

The use of a piezoelectric converter (Sokolov type)

in an acoustic

was discussed plate

in the preceding angular

section field

Such large piezoelectric view. size less. a large This field

has a very limited with

of view increases a very large

the decrease of the material is of the order of a mm or material will possess (10 -11 W/cm2).*

and reaches

angle when it

Thus an array angular field

or a mosaic of piezoelectric of view together with

high sensitivity

* Of the many available piezoelectric materials (quartz, lithium sulfate, barium titanate, lead zirconate-titanate, lead metaniobate, etc.) lead metaniobate is highly recommended because it has a very wide bandwidth without resorting to elaborate backing and matching, and it has minimum electrostatic coupling as compared to other materials.

23

A phased piczoclcctric designed mission

array

in one or two dimensions

has been

for use in NDT B- or C-scan reflection mode. When such an array only, Also, the scanning is electronically in the other

mode or C-scan transfocussed direction and scanned

in one direction mechanically. transmit

is done

the same piezoelectric the.object and receive

elements (detect) smaller for noise

are used to both the acoustic signal. the same

(insonify)

Such a scheme has the advantage of having definition Its (resolution), or better definition

aperture

for

the same aperture. (because of the chirp fringes at the changed

image does not suffer of the scanning

from the speckle

property

scheme), nor from interference length material. of the array

image boundaries.

The focal

can be easily rate It

to any depth in the tested

It has a faster operation.

of scanning also has a definition.

(about 30 frames per second) in real-time range gating with definition

comparable to its

transverse

A schematic is shown in Figure 1.2 nun wide)

diagram of acoustic 7. It

imaging system in one dimension transducers (PZT-5,

shows the piezoelectric

receiving

the acoustic

image, and the BGO (Bismuth Germanium delay line, array. which provide For detailed the dis-

Oxide substrate) delay necessary cussion Arrays

acoustic

wave surface

in sampling

the transducers

of the theory of 100 elements, line having

references measuring

(49), (46) and (45) are recommended. 11.75 cm, were built 100 taps with acoustic

BGO delay with

a corresponding

(one tap per transducer) acoustic imaging; using

50 MHz chirp

frequency.

This was used for resolution of various

1.6 to 2.5 MHz produced images with used were 2-25 cm Al block bonded Boron fiber reinforced with holes

about 1 mm. Objects sizes; others were A

epoxy laminate 24

laid. dorm on titanium.

TO BIAS LINE f

SOUND WAVES

6 Wl

SCAN

SIGNAL

OUTPUT us+

SIGNAL ml

o(

Figure

7.

Schematic diagram of the essential elements of one dimensional acoustic imaging system, utilizing an array of piezoelectric transducers, electronically Such an array records an focused and ASW scanning. acoustic image much the same as photographic film in A series of equally spaced recording an optical image. taps is placed along the delay line and fed with the to an scanning frequency w . Each tap corresponds individual transduceh which receives the acoustic wave are mixed by simple diodes, (frequency w 1. Signals and the outpzt signal is the sum and difference The electrical imaging output of the two frequencies. of the device is received at one of these two frequencies.

25

third

sample was. cracked plastic This technique

with

part

of the crack filled

with

1120.

seems to be one of the best and most sensitive testing in real-time operation. field, It is

techniques similar

for nondestructive

to the ultrasonic

probe used in the medical measuring

where 5x5 for

mosaic elements of lead metaniobate, heart diagnosis. circuits. It operates

(1081

(4x4) mm* is designed 1 MHz bandwidth, element spacing

at 3.5 MHz with of 32x32 with

and uses of 1 mm

integrated

Arrays

are in the developing

stage.

There is no reason why such probes cannot of materials for the detection of

be used in nondestructive voids, flaws, cracks,

probing etc.

bonding,

2.11

Frequency Sliept Holographic In the previous section,

Imaging (511 array is used to

a two dimensional

angularly backscatter strengths expensive field

scan a probing

narrow beam in object a display

space and the received positions but and

is used to generate of the various technique.

of the relative It

scatterers

present.

is an excellent

Another

cheaper method of mapping the scattered and one receiver. The illuminating pattern (or

utilizes

only one transmitter

acoustic hologram) the object pattern.

frequency

is changed, causing the diffraction to expand or contract of gyration receiver for

of the object forming A single

and swing in space with the swinging and changing

the center stationary pattern

can be used to map the variation sweeps over it Theoretical shows that to that as a result analysis of conof

in the diffracted frequency this

as the pattern illumination. technique

sweeping the object swept scanning

frequency

under certain obtained pattern.

ditions,

the collected

data is equivalent

from a linear

scan of a receiver

over the stationary 26

diffraction

Lateral frequency receiver estimated having

resolution

is mainly

determined

by the width

of the and the has been

system

sweep employed and the angle between the transmitter observed from the object that a resolution of 2 position.
mm

For example, it

is expected -for an acoustic a transmitter-receiver is determined, by the chirp rate

(1-5)

MH.z frequency of 60".

sweep with

angular in the case of and bandwidth rate.

separation chirped of
the

The range resolution sweep illumination,

frequency post mixer.

Range is changed by simply results have been reported

changing the chirp yet.

No experimental 2.12 Zone-Plate

Acoustic

Imaging Devices

(52-56,17)

Both amplitude

and phase zone-plates

with

PZT-4 and PZT-5 transThe experiThey

ducers were used to produce acoustic mental arrangement have been used with resolution is shown in Figure 10 MHz acoustic

images in real-time.

8 which is self-explanatory. illumination, producing

image

of 0.27 mm (about 1.8 hs). zone-plate transducer, shown in Figure 9(a) is

The amplitude

made of a gold zone-plate transducer. -The other

deposited

on one face of a piezoelectric is coated with a uniform the beam. onto

face of the transducer applied

gold electrode.

A voltage

across the transducer

activates

areas under the zones only and hence produces With mechanical the object) movement of the object, point

a focussed acoustic (focussed

the transducer

can map the object

by point. is made by first zone plate applying a D.C.

The phase zone-plate poling reverse explained voltage

transducer

across the amplitude poling 9(b).

in such a way as to between the zones, as is then removed from the

the original in Figure

(of the transducer) The gold zone-plate

27

PHASE

PLATE

OBJECT J WATER

Figure

8.

Operating acoustic

arrangement for imaging devices.

Zone-plate

28

oc
POLING VOLTAGO

ARROW DENOTES POLARIZATION

GOLD COUNTERELECTRODE

GOLD tZONE PLATE ELECTRODE (0)

(b)

(cl

Figure

9.

Fabrication of zone-plate transducers. The amplitude zone-plate transducer (a) is formed by depositing gold zone-plate pattern over the The phase zone-plate transducer is transducer. formed by first determining the PZT polarization and then applying a DC poling voltage (as shown in (b)) to reverse the polarization in zones between the zone-plate electrode and its counterpart.Finally, the gold zone-plate is replaced by a simple disk electrode (as shown in (c)) over the phase zoneplate pattern.

29

face of the transducer _ the finished frequency

and is replaced

by a uniform

electrode

to form

phase zone-plate. it

The focus of such a plate of axial

depends on the

which gives

an added flexibility

scanning. and

Such zone plate receivers. utilizing composite Figure activated transducer

transducers

can be used as both transmitters scheme, pattern

Wade and his the optical transducer.

co-workers (54955) used a different of a Gabor type zone-plate is a sandwich structure layer

projection

on a

The transducer a piezoelectric

(shown in

10) containing

which is differentially Such an optical-acoustical an acoustic layer. zone-plate pattern

via a photoconductive is addressed by light

switching. carrying

which is projected most of the voltage on, the resistance piezoelectric of an acoustic A variation

on the photoconductive

In absence of light, with the light across the pattern

drop is across the photoconductor; drops and therefore producing the voltage a replica

is applied

transducer, source. of this

of a zone plate

scheme [shown in Figure layer.

10(b)]

uses a dielectric in an opposite

on the top of the photoconductive operation; acoustic pattern i.e., radiation when the voltage is emitted,

This results

is on and the light the light

is off,

strong

and with

on, we get a negative

of the zone-plate. Devices based on this principle are in the laboratory The transducer focal stage; length is they

are designed to operate 10 cm and its 2.13 diameter

near 3 MHz. is 12 cm.

Gabor s Sonaradiographic

Imaging Scheme(57) effect of

Focussed holograms have the advantage of the amplifying the reference beam, but they have the disadvantage, 30

which always arises

i i :PIEZOELECTRIC ..LAY.ER PIlOTOCONDUCTIVE

I i I

j I i

/ $&$!&JXTPOD_F -L... 5 jIJ,-$jSPARENT . . -.-- -ELECTRODE ._..

OPAQUE I_-_ .-_.- .-._. .ELECTRODE. TPANSPARFNT J&ECTR.ODE I__ -.:--- _,.. -.

(a)

(b)

Figure

10.

Zone-plate transducers utilizing projected light zone-plate of Gabor type. (a) is the positive type operational configuration;it consists of a transparent electrode on top of a photoconductor (CDS) which is in contact with the piezoelectric transdicer (LiNO 3 or RaTi.03). type operational configuration; 03) is the negative when the electric voltage is on, then in the dark strong acoustic radiation is emitted; this radiation is stopped when the light is switched giving a negative Zone-plate pattern. on, thus,

31

in the case of coherent To eliminate of the following this

sound, of very strong speckle noise, acoustic

speckle
imaging

noise. should use one

techniques : acoustic waves. other than just the one from by

(4 (b)

Incoherent Cut out all

the sections

which the signal the electronic zone-plate

is detected. focussing

This can be accomplished (section 1.10) or

and scanning 1.12) . below)

devices

(section

cc> Sonaradiography

(as outlined

where only one section and imaged. holograms with is scattered very

in the depth of the object

is isolated

The scheme proposed by Gabor is based on producing short object, rapidly single acoustic pulses. wave will When such a pulse

by a point

the scattered spreading

produce on an intervening fine ridge. If

membrane a the a

ring-shaped frequency

then we illuminate laser light will source for

membrane with short like interval,

a high

stroboscopic

the trace

of the spreading object

ring

appear exactly zones), gating which

the hologram of a point

(a system of Fresnel By proper the object. no speckles

can then be.photographed then make holograms pulse used for the hologram.

and reconstructed. within

we can

of any section

Since the acoustic wi 11 appear in

illumination

is very sharp,

This scheme was intended reason why it work on this

for use in medicine, industrial without NDT. satisfactory

but there Unfortunately,

is no the

cannot be used for idea was terminated

conclusion.

32

2.14

Acoustic

Tomography known among x-ray radiographers) is the technique is obtained

Tomography (well

by means of which a sharp image of one section by moving the illuminating direction. The section the object

of the object

source and the recording

plane in opposite positions is well can be

to be imaged depends on the relative and the recorder. This technique that it

of the source,

known among medical extended to material

diagnosticians, NDT.

but we believe study

However, careful the course of this

of such a possibility

has not been done during 2.15 Piezoresistive One difficulty section difficult, of grey. 1.6)

contract.

Image Converter (59,601 with the piezoelectric face tube (Sokolov type, in the image. It is shades [like

is the lack of extended grey scale these tubes, to present

with

more than S-10 distinct piezoresistive materials

To overcome this

difficulty,

CdS (Cu)] may be used. frequencies

Such materials

have a wide range of acoustic frequency and odd harmonic and

as opposed to the resonant

response of the piezoelectrics. have the capability transducer presents of information

They also have high resistivity storage, since the piezoelectric beam a signal

to the scanning 'electron incident

proportional the the in theory,

to the acoustic storage

intensity

at the moment of scan, while transducer) scan. presents all

system (using piezoresistive signals since the last

accumulated to significant

This can then lead, in addition

improvement in sensitivity, acoustic illumination.

to the freedom
-7

to use pulsed
W/cm2

Sensitivity

of the order of 10

has been reported.

33

2.16 * Electroluminescent Such a detector layers in contact, layer,

Acoustic-Image

Detector (61) and electroluminescent of the electroluminescence in yielding a

combines a .piezoelectric 11.

as shown in Figure together with proper

The thickness for

luminescent

simulation

such as bias voltage

or UV illumination,

are important

phosphor which could be stimulated Threshold ported. still. sensitivity

by the piezoelectric voltage generated. -7 in the order of 10m6 to 10 W/cm2 has been rein this field are practically at a stand-

However, activities

2.17

Photographic Although

and Chemical Direct

Acoustic

Recording (61,621 images by because

none of the direct or chemical recording

recordings

of acoustic

photographic of their

are presently

in use (mainly

relative

low sensitivity, surveyed in this

which is of the order of 1 W/cm) section since they were part based mainly of our (62).

they are briefly s tudy .

Hereunder is a summary of our findings Ultrasound can be detected

on ref.

by means of the direct emulsion

action

of ultraaccelerates radiation

sound energy on a photographic or causes some chemical influences a photographic

and because ultrasound that ultrasonic

reactions.

The fact

emulsion was reported by other

in 1933 by Marinesco investigators still by effects have

and Trui 1 let (64) . not clearly Bennett (65), revealed

Subsequent studies

the exact mechanism involved. luminescence facts,

The analysis and pressure

in which he showed that all

did not appear to explain cussion sively of this that situation.

the existing Although Bennett

remains a good disrather conclu-

indicated

the softness

of the photographic

emulsion was a very

34

..7-.--

EL

-. 4
TC
\

GLASS

P ACOUSTIC ---WAVE

.;: 5 i LIGHT

I-

-*

c, A I .

,. ,

Figure

11.

Piezoelectric electromuninscent phosphor image detector. The voltage generated across a thin electroluminscent phosphor layer (EL) by the action of acoustic wave impinging on a piezoelectric material (PI would stimulate light emission which could be observed through the transparent electrode (TC) and a glass support plate. The(TC) electrode on the phosphor is connected to the (C) electrode on the piezoelectric material; voltages generated on the piezoelectric material appear at the l.nterface with the electroluminscent layer.

35

important clusion

factor that

in its

response to ultrasound, evidence

he stated to delineate

in his clearly

conthe

"there

is not sufficient mechanical

mechanism, whether thermal, did indicate effect less that

or otherwise".

Bennett's

work

the photographic (his tests

speed of the film included film

emulsion had little from

on the result than 10 to 160). The softness

speeds for tungsten

of the emulsion has been shown to be a significant detection of ultrasound. Film exposed in the dark yield a useful intensity

factor

for

the film

to ultrasound image with of 1 W/cm2. a significant emulsion factor

and developed

in the normal manner will

an exposure time of about 4 hrs for an ultrasonic If the temperature of the film is raised

from 20' to 28'C, If the a

exposure improvement factor

can be obtained. prior

is soaked in water at room temperature times less exposure

to exposure,

of about four

can be used (66) . that

Both these

improvements were reported was softened. These photographic niques.

to be based on the fact

the emulsion

film

methods of course require

darkroom techOne involves The effect

There are other photographic exposure of film

methods which do not. solution

(661 .

the ultrasound

in an iodine

of the ultrasound resistant to fixing

exposure on the emulsion to an extent during proportional

is to render

the emulsion The turns a

to the exposure.

image becomes visible darker yellow color.

the exposure because the emulsion

The image can be made visible exposure by fixing liquid X-ray fixer the film for

more easily time (for

after

completion

of the

a short

example,

1 min in Kodak

and replenisher)

in order 36

to clear

the unirradiated

emulsion. yellow color

The remaining against

emulsion

then displays

the sound pattern

hy a

the clear

background. while cleared.

Those areas of greatest in areas of intermediate There is therefore some

exposure remain essentially exposure the emulsion grey scale since

yellow,

is partially

in the image.

This detection

method can be used in the light appears to have little

the exposed film on the fixing

is not developed and light of the emulsion.

influence

A second photographic involves developer the ultrasound solution

method which can be performed film

in the light

exposure of photographic The uniformly

or paper in a emulsion develops

(67,68) .

light-exposed intensity,

more quickly agitation

in areas where the ultrasonic is highest. technique

and therefore

of the developer,

A thorough

study of this

with photographic and Afanas'ev (68) . contrast

paper has They found

been made and reported that one could obtain

by Arkhangel'skii

a maximum paper density concentration intensity of 0.2, of 0.15-0.25

in the exposed

areas for a developer set, and an ultrasonic

an exposure time of 90-110 W/cm" for photographic to be 0.05 W/cmL

paper No. 6.

The threshold

sensitivity

was reported

for a high developer Exposure times A practical by Arkhangel'skii containing mitting inside

concentration

and an exposure time of 40 sec.

could not be too long or the paper would develop completely. aspect of the developer and Afanas'ev solution is that and paper. and photographic they devised The cell a thin paper study detector cell

developer

had ultrasound

trans-

windows of thin *he cell

(0.15 mm) rubber

and allowed solution.

a space of 2 mm In this manner

for the paper and developer tank containing 37

the need for a large

developer

solution

as the exposure

tank was eliminated. The same authors the photographic transverse also studied the resolution characteristics by the and of

paper method.

The resolution solution This

is determined

diffusion

of the developing streaming.

in the photolayer latter effect This

by the presence of nonuniform distorted effect

leads to latter

and by the presence of nonuniform leads to distorted field

streaming. developer

images because fresh by the acoustic wind.

is directed

along the ultrasonic detector cell

The rubber-covered Assuming that indicated that

tended to eliminate.some

of this

problem.

the streaming the resolution

problem could be eliminated, of the detector detection involves irradiation

the authors

could be in the range of 0.01 mm. method that has been studied solutions by a number (69,70,71-73) .

One chemical of investigators Under ultrasonic reaction

potassium air-filled

iodide-starch

water undergoes an oxidizing organic blue. dyes. For example,

to form H202, which tends to discolor iodide-starch solution

the potassium used this

tends to turn

Rust et al. (71) of

phenomenon to detect this solution.

ultrasound

images by making an array

boxes containing

Each liquid-filled intensity. Darkening

box tended to darken also depended upon

depending upon the ultrasonic the iodine concentration

and the exposure time. boxes had to be at least The threshold At that intensity intensity ultrasonic one waveintensity

The individual length in depth for

liquid-filled optimum results. W/cm2.

was reported

to be 0.5-1.0

exposure times were

only about 2 min.

The threshold small

could be lowered to a value chlorides such as

as low as 0.07 W/cm2 if Ccl4 or chloroform

amounts of aliphatic (70) .

were added to the solution 38

A similar of films blue color

method suggestpd on glass plates

by Bennett (69) called in an iodine solution.

for

the exposure Ilere too a Expo-

of starch

was produced in areas of higher ultrasound sure times of about 2 min at 1 W/cm2 were common. A number of other chemical techniques involving

intensity.

more complicated a new photo.

organic

dyes have also been investigated for optical exhibits

(74,75) .

Recently,

polymer material It is grainless,

hologram recording 100% diffraction

was announced (76,771 irreversible,

efficiency,

can be overmodulated, fraction responses (slower response. efficiency and spatial

no wet processing to be preadjusted frequencies. It

is needed, and permits for a variety is, however, of desired

the difangular

not very sensitive frequency in the blue-

than 649F emulsion) The material region

and displays

poor low spatial sensitized thus it It

is photopolymerizable, with laser a dye sensitizer; wavelengths.

green spectral for film all

can be exposed or

the argon-ion

can be coated on glass to several on this hundred with

base with

thickness A typical

from a few micrometers hologram was recorded

micrometers. reference

material

3:l

to object

beam ratio, is still

in 30 seconds using

12.8 mW/cm'. in

The material various optical

under development

and is being.tested

laboratories. is known about the response of this beams. Thus its use for material to

However, nothing acoustic radiation

or electron

acoustic

record-

ing seems at the present image is converted scheme, or with with its present

to be limited
image

to systems where the acoustic (first as, for example, devices, it is doubtful etc.). that it in Gabor's Ilowever, has use

to an optical

piezoelectric-electroluminescent low speed characteristic, 39

in acoustic

image recording,

except

in special

cases.

2.18

Solid

and Liquid solid,

Crystal thin

Acoustic layer

Displays (78-82)

Crystalline its capability

of CoC12.6H20 was used to demonstrate images. The concept is based on absorb-

to visualize that

acoustic acoustic into

the well

known fact

waves projected

on a suitable

ing material image. crystal ferent pink, tals

is converted

a corresponding chloride

thermal layer local colors,

map of the acoustic depends on its temperature, starting diffrom crys-

Since the color structure, ultrasonic then blue,

of cobalt

crystal of its

and this intensities

is a function

show up in various The interest

and ending in white. field detectors

in such solid

as acoustic

has been only an academic curiosity. in liquid crystals is more than of these crystals devices is

On the other hand the interest academic. and their carried crystals It is practical

and progressive

development

potential

use as real-time laboratories.

acoustic

image display properties

out in various

The optical solid. into

of these

resemble those of crystalline Liquid crystals are usually

divided

smectic,

nematic

and

cholesteric,

depending on the arrangement freedom. to optic

of the molecules

and their types materials

degree of rotational were used as acoustic were tried thermal absorber with as acoustic

Only the nematic converters

and cholesteric cholestric

Several

area detectors. temperature

These attempts variation (79) .

were based on

mapping of spatial irradiated

on an ultrasonic Most of the problems resolution

by the acoustic liquid displays

field

cholesteric

is that

they have limited

(which is a function tivity.

of the thickness in coating 40

of the substrate) materials

and poor sensi-

Microencapsulation

of high acoustic

propcrtics

and using liquid

an acoustic crystals

impedcncc close to that

of the capsula-

ted cholestric tion. Ultrasonic

has been suggested to improvo the resolucholesteric of the liquid in specially liquid crystal

holograms were recorded with by properly thermal acoustic In spite balancing absorber

area detectors,

crystals, constructed

and by using a transparent black bottom tank(84). liquid crystals

of such demonstration holography, since

of the use of

cholestric

in acoustic

such method is more the acoustic intensity

of a scientific

than a practical

importance, of 5 MHz.

used was 8.1 W/cm2 at a frequency tivity for (may be by an order an ambient temperature

Improvement of the sensihowever, mean the need degrees which rules the

of magnitude) regulation use. liquid

would,

to lo-'

scheme out for any practical Better optical liquid sonic

schemes for using

crystals

exploit

the five

electro-

effects crystals, field.

which have been observed in certain all

types of nematic by an ultrathe following

of which may perhaps be influenced effects, displays.

Based on these electro-optical were made to design liquid crystal

suggestions 2.18.1

Dynamic Scattering When an electric milky white field is applied, the liquid crystals become

and opaque. This dynamic scattering of charge carriers crystal and the dipole

is due to the moment of the fields scattering

interaction nematic influence

liquid

molecules. conduction,

Since ultrasonic the dynamic light place

the electric

may be affected acoustical

and the changes taking (78) .

could be used for

imaging displays

41

2.18.2

VoItagc A thin

Controlled layer

Optical

Activity liquid crystals with is sandwiched conductive coating.

of twisted

nematic

between two glass plates, The molecules of the liquid

each provided crystals with li-ght

are turned no electric is incident will a total

90 in going field ap-

from one glass plate plied. When linearly its

to the other polarized

perpendicular along the

to one side, twist axis

plane of polarization

rotate

of the nematic molecule to the other is applied side.

of 90 as the light

is transmitted electric molecules field

On the other hand, when an the liquid crystal

across the cell, so that their

are rearranged twist

orientation will

no longer pass through

shows a continuous the cell. fields

of 90 and so light static electric fields

Knowing that

and acoustic

may interact,

such interaction display.

could be used to develop

an acoustical-to-optical

2.18.3

Guest-host A dichroic crystalline

Interaction dye molecule host is introduced liquid as a guest into the

nematic

crystal.

The orientation are controlled

of the dye molecules by applying absorption radiation, an aligning properties a real-time

and their electric of certain

optical field.

absorption

Since the optical by acoustic screen may

dyes are influenced display

acoustical-to-optical

be reconstructed.

42

2.18.4

Bircfringent

Properties in vertically aligned liquid light crystal transmission

Phase deformation (specially properties, Telefunken.

prepared)

shows up in their

.as was observed by Schickel Contrast ratio

and Fahrensohn of AEG-

of 1OOO:l have been achieved using of the liquid crystals can be may be

only 7-10 volts. influenced visualized. It is to be emphasized that

The orientation wavefront

by an acoustic

and hence the latter

none of the above suggested

schemes have

been tested. Other tested Direct schemes are presented Effects below. (78) liquid crystals leads to (in the

2.18.5

Acousto-Optical of acoustic motion

Propagation

waves in nematic of these crystals, in the liquid field).

-causes turbulent dynamic optical

and this crystal

scattering

layers

absence of any electric bonding an array back of a liquid switched

This was demonstrated (78) by transducer to the were milky.

of 10 MHz PZT-4 acoustic crystal cell. cells

When the transducers in contact with

on, the liquid

them turned can be in(85) .

It was found that creased by proper pp. A-13 describes liquid crystal

the sensitivity biasing with

of such a cell an electric field

Appendix

A,

a successful

design of such an acousto/optic

display

screen (80) .

43

II

Although the existing

image quality interest

of liquid

crystal

devices

are quite

poor,

in such devices optimism.

is motivating

many researchers

to pursue their New results

work with will

be reported Illinois

at the Acoustical

Holography of

Symposium #7 at Chicago,

(August 1976) by J. L. Dion,

cells having Canada, on the use of homeotropic nematic liquid crystal -6 W/cm* independent of the frequency in the sensitivity better than 10 range of 1 to 10 MHz. 2.19 Pohlman Cell (86,87) This cell is described in Appendix A, pp-13. its Poh lman announced To

the idea in 1939(86) and then demonstrated improve the contrast of acoustic a
small

use in 1948 (87) . by these cells, (typically

images detected bias voltage

Van Valkenburg (88) applied across the cell. is reflected 5 MHz. imaging, to 10 -3

25-30 V AC) so that no light

The voltage

tends to align

the flakes Results

in the absence of ultrasound. however,

were shown (881 using of acoustic (10 -1

Such cells,

gave way to other resolution

techniques

because of its W/cm* with

poor relative

and sensitivity

reaction

time L 1 sec.,

and 2.8x10 -7 W/cm* with It

ex-

pected reaction

time of the order of minutes).

also has a limited

dynamic range of 20 dB. Films (88,89,90,110) converting the acoustic image

2.20

Oil, All

Thermoplastic these detectors

and Photoplastic are used after

into

an

electronic

one and focussing

the electrons

on one of these

materials. 44

A thin vacuum.

oil

.film

is used to coat an optically writing on the oil film,

flat

glass plate by a

in

The electrons,

are attracted surface of the oil

high voltage which in turn deformed film

on the glass plate, results in varying

causing the oil the thickness

to deform, film. The

is then read out optically image is projected. film is very similar

by using

a phase modulation

scheme, and an optical Thermoplastic of low-melting-poi'nt The film point voltage is written

to the oil

film.

A thin conducting

layer film.

elastic

is coated on a transparent

on by an electron coating.

beam and heated to the softening are attracted by a high variation the plastic in, a

of the plastic

The electrons

on the conducting to that

backing

and produce thickness film. After cooling,

manner similar hardens,

of the oil

and thus a permanent record is very similar The surface strikes layer

is available. to thermoplastic, except that it is

Photoplastic

also a photoconductor. and, at points through

of the photoconductor the photoconductor,

is charged,

where light

the charge leaks charge in the

to the conducting

on the base.

The remaining

causes deformation same way as with thermoplastic sensitive. All addition

when the photoplastic thermoplastic.

is softened

by heating

This material

is better

than the it is less

because it

does not require

vacuum; however,

of these materials to their

require

complex and expensive

material

in

compete with
*

low sensitivities * other detectors. see Ref. B.

0.1 - 1 W/cm* and hence they cannot

For recent

advances,

45

2.21

Scanning snd Sampling Technique (91-!)5) flistorically the first by scanning acoustic a small holograms were recorded microphone (in air) (either

in air detector

or water)

or piezoelectric then modulates on a

(in water)

over the hologram plane.

The signal

the intensity photographic synchronism optical

of a CRT electron plate. with

gun, or a small neon bulb focussed beam or the neon bulb move in

The CRT electron detector

the ac0usti.c

at a slow speed to produce an There have been a variety of

hologram properly of this

demagnified.

arrangements

technique,

one of which gives

a sampled hologram

which can be constructed tector stationary

by a computer (96) , another by keeping the dewith the insonifying sollrce (what is

and scanning

known as reciprocal

hologram (104,104)) > a third simultaneously with

by scanning both the rela-

source and the detector tive

the same or different

speed to produce a synthetic

aperture

hologram (105,106) , a fourth

approach produces a phase only hologram (107) , etc. The literature mechanically is rarely the field neous ly . is full of such techniques. this The scanning particular is done reason it

and thus it

is very slow and for

used.

However, if then it

a mosaic of detectors

are made to sample

in parallel,

can produce a hologram almost instantaor computer data reduction the final visual image. limit

However, the reconstruction to obtain with

the speed of the process are superceded presently in previous electric sections

Such s ch emes described

the more sophisticated electronically rippled focussed surface,

techniques

(e.g.,

and scanned piezoetc.).

transducers,

Bragg cells,

2.22

Recent Developments

(yet to be published)* random phase disk receiver placed far behind the object from the disk, of the This thus

Takuso Sato used a rotating to detect transforming object the signal by a fixed

the spatial

distribution into

of the wave intensity a temporal receiver distribution.

waves to be reconstructed the need for

idea eliminates receivers. Hitachi

a scanning

or phased array

Ltd.

of Japan will system for sizing

announce soon a shear wave focussed vertical and oblique flaws and holographic

image holography defects

in metal structures. in the focussed consists

The system utilizes

acoustical

interferometry internal the flaw's deviation corresponds flaw

image hologram mode. fringes

The image of an lines across

of interference

or contour half

surface.

The fringe

separation

represents

wavelength of the fringe the size which

in depth from the scanning plane, to the width of the flaw.

and the length

Thus one can estimate of the fringes

of the flaw by measuring the number and length appear on the focussed In an effort temperature, principle image hologram.

to suppress the effects external infouences,

of object

vibrations,

changing the

and other of differential

H. J. Shaw applies

phase contrast points

imaging where comparison is on the object, which are

made between the phases of adjacent separated by a constant reference distance

along the scan line. imaging paths. in that

This is different the reference

from the fixed and signal *

phase contrast almost identical

beams travel

It is expected that some of these accomplishments at the Acoustical llolography Symposium #7 (Aug. 1976). 47

will

be announced

II

III

Rcsl-time FM chirp angle for tion focusscd

imaging with phase array

shear waves and surface and tilting

waves, using

the

the ,array past the critical block, shows a 5 mm definidirection at a

longitudinal

waves in the target

in the normal direction

and 4 mm in the horizontal when the acoustic than the critical achieved

distance

of 15 cm in an Al block, is tilted further

frequency angle,

was 1.8 MHz.

When the array Rayleigh tion

exciting This informa-

waves, the resolution

did not change.

was obtained

from G. S. Kino.

48

CHAPTERIII

ANALYSIS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECObiMENDATIONS

49

3.1

Image Quality Acoustic images produ red by whatever They are not as sharp, and can lead to erroneous structure technique reveal are far inferior

to optical distortion,

images. noisy,

poor resolution, However, its

interpretation.

they do reveal outside slrface.

the internal

of the object, x-rays,

and not merely

In comparison with

they are again, of interaction

as a whole, of

of less quality; acoustic

but again because of the nature

waves in the materials objects,

they give information

about the interin x-ray

faces in the tested pictures .

which are hidden or not evident

Hereunder are the main causes for images. (a) destructive (~10~~ Hz) . optical ones. Wavelength. -. testing Acoustical

limiting

the quality

of acoustic

frequencies

(normally

used for nonfrequencies

(0.1 - 20 MHz) are far below the optical then, the acoustic imrdes obtained resolution

Naturally, Indeed,

is less than microscopy where with

in acoustic

very high frequencies optical microscopy (b) Specular

(1 - 10 GHz) were used, compete very well

pictures. Reflection. Most of the surfaces This produces specular are smooth relative reflection wires, and.hence spheres acoustic

to the acoustic false

wavelength.

interpretations. etc.

For example,

rods may look like

as points, frequency geometrical (cl irradiation.

Thus, care must be taken in choosing the right the object, etc. This is produced by the coherent by using wide frequency 50 relative to its surface

to insonify

roughness,

arrangement, Speckle Noise. It

nature

of the

can be eliminated

band, large

aperture, and/or

very sharp pulsing detection. Aperture.

for insonification,

large

aperture,

focussed (d)

Limited light,

In reconstructing

an acoustic

hologram

with

visible

the hologram dimension wavelength to optical

must be reduced by the ratio (Appendix A, pp. A-4) depth distortion

of the acoustical

wavelength

which is of the order of magnitude of 1000; otherwise, is generated in the reconstructed be too noisy image. A highly

reduced hologram on Other means to avoid and

the other hand will the demagnification produce an undistorted (discussed direct next);

due to speckles.

of the acoustic

hologram under reconstruction,

image, are (a) the use of composite holography the depth information; 1.10, for example). to holography from one of the or (c) resort to

(b) ignore imaging (item

focussed (e)

Depth Distortion.

One of the main attractions

is to reconstruct hologram. the radiation

the whole 3-D information

about the object

However, \<hen there used in recording

is a change between the wavelengths and reconstructing the hologram,

depth of the object magnified relative

(in the reconstructed to the other dimensions

image) is magnified of the object.

or de-

To avoid this above and

the hologram dimensions Appendix A, pp. A-4). Another

have to be changed (as explained This, however, may be undesirable. information,

idea to obtain

undistorted.depth sections

separate a B-scan). hologram

images are made for various Transparencies

in the body (e.g.,

using

of these images are then stacked is made optically with (97 s981 .

and one optical

of the whole stack reconstructed undistorted later visible

This hologram then may be to produce an

the same optical

wavelength,

acoustic

image of the object. 51

(f)

Miscellaneous

Artifac.ts.

Interpretation peculiar

of acoustic

images

is sometimes hampered by artifacts Scanning, for example, whether (99 , multiplicity etc. Diffraction

to the technique or helical,

used. may produce from

linear,

circular

moire patterns one another,

of images which are not separated fringes may appear to hinder

the location

of sharp edges. surface.

Speckle noise may be confused with

the roughness of the

3.2

Comparison of Various The various

Techniques. acoustical images in NDT are They are also prepp. A-6. The

systems for visualizing

described

in Chapter

2 and summarized in Table 1.

sented in a condensed form in Appendix 'A, Table A.1, choice of a proper (a) 0) system depends on: of object to be tested, (i.e., tested

type and size accessibility laboratory),

to the object

on site

or in the

(c) (4 W

degree of the details need for real-time

of the information, information, or a record only, for filing,

need for gross macroscopic fine microscopic details,

information

or gross and

(fl

whether the system is to work alone or as a complement to other systems, of acoustical imaging, and imaging

(gl

whether the system has the capability only or both acoustical and optical

(h)

the cost of the system.

52

The Bragg-diffraction for real-time acoustic

system

(Section

2.3) exhibits

the capability

image visualization,

and at the same time with optical imaging. to testing in the It is of

some modification, simple and sensitive objects

can be switched enough.

to real-time

However, it

may be limited

medium sized water filled

which can be moved to the lab and placed

Bragg cell. and microscopic testing of medium sized objects, array

For macroscopic an electronically (Section 2.10)

focussed, offers objects,

electronically

scanned piezoelectric at the present. mosaic array may be built (like a stethescope).

the best technique a piezoelectric mechanically

For large

as a

probe to scan the object similar to the technique it

This is

used in medical

diagnosis. display.

Like the above two

techniques

has the capability techniques

of real-time

Most of the other are still in the research

have not yet proven their stage, or incapable

practicality, of real-

or development

time display. With the exception 2.6) of Sokolov-type (static image converter ripple) system (Section 2.2),

and the deformed water surface

system is

system (Section

no other limited 3.3

available

commercially.

Both systems,

however, have

field

of view.

Recommendations. 1. Follow up the international fast moving acousto/optical

system,

state

of the art and new devclop-

ment in this
2.

imaging technique. or
systems, that

Design an acoustical in the MSK hybrid to be tested.

system

can be incorto the types of

porated objects

(Figure

l),

according

. 53

3. testing This

Analyze

and design the whole hybrid optical, acoustical

system for nondestructive techniaues. and retrieval

incorporating

and correlation storage, reduction

includes

information to the various

acquisition,

in addition

subsystems of imaging,

rectification,

enhancement, etc. 4. on site, circuits 5. Study and bl1il.d a portable akin to that (lo8)). Initiate a program to study microscopic cracks and monitoring used in medical probe for testing diagnosis (utilizing large objects integrated

them acoustically. 6. devices Initiate with a study program on zone-plate of using acoustic imaging

the possibility focussing.

the zone-plate

for both acoustical

and optical 7.

Investigate

more thoroughly 2.14)

the capabilities

of acoustic (Section 2.13).

tomography (Section

and Gabor s sonoradiography

54

TABLE 1 ACOUSTO/OPTIC IMAGINGMETHODS AND DETECTION Imaging System Detectors or Detection Technique G Display Optical phase contrast or optical scanning with coherent or incohcrent light Coherent laser light (continuous or pulsed) Laser beam scanning or electron beam scanning Scanning the back of PZT face (quartz or barium) electronically & detect secondary emission. Real Time Capability Sensitivity 1 W/cm Frequency Range
MHZ

Section Reference

General Remarks

Liquid Surface (static ripples)

Yes

1. 5x10m3(normal) lo-5 (reported) 10- I (theoretical)

0.5-10

2.2

Bragg-Diffraction (Direct sound-light interaction) Deformed Solids (dynamic ripples)

Image

Yes

1o-g

(theoretical)

10-100

2.3

Yes

1O-3

(reported) -9 to lo-l1 10 (theoretical) 1o-g (theoretical)

100

2.4,2.5

Converter (Sokolov)

Yes

Up to 0 or
20

2.6

Sealed tube -very narrow angular aperture (10-20 ) -3X -5X resolution (r$por?ed) -new designs may increase aperture and frequency. Improves the angular field of view of Sokolov tube.

Metal Fiber Face tube image converter (with appropri at e PZT)

Scanning the back of the PZT electronically (like Sokolov tube)

Yes

lo- (th eoretical)

Up to 20

2.7

TABLE 1 (Cont d) Imaging System Detectors or Detection Technique & Display Pyroelectrics scanned with electron beam Real Time Capability Sensitivity W/cm2 Frequency Range
MHZ

Section Reference

General Remarks

Pyroelectric face tube image convert er

Yes

lo-3 at 3 MHz (reported)

up to 20

2.8

-Sensitivity increases with f2 -wide .frequency band (>20 MHz) -sealed tube

Electrostatic Transducers u-l 0

Electric switching

Yes

ii-11 -8 in air in water) (theoretical)

0.07 to 0.250 in air 0.3 to 3.5 in water l-20 (used)

2.9

1o-5 (reported) Yes lo-l1 (theoretical) 2.10 Laser beam scanning of PZT for readout has sensitivity of 10-4 W/ cm2 Has larger dynamic range than piezoelec tries. Has storage capabi li ty .

Piezoelectric array Electronic \<ith electronic focussing & scanning Piezoresistive Image Converter Electroluminescent image converter Photographic and Chemical Methods Photopolymer erials
mat-

1o-8 (reported)

Electron beam scanning Direct Direct conversion interaction

Yes

10-7 (reported)

1 to 20 (used) 2.15

Yes No No

1o-6 (reported) ~~1-5 (reported 0.013 (reported) (with Argon Ion laser) > 0.02

2.16 2.17 2.17

After conversion to visible or electron images

TABLE 1 (Cont d)

Imaging System

Detectors or Detection Technique E Display Electron beam scanners plus optical illumination Direct Interaction

Real Time Capability

Sensitivity W/cm2

Frequency Sectiqn Range Reference

MHZ

General Remarks

Oi 1, Thermoplastic and photoplastic recorders Pholman Cell

No

0. l-l

(reported)

2.20

Yes

-3 10-l to 10 (reaction time 1 sec.) 2.8~10-~ (reaction time ~60 sets.)

2.19

Poor resolution, poor contrast, and limited dynamic range of 20 dB .

Solid and Liquid Crystal Display Chemical Techniques Phosphor persistence changes.

Direct Interaction Direct Interaction plus proper viewing system

Yes Yes

o.1-10-6 (reported) 0.05-0.1

2.18

Sti 11 in experimental stage. See Ref. 102 which includes specific references; e.g., Ca-CrS stimulated by UV increases its luminescence persistence by acoustic exposure. Spatial resolution of 0.2 mm reported.

Extinction of luminescence

TABLE 1 (Cont d) Imaging System Detectors or Detection Technique $ Display RealTime Capabi li ty Sensitivity W/cm* Frequency Range MHZ Chromotropic compound (e.g., HgsAgeiodide) ; changes color from yellow to red instantly with acoustic absorption (1 sec. exposure) ; irreversible process. Section Reference General Remarks

Chemical Techniques (Cont d) Thermosensitive color changes

Change in Phototn emission OcChange in electrical conductivity Thermocouple and thermistor Zone Plate Acoustic Focussing (on PZT) Gabor s Sonoradiographs Acoustic Electron or Optical Scanning Coherent laser beam E photo recording Yes No No Possible

0.1 (at 5 MHz) Semiconductor materials such as zinc E cadmium. Thermopile detects 0.1 W/cm*, temp. rise of (10-4) Oc. 2.12 2.13 lo-l1 10- (theoretical) (theoretical) 2.14 2.11 No results reported.

0.1 0.1 10-11

Tomography PZT PZT

Mostly used in medicine. No results reported.

Frequency Swept Recording

TABLE 1 (Cqnt d) Imaging System Detectors or Detection Technique & Display PZT (in water) Microphone (in air) Light image Yes 30 ergs/cm* Appendix B RealTime Capabi li ty Sensitivity W/cm* Frequency Range
MHZ

Section Reference

General Remarks

Digital Sampling and Computer Reconstruction Rutican Recording Devices

No

lo-l1

(theoretical)

2.21

Slow

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R. Mezrich, D. Vilkomerson (June 1976). A. Chutjian S. Sokolov,

and K. Etzold, J.O.S.A.

and R. J. Collier, U.S. patent

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733-742 (Oct.

H. M. A. El-Sum, Acoust.

Holog. 2, 12-16, Plenum Press (1970). Acoust. Holog. I_, 69-86,

A. F. Metherell, S. Spinok and-E. J. Pisa, Plenum Press (1970). J. L. DuBois, Acoust. Holog.

2, 59-68, Plenum Press (1970). Acoust. Holog. 5, 633-645, Series II, -30,.3

J. E. Jacobs and Donald A. Peterson, Plenum Press (1973). J. E. Jacobs, (Jan. 1968). R. C. Addison, J. E. Jacobs, Trans. Acoust. Acoust.

N. Y. Academy of Sciences, Holog. Holog. 5_, 659-670, 5, 661-669,

Plenum Press (1973). Plenum Press (1974).

P, Buchman, Ferroelectrics P. Alais, Acoustic Ilolog. 2, 671-684,

5, 39-43 (1973).

llqlog. 4, 237-249, Plenum Press (1972) ; Acoust. Plenum Press (1973). 61

44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

A. K. Nigam, et al., Acoust. Ilolog. 4, 173-194, Plenum Press (1972); Acoust. Iioldg. 2, 655-700, Plenum Press (1973). G. S. Kino, C. DeSilets, J. Fraser and T. Waugh, IEEE Ultrasonic Symposium Proceedings 75 Cl10 994-4SU, 94-101 (1975). W. P. Leung, R. A. Mills, H. J. Shaw, D. K. Winslow and L. Zitelli, IEEE Ultrasonic Symposium Proceedings 75 CHO 994-4SU, 84-87 (1975)'. J. T. Walker and J. D. Meindl, IEEE Ultrasonic ings 75 Cl10 994-4SU, SO-83 (1975). Symposium Proceed-

J. Fraser, J. Howlice, G. Kino, W. Leung, H. Shaw, K. Toda, T. Waugh, D. Winslow and L. Zitelli, Acoustical Holog. 6, 275-304 (1974) . G. S. Kino, J. F. Havlice, Holog. S, 317-333 (1973). J. S. Kofol and C. F. Quate, Acoust. Holog. 4,

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N. Takagi, T. Kawashima, T. Ogura and T. Yamada, Acoust. 215-236 (1972). N. H. Farahat, IEEE Ultrasonic Proc. Appl. Acoust.

75 CHO 994-4SLJ, 68-72 (1975). Phys. Letters -25, 681 (1975).

S. A. Farnow and B. A. Auld, S. A. Farnow and B. A. Auld,

Holog. 4, 259-273 (1972).

K. Wang, H. Shen and G. Wade, IEEE Proc. -62, 650 (1974). K. Wang, H. Shen and G. Wade, IEEE Ultrasonic 52-56 (1975). B. A. Auld, private communications. Imaging and Holography, Imaging and Holography, 151-158, Plenum Press Symp. Proc. 75 CHO-4SU,

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245, Plenum Press

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Physics

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H. Berger and I. Y. Torkikai

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J. Acoust.

and K. Nigishi,

J. Phys. Sot. Japan -' 10 Soviet

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and V. Ia. Afanas'ev, Sot.

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Am. -24, 470-474 (1952). 186-188 36 -' 374-

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W. S. Colburn

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App. Phys. Letters

95. 96. 97. 9s. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105.
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P. Gregus and H. J. Caulfield, G. W. Stroke,

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64

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K. I:. lirikson, I:. J. ITry and J. 0. Jones, IEEE Trans. Sonics and (This reference Ultrasonics, SU-21 (3), 144-170, (July 1974). contains 376 rcferenccs related to Ultrasonics in Medicine.) H. M. A. El-Sum, "Optical Processing Spartan Publishers (1963). of Information", 85-97,

110.

65

I--

APPENDIX A

EARLIER STUDY OF THE PROJECT

A-l

I. 1.1 GENERALREMARKS The flurry early 1940's, PJ3 of activity mainly

INTRODUCTION

in acoustical

imaging

of the 1930's and with

in the USSR and Europe; the demonstrated of coherent .light imaging

has been revived success of optical sources--lasers. resulted mainly

more vigour holography

in the 1960's after and the availability

The from on

dormant peri0d.i.n the difficulties

the work on acoustical encountered

in making satisfactory hand,from the inability capable

acoustic

lenses

one hand, and on the other and/or low cost

to produce reliable of transforming the

acousto-optical

transducers one.

acoustical

image to a visible

Holography in p.rinciple, in itself early

seems to alleviate

these two main difficulties

since,

no lenses were needed and the acoustical as the acousto-optical theory transducer.

hologram may be 13341 ' Since the

considered

publication

of the original and the early

of holography 151 by D. Gabor in in the USA, it to all scalar was known waves, elecacoustic

Great Britain, that

work of El-Sum [6,71 can be extended of this

the technique acoustic

of holography waves.

including trons,

Demonstration

was made with however,

[6,81 x-raysi7'

and microwaves["

in the 1950's;

holograms

were made about two decades later. of coherent techniques. for light

Cl01

The delay was.mainly (lasers) acoustical picture and the and optical

due to the nonavailability lack of proper fields tical in order image. In light the various of the brief practical to render

sources

interfacing visible

an intelligible

of the acous-

discussion

mentioned

above, we shall

survey of the

categories

of acoustic

holography A-2

and the interfacing

acoustical testing. the general 1.2

and optical For a cohcrcnt theory

fields

as applied

in particular describe

to nondcstructivc first, very briefly,

discussion

we shall

of holography.

SIblPLIFIED TJJEORY OF JJOLOGRAPIlY IN GENERAL The theory of holography so and fir I is very well known C5,6,12,131 . When two pattern

coherent registers

waves

interferes,

the recorded wave f

interference where

the intensity

of the resulting

I = z* where the asterisk The first intensities.

= UrUr + UoUo + uruo + 'rue denotes the complex conjugate. (1) represent while the

-t +*

+ +*

-t +*

+*+

(11

two terms in the above equation 8r and so, intensities pattern respectively,

of the waves additional

the last

two

terms represent

due to the interference The two waves

between cr and

cr and co. The recorded

ijO

is the hologram.

may be considered

as a reference

wave and an object recording

wave (wave I

scattered

by the object). response

Assuming linear it

of the intensity illumi-

and a linear nating

of the hologram,

is easy to prove that example cr) In other with its

the hologram with wave co and its object

one of the waves (for complex conjugate "i.

reconstructs words a .replica complex conand viewed. as

the other

of the original jugate or a twin

is reconstructed

together

image.

The two images can be separated

The reconstructing that

wave need not be of the same wavelength In other words, do and cr may be wave is a visible with light

used to make the hologram. waves, while

acoustic

the reconstructing hologram

wave. light,

Thus we have an acoustical

reconstructed A-3

visible

The dimensions from the original properly

of the rcconstructcd object unless

image, however,

will

be diffcrcnt is

the dimensions
r31

of the hologram

changed before

the reconstruction. the lateral

When the hologram di(x,y) of the object are

mensions are unchanged, unchanged, length ratio while

dimensions

the depth where

(z) is distorted Xs

in proportion wavelength

to the waveand XL is

As/AL

is the acoustic

the light If,

wavelength. on the other hand, the scale of the acoustic hologram is image

reduced by a factor will

m, the lateral

dimensions while

of the reconstructed in depth is

be reduced by the same factor, to m2; the net scale

image will

the reduction x', y'

proportional reconstructed

transformation

and z' of the

then read x = mx
y' = my
(2)

z' = m2 (Q/A,) which shows that

m = XL/ hS

z
image, one must choose

to obtain

an undistorted of 10
-3

which is of the order optical

The image would therefore would in turn

be

so small regenerate

as to require

magnification--;<hich

the depth distortion. next is how does the acoustical films for real later hologram be recorded reconstruction)
or

The question permanently temporarily

(such as on photographic on an appropriate

medium (for

time reconstruction). of ultrasonic detectors

Table 1[14] lists Jc (frequency > 2Opz). The choice

the various

classes

of a particular

technique

for

recording

an acoustical

hologram depends upon the frequency

of the interaction 'A-4

of the sound with

the subject sonic

under study. for various

As a guide for applications, testing, detection field used.

the choice Table

of the appropriate

frcqucncy

II may bc used as a in the range of flows. The

guide. 1151

For nondestructive

frequencies

100 KHz to 10 MHz arc used for techniques cording

of macroscopic into an optical

of mapping the acoustic frequency

one vary ac-

to the acoustic object

Furthermore,

the coupling wave propagation emphasize in this of macroscopic,

between the tested depends, also, proposal

and the medium of acoustic frequency. We shall

on the acoustic applicable

techniques objects.

to nondestructive

testing

nonbiological

A-5

Table

1.

Ultras&k of Detector

Detectors

(Frequency

> 20 KIiz) Mfnfmum Detect Power (watt/cm

Class

Photographic and Chemical (direct effect on particularly soft emulsion; of emulsion to fixing; change in developing reaction. )

1
change speed; in resistance oxldlzlng

Thermal (thermocouples; thermistors; thermopiles; semiconductors; photoemitt2rs; organic materials which change color, such as iodine, chlorine, chromotropics; liquid crystals: stimulators or extinguishers of luminescence; phospher persistance devices) Optical and Mechanical (Schlieren method; use of birefringence surface deformation of sollds or fluids; aluminum flakes) Electronic (piezoelectric effect; eletrostrictive; piezoelectric. plus electroluminesc2nce)

0. 1

1o-4 due to stress; suspended

piezoresistive;

10 11

Table

II.

Frequency

Range for Different

Applications

Applications Geophysics

Frequency

Range of Sound

- 100 Hz, for deep penetration 100 to 10,000 Hz for oil, mineral and archaeology 5 to 100 KHz for long imaging under water Testing and Medical 100 KHZ to 10 MHz to short

prospectint

Ocea nogra phy

range

3-D

Nondestructive Diagnosis Ultrasonic

Microscopy

10 MHz

to 10 GHz

A-6

II.

PlIi'l'lIODS AND TEQINIQUES OF ACOUSTO-OPTICAL IIOI,OCIu\PI1YAND ACOUSTO-OPTICALINTERFACING

Acoustical interdepcndcnt

imaging and will

and acousto-optical with as-such

interfacing in this

(coupling)

are

bc dealt

section.

There arc many ways of categorizing of acoustical combination

l

the methods and techniques Such methods fall in one or a

holography.

[3,4,15,16,173 classes: (liquid

of the following Surface Scanning Direct Direct deformation (mechanical,

and solid) and laser beam)

. .
l

electronic

light-

sound interaction for

(Bragg diffraction) display (liquid crystals)

conversion

instantaneous discussions the general

The following presented 2.1 merely

are brief

of some of these methods, idea of the techniques.

to illustrate

LIQUID SURFACE DEFORMTION WITH ACOUSTIC REFERENCE WAVE. --.-__~ When two acoustic beams (object interference and reference the free beams) propagate surface of the in

liquid

medium, their according

affects equilibrium

liquid,

to the pressure

equation: (3) the density of the liquid, The h) are

ah - yV2h = 2P
where P, p, y and h are the acoustic its surface tension, surface is and the surface pressure,

deformation,

respectively. (height

whole liquid spaced

3

levitated

by ho, while

the ripples be:

distant

d apart.,/'which, /'

from Eq. (3) will

A-7 I!

1.c 25r2 y fi % 2 Sin OS Sin' OS

(4)

where I is the sound intensity, es half

C and fs its

velocity

and frequency, beam.

the angle between the reference The rippled surface

and object
3s 3

can be considered by illuminating

phase hologram which with a coherent light

may be reconstructed beam, incident

optically

it

on the surface

at an angle BL such that Sin es As is uniform (51 or spherical, by

Sin BL AL Unless the general such levitation choosing levitation,

ho, of the surface noise

produces

undesirable

which should [Eq. (4)].

be minimized On the other optical

3s

the proper

parameters

of the liquid

hand, h should fraction promise,

be maximized

in order

to have the highest

difa com-

efficiency.
3

Branden and Smithr18] criterion fs(MHz) is Sin es ~0.233 in this

recommended that

good working

(6)

Other sources by using an in-focus

of noise

technique instead

may

also

be minimized holography proper to form

or image hologram object

of the lensless surface (using

by focusing acoustic

the insonified

onto the liquid beam is directed A-8

lenses).

The reference

to the surface

the image hologram. in addition of the study. 2.2 to several

Such technique limitations

has advantages which will

:IIKI disndvnntagcs, with in the course

bc dc'alt

LIQUID SURFACE DEFORMATION WITflOUT ACOUSTIC REFERENCE WAVE ~=-(Time-Ind_elend= Instead of 3 reference beam, Green [I91 used 3 wire image of the object, way, the undesired grating close

to the surface.on the liquid,

which the acoustic In this

immersed in

is projected.

high frequency

ripples,superimposed

on the main ripples arrangement,

UnavoidableinBrenden-Smith optical tional object, this intensity

of the surface and which is :;Yi The is reduced considerably. arrangement transmitted arrangement. it is proporthrough the

at the image plane of Green's intensity

to the square of the acoustic and hence is higher

than Smith-Brenden advantage, the response since

However,

is not 3 too important choosing

can be compensated for of the optical

by appropriately detector. quality. 2.3

characteristic produce

In general

the two techniques

images of comparable

LIQUID SURFACE DEFOJ?MATION WITH SIMULTANEOUS SCANNINGOF THE ACOUSTIC SOURCEAND LIGHT DETECTOR(Synthetic Aperture) To avoid'the distortion of the reconstructed image, brought wavelengths, aperture are scanning is a holoabout

by the extreme El-S&1g] technique. with either

difference

between the acoustic et al.,

r201

and light

and Hilderbrand, In this different an equivalent

. a synthetic used

scheme both the detector or the same velocities. larger aperture

and the source The resultant

gram with

and consequently and less

less distortion speckle noise.

in the reconstructed

image, higher

resolution A-9

The hcst dctcctor

results

for

improvement

are.obtaincd

when the source.and Another

the

are superimposed

and move with

the same velocity.

method to reduce the speckle is dcscribcd 2.4 next.

noise has been proposed by Gabor [*'I

and

DYNAMIC SURFACE DEFORMATION When sound passes through a transparent thin film in an acoustic moves

medium, no radiation with the sound.

pressure

develops,

but the film,

nevertheless,

The excursion

A is given by: -J A=----- LS fS

(71 and frequency, respectively. excitation on a short If

Is and fS being the film passing coherent pulse

the acoustic

intensity

is chosen to be reflective through light the film beam.

3

to light,

the acoustic

can be picked

up as phase modulation

This film

is the main idea of Gabor E211. into

3

A single Light

is sent as

thin

the body to be investigated. Fresnel hologram. Its

reflected limited eliminated 2.5

from the film to a very thin

produces layer

volume is noise is

and hence the omnipresent

speckle

from the system.

INSTAXTANEOUS HOLOGRAMS A record of the instantaneous value of

3

dynamically part optical

deformed

surface hologram.

is equivalent Consecutive

to the information-carrying recording of two pulsed half-waves, differ

of an on-axis holograms that spaced the

in time by an odd number of acoustic optical of such references

3

and provided by r/2,

of the two holograms hologram gives

3

the reconstruction

composite

phase-contrast
A- 10

image of the acoustic

image over the excited acoustic 2.6 hologram.

surface.

[=I

This

in turn

can be uscd'as

an

RAPID LASER BEAM SCANNING ._---_--A laser beam scanned over a reflecting excitation the idea'using as phase modulation. surface Korpel, picks up the et al. r231 of the beam edge in front of the beam to the on a

local

acoustic

demonstrated deflector

a lens to image the exit pupil of the detector.

pupil A knife

onto the entrance detector

of the photodiode into amplitude

transforms producing

the phase modulation a signal proportional

modulation,

acoustic

excitation.

The signal

is then processed optical

and displayed reconstruction.

CR tube from which a record This scheme, however, is

can be made for in resolution

limited

and in aperture,

and

hence is usually 2.7

limited

to ultrasonic

microscopy.

ELECTRON SCANNING OF ACOUSTICALLY SURFACE .--. _----. BEAM ____._._ ._~_ _ ------ DEFORMED A less sensitive scheme than the laser scanning one is to image The electron

the acoustically

deformed surface

onto a photocathode. This

,image is then scanned electrically. either tion 2.8 a hologram or its of the photocathode optical

scheme is capable of displaying depending on the loca-

reconstruction,

in the optical

system. I241

PIEZOELECFRIC TRANSDUCERS Many materials (quartz, lithium sulfate, etc.) barium titanate, lead transis

zirconate-titanate, ducers or detectors.

lead metaniobate, For imaging,the

are used as either (or the object)

transducer

scanned mechanically,

[251 or by making use of an array of transducers.

transducer on it A-11 acts as a mosaic (transducers an equivalent electric

Since a piezoelectric array), the acoustic

wave incident

produces

imagc'across electron television

it.

The transducer to generate

surface

can then be scanned by an signal. Acoustic

beam in order

a tclcvision-type was first

camera, based on this or quartz -9

principle,

made by Sokolov. They have a

P61

Barium titanate

has been used in such cameras.

good dynamic range (3x10 threshold of 2x10 -11 field

to 3x10 -3 W/cm2) and a low sensitivity However, they have a limited aperture and and

w/cy2.

a narrow angular reconstruct wave.[351 2.9

of view. holograms

Such tubes have been used to record

1271

acoustic

with

real

or simulated

reference

1281 PIEZORESISTIVE DETECTORS

,A*CdS(Cu) changes with using

has high

electric acoustic

resistivity wave.

and its

conductivity camera tube

an incident

A vidicon-type

such a target

has mainly

three

advantages

over the piezoelectric

type tube: (a) It responds to a wide range of acoustic frequency frequencies as response

opposed to the resonant of the piezoelectric (b) (c)

2.10

and odd harmonic

type. of information storage.

1.t has the capability It has higher sensitivity.

ELECTROLUMINESCENT DETECTOR This is mainly

a piezoelectric

material

with

an electroluminescent simulated illumination. Voltages side, for lumiSuch generated

coating

having

a proper either

thickness voltage

and, additionally, or ultraviolet W/cm2.

nescence with a detector

a bias

has a sensitivity wave incident

of 10 -6 - lo-'

by the acoustic interface with

on the piezoclectric layer.

A-12

appear at the

the electroluminescent

2.11

PO1lLMAN CELL [291

A cell

filled

with

xylene

in which small image detection. the Al flakes

aluminum flakes In the presence arc aligned

are of

suspended is used for acoustic acoustic reflect flakes fleeted better cell. 2.12 wave incident light incident

on the cell, on the cell.

and they the

With no acoustic

wave prcsent, by the rcto produce across the

are randomly light; this

oriented

and present

a grey background in order voltage

background image,by

can be eliminated, a small bias

contrasting

applying

LIQUID-CRYSTAL ACOUSTICAL-TO-OPTICAL CONVERSION CELL130,311 A thin layer of nematic plate liquid crystals sandwiched between a the liquid

polarizer crystals

and a glass float freely

treated

in such a way that state,

in their

low-energy crystals

and hence are aligned they act

on one axis

only.

Since the liquid and when an acoustic

are birefringent,

as a wave plate, crystal cell,

wave is projected

on such a liquida change

the directions transmission into visible

of the molecules pattern. information.

change, causing

in the optical is transformed is demonstrated attained attained made with 2.13 so far

Thus the acoustic The sensitivity

wave information of such cells

to be of the order is not too large and shows

of a few mW/cm', and the aperture (-25 cm square). the fringes The image resolution hologram

is reasonable 3 MHz wave.

of an acoustical

BRAGGDIFFRACTION This is a direct interaction

of

light

and sound, A visible

capable of real

time visualization fied object

of acoustic

images. r321

image of the insoniwaves and the

is formed when the angle 0 between the acoustic A-13

direction condition

of propagation

of a coherent

light

beam satisfies

Bragg's

2XS Sin 8 = AL where AL is the wavelength acoustic.wavelength. nation of the acoustic of XL/As, of the light inside

(8)

the medium and Xs is the perpendicular illumi-

This necessitates field. and its

an almost

The image formed is usually resolution

demagnified of the

by the ratio light source.

depends on the size of low intensity.

Such images are usually acoustical limited

The maximum usable 20-30 GHz and it 2.14 is usually

frequency

in this

technique

is

to microscopic

objects.

1333 BIREFRINGENT CRYSTALS IN ACOUSTICAL MICROSCOPY LiNb03 birefringent crystals propagates wave. fields, are used as the acoustic coaxially in the crystal propagating in.an opposite

medium. r341 . direction

The light

to the acoustic

From the conservation one finds xL "E - nO that

of energy and

momentum of the interacting

($1
where n ordinary limit, scopic and n are indices

max

of refraction This yields

of the extraordinary minimum acoustic

and frequency

waves in the crystal. and hence allows objects This

an extremely

high frequency

to be used in micro-

visualization. however,
is limited to

technique,

microscopic

objects.

2.15

MISCELLANEOUS OTHER TECIINIQUES Meindl, Walker and Maginess [361 developed of insonified A-14 optics. a new acoustic camera

for

real

time visualization

Such a camera uses

intcgrntcd scanning theory tion

clcctronic of dctcctor

circuits, arrays. its is worth

acoustic Although

lenses,

and electron

beam

the technique by itself

is not based on the possible applica-

of holography, to holography

exploration

and its

consideration. is also gaining imaging. keen interest by many workers

Microwave acoustics in the field scanning of acoustical

One approach is the use of electronic and steering and anisotropy acoustic field, in a of

of a focussed

acoustic

beam, where the focussing

the acoustic

waves are produced by means of inhomogeneity magnetic and electric fields.

induced by applied

A collimated magnetic

beam has been scanned over an angle of 8O in a uniform and a 12S-u-diameter nonuniform field.
[371

acoustic

beam has been produced by focussing

Various

developments

and refinements

in acoustical

imaging

tech-

niques has been reported Further information information

recently

in the 1975 Ultrasonic optical 39. processing

Symposium. 1383 of acoustical

on coherent

can be found in reference

A-15

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Berger, H., Acoustical Holography, (Plenum Press, 1969) pp. 27-48. Berger, H., and Dickens, ref. R. E., vol. I, Metherell, El-Sum, et al.

Report ANL-(5680 (1963).

El-Sum, H. M. A., El-Sum, H. M. A., 1970) pp. 7-22.

1, pp. l-26. liolography, Proc. vol. II (Plenum Press, 197A, 454 (1949); 1952).

Acoustical

Gabor, D., Nature 161, 777 (1948); Proc. Roy. Sot. 64r449 (1951). El-Sum, H. M. A., Kirkpatrick, Haine, M. E., P., Ph.D. Thesis and El-Sum, T.,

Roy. Sot. University,

(Stanford H. M. A., J.O.S.A.

J.O.S.A.

-46, 825-831 (1956).

and Mulvey,

-42, 763 (1952). 10, 1959).

Patty, et al., Proceedings National Electronics Conference l-13 (February, 195s); U.S. NOL, A Report, #6228 (January, Mueller, (1966). Acoustic Optical R. K., and Sheridan, vol. N. K., App. Phys. Letters 1969). (Academic Press,

2, 328

Holography, Holography

I (Plenum Press, et al.

by R. J. Collier,

1971).

Goodman, J. W., Proc. El-Sum, H. M. A., blueller, Greguss, Wade, J., R. K., P.,

IEEE -59, 1292 (1971). Seminar Proceedings (SPIE, 1968).

Holography Proc.

IEEE -59, 1319 (1971). 42 (1974). and paper to be published. IEEE Symposium on Sonics and

Phys. Today -J 27

private

communications B. B., 1968).

Smith, R. B., and Brenden, Ultrasonics, N.Y., (Sept., El-Sum, H. M. A., ref.

4, pp. 16. K. A., Phys. Letters 2, 378 (1968);

Hilderbrand, R. P., and Haines, J.O.S.A., 59, 1 (1969). Gabor, D., U.S. Patents Metherell, et al., Ref.

Nos. 548939 and 3745814 (1973). 4, pp. 394. A-16

23. 24. 2s. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

Korpcl, Chutjian, Martin, Sokolov,

A., A.,

and Dcsmaris, and Collier,

P., J. Acoust. R. J., J.O.S.A.

Sot.

Am. 45, 881 (1909).

-57, 1405 (1967).

G., Brit. S., U.S.

J. NDT 2, 27 (1967). Patent 2'164,125. Holography, vol. I (Plenum Press,

Fritzler, D., et al., 1969)' pp. 249. Jacobs, J. C.,

Acoustic

U;S. Patent

3'236,944.

Pohlman, R, Z. Physik Greguss, P., Acoustica

113, 697 (1939). 2, 52 (1973). Holography, Letters vol. II (Academic Press,

Ferguson, J. L., 1970), pp. 53. Korpel, A., Appl.

Acoust. Phys.

2, 425 (1966).

J., Stanford University, private Quate, C., and Havlice, communications; Havlice, J., Quate, C. F., and Richardson, B., IEEE Trans. SU-15, 68 (1968); Massey, G. A., Proc. IEEE -56, 2157 (1968). Dixon, R. W., Quantum Electron,
12.

34. 3s. 36. 37. 38. 39.

QE-3, 85 (1967).

Ref. 4, pp.

Private discussions. (Plenum Press, 1973).

Also,

Acoustical

Holography,

vol.

Auld, B. A., et al.,Ref. 4, pp. 117; Acoustic in Solids, ~01s. I and II (Wiley Interscience, IEEE Proceedings tion. El-Sum, H. M. A., of the 1975 Ultrasonic AGARD Conference

Fields and Waves 1973).

Symposium (under publicaSO (1970). -

Proceedings

A-17

APPENDIX B

REAL-TIME, ERASABLEIMAGE RECORDING

B-l

The electronically mosaic array graphic films Another Such devices used for

focussed, acoustical optical

electronically

scanned piezoelectric of the photoand sensitive. . like

imaging plays the role images. devices It is fast

in detecting

group of recording are based on surface

is the Ruticon (B-11 family. using photoconductors

deformation

the thermoplastic and the Elmikon(B-s) electron-beam Eidophor graphic

sandwiches (B-2,3) , the photomembrane light . Surface-deformation of deformable imaging was first liquid or elastomer

modulator (B-4) proposed for surfaces in the

addressing

systems (B-6) J in light storage and display

valves(B-2,7J8)

, and in the deformo-

tube (B-9,10) . store an input layer. It image ai a surfaceis a layered structure B-l,

The Rut i can temporarily deformation consisting pattern

on an elastomer

of a transparent layer

conductive

substrate,

as shown in .Fig. with a green

a photoconductor organic sensitizer

(usually

poly-N-vinyl-carbazole layer, usually

dye and an elastomer When the photoconductor

across

of the siloxanethe

based variety). voltage distribution

is exposed to image light, changes, in turn layer.

the photoconductor

causing

changes in the electric distribution to deform into This deformation long as the field

field

across the elastomer forces pattern

The resulting causes it

of electromechanical a surface persists relief after

across the elastomer corresponding

to the image light.

the optical Rut i cons incoherent

image has been removed, as are suitable for recording levels of

is maintained.

holograms and continuous-tone

images at exposure

less than 300 erg cm2 (3x10- W/cm2 for 1 set exposure, 5~10~~ W/cm2 for -4 for 0.1 sec. exposure), with a resolution 1 min exposure, or 3x10 in excess of 850 line pairs/mm. The Rut i cons are read out with B-2 a .

phase-sensitive It

optical

system (Schlierren)

as shown in Figure image conversion,

B-2:

can be used for

incoherent-to-coherent wavelength

spatial

filtering, buffer

correlation, storage of optical

conversion,

image intensification, display initial (since intensities

information,

and real-time of their

they can be erased to less than 10 percent within 10 msec. Although electric detect tested useful field) acoustical for for the use of dielectric was demonstrated holograms liquid

(with

or without deformable

applied surface to

as a promising

and images, the Ruticon However, its optical

has never been behavior (Figure may prove 1).

acoustical the hybrid

imaging.

system of nondestructive

testing

B-3

(4
+w ELASTOMER ,PHOTOCONDUCTOR . --CONOUCTOR I SUBSTR4TE 2 6)

Figure

B-l.

Operation of Ruticon imaging devices. First, a charge is placed on the elastomer surface (a) by means of corona discharge, glow discharge, contact with a liquid metal, or a thin flexible metal layer dposited on the surface of the the photoconductor is exposed elastomer.Then, to image light (e.g-. a bar pattern is used in this The elastomer surface deforms into illustration). a relief pattern corresponding to the optical image, the removal of the optical as seen in (b). After (c), the surface-deformation pattern image, persists. (After N.K.Sheridan, Ref. B-l)

B-4

M-AGE

Figure

B-2.

An arrangement for reading out a Ruticon, used to record and project incoheret images. Ppaque stop's1 prevents the direct light from reaching the outpur By placing stops S & S3 in the back image plane I forcal plane 8' f lens L2(in place 0 2 Sl)a negative image of the input is obtained . W h e n glow-discharge or corona-discharge are used(before recording on the Ruticon)the Ruticon can be viewed by transmission, while images formed by the liquid-metal or metalplated devices must-be read out by reflection (as this Figure illustrates) because of the opacity of the deformable metal electrode. (After N.K.Sheridon, Ref. B-l)

B-5

REFERENCES B-l B-2 B-3 B-4 B-S B-6 B-7 B-8 B-9 B-10 N. K. Sheridan, 1010 (1972). IEEE Trans. on Electron Devices ED-19 (9), J.O.S.A. 48 -' 1003841

W. Glenn, J. App. Phys. -30 (12), (1958). R. W. Gundlach and C. Claus, F. Reizman, AGARDConf. Proc. W. Bawngartner,

1570 (1959); Sci.

Photo.

Eng. -17, 14 (1963). 1959).

50 (Sept.

Z. Angew. Math. Phys. -18, 31 (1967). 1, 33, 305, 337

F. Fisher and H. Thiemann, Schweiz. Arch. z, (1941); 8, 15, 1351, 1691, 199 (1942). W. Good, Proc. Nat. E. Bauman, J. Sot. Electron. Motion Pitt. Conf. -24 (1968). Telev.

Eng. -60, 351 (1953). U.S. Pat. 3,626,084 (1971).

R. J. Wohl, F. A. Hawn and H. C. Medley, J. A. van Raalte, J.O.S.A. 9 (lo),

2225 (1970).

B-6

NASA-Langley,

1976