Einstein, Albert I Introduction Einstein, Albert (1879-1955), German-born American physicist and Nobel la reate, best !

no"n as the creator o# the special and $eneral theories o# relati%ity and #or his bold hypothesis concernin$ the particle nat re o# li$ht& 'e is perhaps the most "ell-!no"n scientist o# the ()th cent ry& Einstein "as born in *lm on +arch 1,, 1879, and spent his yo th in + nich, "here his #amily o"ned a small shop that man #act red electric machinery& 'e did not tal! ntil the a$e o# three, b t e%en as a yo th he sho"ed a brilliant c riosity abo t nat re and an ability to nderstand di##ic lt mathematical concepts& At the a$e o# 1( he ta $ht himsel# E clidean $eometry& Einstein hated the d ll re$imentation and nima$inati%e spirit o# school in + nich& -hen repeated b siness #ail re led the #amily to lea%e Germany #or +ilan, Italy, Einstein, "ho "as then 15 years old, sed the opport nity to "ithdra" #rom the school& 'e spent a year "ith his parents in +ilan, and "hen it became clear that he "o ld ha%e to ma!e his o"n "ay in the "orld, he #inished secondary school in Aara , ."it/erland, and entered the ."iss 0ederal Instit te o# 1echnolo$y in 23rich& Einstein did not en4oy the methods o# instr ction there& 'e o#ten c t classes and sed the time to st dy physics on his o"n or to play his belo%ed %iolin& 'e passed his e5aminations and $rad ated in 19)) by st dyin$ the notes o# a classmate& 'is pro#essors did not thin! hi$hly o# him and "o ld not recommend him #or a ni%ersity position& 0or t"o years Einstein "or!ed as a t tor and s bstit te teacher& In 19)( he sec red a position as an e5aminer in the ."iss patent o##ice in 6ern& In 19)7 he married +ile%a +ari8, "ho had been his classmate at the polytechnic& 1hey had one da $hter, "ho "as born prior to their marria$e and $i%en p #or adoption, and t"o sons& 1he co ple e%ent ally di%orced, and Einstein later remarried&

II Early Scientific Publications In 19)5 Einstein recei%ed his doctorate #rom the *ni%ersity o# 23rich #or a theoretical dissertation on the dimensions o# molec les, and he also p blished three theoretical papers o# central importance to the de%elopment o# ()th-cent ry physics& In the #irst o# these papers, on 6ro"nian motion, he made si$ni#icant predictions abo t the motion o# particles that are randomly distrib ted in a #l id& 1hese predictions "ere later con#irmed by e5periment& 1he second paper, on the photoelectric e##ect, contained a re%ol tionary hypothesis concernin$ the nat re o# li$ht& Einstein not only proposed that nder certain circ mstances li$ht can be considered as consistin$ o# particles, b t he also hypothesi/ed that the ener$y carried by any li$ht particle, called a photon, is proportional to the #re9 ency o# the radiation& 1he #orm la #or this is E : h;, "here E is the ener$y o# the radiation, h is a ni%ersal constant !no"n as <lanc!=s constant, and ; is the #re9 ency o# the radiation& 1his proposal>that the ener$y contained "ithin a li$ht beam is trans#erred in indi%id al nits, or 9 anta>contradicted a h ndred-year-old tradition o# considerin$ li$ht ener$y a mani#estation o# contin o s processes& ?irt ally no one accepted Einstein=s proposal& In #act, "hen the American physicist @obert Andre"s +illi!an e5perimentally con#irmed the theory almost a decade later, he "as s rprised and some"hat dis9 ieted by the o tcome& Einstein, "hose prime concern "as to nderstand the nat re o# electroma$netic radiation, s bse9 ently r$ed the de%elopment o# a theory that "o ld be a # sion o# the "a%e and particle models #or li$ht& A$ain, %ery #e" physicists nderstood or "ere sympathetic to these ideas& II I Einsteins Special Theory of Relativity

Einstein=s third ma4or paper in 19)5, ABn the Electrodynamics o# +o%in$ 6odies,C contained "hat became !no"n as the special theory o# relati%ity& .ince the time o# the En$lish mathematician and physicist .ir

Isaac Ne"ton, nat ral philosophers (as physicists and chemists "ere !no"n) had been tryin$ to nderstand the nat re o# matter and radiation, and ho" they interacted in some ni#ied "orld pict re& 1he position that mechanical la"s are # ndamental has become !no"n as the mechanical "orld %ie", and the position that electrical la"s are # ndamental has become !no"n as the electroma$netic "orld %ie"& Neither approach, ho"e%er, is capable o# pro%idin$ a consistent e5planation #or the "ay radiation (li$ht, #or e5ample) and matter interact "hen %ie"ed #rom di##erent inertial #rames o# re#erence, that is, an interaction %ie"ed sim ltaneo sly by an obser%er at rest and an obser%er mo%in$ at ni#orm speed& In the sprin$ o# 19)5, a#ter considerin$ these problems #or ten years, Einstein reali/ed that the cr 5 o# the problem lay not in a theory o# matter b t in a theory o# meas rement& At the heart o# his special theory o# relati%ity "as the reali/ation that all meas rements o# time and space depend on 4 d$ments as to "hether t"o distant e%ents occ r sim ltaneo sly& 1his led him to de%elop a theory based on t"o post latesD the principle o# relati%ity, that physical la"s are the same in all inertial re#erence systems, and the principle o# the in%ariance o# the speed o# li$ht, that the speed o# li$ht in a %ac m is a ni%ersal constant& 'e "as th s able to pro%ide a consistent and correct description o# physical e%ents in di##erent inertial #rames o# re#erence "itho t ma!in$ special ass mptions abo t the nat re o# matter or radiation, or ho" they interact& ?irt ally no one nderstood Einstein=s ar$ ment& I? Early Reactions to Einstein

1he di##ic lty that others had "ith Einstein=s "or! "as not beca se it "as too mathematically comple5 or technically obsc reE the problem res lted, rather, #rom Einstein=s belie#s abo t the nat re o# $ood theories and the relationship bet"een e5periment and theory& Altho $h he maintained that the only so rce o# !no"led$e is e5perience, he also belie%ed that scienti#ic theories are the #ree creations o# a #inely t ned physical int ition and that the premises on "hich theories are based cannot be connected lo$ically to e5periment& A $ood theory, there#ore, is one in "hich a minim m n mber o# post lates is re9 ired to acco nt #or the physical e%idence& 1his sparseness o# post lates, a #eat re o# all

Einstein=s "or!, "as "hat made his "or! so di##ic lt #or collea$ es to comprehend, let alone s pport& Einstein did ha%e important s pporters, ho"e%er& 'is chie# early patron "as the German physicist +a5 <lanc!& Einstein remained at the patent o##ice #or #o r years a#ter his star be$an to rise "ithin the physics comm nity& 'e then mo%ed rapidly p"ard in the German-spea!in$ academic "orldE his #irst academic appointment "as in 19)9 at the *ni%ersity o# 23rich& In 1911 he mo%ed to the German-spea!in$ ni%ersity at <ra$ e, and in 191( he ret rned to the ."iss National <olytechnic in 23rich& 0inally, in 191,, he "as appointed director o# the Faiser -ilhelm Instit te #or <hysics in 6erlin& ? The General Theory of Relativity E%en be#ore he le#t the patent o##ice in 19)7, Einstein be$an "or! on e5tendin$ and $enerali/in$ the theory o# relati%ity to all coordinate systems& 'e be$an by en nciatin$ the principle o# e9 i%alence, a post late that $ra%itational #ields are e9 i%alent to accelerations o# the #rame o# re#erence& 0or e5ample, people in a mo%in$ ele%ator cannot, in principle, decide "hether the #orce that acts on them is ca sed by $ra%itation or by a constant acceleration o# the ele%ator& 1he # ll $eneral theory o# relati%ity "as not p blished ntil 191G& In this theory the interactions o# bodies, "hich hereto#ore had been ascribed to $ra%itational #orces, are e5plained as the in#l ence o# bodies on the $eometry o# space-time (#o r-dimensional space, a mathematical abstraction, ha%in$ the three dimensions #rom E clidean space and time as the #o rth dimension)& Bn the basis o# the $eneral theory o# relati%ity, Einstein acco nted #or the pre%io sly ne5plained %ariations in the orbital motion o# the planets and predicted the bendin$ o# starli$ht in the %icinity o# a massi%e body s ch as the s n& 1he con#irmation o# this latter phenomenon d rin$ an eclipse o# the s n in 1919 became a media e%ent, and Einstein=s #ame spread "orld"ide& 0or the rest o# his li#e Einstein de%oted considerable time to $enerali/in$ his theory e%en more& 'is last e##ort, the ni#ied #ield theory, "hich "as not entirely s ccess# l, "as an attempt to nderstand all physical

interactions>incl din$ electroma$netic interactions and "ea! and stron$ interactions>in terms o# the modi#ication o# the $eometry o# space-time bet"een interactin$ entities& +ost o# Einstein=s collea$ es #elt that these e##orts "ere mis$ ided& 6et"een 1915 and 197) the mainstream o# physics "as in de%elopin$ a ne" conception o# the # ndamental character o# matter, !no"n as 9 ant m theory& 1his theory contained the #eat re o# "a%e-particle d ality (li$ht e5hibits the properties o# a particle, as "ell as o# a "a%e) that Einstein had earlier r$ed as necessary, as "ell as the ncertainty principle, "hich states that precision in meas rin$ processes is limited& Additionally, it contained a no%el re4ection, at a # ndamental le%el, o# the notion o# strict ca sality& Einstein, ho"e%er, "o ld not accept s ch notions and remained a critic o# these de%elopments ntil the end o# his li#e& AGod,C Einstein once said, Adoes not play dice "ith the "orld&C ?I World Citizen A#ter 1919, Einstein became internationally reno"ned& 'e accr ed honors and a"ards, incl din$ the Nobel <ri/e in physics in 19(1, #rom %ario s "orld scienti#ic societies& 'is %isit to any part o# the "orld became a national e%entE photo$raphers and reporters #ollo"ed him e%ery"here& -hile re$rettin$ his loss o# pri%acy, Einstein capitali/ed on his #ame to # rther his o"n political and social %ie"s& 1he t"o social mo%ements that recei%ed his # ll s pport "ere paci#ism and 2ionism& H rin$ -orld -ar I he "as one o# a hand# l o# German academics "illin$ to p blicly decry Germany=s in%ol%ement in the "ar& A#ter the "ar his contin ed p blic s pport o# paci#ist and 2ionist $oals made him the tar$et o# %icio s attac!s by anti-.emitic and ri$ht-"in$ elements in Germany& E%en his scienti#ic theories "ere p blicly ridic led, especially the theory o# relati%ity& -hen 'itler came to po"er, Einstein immediately decided to lea%e Germany #or the *nited .tates& 'e too! a position at the Instit te #or Ad%anced .t dy at <rinceton, Ne" Iersey& -hile contin in$ his e##orts on behal# o# "orld 2ionism, Einstein reno nced his #ormer paci#ist stand in the #ace o# the a"esome threat to h man!ind posed by the Na/i re$ime in Germany&

In 1979 Einstein collaborated "ith se%eral other physicists in "ritin$ a letter to <resident 0ran!lin H& @oose%elt, pointin$ o t the possibility o# ma!in$ an atomic bomb and the li!elihood that the German $o%ernment "as embar!in$ on s ch a co rse& 1he letter, "hich bore only Einstein=s si$nat re, helped lend r$ency to e##orts in the *&.& to b ild the atomic bomb, b t Einstein himsel# played no role in the "or! and !ne" nothin$ abo t it at the time& A#ter the "ar, Einstein "as acti%e in the ca se o# international disarmament and "orld $o%ernment& 'e contin ed his acti%e s pport o# 2ionism b t declined the o##er made by leaders o# the state o# Israel to become president o# that co ntry& In the *&.& d rin$ the late 19,)s and early J5)s he spo!e o t on the need #or the nation=s intellect als to ma!e any sacri#ice necessary to preser%e political #reedom& Einstein died in <rinceton on April 18, 1955& Einstein=s e##orts in behal# o# social ca ses ha%e sometimes been %ie"ed as nrealistic& In #act, his proposals "ere al"ays care# lly tho $ht o t& Ki!e his scienti#ic theories, they "ere moti%ated by so nd int ition based on a shre"d and care# l assessment o# e%idence and obser%ation& Altho $h Einstein $a%e m ch o# himsel# to political and social ca ses, science al"ays came #irst, beca se, he o#ten said, only the disco%ery o# the nat re o# the ni%erse "o ld ha%e lastin$ meanin$& 'is "ritin$s incl de Relativity: The Special and General Theory (191G)E About Zionism (1971)E Builders of the Universe (197()E Why War (1977), "ith .i$m nd 0re dE The World as ! See !t (197,)E The Evolution of "hysics (1978), "ith the <olish physicist Keopold In#eldE and #ut of $y %ater &ears (195))& Einstein=s collected papers are bein$ p blished in a m lti%ol me "or!, be$innin$ in 1987&