Ac Circuits

AC Circuit Analysis
Module: SE1EA5 Systems and Circuits

AC Circuit Analysis
Module: SE1EA5 Systems and Circuits
Lecturer: James Grimblebyy
URL: http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~stsgrimb/
email: j.b.grimbleby reading.ac.uk j g y g
Number of Lectures: 10
Recommended text book:
David Irwin and Mark Nelms
Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis (8th edition)
John Wiley and Sons (2005)
ISBN: 0-471-66158-9
School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 1 James Grimbleby
AC Circuit Analysis AC Circuit Analysis
Recommended text book:
David Irwin and Mark Nelms
Basic Engineering Circuit
Analysis (8th edition)
Paperback 816 pages
J h Wil d S (2005) John Wiley and Sons (2005)
ISBN: 0-471-66158-9
Price: 36
AC Circuit Analysis Syllabus
This course of lectures will extend dc circuit analysis to deal
AC Circuit Analysis Syllabus
This course of lectures will extend dc circuit analysis to deal
with ac circuits
The topics that will be covered include:
AC voltages and currents
Complex representation of sinusoids
Phasors
Complex impedances of inductors and capacitors
Driving-point impedance
Frequency response of circuits Bode plots
Power in ac circuits
E t i it d i d t Energy storage in capacitors and inductors
Three-phase power
AC Circuit Analysis Prerequities AC Circuit Analysis Prerequities
You should be familiar with the following topics:
SE1EA5: Electronic Circuits SE1EA5: Electronic Circuits
Ohms Law
Series and parallel resistances p
Voltage and current sources
Circuit analysis using Kirchhoffs Laws y g
Thvenin and Norton's theorems
The Superposition Theorem
SE1EC5: Engineering Mathematics
Complex numbers
Lecture 1
AC Voltages and Currents
Reactive Components
AC Waveforms AC Waveforms
Sine waveform
(sinusoid)
Square waveform Square waveform
Sawtooth waveform
Audio waveform Audio waveform
Frequency
The number of cycles per second of an ac waveform is known
Frequency
y p
as the frequency f, and is expressed in Hertz (Hz)
Voltage or
Current
6 cycles f = 6 Hz y
Time
0 1s
Frequency
Examples:
Frequency
p
Electrocardiogram: 1 Hz
Mains power: 50 Hz
Aircraft power: 400 Hz Aircraft power: 400 Hz
Audio frequencies: 20 Hz to 20 kHz
AM radio broadcasting: 0.5 MHz 1.5 MHz
FM di b d ti 80 MH 110 MH FM radio broadcasting: 80 MHz 110 MHz
Television broadcasting: 500 MHz 800 MHz g
Mobile telephones: 1.8 GHz
Period
The period T of an ac waveform is the time taken for a
Period
complete cycle:
frequency
period
1
=
frequency
Voltage or
Current
T = 0.167 s T 0.167 s
Time
0 1s
Why Linear?
We shall consider the steady-state response of linear ac
Why Linear?
We shall consider the steady state response of linear ac
circuits to sinusoidal inputs
Linear circuits contain linear components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors p
A linear component has the property that doubling the voltage
across it doubles the current through it
Most circuits for processing signals are linear
Analysis of non-linear circuits is difficult and normally requires
the use of a computer.
Why Steady-State?
Steady-state means that the input waveform has been
Why Steady State?
y p
present long enough for any transients to die away
Output V
V
V
in
Time
t
V
in
V
in
=0 for t0
Why Sinusoidal? Why Sinusoidal?
A linear circuit will not change the waveform or frequency of a
sinusoidal input (the amplitude and phase may be altered)
Power is generated as a sinusoid by rotating electrical
machinery
Si id l i d l d i Sinusoidal carrier waves are modulated to transmit
information (radio broadcasts)
Any periodic waveform can be considered to be the sum of a
fundamental pure sinusoid plus harmonics (Fourier Analysis) fundamental pure sinusoid plus harmonics (Fourier Analysis)
Fourier Analysis
A square waveform can be considered to consist of a
f d t l i id t th ith dd h i i id
Fourier Analysis
fundamental sinusoid together with odd harmonic sinusoids
Square wave Sum
Fundamental Fundamental
3 d h i 3rd harmonic
5th harmonic
Representation of Sinusoids
A sinusoidal voltage waveform v(t) of amplitude v
0
, and of
g ( ) p
0
frequency f :
t v ft v t v sin 2 sin ) (
0 0
= =
or: t v ft v t v cos 2 cos ) (
0 0
= =
where =2f is known as the angular frequency
v f T / 1 = v f T / 1 =
t
v
0
The sinusoid can have a phase term :
A phase shift is equivalent to a time shift /
( ) + = t v t v sin ) (
0
A phase shift is equivalent to a time shift -/
v
( ) + t v sin
0
=
t
( ) + t v sin
0
( ) t v sin
0
t
( )
0
The phase is positive so the red trace leads the green trace
The phase is positive so the red trace leads the green trace
Resistors
Ceramic tube
Resistors
Ceramic tube
coated with
Conductive film Conductive film
Metal end
i
v
Metal end
cap
R i t R Fil b
v
Resistance R
Ri v =
Film: carbon
metal
t l id
(Ohms Law)
metal oxide
Resistors Resistors
Resistors
v
i
Resistors
Ri v =
Ohms Law:
i
R
Suppose that:
( ) t v t v sin ) (
i, v
i v
( ) t v t v sin ) (
0
=
Then:
i v
R
t v
t i
) (
) ( =
Then:
t
( ) t
R
v
R
sin
0
=
R
Current in phase with voltage
Capacitors
i
Capacitors
Insulating
i
Conducting
dielectric
v
Conducting
electrodes
Di l t i i C it C
dv
C i Cv q
Dielectrics: air
polymer
i
Capacitance C
dt
C i Cv q = =
ceramic
Al
2
0
3
(electrolytic)
Capacitors Capacitors
Capacitors
v
i
d
Capacitors
i
C
dt
dv
C i =
Suppose that:
( ) t v t v sin ) (
0
=
i, v
) (t
) (t i
( ) t v t v sin ) (
0
Then:
) (t v
) (t i
( ) = sin ) (
0
t v
dt
d
C t i
t
( )

= cos
0
t Cv
+ =
2
sin
0

t Cv
Current leads voltage by /2 (90)
Capacitors
Does a capacitor have a resistance?
Capacitors
v, i
( ) t v t v sin ) (
0
= ( ) t Cv t i cos ) (
0
=
t
1
t
2
t
1
t
2
t
= =
0 ) (
) (
0 1
v
t i
t v
0
0
) (
) (
0 2
2
= =
i t i
t v
Thus resistance varies between : not a useful concept
0 ) (
1
t i
) (
0 2
i t i
p
Capacitors
The reactance X
C
of a capacitor is defined:
Capacitors
The reactance X
C
of a capacitor is defined:
0
i
v
X
C
=
where v
0
is the amplitude of the voltage across the capacitor
0
i
C
0
p g p
and i
0
is the amplitude of the current flowing through it
Thus:
fC C C
v
X
C
2
1 1
0
= = =
fC C Cv
C
2
0
The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to its
value and to frequency
Inductors Inductors
Magnetisable
core core
Copper
wire
v
i
C i
v
I d t L
di
L
Core: air
ferrite
i
Inductance L
dt
di
L v =
iron
silicon steel
Inductors Inductors
Inductors
v
i
di
Inductors
Suppose that:
L
dt
di
L v =
Suppose that:
( ) t v t v sin ) (
0
=
i, v
) (t
) (t i
1
Then:
) (t v
) (t i
( )
= sin
1
) (
0

v
t v
L
t i
t
( )

= cos
0

t
L
v
=
2
sin
0

t
L
v
Current lags voltage by /2 (90)
Inductors
The reactance X
C
of an inductor is defined:
Inductors
C
0
0
i
v
X
C
=
where v
0
is the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor
0
i
and i
0
is the amplitude of the current flowing through it
Thus:
fL L
L v
v
X
c

2
/
0
= = =
The reactance of an ind ctor is directl proportional to its
L v /
0
The reactance of an inductor is directly proportional to its
value and to frequency
Resistance and Reactance Resistance and Reactance
0
i
v
X =
0 f f
0
i
0 f f
Resistance R R R R
Capacitance C
C
1 short
circuit
open
circuit
Inductance L
L
open
i it
short
i it
Inductance L
L
circuit circuit
L t 2 Lecture 2
AC Analysis using Differential Equations
Complex Numbers Complex Numbers
Complex Exponential Voltages and Currents
AC Circuit Analysis
The ac response of a circuit is determined by a differential
AC Circuit Analysis
p y
equation:
R
) ( ) ( ) ( t v t Ri t v
c in
+ =
) (
R
) (t i
dt
t dv
C t i
c
) (
) ( =
) (t v
in C ) (t v
c
) (
) (
) ( t v
dt
t dv
RC t v
c
c
in
+ =
dt
t v t v t dv
i
) ( ) ( ) (
RC
t v
RC
t v
dt
t dv
in c c
) ( ) ( ) (
= +
AC Circuit Analysis
Now suppose that the input voltage v
in
is a sinusoid of angular
AC Circuit Analysis
frequency
Th t t lt ill b i id f th f The output voltage v
c
will be a sinusoid of the same freqeuncy,
but with different amplitude and phase:
( )
( )
+ =
=
t v t v
t v t v
in
cos ) (
cos ) (
1
0
Expanding the expression for v
c
:
( ) + = t v t v
c
cos ) (
1
c
t B t A t v t v t v
c
sin cos sin sin cos cos ) (
1 1
+ = =
t B t A
dt
t dv
c
cos sin
) (
+ =
dt
AC Circuit Analysis
The differential equation becomes:
AC Circuit Analysis
The differential equation becomes:
t
v
t
B
t
A
t B t A cos sin cos cos sin
0
= + + +
Comparing the coefficients of sint and cost on both sides of
t
RC
t
RC
t
RC
t B t A cos sin cos cos sin + + +
p g
the equation:
0 B RC A = +
0
v A RC B = +
Solving these simultaneous linear equations in A and B:
2 2 2
0
2 2 2
0
1 1 C R
RCv
B
C R
v
A
+
=
+
=
AC Circuit Analysis
0 0
sin cos
RCv
v B
v
v A

AC Circuit Analysis
Thus:
2 2 2
0
1
2 2 2
0
1
1
sin
1
cos
C R
v B
C R
v A
+
= =
+
= =
Thus:
RC
C R
v v
=
+
= tan
1
1
2 2 2
0 1
At an angular frequency =1/RC:
C R + 1
2 2 2
= =
4 2
0
1

v
v
=
4
cos
2
) (
4 2
0

t
v
t v
c
The output voltage lags the input voltage by /4 (45)

4 2
p g g p g y ( )
1.0
0.7071
v
1
/
v
0
e

g
a
i
n

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
0 0
V
Angular frequency (rad/s)
0.0
1/RC 10/RC 100/RC 0.1/RC 0.01/RC
g q y ( )
Complex Numbers: Complex Numbers:
Rectangular Form
Complex numbers can be represented in rectangular, polar or
exponential form
Rectangular form:
h i h l i h i i ( d
jy x z + =
where x is the real part, y is the imaginary part (x and y are
both real numbers), and
1 1
2
= = j j
Complex numbers are often the solutions of real problems,
for example quadratic equations
p q q
Argand Diagram
Imaginary part
jy x z + =
Imaginary
axis
y
axis
Real part p
O x
Real axis
Complex Numbers: Polar Form
Polar form:
r z
Complex Numbers: Polar Form
where r is the magnitude, and is the angle measured from
th l i
= r z
the real axis:
I i
z
Imaginary
axis r
Real axis
O

Exponential Form
Exponential form:
j
re z =
Eulers identity:

i j
j

sin cos j e
j
+ =
1
sin
O
cos
The polar and exponential forms are therefore equivalent
cos
The polar and exponential forms are therefore equivalent
Complex Numbers: Conversion
z
z
r
y
O
2 2
x
O
Rectangular to polar:
y
z
y x z r
+ = =
tan
2 2
P l t R t l
x
y
z = = tan
sin
cos
r y
r x
=
= Polar to Rectangular:
Complex Numbers: Inversion
If the complex number is in rectangular form:
Complex Numbers: Inversion
p g
1
jy x
z
+
=
) )( ( jy x jy x
jy x
jy x
+

=
+
) )( (
jy x
jy x jy x
=
+
If th l b i i l ti l f
2 2
y x +
If the complex number is in polar or exponential form:
j
1 1

j
j
e
A
Ae
z

= =
1 1
When using the inverse tangent to obtain from x and y it is
g g y
necessary to resolve the ambiguity of :
yy
jy x z + =
y

+
y
x
+
+
y
x
x
y
= tan

+ x x
x
+
y
x
y
x
jy x w =
When using the inverse tangent to obtain from x and y it is
g g y
necessary to resolve the ambiguity of
1. Calculate using inverse tangent:
y
1
/ /
x
y
1
tan
=
This should give a value in the range: -/2 +/2
(-90 +90)
2. If the real part x is negative then add (180) :
x
y
1
tan
+ =
C t t t l f 2


Convert to rectangular form
3
2

= z
Real part:
1
2
1
2
3
cos 2 = =
=

x
2 3

Imaginary part: 3
2
3
2
3
sin 2 = =
=

y
Thus:
3 1 j z + =
Complex Numbers: Conversion Complex Numbers: Conversion
2
1 732
3 1 j z + =
Imaginary
1.732
2 = r
axis
1
R l i
) 60 (
3
o
=
Real axis
O
1 2
C t t l ti l f
1
Convert to polar or exponential form:
j
z
+
=
1
1
Magnitude:
2
1
1 1
0 1
2 2
2 2
=
+
= = z r
2
1 1
2 2
+
Angle:
0
1
t
0
t
) 1 ( 1
1 1

+ = =

j z
4 4
0
1
1
tan
1
0
tan
1 1

= =
Thus: or
4
2
1
4 2
1

j
e z z

= =
2 4 2
Complex Numbers: Conversion Complex Numbers: Conversion
Real axis
O
0.5
O
Imaginary
) 45 (
4
o
=
Imaginary
axis
0.5
1 1 j
2
1
1
1 j
j
z =
+
=
Complex Exponential Voltages
We shall be using complex exponential voltages and currents
We shall be using complex exponential voltages and currents
to analyse ac circuits:
t j
Thi i th ti l t i k f bt i i th
t j
Ve t v

= ) (
This is a mathematical trick for obtaining the ac response
without explicitly solving the differential equations
It works because differentiating a complex exponential leaves
it unchanged apart from a multiplying factor: it unchanged, apart from a multiplying factor:
t j t j
d
t j t j
Ve j Ve
dt
d

=
S th t l ti l lt i li d
Suppose that a complex exponential voltage is applied
across a resistor:
t v ) (
t j
V t

) (
t j
V
R
t v
t i =
) (
) (
t j
Ve t v

= ) (
) (t i
t j
e
R
V

=
R
The current through the resistor is also a complex The current through the resistor is also a complex
exponential
across a capacitor:
dt
t dv
C t i =
) (
) (
t j
Ve t v

= ) (
t j
Ve
dt
d
C
dt
=
j
Ve t v = ) (
) (t i
t j
CVe j
dt
=
C
The current through the capacitor is also a complex The current through the capacitor is also a complex
exponential
across an inductor:
dt t v
L
t i ) (
1
) (

=
t j
Ve t v

= ) (
t j
dt Ve
L

1
=
j
Ve t v = ) (
) (t i
t j
Ve
L j
L
1
=
L
The current through the inductor is also a complex
L j
The current through the inductor is also a complex
exponential
Complex Exponential Voltages Complex Exponential Voltages
A complex exponential input to a linear ac circuits results in all
voltages and currents being complex exponentials
Of course real voltages are not complex
The real voltages and currents in the circuit are simply the real
parts of the complex exponentials parts of the complex exponentials
Complex exponential:
) sin cos ( ) ( t j t e t v
t j

+ = =
Complex exponential:
Real voltage:
) sin cos ( ) ( t j t e t v
c
+ = =
t t v cos ) ( =
Real voltage:
t t v
r
cos ) ( =
L t 3 Lecture 3
Phasors
Impedances Impedances
Gain and Phase Shift
Frequency Response
Phasors
If the input voltage to a circuit is a complex exponential:
Phasors
then all other voltages and currents are also complex
t j
cin
e v t v

0
) ( =
then all other voltages and currents are also complex
exponentials:
t j t j j t j
t j t j j t j
c
I i i t i
e V e e v e v t v

) (
1 1
) (
1 1
2 2
1 1
) (
) ( = = =
+
+
t j t j j t j
c
e I e e i e i t i

2 2
) (
2 2
2 2
) ( = = =
+
where V
1
and I
2
are time-independent voltage and current
phasors:
1
1 1
j
e v V =
2
2 2
1 1
j
e i I
e v V
=
=
Phasors
The complex exponential voltages and currents can now be
Phasors
expressed:
t j
t j
c
e V t v
1 1
) ( =
Ph i d d t f ti b t i l f ti
t j
c
e I t i

2 2
) ( =
Phasors are independent of time, but in general are functions
of j and should be written:
( ) ( ) j I j V
2 1
However, when there is no risk of ambiguity the dependency
will be not be shown explicitly
Note that upper-case letters are used for phasor symbols
Impedance
The impedance Z of a circuit or component is defined to be the
Impedance
ratio of the voltage and current phasors:
I
V
Z =
For a resistor:
t Ri t v
c c
= ) ( ) (
t j
Ve t v

) (
RIe Ve
t Ri t v
t j t j
c c
=

) ( ) (
j
c
Ve t v = ) (
t j
c
Ie t i

= ) (
RI V =
R
So that:
R
I
V
Z
R
= =
Impedance
F it
Impedance
For a capacitor:
t dv
C t i
c
=
) (
) (
Ve
d
C Ie
dt
C t i
t j t j
c

= ) (
t j
c
Ve t v

= ) (
t j
Ie t i

= ) (
CVe j Ie
Ve
dt
C Ie
t j t j
t j t j

=
=
C
c
Ie t i = ) (
CV j I
CVe j Ie
j j
=
=
So that:
V
Z
1
C j I
V
Z
C
1
= =
Impedance
F i d t
Impedance
For an inductor:
t di
L t v
c
=
) (
) (
Ie
d
L Ve
dt
L t v
t j t j
c

= ) (
t j
c
Ve t v

= ) (
t j
Ie t i

= ) (
LIe j Ve
Ie
dt
L Ve
t j t j
t j t j

=
= c
Ie t i = ) (
L
LI j V
LIe j Ve
j j
=
=
So that:
V
L j
I
V
Z
L
= =
Impedance Impedance
I
V
Z =
f 0 f
Resistance R R R R
I
Resistance R R R R
1
Capacitance C
C j
1
Z 0 Z
Inductance L
L j
Z 0 Z
Impedance
All the normal circuit theory rules apply to circuits containing
Impedance
y pp y g
impedances
For example impedances in series:
4 3 2 1
Z Z Z Z Z + + + =
and impedances in parallel:
4 3 2 1
Z Z Z Z Z + + + =
and impedances in parallel:
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + =
Other rele ant circ it theor r les are Kirchhoffs la s
4 3 2 1
Z Z Z Z Z
+ + +
Other relevant circuit theory rules are: Kirchhoffs laws,
Thvenin and Norton's theorems, Superposition
Impedance Impedance
Potential divider:
V
in
2 1
IZ V
Z Z
V
I
in
+
=
I
1
Z
2
2
Z V
IZ V
in
out
=
=
V
V
2
2 1
Z V
Z Z
out
+
=
out
V
2
Z
in
V
2 1
2
Z Z
Z
V
V
in
out
+
=
AC Circuit Analysis
Suppose that a circuit has an input x(t) and an output y(t),
AC Circuit Analysis
pp p ( ) p y( )
where x and y can be voltages or currents
The corresponding phasors are X(j) and Y(j)
The real input voltage x(t) is a sinusoid of amplitude x
0
:
) ( ) ( ) cos( ) (
t j t j
Xe re e x re t x t x

and the real output voltage y(t) is the real part of the complex
) ( ) ( ) cos( ) (
0 0
t j t j
Xe re e x re t x t x

= = =
and the real output voltage y(t) is the real part of the complex
exponential output:
) ( ) ( ) cos( ) (
0 0
t j t j j
Ye re e e y re t y t y

= = + =
AC Circuit Analysis
Thus:
AC Circuit Analysis
Thus:
X
Y
x
e y
j
=
0
0

The voltage gain g is the ratio of the output amplitude to the
X x
0
The voltage gain g is the ratio of the output amplitude to the
input amplitude:
Y y
0
X x
y
g = =
0
0
and the phase shift is:

Y
=
X
Y

Using the potential divider formula:
Z V
C c
R
C j
Z Z
Z
V
V
R C
C
in
c
+
=
/ 1
R
R C j
C j
+
=
/ 1
/ 1
C in
V
c
V
CR j +
=
1
1
AC Circuit Analysis
R
AC Circuit Analysis
V
c
1
V V
CR j V
V
in
c
+
=
1
1
C in
V
c
V
1 V
Voltage gain:
2 2 2
1
1
R C
V
V
g
in
c
+
= =
Phase shift: CR
V
V
i
c

1 1
tan 0 tan

=
=
CR
V
in
1
tan
=

Frequency Response (RC = 1) Frequency Response (RC 1)
1.0
a
i
n
0.7071
a
g
e

G
a
V
o
l
t
a
Angular Frequency (rad/s)
0.0
1 10 100 0.1 0.01
Frequency Response (RC = 1)
Frequency Response (RC 1)
0
1 10 100 0.1

s
h
i
f
t
P
h
a
s
e
) 45 (
4

P
) 90 (
2


Frequency Response Frequency Response
CR
1
tan
=
2 2 2
1
1
R C
g
+
=
0 1 g ) 0 ( 0 g
1 1
) (
CR
1
=
2
1
= g ) 45 (
4
=

0 g
) 90 (
2

This is a low-pass response

p p
0

0
C
V
in C
V V
Z
V V
R
C
R
Z Z
V V
C R
R
in R
+
=
R in
V
R
V
CR j
C j R
R
V
in
+
=
/ 1
CR j
CR j
V V
in R
+
=
1
CR j
CR j
V
V
i
R
+
=
1 CR j V
in
+ 1
AC Circuit Analysis
C
AC Circuit Analysis
CR j
CR j
V
V
R

=
1
R in
V
R
V
CR j V
in
+ 1
R in R
V lt i
CR V
R

Voltage gain:
2 2 2
1 R C
CR
V
V
g
in
R
+
= =

Phase shift :
CR
V
V
in
R

1 1
tan tan

=
=
CR
1
tan
2

=

2
1.0
a
i
n0.7071
a
g
e

g
a
V
o
l
t
a
0.0
1 10 100 0.1 0.01
) 90 (
2

i
f
t
) 45 (
4

a
s
e

s
h
4
P
h
a
100
0
1 10 0.1 0.01
CR
1
tan
2

=
2 2 2
1 R C
CR
g
+
=
0 0 g
) 90 (
2

g
1 1
) (
2
CR
1
=
2
1
= g ) 45 (
4
=
) 0 ( 0 1 g
This is a high-pass response
g p p
0 0
in R
V V 0
R
V
L t 4 Lecture 4
Driving-Point Impedance
Impedance
Impedance
ratio of the voltage and current phasors:
) ( j I
) (
) (

j V
j Z =
AC Circuit
) ( j V
) ( j I
) (
) (
j I
j Z =
AC Circuit
) ( j V
Impedance Z is analogous to resistance in dc circuits and its
units are ohms
When Z applies to a 2-terminal circuit (rather than simple
component) it is known as the driving-point impedance
Impedance
Z can be written in rectangular form:
Impedance
Z can be written in rectangular form:
) ( ) ( ) ( j jX j R j Z + =
where R is the resistance and X is the reactance
Thus:
X R Z
2 2
+ =
R
X
Z
1
tan
=
and:
Z Z R = cos
Z Z X = sin
Symbolic and Numeric Forms Symbolic and Numeric Forms
CR j
R
Z
+
=
1
Symbolic Form
Substitute component
values
Numeric Form
3
10 8 1
80
=
j
Z
Substitute frequency
value
3
10 8 1 + j
Value at a given frequency
value
40 24 j Z + =
Value at a given frequency
40 24 j Z +
Example 1
Determine the driving-point impedance of the circuit at a
Example 1
g p p
frequency of 40 kHz:
1
Z Z Z
C R
+ =
1
C j
R + =
C = 200nF
10 200 10 40 2
1
25
9 3
j
+ =

R = 25
05027 0
1
25
j
j
+ =
89 . 19 25
05027 . 0
j
j
=
Example 1 Example 1
89 . 19 25 = j Z
89 . 19 25
2 2
+ = Z
C = 200nF
93 . 31
89 . 19 25
=
+ Z
R = 25
89 . 19
tan
1
=

Z
R = 25
) 5 . 38 ( 6720 . 0
25
tan
=
= Z
) (
Example 1
What will be the voltage across the circuit when a current of
Example 1
g
5 A, 40 kHz flows through it?
) 89 . 19 25 ( 5 j
IZ V
=
=
f
V 45 . 99 125
) 89 . 19 25 ( 5
j
j
=

In polar form:
) 5 . 38 ( 6720 . 0 ) 93 . 31 5 ( =
= IZ V
) 5 . 38 ( 6720 . 0 159.7V
) ( ) (
=
Example 2
Example 2
g p p
frequency of 20 Hz:
Z Z Z
C R
+ =
1 1 1
C j
R
Z Z Z
C R
+ =
1
R = 80
C = 100F
Z
j
R
=
1
R
C j R
Z
+ / 1
CR j +
=
1
Example 2 Example 2
1 CR j
R
Z
+
=
C = 100F
80
1
6
CR j
=
+
R = 80
80
80 10 100 20 2 1
6
j +

) 005 1 1 ( 80
005 . 1 1
j
j
+
=
00 40 79 39
005 . 1 1
) 005 . 1 1 ( 80
2 2
j
j
+
00 . 40 79 . 39 j =
Example 2 Example 2
00 . 40 79 . 39 = j Z
00 . 40 79 . 39
2 2
+ = Z
42 . 56 =
R = 80
C = 100F
00 . 40
tan
1
=

Z
) 2 45 ( 7880 0
79 . 39
tan
o
=

Z
) 2 . 45 ( 7880 . 0 =
Example 2
What c rrent ill flo if an ac oltage of 24 V 20 H is applied
Example 2
What current will flow if an ac voltage of 24 V, 20 Hz is applied
to the circuit?
Z
V
I = =
Z
V
I
7880 0 42 56
24

=
00 40 79 39
24
=
j
A 3016 0 3 0
) 2 . 45 ( 7880 . 0 A 0.4254
7880 . 0 42 . 56
j +
=

) 00 . 40 79 . 39 ( 24
00 . 40 79 . 39
2 2
+
=
j
j
A 3016 . 0 3 . 0 j + =
A 3016 . 0 3 . 0
00 . 40 79 . 39
2 2
+ =
+
j
) 2 . 45 ( 7880 . 0 0.4254A =
Phasor Diagrams
Where voltages or currents are summed the result can be
Phasor Diagrams
g
represented by a phasor diagram:
3 2 1
V V V V + + =
Imaginary part
2
V
Real
part
O
1
V
part
1
V
V
3
V
Example 2
A 3 . 0
24
= =
R
I
A 3016 . 0 24 10 100 20 2
6
j j I
C
= =

Example 2
80
R
j j
C
0.3A
p
a
r
t
n
a
r
y

p
0.2A
C
I
C R
I I I + =
I
m
a
g
i
n
0 1A
R
I
R l
I
0.1A
0.2A
R
I
Real
part O
0.1A 0.3A
Example 3
Example 3
frequency of 50 Hz:
Z Z Z Z
C L R
+ + =
R
1
C j
L j R + + =
24
L
10 120 50 2
1
10 36 50 2 24
6
3
j
j
j
+ + =

L
36 mH
53 . 26 31 . 11 24
10 120 50 2
6
j j
j
+ =

C
120 F
22 . 15 24 j =
120 F
Example 3
22 15 24 = j Z
Example 3
22 . 15 24 = j Z
42 28
22 . 15 24
2 2
=
=
Z
R
24 42 . 28

= 24
L
24
22 . 15
tan
1
=

Z
36 mH
) 4 . 32 ( 5652 . 0 =
C
120 F
) 4 . 32 ( 5652 . 0 42 . 28 = Z
Example 3
What voltage will be generated across the circuit if an ac
Example 3
What voltage will be generated across the circuit if an ac
current of 10 A, 50 Hz flows though it?
) 22 15 24 ( A 10 j
ZI V
=
=
V 2 . 152 240
) 22 . 15 24 ( A 10
j
j
=
=
In polar form:
ZI V
) 4 . 32 ( 5652 . 0 ) 42 . 28 10 ( =
= ZI V
) 4 . 32 ( 5652 . 0 V 2 . 284 =
Example 3
C L R
V V V V + + =
Example 3
200V
I i
C L R
V V V V + + =
L
V
Imaginary
part
R
V
L
V
Real
t
200V 400V
V
part
C
V
V
-200V
Example 4
f f 400 H
Example 4
frequency of 400 Hz:
1 1 1
+ =
R
C
Z Z Z Z
C L R
1
+
+
=
R
2
C
C j
L j R
1
1
+
+
=
L
1 mH
200 F
C j L j R
Z
) /( 1
1
+ +
=
1 mH
L j R C j
L j R
) ( 1

+ +
+
=
LC CR j
L j R
2
1

+
+
=
LC CR j 1 +
Example 4
L j R
Z
+
=

Example 4
10 400 2 2
1
3
2
j
LC CR j
Z
+
+
=

10 200 10 ) 400 2 ( 2 10 200 400 2 1
10 400 2 2
6 3 2 6
3
j
j
+
+

263 . 1 005 . 1 1
513 . 2 2
j
j
+
+
=
005 1 2633 0
513 . 2 2
j
j
j
+
+
=
) 005 . 1 2633 . 0 ( ) 513 . 2 2 (
005 . 1 2633 . 0
2 2
j j
j
+
=
+
474 . 2 852 . 1
005 . 1 2633 . 0
2 2
j
j
=
+
j
Example 4
474 2 852 1 j Z
Example 4
474 . 2 852 . 1 = j Z
R
091 3
474 . 2 852 . 1
2 2
+ = Z
2
C
200 F
091 . 3 =
L
1 mH
200 F
852 . 1
474 . 2
tan
1
=

Z
) 2 . 53 ( 9282 . 0
852 . 1
=
) 2 . 53 ( 9282 . 0 091 . 3 = Z
Example 4
What current will flow if an ac voltage of 120 V, 400 Hz is
Example 4
applied to the circuit?
V
I
V
I
120
=
Z
I
120
Z
I =
) 474 2 852 1 ( 120
474 . 2 852 . 1
120
+

=
j
j
9282 0 A 82 38
9282 . 0 091 . 3
120

=
474 . 2 852 . 1
) 474 . 2 852 . 1 ( 120
2 2
+
+
=
j
08 . 31 26 . 23
9282 . 0 A 82 . 38
j + =
=
556 . 9
0 . 297 4 . 222 +
=
j
) (53.2 0.9282 A 82 . 38
08 . 31 26 . 23
=
+ = j
) (
Example 4
Imaginary part
Example 4
I I I
C RL
+ =
Imaginary part
120
I
RL
=
50A
C
I
23 . 29 27 . 23 j
Z
I
RL
RL
= I
120
j
Real
120
Z
I
C
C
=
ea
part O
50A
I
32 . 60 j = RL
I
Admittance
The admittance Y of a circuit or component is defined to be
Admittance
The admittance Y of a circuit or component is defined to be
the ratio of the current and voltage phasors:
) ( j I
1 ) (
) (

j I
j Y = =
AC Circuit
) ( j V
) ( j I
) ( ) (
) (

j Z j V
j Y = =
AC Circuit
) ( j V
Admittance Y is analogous to conductance in dc circuits and
its unit is Siemens
) ( ) ( ) ( j jB j G j Y + =
where G is the conductance and B is the susceptance
) ( ) ( ) ( j jB j G j Y +
Admittance Admittance
I
Y =
f 0 f
V
Y
f 0 f
1 1 1
Resistance R
R
1
R
1
R
1
Capacitance C
C j Y 0 Y
Inductance L
L j
1
Y 0 Y
Inductance L
L j
Y 0 Y
Admittance
All the normal circ it theor r les appl to circ its containing
Admittance
All the normal circuit theory rules apply to circuits containing
admittances
For example admittances in series:
4 3 2 1
1 1 1 1 1
Y Y Y Y Y
+ + + =
and admittances in parallel:
Oth l t i it th l Ki hh ff l
4 3 2 1
Y Y Y Y Y + + + =
Other relevant circuit theory rules are: Kirchhoffs laws,
Thvenin and Norton's theorems, Superposition
Example 5
Determine the dri ing point admittance of the circ it at a
Example 5
Determine the driving-point admittance of the circuit at a
Y Y
Y Y
C
+ =
/ 1 / 1
1 R
2
C j
Y Y
L R
C
+ =
+
1
/ 1 / 1
2
L
C
200 F
L j R
C j
+
+ =
L
1 mH

Example 5
Determine the driving-point admittance of the circuit at a
f f 400 H
Example 5
2 10 400 2
10 200 400 2
3
6
j
j Y

+ =

1
5027 0
10 400 2 2
10 200 400 2
3
j
j
j Y
+
+ =

513 2 2
513 . 2 2
1
5027 . 0
j
j
j
+
+ =
R
513 . 2 2
513 . 2 2
5027 . 0
2 2
j
j
+
+ =
R
2
C
32 . 10
513 . 2 2
5027 . 0
j
j

+ =
L
C
200 F
S 2590 . 0 1939 . 0
2436 . 0 1939 . 0 5027 . 0
j
j j
+ =
+ =
1 mH
S 2590 . 0 1939 . 0 j +
L t 5 Lecture 5
Resonant Circuits
Resonant Circuits Resonant Circuits
Passive resonant circuits must contain a resistor, capacitor
and an inductor
The behaviour of resonant circuits changes rapidly around a
particular frequency (the resonance frequency)
R i i b h i d b Resonant circuits can be characterised by two parameters:
the resonance frequency and the Q-factor
There are two basic resonant circuit configurations: series and
parallel parallel
Resonant Circuits Resonant Circuits
L
g
dt
d
=
=
dt
d
L dt dt
,

t
Resonant Circuits
i
L
Resonant Circuits
L C
v
C
C
i
dt
dv
L C
=
L
v
dt
di
C L
=
v
C
C dt L dt
i, v
C
v
i
C
L
i
t
Parallel Resonant Circuit Parallel Resonant Circuit
R L R L
C
+ +
1 1 1 1
LR j
Z

=
Z Z Z Z
L C R
+ + =
1 1
L j
R LCR L j
Z
2
+
=
L j
C j
R
+ + =
2
1 1
LC R L j
L j
2
1 /

+
=
LR j
R LCR L j
+
=
2
LC R L j
L j
2
/ 1

+
=
j
j
= k 5 R F 1 = C H 1 = L
Impedance is a
maximum
( t
= k 5 R F 1 = C H 1 = L
(resonant
frequency)
h
1
when:
2
/ 1+
=

LC R L j
L j
Z
1
=
LC
6 2 4
/ 1
=
+

j
LC R L j
6
10
1
=

6 2 4
10 10 2 1

+ j
3
10 =
0 0
0 Z 0 Z
R L
L j
Z
2
=
R L
C
LC R L j
2
/ 1 +
0 0 j
L j
Z

1
0
1
0
R
L j
Z
j
j
Z =
R t f
/
1
j L j
R
R L j
L j
Z
LC
= = =
Resonant frequency:
0
2
j
C
j
LC
L j
Z =

Parallel Resonant Circuit
5k
) 90 (

5k
Z
) 90 (
2

Z
Z
0
Z
0 0
Z
) 90 (

0.0
1000 10000 100
) 90 (
2
Quality Factor
The standard form for the denominator of a second-order
Quality Factor
system is:
2
0
2
0
/ / 1 + Q j
Compare this with the impedance Z:
0 0
/ / 1 + Q j
Compare this with the impedance Z:
L j
Z
2
=
So that:
LC R L j
Z
2
/ 1 +
L
R
Q
LC
0
0
1
= =
where Q is the quality-factor and
0
is the resonant frequency
L LC
0

Quality Factor Quality Factor
= k 5 R F 1 = C H 1 = L = k 5 R F 1 = C H 1 = L
10
10
1 1
3
6
0
= = =

LC
5000
10
R
5
10 1
5000
3
0
=
= =
L
R
Q

Quality Factor
Z
Quality Factor
max
Z
2
max
Z
Q
0
=
2
Q
Z
0 0
0.0
0

Quality Factor
2k
) 90 (
Quality Factor
2k
Z
) 90 (
2

Q=2
Z
Z
Z
Q
0
Z
0 0
) 90 (

0.0
1000 10000 100
) (
2
Quality Factor
10k
) 90 (
Quality Factor
10k
Z
) 90 (
2

Q=10
Z
Z
Q
0
Z
0 0
Z
) 90 (

0.0
1000 10000 100
) (
2
L
I
C
I
R
I
V 1
k 5 = R F 1 = C H 1 = L
V 1
1 1
4
R
I
R
= = =

1
10 2
5000
1 1
4
Resonance occurs in
parallel resonant circuits

j C j
C j
I
C
= = =

10
/ 1
1
6
parallel resonant circuits
because the currents in
the capacitor and

j
L
j
L j
I
L

=
= =
1
p
inductor cancel out
At resonance:
: 10
3
=
1mA
A 10 2
4
= I
R
Imaginary
C
I
10
6
= j I
C

Real
Imaginary
part
A 10
3
= j
I
part O
1mA
R
I
=
j
I
L
L
I
A 10
3
= j
L
-1mA
j
Below resonance:
R l
C
I
R
I
: 10 5 . 0
4
3
=
I
Real
part
Imaginary
O
1mA
R
I
10
A 10 2
6
4
=
=
j I
I
C
R
I
Imaginary
part
A 10 5 . 0
10
3
=
=
j
j I
C

-1mA
=
j
I
L
L
I
A 10 2
3
= j
-2mA
Above resonance:
2mA
: 10 0 . 2
4
3
=
C
I
10
A 10 2
6
4
=
=
j I
I
C
R
I i
1mA
A 10 0 . 2
10
3
=
=
j
j I
C

I
Imaginary
part
=
j
I
L
Real
part
O
1mA
R
I
A 10 5 . 0
3
= j
L
I
1mA
R
Series Resonant Circuit Series Resonant Circuit
Z Z Z Z
L C R
+ + =
L j
C j
R
L C R
1
+ + =
R
LC CR j
C j

2
1 +
=
L
LC CR j
C j

2
1+
=
C j
LC CR j
1 +
=
C
C j
LC CR j
Z

2
1 +
=
C j
R
=
= j
C
j
C j
Z

1
0
L
= = = R
C j
CR j
Z
LC
j
1
= =
j L j
LC
Z
C j LC
2
C
= = j L j
C j
Z

2
1 LC CR j
2
1 +
=

C j
LC CR j
Z
R = 200
6
6 2 6
10
10 10 200 1

+
=

j
j
L = 1H
6 2 4
6
10 10 2 1
10

+

j
j
L 1H
6
10
=
j
C = 1F
Series Resonant Circuit
1k
) 90 (

1k
) 90 (
2

Z
Z
Z
Z
0
200
Z
) 90 (
0
200
1000 10000 100
) (
2
0
The standard form for the denominator of a second order
system is:
2
0
2
0
/ / 1 + Q j
Compare this with the admittance Y (= 1/Z):
0 0
/ / 1 + Q j
p ( )
C j
Y
2
=
So that:
LC CR j
Y
2
1 +
CR
Q
LC
0
0
1 1
= =
where Q is the quality-factor and
0
CR LC
0

where Q is the quality factor and
0
1
1
1
0
=
LC
1 10 1
1
6

=

R = 200
rad/s 10
3
=
L = 1H
1
0
=
CR
Q
C 1 F
200 10 1 10
1
6 3

=

C = 1F
5
200 10 1 10
=

Resonance occurs in
series resonant circuits
R = 200
R
V
1A
because the voltages
across the capacitor and
L = 1H
L
V
1A
p
inductor cancel out
L 1H
L
V
j j
R V
R
= =
10 1
200 1
6
C = 1F
C
V

j
C
j
C j
V
C

=
= =
10 1
j L j V
L
= = 1
At resonance:
: 10
3
=
1kV
V 200 V
R
=
L
V
10
6
j
V
C

=
Real
Imaginary
part
V 10
3
j
C
=

part O
R
V
1kV
j V
L
=
C
V
V 10
3
j
j V
L
=
=
-1kV
Crystal Resonator Crystal Resonator
Crystal Resonator Crystal Resonator
Crystal Resonator
Equivalent circuit:
Crystal Resonator
f
0
= 8.0 MHz
R = 3 4
Equivalent circuit:
R
R = 3.4
L
1
= 0.086 mH
C = 4 6 pF C
1
= 4.6 pF
C
0
= 42 pF
L
C
0
1 1
0
= = Q
C
1
1270 10 03 5
7
0
0
= =
CR
Q
LC
1270 10 03 . 5 = =
L t 6 Lecture 6
Frequency-Response Function Frequency Response Function
First-Order Circuits
Frequency-Response Function Frequency Response Function
Input Output
Y X
) (
) (

j Y
j H
Frequency-response function:
) (
) (
j X
j H =
Voltage gain g: ) (
) (
) (
j H
j X
j Y
g = =
) ( j X
) ( j Y
Phase shift : ) (
) (
) (
j H
j X
j Y
=
=
Frequency-Response Function
The order of a frequency-response function is the highest
Frequency Response Function
power of j in the denominator:
Fi t d
1
First order:
0
/ 1
1
) (

j
j H
+
=
Second order:
2
0 0
) / ( / 2 1
1
) (

j j
j H
+ +
=
Third order:
0 0
) / ( / 2 1 j j + +
1
) ( j H = Third order:
3
0
2
0 0
) / ( ) / ( / 1
) (

j j j
j H
+ + +
=
The order is normally equal to (and cannot exceed) the
number of reactive components
Example 1
Example 1
R
Z Z
Z
V
V
R C
C
in
c
+
=
R
R C j
C j
Z Z V
R C in
/ 1
/ 1
+
=
+
C in
V
c
V
j H
R C j
1
) (
/ 1
=
+
CR j
j H
1
: where
1
1
) (
+
RC j
: where
/ 1
0
0
=
+
=

Example 1
R
Example 1
0
/ 1
1
) (

+
=
j
j H
R
2 2
0
0
/ 1
/ 1

+
=
j
j
C in
V
c
V
2
0
2
/ 1 +
Gain:
2
0
2
/ 1
1
) (

+
= = j H g
0
/ 1 +
Ph hift
/ tan ) ( j H
Phase shift:
0
/ tan ) ( = = j H
Example 1 Example 1
0

0 g 1 g
Decibel
The decibel is a measure of the ratio of two powers P
1
, P
2
:
Decibel
p
1 2
1
10
log 10 dB
P
=
2
10
log 10 dB
P
=
It can also be used to measure the ratio of two voltages V
1
, V
2
:
2
2
1
10
2
2
1
10
log 10
/
/
log 10 dB
V
V
R V
R V
= =
1
2
2
2
2
l 20 dB
/
V
V R V
2
1
10
log 20 dB
V
=
Decibel
Decibels Power ratio
Decibel
Decibels Power ratio
60 dB
20 dB
1000000
100
10 dB
20 dB 100
10
6 dB
3 dB
4
2
0 dB
-3 dB
1
1/2 -3 dB
-6 dB
20 dB
1/4
1/2
0 01 -20 dB
-60 dB
0.01
0.000001
Decibel
Decibels Voltage ratio
Decibel
Decibels Voltage ratio
60 dB
20 dB
1000
10
10 dB
20 dB 10
10 = 3.162
6 dB
3 dB
2
2 = 1.414
0 dB
-3 dB
1
1/2 = 0 7071 -3 dB
-6 dB
20 dB
1/2 = 0.5
1/2 = 0.7071
0 1 -20 dB
-60 dB
0.1
0.001
Example 1
Circuit is a first-order low-pass filter:
Example 1
1
/
1
= g
p
0
1
/ tan =

2
0
2
/ 1 +
= g
0
<<
) dB 0 ( 1 g ) 0 ( 0
0
=
) dB 3 (
2
1
= g ) 45 (
4
=

2 4
0
>>
) oct / dB 6 (
0
g
) 90 (

0
>>
) oct / dB 6 (
0

g
) 90 (
2

Example 1
R = 1k
Example 1
0
1
=
RC
R 1k
6 3
10 10
1
=

C=1F
3
10
10 10
=
Gain:
6 2
10 / 1
1
) (
+
= = j H g
10 / 1 +
Phase shift:
3
10 / tan ) ( j H
Phase shift:
3
10 / tan ) ( = = j H
Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
0 dB
0
-3 dB
-10 dB
g
-20 dB
4
30 dB
4
6 dB / octave -30 dB
-6 dB / octave
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB
2

Frequency (rad/s)
Example 2
Example 2
L
Z Z
Z
V
V
L R
R
in
R
+
=
V V
L j R
R
L R in
+
=
R in
V
R
V
R L j
j H
L j R
=
+
/ 1
1
) (
R
R L j
= =
+
0
: where
1
/ 1
L j
=
+
=
0
0
: where
/ 1

Example 2 Example 2
0 0
0 g 1 g
Example 3
Example 3
C
Z Z
Z
V
V
C R
R
in
c
+
=
R C j
R
Z Z V
C R in
/ 1 +
=
+
R in
V
c
V
CR j
j H
R C j
) (
/ 1
=
+
j
CR j
j H
1
: where
/
1
) (
0
+
RC j
: where
/ 1
0
0
0
=
+
=

Example 3
/ j C
Example 3
0
0
/ 1
/
) (

+
=
j
j
j H
C
0
/ 1
1

=
j
R in
V
R
V
2 2
0
0
/ 1
/ 1

+
+
=
j
j
G i
1
) ( = = j H g
2 2
0
/ 1 +
Gain:
2 2
0
/ 1
) (

+
= = j H g
Phase shift:
/ tan ) (
0
= = j H
Example 3 Example 3
0 0
1 g 0 g
Example 4
Example 4
R
Z Z
Z
V
V
R L
L
in
L
+
=
R
R L j
L j
Z Z V
R L in
+
=
+
L in
V
L
V
R L j
j H
R L j
=
+
/
) (

R j
R L j
j H
+
0
: where
/
/ 1
) (
L j
=
+
=
0
0
0
: where
/ 1

Example 4 Example 4
0 0
1 g 0 g
g g
Example 4
Circuit is a first-order high-pass filter:
Example 4
1
1
g
Circuit is a first order high pass filter:
/ tan
0
1
=
2 2
0
/ 1 +
= g
0
<<
) oct / dB 6 (
0
g ) 90 (
2

0
=
) dB 3 (
2
1
= g ) 45 (
4
=
0
) dB 0 ( 1 g
0
) (
2
g ) (
4
) 0 ( 0 ) dB 0 ( 1 g
0
>>
) 0 ( 0
Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
0 dB
2
-3 dB
-10 dB
g
-20 dB
4
g
30 dB
4
-30 dB
6 dB / octave
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB
0
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 5
Example 5
g p
/ 1 C j R V
1
R
1 2
2
/ 1
/ 1
R C j R
C j R
V
V
in
c
+ +
+
=
i
V
t
V
2
R
1 2
2
1
1
CR j CR j
CR j
+ +
+
=

in
V
out
V
C
2 1
2
1 2
) ( 1
1
) (
R R C j
CR j
j H
j j
+ +
+
=
2 1
2
2 1
1 1
: where
/ 1
) ( 1
j
R R C j
= =
+
=
+ +

2
2
2 1
1
1
) ( / 1 CR R R C j + +
Example 5 Example 5
1
R
1
2
/ 1
/ 1
) (

j
j
j H
+
+
=
R
1
j
in
V
out
V
2
R
2
2
2
/ 1
) (

+
= = j H g
C
2
1
2
/ 1
) (

+
j H g
Example 5 Example 5
00
1
R
2
R
2
R
2 1
2
R R
R
g
+
1 g
Example 5
Assuming that :
2 1
<<
Example 5
2
2
2
/ 1 +
= g
Assuming that :
2 1
<<
2
1
2
/ 1 +
= g
1
<<
) dB 0 ( 1 g
2 1
<< <<
) oct / dB 6 (
1

g
2 >>
2 1
R
g =

2 >>
1 2 2
R R
g
+
Example 5
/ 1
2
+ j
Example 5
1
/ 1
/ 1
) (
1
2
+
+
=
j
j
j H

900
1
= R
) (
1
2 1
1
+
=
R R C
1
) 100 900 ( 10
1
6
+
=

100
2
= R
rad/s 10
) 100 900 ( 10
3
=
+
F 1 = C
100 10
1 1
6
2
2
= =

CR
rad/s 10
4
2
=
Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
0 dB
0
-10 dB
g
-20 dB

30 dB -30 dB
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB
2

Frequency (rad/s)
L t 7 Lecture 7
Second-Order Circuits
Example 1
R R
Example 1
V V
R R
in
V
c
V
C C
This circuit must be simplified before the frequency response
f i b d i d function can be determined
ATh i i l t i it i t d f th t t A Thvenin equivalent circuit is created of the components to
the left of the red line
Example 1
Thvenin equivalent circuit:
Example 1
R
Z
C in
V
V
C in
V
V
C j / 1
CR j + 1 1 1
V
R C j
C j
V V
in
+
=
/ 1
/ 1
R
R
CR j
C j
R Z

+
= + =
1 1 1
CR j
V
in
+
=
1
CR j
R
Z
+
=
1
Example 1
R
CR j
R
+ 1
Example 1
V
R
CR j + 1
CR j
V
in
+ 1
C C
V
R
R C j
C j
CR j
V
V
in
C
+ +
+
=
/ 1
/ 1
1
V
CR j
R C j
j
in
+
+ +
1
1
/ 1
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
V
in
+
+ +
+
=
1
1
1
1
CR j + 1
Example 1
Example 1
1
1
1
CR j
CR j
CR j
V
V
in
C

+
=
1
1
1
V
CR j
C j
CR j
CR j
i
+
+ +
+
1
) 1 ( ) 1 ( CR j CR j CR j
V
in
+ + +
=
2 2 2
3 1
1
) (
R C CR j
j H

+
=
R = 1 k, C = 1F:
6 2 3
10 10 3 1
1
) (

+
=

j
j H
10 10 3 1 + j
Example 1 Example 1
0

0 g 1 g
Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
0 dB
0
-10 dB
g
-20 dB

-30 dB -30 dB
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB

Frequency (rad/s)
Example 2
R
C
Example 2
R
V V
C
in
V
R
V
R C
This circuit must be simplified before the frequency response s c cu us be s p ed be o e e eque cy espo se
function can be determined
A Thvenin equivalent circuit is created of the components to
the left of the red line
Example 2
CR j
R
+ 1
C
Example 2
CR j + 1
V
in
C
CR j
V
in
+ 1
R
V
R
R
C j R
R
CR j
V
V
in
R
+ +
+
=
/ 1
1
CR j V
CR j
C j R
j
in

+
+ +
1
/ 1
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
V
in
+
+ +
+
=
1
1
1
CR j + 1
Example 2
Example 2
1
1
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
V
V
in
R

+ +
+
=
1
1
CR j V
CR j
CR j
j
in

+
+ +
) 1 ( ) 1 (
CR j
CR j CR j CR j
CR j V
in

+ + +
=
2 2 2
3 1
) (
R C CR j
CR j
j H

+
=
R = 1 k, C = 1F:
3
6 2 3
3
10 10 3 1
10
) (

+

=

j
j
j H
10 10 3 1+ j
Example 2 Example 2
0

0 g 0 g
Bode Plot
Gain(dB) Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
0 dB
2
-10 dB g
-20 dB

30 dB -30 dB
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB
2

Frequency (rad/s)
Example 3
Example 3
C j V
C
/ 1
R L
R L j C j
C j
V
V
in
C
1
/ 1
/ 1
+ +
=

C in
V
c
V
LC CR j
j H
1
1
) (
2
+
=

Q j / ) /( 1
1
2
0
2
0
+
=

L
Q
Q j
1 1
: and
1
: where
/ ) /( 1
0
0 0
= = =
+

C R CR
Q
LC
0
0

Example 3 Example 3
0

0 g 1 g
Example 3
Circuit is a second-order low-pass filter:
Example 3
p
1
) ( j H
) ( j H
2
0
2
0
/ ) /( 1
) (

+
=
Q j
j H
) ( j H g =
0
<<
1 ) ( j H ) dB 0 ( 1 = g
0
=
Q g = jQ j H = ) ( Q g
) t / dB 12 (
2
0
jQ j ) (
2
0

0
>> ) oct / dB 12 (
2
0

g
2
0
) (
j H
Example 3
200 R mH 400 L
Example 3
200 = R mH 400 = L
in
V
C
V
F 5 . 2 = C
10
1 1 1
3
0
= = = =
1 10 400 1 1
10
10 10 5 . 2 10 400
3
6 6 3
0

L
LC
2 10 6 . 1
200
1
10 5 . 2
10 400
200
1 1
5
6
3
= =
= =

C
L
R
Q
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Bode Plot
20 dB
2 = Q 10 = Q
0 dB 0 dB
2
1
= Q
-20 dB
12 dB / octave -12 dB / octave
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB
Frequency (rad/s)
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
0
10 = Q
2 = Q
1
Q
2
2
1
= Q
2
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10

Frequency (rad/s)
Example 4
Example 4
g p
L j V
L

C
R
LC
R L j C j
j
V
in
L
/ 1
2
+ +
=

in
V
L
V
L
LC CR j
LC
j H
1
) (
2
2
+

=

L
Q j / ) /( 1
/
2 2
2
0
2
=

L
Q
Q j
1 1
: and
1
: where
/ ) /( 1
2
0
2
0
+

C R CR
Q
LC
: and : where
0
0
= = =

Example 4 Example 4
0

1 g 0 g
Example 4
Circuit is a second-order high-pass filter:
Example 4
g p
) ( j H
2
0
2
/
) (

j H
) ( j H g =
2
0
2
0
0
/ ) /( 1
/
) (

+
=
Q j
j H
2 2
0
<<
2
0
2
) (

j H ) oct / dB 12 (
2
0
2
g
0
=
jQ j H = ) (
0
Q g =
0
jQ j ) ( Q g
0
>>
1 ) ( j H ) dB 0 ( 1 = g
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Bode Plot
20 dB
2 = Q 10 = Q
0 dB 0 dB
2
1
= Q
-20 dB
12 dB / octave
2
12 dB / octave
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB
Frequency (rad/s)
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
10 = Q
2 = Q
1
Q
2
2
1
= Q
2
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
0
Frequency (rad/s)
Example 5
Example 5
R V
C
L
R L j C j
R
V
V
in
R
/ 1 + +
=

in
V
R
V
R
LC CR j
CR j
j H
1
) (
2
+
=

Q j
Q j
j
/ ) /( 1
) /(
2 2
0
+
=

L
Q
Q j
1 1
: and
1
: where
/ ) /( 1
0
2
0
2
0
= = =
+

C R CR
Q
LC
: and : where
0
0
= = =

Example 5 Example 5
0

0 g 0 g
Example 5
Circuit is a second-order band-pass filter:
Example 5
) ( j H
0
) /(
) (
Q j
j H
) ( j H g =
2
0
2
0
0
/ ) /( 1
) (
) (

+
=
Q j
Q j
j H
0
<<
Q
j
j H
0
) (
) oct / dB 6 (
0
Q
g
0
=
1 ) ( = j H
0
) dB 0 ( 1 = g
0
j
j H

0
) (

1 ) ( j H ) dB 0 ( 1 = g
) t / dB 6 (
0
0
>>
Q
j
j H
0
) ( ) oct / dB 6 (
0

Q
g

Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Bode Plot
0 dB
2 Q
10 = Q
2 = Q
1
Q
-20 dB
2
= Q
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB
Frequency (rad/s)
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
2
10 = Q
2 = Q
1
Q
0
2
1
= Q
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
2

Frequency (rad/s)
Example 6
R
Example 6
L j C j V
C
/ 1 +
LC
R L j C j
j j
V
in
C
1
/ 1
2
+ +
=

in
V c
V
L
LC CR j
LC
j H
1
1
) (
2
2
+

=

C
Q j
LC
/ ) /( 1
1
2 2
2
=

L
Q
Q j
1 1
: and
1
: where
/ ) /( 1
2
0
2
0
+

C R CR
Q
LC
: and : where
0
0
= = =

Example 6 Example 6
0

1 g 1 g
Example 6
Circuit is a second-order band-stop filter:
Example 6
) ( j H
2
0
2
/ 1
) (

j H ) ( j H g =
2
0
2
0
0
/ ) /( 1
/ 1
) (

+
=
Q j
j H
0
<<
1 ) ( j H
) dB 0 ( 1 g
0
=
0 ) ( = j H
) dB ( 0 = g
1 ) ( j H
) ( g
0
>>
1 ) ( j H
) dB 0 ( 1 g
Bode Plot
Gain(dB)
Bode Plot
0 dB
2 Q 2 = Q
10 = Q
-20 dB
2
1
= Q
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
-40 dB
Frequency (rad/s)
Bode Plot
Phase(rad)
Bode Plot
2
2
1
= Q
10 = Q
2
0
10 = Q
2 = Q
Q
Frequency (rad/s)
1000 10000 100000 100 10
2

Frequency (rad/s)
L t 8 Lecture 8
Power in AC Circuits
To calculate the power in a circuit we shall need to make
use of some trigonometric identities:
B A B A B A i i ) (
B A B A B A
B A B A B A
sin sin cos cos ) cos(
sin sin cos cos ) cos(
+ =
= +
Adding:
{ } ) cos( ) cos(
1
cos cos
cos cos 2 ) cos( ) cos(
B A B A B A
B A B A B A
+ +
= + +
so that:
{ } ) cos( ) cos(
2
cos cos B A B A B A + + =
{ } A A A 2 cos
2
1
2
1
0 cos 2 cos
2
1
cos
2
+ = + =
rms Voltages and Currents
The average power in a resistor is given by:
T
) ( ) (
1
=
T
dt t i t v
T
P
2
0
) ( ) (
1
) (t i
=
T
dt
R
t v
T
0
2
) ( 1
) (t v
R
=
T
dt t v
T R
2
0
) (
1 1
T
rms
dt t V
V
T R
2
2
0
) (
1
h

= =
rms
rms
dt t v
T
V
R
0
2
) ( : where
The root-mean-square voltage V determines the power
The root-mean-square voltage V
rms
determines the power
dissipated in a circuit:
2
R
V
P
rms
2
=
There is a similar expression for the power dissipated when e e s a s a e p ess o o t e po e d ss pated e
a current I
rms
flows through a circuit:
22
rms
RI P =
These expressions apply to any waveform
The rms value of a sinusoid of amplitude (peak) value v
0
:
) (
1
2
dt t v V
T
p (p )
0
1
) (
0
dt t v
T
V
T
rms

=
) ( cos
1
0
2 2
0
dt t v
T
T
=
) 2 cos(
2
1
2
1 1
2
0
dt t
T
v
T
+ =
2 2
0
2
0
0
v v
T
Averages to zero over
l t l
2 2
0 0
= = a complete cycle:
T = 2/
The UK mains power was until recently supplied at 240 V rms
The UK mains power was until recently supplied at 240 V rms
and that in Europe 220 V rms
On 1 January 1995 the nominal voltage across Europe was
harmonised at 230 V rms. harmonised at 230 V rms.
This corresponds to an amplitude of: s co espo ds to a a p tude o
2 V
230 2
2
0
=
=
rms
V v
V 325 =
A mains power (230 V rms) electric fire has a resistance of
kW 017 1
230
2 2
V
P
rms
52 :
kW 017 . 1
52
230
= = =
R
V
P
rms
An audio amplifier which drives a 4 loudspeaker at up to
150 Wmust supply a sinusoidal output voltage: pp y p g
600 4 150 .
2
= = =
rms
R P V
V 5 . 24
600 4 150 .
=

rms
rms
V
R P V
This corresponds to a sinusoid of peak value 34.6 V
Square wave of amplitude v
0:
v
0
-v
0
T
T/2
2
2 /
2 2
) (
1 1
) (
1
dt v dt v dt t v V
T T T
+

T
2 /
0
0
0
0
1
) ( ) ( dt v
T
dt v
T
dt t v
T
V
T
T
rms

+
=
0
2
0
0
2
0
1
v v dt
T
v
T
= =
=
Crest Factor
The ratio between the peak voltage and the rms voltage is
k th t f t
Crest Factor
known as the crest factor:
peak
V
cf
rms
p
V
cf =
For a sinusoid the crest factor is 2; for a square wave the
crest factor is 1
For audio signals the crest factor depends on the source but
is commonly 2 or higher
150 W f di i t 4 l d k ld th f i 150 W of audio into 4 loudspeakers would therefore require
peak voltages of 50 V or greater
Power in a Reactive Load
Capacitors and inductors store energy, but do not dissipate
power
Power in a Reactive Load
power
I
C
I
R
R C
100 V rms
50 Hz
100
25 200F
100
A 4
25
100
6
= =
R
I
A 6.28 A 10 200 50 2 100
100
6
= = =

C
C
Z
I
W 400
25
100
P
2
= =
Instantaneous Power
) (t i
For sinusoidal voltages and currents:
Instantaneous Power
) (t i
( )
( )
=
t i t i
t v t v
) (
cos ) (
0
) (t v
Z
( ) + = t i t i cos ) (
0
Instantaneous power:
( ) ( ) cos cos
) ( ) ( ) (
0 0
+ =
=
t i t v
t i t v t p
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

cos cos
cos cos
0 0
0 0
+ =
+ =
t t i v
t i t v
{ } cos ) 2 cos(
2
1
0 0
+ + = t i v
Average Power
Average power:
T
1
Average Power
=
T
dt t p
T
P
0
) (
1
( ) ( )
+ =
T
dt t i t v
T
0
0 0
cos cos
1

+ =
T T
dt i v dt t i v
T
0 0 0 0
0
cos
1 1
) 2 cos(
1 1

+
+ dt
T
i v dt t
T
i v
0
0 0
0
0 0
cos
2
) 2 cos(
2

If T >> 1/:
T
If T >> 1/:
cos
1
2
1
0
0 0
dt
T
i v P
T
=
cos
2
1
0 0
0
i v =
2
Average Power Average Power
cos
2
1
0 0
i v P =
) (t i
2
0 0
) (t v
Z
cos
2
1
2
0
Z
v
=
cos
2
1
2
2
0
Z i
Z
=
2
0
Average Power
Average power:
Average Power
Average power:
cos
2
1
0 0
i v P =
For a resistor:
2
0
2
0
0 0
1 1 1
0 Ri
v
i v P = = = =
For a capacitor:
0 0 0
2 2 2
0 Ri
R
i v P = = = =
o a capac to
0
2
= = P
For an inductor:
2
0
2
= = P

Power expressed in terms of rms voltages and currents:
cos
2
1
0 0
i v P =
cos 2 2
1
2
0 0
I V
rms rms
=
) W ( cos
cos
2
I V
rms rms
rms rms
=
2
V
cos
Z
V
P
rms
=
cos
2
Z I P
rms
=
Example 1
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit:
Example 1
80 R
F 20 C
80 = R
230 V rms
50 Hz
1
F 20 = C
1
1
+ =
C j
R Z
10 20 50 2
1
80
6

+ =

j
) ( 63 3 1 105 178 1
2 . 159 80
o
=
= j
) (-63.3 1.105 178.1 =
Example 1 Example 1
80 = R
230 V rms
50 H
F 20 = C
50 Hz
2
cos
2
=
Z
V
P
rms
105 . 1 cos
1 178
230
2
=
W 4 . 133
1 . 178
=
Example 2
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit:
Example 2
RR
2
C
80 V rms
L
1 mH
C
200 F
400 Hz
1 mH
The driving-point impedance of this circuit at 400 Hz
(calculated previously) is: (calculated previously) is:
9282 . 0 091 . 3 = Z
Example 2
9282 0 091 3 = Z
Example 2
9282 . 0 091 . 3 = Z
R
2
80 V
L
C
200 F
80 V rms
400 Hz
2
V
L
1 mH
200 F
cos
2
=
Z
V
P
rms
9283 . 0 cos
091 . 3
80
2
=
W 1241 =
Example 2
Determine the average power dissipated in the circuit
Example 2
Since no power is dissipated in the capacitor we only need
to calculate the power in the inductor resistor leg to calculate the power in the inductor-resistor leg
+ = L j R Z
LR

R
80 V rms
400 Hz
10 400 2 2
3
+ =
+
j
L j R Z
LR
2
C
400 Hz
8986 . 0 212 . 3
513 . 2 2
=
+ = j
L
1 mH
200 F
8986 0 3
Example 2 Example 2
8986 . 0 212 . 3 =
LR
Z
R
2 2
C
200 F
80 V rms
400 Hz
cos
2
=
V
P
rms
L
1 mH
200 F
80
cos
2
Z
P
W 1241
8986 . 0 cos
212 . 3
80
=
W 1241 =
L t 9 Lecture 9
Power Factor
Th Ph El t i P Three-Phase Electric Power
True and Apparent Power
The apparent power P in a circuit is:
True and Apparent Power
The apparent power P
a
in a circuit is:
rms rms a
I V P =
Apparent power is measured in VA
rms rms a
I V P =
Apparent power is measured in VA
The true power P dissipated in a circuit is:
cos
rms rms
I V P =
True power is measured in W
Power Factor
The power factor is the ratio of the true power to the apparent
Power Factor
p p pp
power:
I V P
cos
cos
= = =
rms rms
rms rms
a
I V
I V
P
P
pf
where is the phase difference between voltage and current where is the phase difference between voltage and current.
It does not matter whether is phase of the current with It does not matter whether is phase of the current with
respect to the voltage, or voltage with respect to the current,
since:
= cos cos
Example 1
Determine the power factor, apparent power and true power
di i t d i th i it
Example 1
power dissipated in the circuit:
) (75 1 1 312 60 5 1
08 . 15 4
o
=
+ = j Z
) (75.1 1.312 60 . 5 1 =
4 = R
Hz 400 , 0Vrms 8
2559 . 312 . 1 cos = = pf
mH 6 = L
Hz 400 , 0Vrms 8
VA 3 . 410
2
= = =
rms
rms rms a
Z
V
I V P
W 0 . 105 = =
a
P pf P
Z
Power Factor Correction
Most industrial loads have a poor (pf << 1) power factor
Most industrial loads have a poor (pf << 1) power factor
Examples are induction motors and inductor-ballast lighting Examples are induction motors and inductor ballast lighting
Power factor can be corrected by connecting a reactance in Power factor can be corrected by connecting a reactance in
parallel with the load
This reduces the apparent power and the rms current
without affecting the load g
This is obviously desirable because it reduces the current y
rating of the power wiring and supply
Power factor is normally corrected by connecting a reactive
element Z
C
in parallel with the load Z
L
:
S
I
C
I
Supply current: I
S
L d t I
L
I
V
Load current: I
L
Correction current: I
C
L
Z
C
Z
S
V
A unity overall power factor will be obtained provided that V
S
u y o e a po e ac o be ob a ed p o ded a
S
and I
S
are in phase:
) real ( 0 0 j G G
V
I
S
S
+ = =
C L S
j G
I I I
0
S
I
C
I
I
S
C
S
L
S
S
j G
V
I
V
I
V
I
+ = + =
1 1
0
L
Z
C
Z
L
I
S
V
C L
j G
Z Z
+ = + 0
1 1
L
Z
C
Z
imag
C
imag
L
Z Z

1 1
imag
C
imag
L
If I
L
leads V
S
then an inductor is used for correction
If I
L
lags V
S
then a capacitor is used for correction
Correction of a lagging power factor load with a capacitor:
C L S
I I I + =
C
I
C L S
I I I + =
S
I
Current
(real part)
Current
(imaginary
L
I
(real part)
part)
L
I
Note that the magnitude of the supply current I
S
is less than
that of the load I
L
L
Example 2
Choose a suitable power factor correction component for the
Example 2
Choose a suitable power factor correction component for the
circuit:
4 = R
Hz 400 0Vrms 8
mH 6 = L
Hz 400 , 0Vrms 8
08 15 4 1
08 . 15 4
j
j Z
L
+ =
06195 . 0 01643 . 0
08 . 15 4
08 . 15 4 1
2 2
j
j
Z
L
=
+
=
Thus: 06195 . 0
1
j
Z
C
+ =
Example 2 Example 2
4 = R
Hz 400 , 0Vrms 8 F 465 . 2 = C
mH 6 = L
Hz 400 , 0Vrms 8 F 465 . 2 C
1
06195 . 0
1
= + = C j j
Z
C
F 465 . 2
400 2
06195 . 0
=
C
Example 2
80
= I
Example 2
) 06195 0 01643 0 ( 80 =
=
j
Z
I
L
L
I I I
80
956 . 4 314 . 1
) 06195 . 0 01643 . 0 ( 80
=
=
j
j
L
I
4 R
S
I
C
I
80
=
Z
I
c
C
4 = R
Hz 400
0Vrms 8
F 465 2
= C
956 . 4
06195 . 0 80
=
=
j
j
mH 6 = L
Hz 400
F 465 . 2
956 4 956 4 314 1
956 . 4
+ =
j j
I I I
j
C L S
314 . 1
956 . 4 956 . 4 314 . 1
=
+ = j j
Example 2
5A
Example 2
5A
Imaginary
C L S
I I I + =
C
I
Imaginary
part
5A
S
I
Real
part
5A
part
L
I
-5A
Example 3
An electric motor operating from the 50 Hz mains supply has
Example 3
p g pp y
a lagging current with a power factor of .80
The rated motor current is 6 A at 230 V so that the magnitude
of 1/Z
L
is:
6 1 I
02609 . 0
230
6 1
= = =
S
L
L
V
I
Z
and the phase of 1/Z
L
is:
6435 . 0 8 . 0 cos
1
1
= =

Z
Since the current lags the voltage the negative phase is used
L
Z
g g g p
Example 3
01565 0 02087 0 6435 0 02609 0
1
= = j
Example 3
01565 0
1
01565 . 0 02087 . 0 6435 . 0 02609 . 0 = =
C j j
j
Z
L
01565 0
01565 . 0
1
= + = C j j
Z
C
F 82 . 49
50 2
01565 . 0
=
C
Before correction: After correction:
1380 8 0
1380 6 230

= =
a
P pf P
P
1104
1104 = =
a
P
P P
1104
1380 8 . 0
=
= =
a
P pf P
8 . 4
230
1104
= = =
S
S
V
P
I
Example 3
5A
Example 3
5A
Imaginary
C L S
I I I + =
5A
C
I
g y
part
5A
S
I
Real
part
L
I
p
-5A
Three-Phase Electric Power
Most ac power transmission systems use a three-phase
t
Three Phase Electric Power
system
Three phase is also used to power large motors and other Three-phase is also used to power large motors and other
heavy industrial loads
Three-phase consists of three sinusoids with phases 2/3
(120) apart (120 ) apart
This allows more power to be transmitted down a given This allows more power to be transmitted down a given
number of conductors than single phase
A three-phase transmission system consists of conductors for
the three phases and sometimes a conductor for neutral
p
Three-Phase Electric Power Three Phase Electric Power
Three-phase
load
Three-phase
generator
Phase to ne tral oltage
Phase-to-neutral voltage v
0
Phase-to-phase voltage v
p
v
0
v
) 60 (
3
o
v
0
v
p
3
sin 2
0
v v
p
=

v
0
) 120 (
3
2
o
2
3
2
3
0
v =
3
2
0
0
v =
UK domestic supply uses three -phase with a phase-to-
pp y p p
neutral voltage v
0
of 230 V rms (325 V peak)
This corresponds to a phase-to-phase voltage v
p
of 400 V
rms (563 V peak)
Each property is supplied with one phase and neutral
If the phases are correctly balanced (similar load to neutral on
h) th th ll t l t i each) then the overall neutral current is zero
The UK electricit distrib tion net ork operates at 275 kV rms The UK electricity distribution network operates at 275 kV rms
and 400 kV rms
L t 10 Lecture 10
Energy Storage
Energy Storage
Reactive components (capacitors and inductors) do not
Energy Storage
Reactive components (capacitors and inductors) do not
dissipate power when an ac voltage or current is applied
Power is dissipated only in resistors
Instead reactive components store energy
During an ac cycle reactive components alternately store
energy and then release it gy
Over a complete ac cycle there is no net change in energy y g gy
stored, and therefore no power dissipation
Energy Storage
The voltage across a capacitor is increased from zero to V
Energy Storage
producing a stored energy E:
v
0
) ( ) ( dt t i t v E
T
=
v(t)
i
0
) ( dt
dt
dv
C t v
T
=
V
C
dv
0
) (
d C
dt
V
dt
dv
C i =
0
1
dv v C
=
T
t
2
2
1
CV E =
T
Energy Storage Energy Storage
Example: calculate the energy storage in an electronic flash
capacitor of 1000 F charged to 400 V
2
1
2
= CV E
400 10 1000
2
1
2 6
=

J 80
2
=
Energy Storage
The current in an inductor is increase from zero to I
Energy Storage
producing a stored energy E:
) ( ) ( dt t i t v E
T
=
v
i(t)
0
) ( dt t i
di
L
T
v
i
L
I
0
) ( dt t i
dt
L
I
=
L
di
L
0
di i L
I
=
dt
L v =
T
t
2
2
1
LI E =
T
Energy Storage Energy Storage
Example: calculate the energy storage in a 2 mH inductor
carrying a current of 10 A
2
1
2
= Li E
10 10 2
2
1
2
2 3
=

J 1 . 0
2
=
J. B. Grimbleby 18 February 2009

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AC Circuit Analysis

Module: SE1EA5 Systems and Circuits

Complex Numbers: Conversion

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 65 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 69 James Grimbleby

This is a low-pass response

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 103 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 115 James Grimbleby

Parallel Resonant Circuit

Angular frequency (rad/s)

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 117 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 118 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 119 James Grimbleby

Angular frequency (rad/s)

Angular frequency (rad/s)

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 127 James Grimbleby

Series Resonant Circuit

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 130 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 148 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 164 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 176 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 177 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 183 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 188 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 190 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 192 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 193 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 197 James Grimbleby

School of Systems Engineering - Electronic Engineering Slide 211 James Grimbleby

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