A SHORT HISTORY OF BRITAIN

By Tim Lambert

Prehistoric England
The first people lived in England about 450,000 BC. At that time England was much warmer than it is today. Animals like elephants, lions and rhinoceros lived in England alongside deer, horses, bear and wolves. The humans made simple stone tools and lived in caves. In 15,000 BC people were still living in caves but they made much more sophisticated tools of bone and stone. They also made clothes from animal skins and they made !ewellery of animal teeth and shells. These early people hunted animals like horse, deer and wild cattle. In those days England was covered in tundra but about 8,500 BC the climate grew much warmer. "orests spread across England. At the same time England was cut off from Europe. About 7,500 BC a group of humans lived at #tar $arr in %orkshire. They were hunter&gatherers. They hunted deer, wild cattle, pigs and elk. They also ate birds, fish and shellfish. By this time humans had also domesticated dogs. They may also have made boats.

Stone Age Farmers

Then about 4,500 BC farming was introduced into England. 'sing stone a(es the farmers began clearing the forests that covered England. They grew crops of wheat and barley and they raised herds of cattle, pigs and sheep. )owever as well as farming they also hunted animals such as deer, horse, and wild boar and smaller animals such as beavers, badgers and hares. They also gathered fruit and nuts. At the same time the early farmers mined flint for making tools. They dug shafts, some of them *+ metres ,+- feet. deep. They used deer antlers as picks and o(en shoulder blades as shovels. They also made pottery vessels but they still wore clothes made from skins. They erected simple wooden huts to live in. /oreover the early farmers made elaborate tombs for their dead. They dug burial chambers then lined them with wood or stone. 0ver them they created mounds of earth called barrows. Although were stone was easily available they made mounds of stones called cairns. #ome of these barrows still survive. "rom about 2,500 BC England the 1eolithic ,new stone age. farmers made circular monuments called henges. At first they were simple ditches with stones or wooden poles erected in them. The most famous henge is, of course, #tonehenge. It began as a simple ditch with an internal bank of earth. 0utside the entrance stood the )eel #tone. The famous circles of stones were erected hundreds of years later. #tonehenge was altered and added to over a thousand year period from 22+- B$ to *2+- B$ before it was finished. After 2,500 BC a new culture had spread across England. The inhabitants are known as the Beaker 3eople because of the pottery beakers they made. They were bell shaped and were often decorated with bone or cords. )owever it is not known if the Beaker 3eople were a new race who migrated to England from Europe or if the people of England simply adopted a new culture.

Bronze Age England

At any rate by 2,--- B$ English society was changed by the invention of Bron4e. /etal artefacts appeared in England as early as 2,5-- B$ although it is believed they were imported. By about 2,--- B$ bron4e was being made in England. In the late Bron4e Age ,*,--- B$&6+- B$. forts were built on hills so warfare was, it seems,

becoming common. This may have been because the population was rising and fertile land was becoming harder to obtain. /eanwhile the Bron4e Age people continued to build barrows, although cremation was practised. The dead were buried with useful artefacts. 3resumably the living believed the dead would need these in the afterlife. 'nfortunately since they had no written records nothing is known about the Bron4e Age religion. 7e know that Bron4e Age people lived in round wooden huts with thatched roofs but nothing is known about their society or how it was organised.

Celtic England
Then about 6+- B$ iron was introduced into England by a people called the $elts and the first swords were made. 7arfare was common during the iron age and many hill forts ,fortified settlements. were built at that time. ,Although there were also many open villages and farms.. The $elts fought from horses or light wooden chariots. They threw spears and fought with swords. The $elts had wooden shields and some wore chain mail. /ost of the $elts were farmers although were also many skilled craftsmen. #ome $elts were blacksmiths ,working with iron., bron4e smiths, carpenters, leather workers and potters. ,The potter8s wheel was introduced into Britain c.*+- B$.. $eltic craftsmen also made elaborate !ewellery of gold and precious stones. "urthermore ob!ects like swords and shields were often finely decorated. The $elts decorated metal goods with enamel. The $elts also knew how to make glass and they made glass beads. $eltic society was hierarchical. At the top was a class of nobles headed by a king or chieftain. Below them were the craftsmen ,of whom metalworkers were the most important.. Then came the farmers who provided the food supply and also fought for the chief. There was also a class of slaves in $eltic England. )owever the $elts were divided into tribes. There was no political unity among them and a great deal of fighting. Trade with Europe was common. /etals like copper, tin, iron and lead were e(ported from England. 7ool, cloth, skins and grain were also e(ported. Lu(ury goods like fine pottery and e(pensive metal goods were imported from Europe. At first the $elts used iron bars as a form of currency but by about +- B$ they were using gold coins. The $elts lived in round houses. They were built around a central pole with hori4ontal poles radiating outwards from it. They rested on vertical poles. 7alls were of wattle and daub and roofs were thatched. Around the walls inside the huts were benches, which also doubled up as beds. The $elts also used low tables. $eltic men wore tunics and trousers and women wore long dresses and mantles. They used bron4e mirrors. 7omen wore belts around their dresses made of cloth, leather or bron4e rings. $eltic men soaked their hair in limewater to make it stand up straight. They wore moustaches but not beards. 7ealthy $elts wore gold ornaments around their necks called torcs or tor9ues. The $elts made dyes from plants, woad, for blue, madder, for red and weld for yellow. "or amusement $elts played board games. They were also very fond of music and played flutes and lyres. In good weather they held horse or chariot races. The $elts also en!oyed hunting wild boar on horseback. The $elts had priests called :ruids. The :ruids were very important in $eltic society. As well as being priests they were scholars, !udges and advisors to the kings. The $elts were polytheists ,they worshipped many gods and goddesses.. They did not build temples but instead worshipped at natural sites such as groves of trees, springs, rivers and lakes. #ometimes the $elts sacrificed valuable goods by throwing them into lakes and rivers. In $eltic times the practice of building barrows died out. Instead people were interned in individual graves. They were still buried with grave goods showing the $elts had a strong belief in an afterlife. They believed that when you died your spirit went to a place called the 0therworld.

The ;omans claimed the :ruids practiced human sacrifice but this claim is doubtful. The main $eltic festivals were Imbolc at the beginning of "ebruary at the start of the lambing season, Beltane at the beginning of /ay, when cattle were sent out to gra4e in the fields after being kept indoors and fed on hay during the 7inter, Lughasad in August when the crops were growing ripe and #amhain at the beginning of 1ovember. That was the time when animals were brought in from the fields for the 7inter. The $elts could not grow enough hay to feed them all so those not needed for breeding were slaughtered. The $elts grew crops in rectangular fields. They raised pigs, sheep and cattle. They stored grain in pits lined with stone or wicker and sealed with clay. The $elts also brewed beer from barley. Although the ;omans despised the $elts as barbarians they created a sophisticated and advanced society. 7omen certainly had more rights than in ;oman society and $eltic craftsmen were superb.

Prehistoric Scotland
:uring the ice age #cotland was uninhabited. )owever when the ice melted forests spread across #cotland and stone age hunters moved there. By 6,--- B$ small groups of people lived in #cotland by hunting animals like red deer and seals and by gathering plants for food. Then about <,+-- B$ farming was introduced into #cotland. The early farmers continued to use stone tools and weapons and this period is called the 1eolithic ,new stone age.. The 1eolithic people used stone a(es or fire to clear forests for farming and they grew wheat, barley and rye. They also bred cattle and sheep. They lived in simple stone huts with roofs of turf or thatch. The finest e(ample of a 1eolithic village was found in 0rkney after a storm in *=+-. The inhabitants lived in stone huts with stone shelves and stone seats inside. They also had stone beds, which were probably covered with straw or heather. The people of #kara Brae used pottery vessels. By *,=-- B$ people in #cotland had learned to make bron4e. The Bron4e Age people continued to live in simple huts but they are famous for their stone monuments. They arranged huge stones in circles. The fact that they were able to do so indicates they lived in an organised society.

The Roman Conquest of England

The written history of England really began in ++ B$ when >ulius $aesar led an e(pedition there. $aesar returned in +< B$. Both times he defeated the $elts but he did not stay. Both times the ;omans withdrew after the $elts agreed to pay annual tribute. The ;omans invaded England again in <? A: under Emperor $laudius. The ;oman invasion force consisted of about 2-,--- legionaries and about 2-,--- au(iliary soldiers from the provinces of the ;oman Empire. Aulus 3lautius led them. The ;omans landed somewhere in #outheast England ,the e(act location is unknown. and 9uickly prevailed against the $eltic army. The $elts could not match the discipline and training of the ;oman army. A battle was fought on the ;iver /edway, ending in $eltic defeat and withdrawal. The ;omans chased them over the ;iver Thames into Esse( and within months of landing in England the ;omans had captured the $eltic hill fort on the site of $olchester. /eanwhile other ;oman forces marched into #usse(, where the local tribe, the Atrebates were friendly and offered no resistance. The ;oman army then marched into the territory of another tribe, the :urotriges, in :orchester and southern #omerset. Everywhere the ;omans prevailed and that year ** $eltic kings surrendered to $laudius. 1ormally if a $eltic king surrendered the ;omans allowed him to remain as a puppet ruler. Aulus 3lautius was made the first governor of ;oman Britain. By <5 A: the ;omans were in control of England from the ;iver )umber to the Estuary of the ;iver #evern. )owever the war was not over. The #ilures in #outh 7ales and the 0rdovices of 1orth

7ales continued to harass the ;omans. "ighting between the 7elsh tribes and the ;omans continued for years. /eanwhile the Iceni tribe of East Anglia rebelled. At first the ;omans allowed them to keep their kings and have some autonomy. )owever in c. +- A: the ;omans were fighting in 7ales and they were afraid the Iceni might stab them in the back. They ordered the Iceni to disarm, which provoked a rebellion. )owever the ;omans easily crushed it. In the ensuing years the ;omans alienated the Iceni by imposing heavy ta(es. Then, when the king of the Iceni died he left his kingdom partly to his wife, Boudicca and partly to Emperor 1ero #oon, however 1ero wanted the kingdom all for himself. )is men treated the Iceni very high&handedly and they provoked rebellion. This time a large part of the ;oman army was fighting in 7ales and the rebellion was, at first, successful. Led by Boudicca the $elts burned $olchester, #t Albans and London. )owever the ;omans rushed forces to deal with the rebellion. Although the ;omans were outnumbered their superior discipline and tactics secured total victory. After the rebellion was crushed the $elts of southern and eastern England settled down and gradually accepted ;oman rule. Then in 5*&5< A: the ;omans con9uered the north of England. In the years 5<&55 they con9uered #outh 7ales. Then in 55 A: Agricola was made governor of Britain. "irst he con9uered 1orth 7ales. Then he turned his attention to what is now #cotland. By =* A: the ;omans had captured the area from the $lyde to the "orth. In =2 they advanced further north. In =? the ;omans won a great victory at /ons @raupius ,it is not known e(actly where that was.. )owever in =6 the ;omans withdrew from #cotland. In *22&*26 the Emperor )adrian built a great wall across the northern frontier of ;oman Britain to keep out the people the ;omans called the 3icts. )owever under the Emperor Antonius 3ius the ;omans again invaded #cotland. In <2&<? they defeated the 3icts. The ;omans then built a wall of turf with a stone base to protect their con9uests. )owever the Antonine 7all, as it was called, was abandoned about *6?. The ;oman army withdrew to )adrian s 7all.

The End of Roman Britain

By the middle of the ?rd century the ;oman Empire was in decline. In the latter half of the ?rd century #a(ons from @ermany began raiding the east coast of ;oman Britain. The ;omans built a chain of forts along the coast, which they called the #a(on shore. The forts were commanded by an official called the $ount of the #a(on shore and they contained both infantry and cavalry. )owever the #a(on raids were, at first, no more than pin pricks and most of ;oman Britain remained reasonably peaceful and prosperous. Then in 2=6 an admiral named $arauius sei4ed power in Britain. "or 5 years he ruled Britain as an emperor until Allectus, his finance minister, assassinated him. Allectus then ruled Britain until 2A6 when $onstantius, Emperor of the 7estern ;oman Empire invaded. Britain was then taken back into the ;oman fold. In the <th century the ;oman Empire in the west went into serious economic and political decline. The populations of towns fell. 3ublic baths and amphitheatres went out of use. In ?65 #cots from 1orthern Ireland, 3icts from #cotland and #a(ons !oined to raid ;oman Britain and loot it. They overran )adrian s 7all and killed the $ount of the #a(on shore. )owever the ;omans sent a man named Theodosius with reinforcements to restore order. In ?=? some ;oman soldiers were withdrawn from Britain and the raiding grew worse. The last ;oman troops left Britain in <-5. In <*- the leaders of the ;omano&$elts sent a letter to the ;oman Emperor )onorius, appealing for help. )owever he had no troops to spare and he told the Britons they must defend themselves. ;oman Britain split into separate kingdoms but the ;omano&$elts continued to fight the #a(on raiders. ;oman civilisation slowly broke down. In the towns people stopped using coins and returned to barter. The populations of towns were already falling and this continued. ;ich people

left to be self&sufficient on their estates. $raftsmen went to live in the countryside. /ore and more space within the walls of towns was giving over to growing crops. ;oman towns continued to be inhabited until the mid&+th century. Then most were abandoned. #ome may not have been deserted completely. A small number may have still had a very small population who lived by farming land inside and outside the walls. )owever town life as such came to an end. In the +th century ;oman civilisation in the countryside faded away.

Ancient Wales
:uring the last ice age people hunted reindeer and mammoth in what is now 7ales. 7hen the ice age ended around *-,--- B$ new animals appeared in 7ales, such as red deer and wild boar. #tone age hunters hunted them both. They also gathered plants for food. In about <,--- B$ farming was introduced into 7ales, although the people still used stone tools. About 2,--- B$ people learned to use bron4e. Then, about 6-- B$ $elts migrated to 7ales, bringing iron tools and weapons with them. The $elts were a warlike people and they built many hill forts across 7ales. )owever they were also skilled craftsmen with iron, bron4e and gold. In <? A: the ;omans invaded #outheast England. They began the con9uest of 7ales about +- A:, but it took several decades. In 5= A: the ;omans captured Anglesey, the head9uarters of the $eltic priests, the :ruids. That effectively ended $eltic resistance. Afterwards 7ales was firmly under ;oman rule. The ;omans created a network of forts across 7ales to control the $eltic tribes. #ometimes towns grew up outside the forts as the soldiers provided a market for the townspeople8s goods. The most important ;oman town in 7ales was $aerwent. To us it would seem tiny, with only a few thousand inhabitants but towns were very small in those days. 0ther ;oman towns were /aridunum ,$armarthen. and #egontium ,$aernarfon.. The ;omans also built a number of villas in 7ales. $hristianity arrived in 7ales in the ?rd century. 7e know that two $hristians named >ulius and Aaron were martyred at $aerleon. )owever persecution of $hristians ceased in ?*?. )owever in the <th century the ;oman Empire went into decline. The last ;oman soldiers left Britain in <-5 A:. Afterwards the ;oman way of life slowly vanished. 7ales split into separate kingdoms.

The Picts and Scots

The 3icts lived in round huts of wood or stone with thatched roofs. #ome 3icts lived in crannogs, which were huts erected on artificial platforms in lochs or estuaries. 3ictish chieftains built hill forts of stone, wood or earth. 3ictish farmers raised cattle, pigs and sheep. They also fished, hunted deer and seals and caught birds. They grew crops of wheat, barley and rye. They also gathered wild fruits such as crab& apples, sloes, raspberries, blackberries and damsons. Although the vast ma!ority of 3icts were farmers some worked as craftsmen such as blacksmiths, bron4e smiths, goldsmiths and potters. The 3icts were very skilled at making !ewellery. They also carved pictures on stones. 'pper class 3icts spent their days hunting on horseback or hunting with falcons. In the evenings they drank and feasted. #cotland s written history begins with the ;omans. The ;omans invaded #cotland in =A: led by Agricola. They advanced into southern #cotland and then marched into the northeast. In =< the ;omans severely defeated the 3icts at a place they called /ons @raupius ,its e(act location is unknown.. )owever in the years after the battle the ;omans slowly withdrew and in *2? the Emperor )adrian began building a wall to keep out the 3icts. Later in the #econd century the ;omans advanced again and in *<- they built the Antonine 7all from the $lyde to the "orth. )owever the ;omans finally abandoned the Antonine 7all in *A6

A:. Afterwards )adrian8s 7all became the frontier. The ;omans advanced into #cotland again in 2-A A: but only temporarily. In ?65&6= the 3icts took part in a great raid upon ;oman Britain. In the 6th century a people from Ireland called the #cots invaded what is now #cotland. They settled in what is now Argyll and founded the kingdom of :alriada. /eanwhile $hristian missionaries had begun the work of converting the 3icts. #ome 3icts in southeast #cotland accepted $hristianity in the +th century. $olumba who went there in +6? converted southwest #cotland to $hristianity. )e founded a monastery at Iona, which became very important in the history of $hristianity in Britain. :uring the 6th and 5th centuries $hristianity spread across #cotland and by the end of the 5th century all of #cotland was $hristian. "urther south in the 6th century Angles invaded 1ortheast England and they created the kingdom of 1orthumbria. In the early 5th century the 1orthumbrians e(panded into southeast #cotland and as far was :unbar and Edinburgh. Then, in =<? Benneth /acAlpin who was king of the #cottish kingdom of :alriada also became king of the 3icts of northern and central #cotland. #o the #cots and 3icts merged to form single kingdom. )owever the new kingdom of #cotland only included land north of the $lyde and "orth. The English ruled the southeast of #cotland until *-*= when the #cots con9uered it. "urthermore southwest #cotland and $umbria formed a separate kingdom called #trathclyde. )owever in *-*= #trathclyde was peacefully absorbed into #cotland. /eanwhile #cotland faced another threat & the CikingsD They raided the monastery at Iona in 5A+. Then in the early Ath century Cikings settled on the #hetland and 0rkney Islands. Later in the Ath century they settled in the )ebrides and in $aithness and #utherland as well as on the western coast of #cotland. In *-?< :uncan became king of #cotland. )e proved to be incompetent and in *-</acbeth who then replaced him as king killed him. 'nlike the character created by #hakespeare /acbeth was a good king and in *-+- he went on a pilgrimage to ;ome. )owever in *-+5 /acbeth was killed at the battle of Lumphanan and :uncan s son became /alcolm III.

The Saxon Conquest of England

The #a(on con9uest of England began in the middle of the +th century. At that time England was inhabited by the $elts. "or more than ?6- years the ;omans had ruled them. )owever ;oman rule in England was really only superficial. After the ;oman army left in <-5 ;oman civilisation faded away. Towns were abandoned. Cillas in the countryside were also abandoned. The $elts returned to living in hill forts, protected by ditches, earth ramparts and wooden stockades. /eanwhile the #a(ons began raiding England in the ?rd century. )owever as the ;oman Empire collapsed they turned to con9uest. 7e have three main sources of information about the #a(on con9uest. The Anglo&#a(on $hronicle is not always accurate and it should be taken with a pinch of salt. 0ther sources are @ildas, a 6th century 7elsh monk and Bede an early =th century #a(on monk. By the +th century the ;omano&$elts had broke up into separate kingdoms but a single leader called the #uperbus tyrannus had emerged. At that time and possibly earlier they were hiring @ermanic peoples as mercenaries. According to tradition the #uperbus tyrannus brought >utes to protect his realm from #cots ,from 1orthern Ireland. and 3icts ,from #cotland.. According to @ildas he was also afraid the ;omans might invade Britain and make it part of the Empire again. The #uperbus tyrannus may have been called Cortigern. At any rate he wanted Britain to remain independent. )e installed the >utish leader, )engist, as king of Bent. In return the >utes were supposed to protect Britain. )owever after about 5 years the >utes and the ;omano&$elts fell out. They fought a battle at $rayford and the >utes won a decisive victory. The war went on for several more years but the $elts were unable to dislodge the >utes. According to the Anglo&#a(on $hronicle #a(ons led by their ruler Aelle landed in #usse(

in <55. ,#ome historians think this date is wrong and it was actually <+5.. At any rate the $elts resisted them bitterly but after about *+ years the #a(ons had con9uered all of #usse(. They gave the county its name. It was the kingdom of the south #a(ons. /eanwhile at the end of the +th century or the very beginning of the 6th century more >utes landed in eastern )ampshire and the Isle of 7ight. At the same time #a(ons landed in western )ampshire. They founded the kingdom of 7esse( ,the 7est #a(ons.. Then in the late +th century a great leader and general arose among the $elts. 7e know him as Arthur. Cery little is known about him but he defeated the #a(ons in several battles. )is victories culminated in the battle of /ount Badon, about +-- A:. ,7e do not know e(actly where the battle took place.. The #a(ons were crushed and their advance was halted for decades. /eanwhile in the early 6th century the 7est #a(ons, of western )ampshire, anne(ed the >utes of eastern )ampshire. About +?- they also took over the Isle of 7ight. Then in ++2 the 7est #a(ons won a great victory somewhere near modern #alisbury and they captured what is now 7iltshire. In +55 they won another great victory. This time they captured Bath, $irencester and @loucester. They also cut off the $elts of southwest England from the $elts of 7ales. /eanwhile in the mid&6th century other #a(ons invaded Esse(. ,The kingdom of the East #a(ons.. A people called the Angles landed in East Anglia. 0bviously they gave East Anglia its name. They also gave England its name ,Angle land.. 0ther Angles landed in %orkshire and founded kingdoms there. Also in the later 6th century #a(ons sailed up the Thames and landed in what is now Berkshire. They gave /iddlese( its name. ,The land of the middle #a(ons.. They also landed on the south bank of the ;iver Thames. They called the area suth ridge, which means south bank. In time the name changed to #urrey.

The Conquest of Western England

#o by the late 6th century eastern England was in the hands of Angles and #a(ons. In the 5th century they continued their relentless advance. In 6+6 the #a(ons of the east /idlands won a battle on the ;iver 7ye and captured the west /idlands. "urther #outh in 6+= the 7est #a(ons won a great battle and drove the $elts back to the ;iver 3arret in #omerset. In 66< they won yet another battle. This time they captured :orset. By about 65- A: the 7est #a(ons had captured E(eter. Then in 5*- #a(ons from eastern #omerset invaded western #omerset. At the same time #a(ons from southeast :evon marched north and west. The two groups advanced in a pincer movement and soon occupied :evon and western #omerset. )owever the #a(ons never gained effective control of $ornwall. #o $ornwall kept its own $ornish language.

The English Kingdoms

By the 5th century there were A kingdoms. In the south there were Bent, #usse( and 7esse( ,)ampshire and 7iltshire.. In the early Ath century 7esse( gained control of #usse( and Bent. Eastern England was divided into Esse(, East Anglia and a kingdom called Lindsey roughly modern Lincolnshire. The /idlands was ruled by a kingdom called /ercia. In the late =th century a great king called 0ffa ruled /ercia. )e built a famous dyke ,ditch. to keep out the 7elsh. )e also absorbed the kingdom of Lindsey ,roughly Lincolnshire.. In 6-- the north was divided into two kingdoms. :eira ,roughly modern %orkshire. and Bernicia further north. )owever in 6-+ the two were united to form one powerful kingdom called 1orthumbria. #o by the mid&Ath century England was divided into !ust four kingdoms, 1orthumbria in

the north, /ercia and East Anglia in the east and 7esse( in the south.

The Con ersion of England to Christianit!

The Anglo&#a(ons were polytheists ,they worshipped a number of gods.. #ome of our weekdays are named after #a(on gods, Tiw, 7oden, Thunor and "rigg. In +A6 3ope @regory sent a party of about <- men led by Augustine to Bent. They arrived in +A5. At the end of the 6th century the king of Bent, Aethelberht, married a $hristian princess named Berta or Bertha. It was partly due to her influence that Bent was converted to $hristianity. Aethelberht permitted the monks to preach and in time he was converted. "urthermore his nephew, #aeberht, the king of Esse( was also converted. In 625 Bing Edwin of 1orthumbria and all his nobles were baptised. ,)e may have been influenced by his wife, Ethelburgh, who was a $hristian.. /any of his sub!ects followed. A preacher named 3aulinus became the first bishop of %ork. ,There was no Archbishop of %ork till 5?+.. 3aulinus also began converting the kingdom of Lindsey ,Lincolnshire.. )owever things did not go smoothly in 1orthumbria. Bing Edwin was killed at the battle of )atfield in 6?2. /ost of 1orthumbria reverted to paganism. They had to be converted all over again. This time it was the work of $eltic monks from #cotland. In 6?< monks led by a man called Aidan went to 1orthumbria to preach. "urther south in 6?- a $hristian called #igeberht became king of East Anglia. )e asked the Archbishop of $anterbury to send men to help convert his people. /eanwhile 3ope )onorious sent a man named Birinus to convert the 7est #a(ons of )ampshire. Then in 6+? 3aeda, son of 3enda king of /ercia was baptised. )is father allowed $hristian missionaries to preach in /ercia and gradually the realm was converted. The last part of England to be converted to $hristianity was #usse(. It was converted after 6=- by #t. 7ilfrid. "inally by the end of the 5th century all of England was at least nominally $hristian. )owever some people continued to secretly worship the old pagan gods as late as the =th century.

The "i#ings $n England

In 5=5 three :anish ships landed at :orset. A royal official called a reeve went to meet them. )e assumed the strangers had come to trade. Instead they killed him and sailed away. Then in 5A? when 1orsemen ,possibly 1orwegians. raided a monastery at Lindisfarne. There followed a respite until =?+ when the :anes descended on the Isle of #heppey. )owever although the Ciking raiders were fearsome they were not invincible. In =?6 the :anes !oined forces with the $elts of $ornwall. )owever they were defeated by Egbert, king of 7esse(, at )ingston :own. 1evertheless the :anes continued raiding England. In =<- a force of #a(ons from )ampshire crushed a :anish force at #outhampton. )owever the same year #a(ons from :orset were defeated by the :anes at 3ortland. In =<* the :anes ravaged Bent, East Anglia and what is now Lincolnshire. In =<2 they sacked #outhampton. "urther Ciking raids occurred in =<? and =<+. In the latter year the #a(ons defeated the :anes in a battle at the mouth of the ;iver 3arret in #omerset. Then in =+-&+* the Cikings spent the winter of the Isle of Thanet. In the spring they attacked the /ercians and defeated them in battle. )owever they were later defeated by an army from 7esse(. In =+< another :anish force wintered on the Isle of #heppey before raiding England. There then followed a relatively peaceful period in which the Cikings raided England only once.

)owever the :anes eventually stopped raiding and turned to con9uest. In the autumn of =6+ an army of :anes landed in East Anglia. In the following year, =66, they captured %ork. The 1orthumbrians attacked the Cikings occupying %ork in =65 but they were defeated. The :anes then installed a man named Egbert as puppet ruler of 1orthumbria. The :anes then marched south and they spent the winter of =65 in 1ottingham. In =6A they marched to Thetford in East Anglia. In the spring of =5- they crushed an army of East Anglians. The :anes were now in control of 1orthumbria, part of /ercia and East Anglia. They then turned their attention of 7esse(. At the end of =5- they captured ;eading. The men of 7esse( won a victory at Ashdown. )owever the :anes then won two battles, at Basing and at an unidentified location. Then in the spring of =5* Alfred became king of 7esse(. )e became known as Alfred the @reat. The #a(ons and the :anes fought several battles during =5* but the :anes were unable to break #a(on resistance so they made a peace treaty and the :anes turned their attention to the other parts of England. In =5? they attacked the unoccupied part of /ercia. The /ercian king fled and was replaced by a puppet ruler. Afterwards 7esse( remained the only independent #a(on kingdom. In =5+ a :anish army invaded 7esse( again. )owever they were unable to con9uer 7esse( so in =55 they withdrew to @loucester. In =5= they launched a surprise attack on $hippenham. Bing Alfred was forced to flee and hide in the marshes of Atheleney. Alfred fought a guerrilla war for some months then took on the :anes in battle. The :anes were routed at the battle of Edington. Afterwards @uthrum, the :anish leader, and his men were baptised and made a treaty with Alfred. They split southern and central England between them. @uthrum took London, East Anglia and all the territory east of the old ;oman road, 7atling #treet. Later this :anish kingdom became known as the :anelaw. Alfred took the land west of 7atling street and southern England. )owever in ==6 Alfred8s men captured London. /oreover the wars with the :anes were not over. In =A2 some :anes who had been attacking "rance turned their attention to Bent. In =A? the #a(ons defeated them and they withdrew into Esse( ,part of the :anelaw.. /eanwhile in =A? another group of :anes sailed to :evon and laid siege to E(eter. They withdrew in =A<. They sailed to #usse( and landed near $hichester. This time the local #a(ons marched out and utterly defeated them in battle. 7ar with the :anes continued in =A+&=A6. :anes from the :anelaw marched into what is now #hropshire but they were forced to withdraw. There then followed a few years of peace. :uring his reign Alfred reorganised the defence of his realm. )e created a fleet of ships to fight the :anes at sea. ,It was the first English navy.. )e also created a network of forts across his kingdom called burhs. "inally Alfred died in =AA. And he was succeded by his son Edward.

%ate Saxon England

In the mid&Ath century there were < #a(on kingdoms, 1orthumbria, /ercia, East Anglia and 7esse(. By the end of the century there was only one left, 7esse(. In the *-th century 7esse( gradually e(panded and took over all the :anish territory. #o a single united England was created. The process began under Bing Edward. The treaty of 7edmore in =5A gave Bing Alfred control over western /ercia. )owever the people of that area still saw themselves as E/ercians not #a(ons or Englishmen. In time they merged with the people of 7esse(. /eanwhile in A*+&A*= Bing Egbert defeated the :anes of Eastern England. )e took control of all England south of the ;iver )umber. By A+< all of England was ruled by Alfred the @reat8s descendants. In the late *-th century England en!oyed a respite from :anish raids. England was peaceful although a young king, Edward, was murdered at $orfe in :orset in A5=. )is brother Aethelred replaced him.

:espite this in the late *-th century there was a religious revival. A man named :unstan ,c.*-2-&*-==. was Archbishop of $anterbury. )e reformed the monasteries. /any new churches and monasteries were built. Then in A=- the :anes returned. They attacked Thanet, #outhampton and $heshire. In A=* they raided :evon and $ornwall and in A=? they attacked :orset. The :anes continued to raid England. They returned in AA*, AA2, AA? and AA<. In AA5 a :anish army came and systematically raided southern England over a period of ? years. The :anes sailed to 1ormandy in *--* but they returned to England in *--2. /eanwhile in *--2 Bing Aethelred married the sister of the :uke of 1ormandy. This was the beginning of 1orman influence in #a(on England. Afterwards the :anes continued to raid England. In *--? they raided the southwest and in *--< they plundered East Anglia. In *--6 they raided southeast England. In *--A&*-*2 they ravaged eastern England. The #a(ons paid the :anes to stop raiding and return home. )owever the amount the :anes demanded increased each time. In AA* they were paid *-,--- pounds to go home. In *--2 they were paid 2<,--- pounds in *--5 they were paid ?6,--- pounds. England was drained of its resources by paying these huge sums of money called :anegeld ,:ane gold.. Bing Aethelred or Ethelred also, stupidly, enraged the :anes by ordering the massacre of :anes living in his realm. )e was persuaded they were plotting against him and he ordered his people to kill them on *? 1ovember ,#t Brice8s :ay. *--2. This terrible crime, the #t Brice8s :ay /assacre ensured that the :anes had a personal hostility towards him. Eventually the :anes turned to con9uest. In *-*? the :anish king #wein invaded England. )is fleet sailed up the )umber and along the Trent to @ainsborough. The people of northern England welcomed him. #wein marched south and captured more and more of England. Bing Ethelred fled abroad. #wein was on the verge of becoming king of England when died in "ebruary *-*<. Incredibly some of the English invited Ethelred back ,provided he agreed to rule more !ustly.. 7hen he arrived the :anes withdrew. )owever they were soon back. In *-*+ #wein8s son $anute or $nut led an e(pedition to England. They landed at 3oole )arbour and occupied southern England. Ethelred finally died in April *-*6. There was then a struggle between $anute and Ethelred8s son Edmund, known as Edmund Ironside. The people of the :anelaw accepted $anute as king but London supported Edmund. England was split between the two contestants. They fought at Ashingdon in Esse(. $anute won the battle but he was not strong enough to capture all of England. Instead he made peace with Edmund. $anute took the north and midlands while Edmund took the south. )owever Edmund conveniently died in 1ovember *-*6 and $anute became king of all England. $anute turned out to be a good king. 'nder him trade grew rapidly and England became richer. 7hen $anute died in *-?+ England was stable and prosperous. $anute divided England into four Earldoms, 1orthumbria, East Anglia, /ercia and 7esse(. Each earl was very powerful. 'nfortunately after $anute s death there were seven years of fighting over who would rule England. Then in *-<2 Edward, known as Edward the $onfessor became king. :uring his reign, which lasted until *-66 England grew increasingly prosperous. Trade grew and English towns flourished. England was stable and well governed. Edward also built 7estminster Abbey. )owever Edward s mother was 1orman and 1orman influence was increasing in England. The ne(t king, )arold, was to be the last #a(on king. Edward the $onfessor died without leaving an heir. 7illiam :uke of 1ormandy claimed that Edward once promised him he would be the ne(t king of England. )e also claimed that )arold had sworn an oath to support him after Edward8s death. If )arold ever swore such an oath it was only because he had been shipwrecked off the 1orman coast and was coerced into swearing an

oath. In #a(on times the crown wasn8t necessarily hereditary. A body of men called the 7itan played a role in choosing the ne(t king. 1obody could become king without the 7itan8s support. In >anuary *-66, after Edward s death, the 7itan chose )arold, Earl of 7esse(, to be the ne(t king. :uke 7illiam of 1ormandy would have to obtain the crown by force.

The End &f Saxon England

)owever 7illiam was not the only contestant for the throne. )arald )ardrada, king of 1orway, also claimed it. )e sailed to %orkshire with *-,--- men in ?-- ships. The Earls of 1orthumbria and /ercia attacked him but they were defeated. )owever Bing )arold marched north with another army. )e took the 1orwegians by surprise and routed them at #tamford Bridge on 2+ #eptember *-66. That ended any threat from 1orway. /eanwhile the 1ormans built a fleet of ships to transport their men and horses across the $hannel. They landed in #usse( at the end of #eptember. the 1ormans then plundered #a(on farms for food. They burned #a(on houses. )arold rushed to the south coast. )e arrived with his men on *? 0ctober. The #a(on army was made up of the house&carles, the king s bodyguard. They fought on foot with a(es. They wore coats of chain mail called hauberks. Bite shaped shields protected them. )owever most #a(on soldiers had no armour only a(es and spears and round shields. They fought on foot. Their normal tactic was to form a shield&wall by standing side by side. )owever the #a(ons had no archers. The 1orman army was much more up to date. 1orman knights fought on horseback. They wore chain mail and carried kite shaped shields. They fought with lances, swords and maces. #ome 1ormans fought on foot protected by chain mail, helmets and shields. The 1ormans also had a force of archers. The battle of )astings was fought on *< 0ctober *-66. The #a(ons were assembled on #enlac )ill. The 1ormans formed below them. Both armies were divided into ? wings. 7illiam also divided his army into ? ranks. At the front were archers, in the middle soldiers on foot then mounted knights. The 1orman archers advanced and loosed their arrows but they had little effect. The foot soldiers advanced but they were repulsed. The mounted knights then charged but they were unable to break the #a(on shield wall. Then the #a(ons made a disastrous mistake. "oot soldiers and knights from Brittany fled. #ome of the #a(ons broke formation and followed them. The 1ormans then turned and attacked the pursuing #a(ons. They annihilated them. According to a writer called 7illiam of 3oitiers the #a(ons made the same mistake twice. #eeing 1ormans flee for a second time some men followed. The 1ormans turned and destroyed them. The battle was now lost. )arold was killed with all his housecarles. Those #a(ons who could fled down the north side of #enlac )ill. )owever they managed a counterattack. In the failing light some 1orman knights followed the fleeing #a(ons. The #a(ons were able to ambush and kill many of them. 1evertheless the battle was lost and the surviving #a(ons melted away. 7illiam captured :over and $anterbury. )e then captured 7inchester ,a very important town in those days.. "inally he captured London and he was crowned king of England on 2+ :ecember *-66. The #a(on era was over.

William $
7illiam, :uke of 1ormandy, was crowned Bing of England on 2+ :ecember *-66. )owever at first his position was by no means secure. )e had only several thousand men to control a population of about 2 million. "urthermore #wein, king of :enmark also claimed the throne of England. At first the 1ormans were hated invaders and they had to hold down a resentful #a(on

population. 0ne method the 1ormans used to control the #a(ons was building castles. They erected a mound of earth called a motte. 0n top they erected a wooden stockade. Around the bottom they erected another stockade. The area within was called the bailey so it was called a motte and bailey castle. The 1ormans soon began building stone castles. In *-5= 7illiam began building the Tower of London.

Re'ellions Against the (ormans

7illiam stayed in 1ormandy from /arch to :ecember *-65. 7hen he returned to England his first task was to put down an uprising in the #outhwest. )e laid siege to E(eter. Eventually the walled town surrendered on honourable terms. Although #outhern England was now under 1orman control the /idlands and 1orth were a different matter. In *-6= 7illiam marched north through 7arwick and 1ottingham to %ork. The people of %ork submitted to him& for the moment and 7illiam returned to London via $ambridge and %ork. )owever in >anuary *-6A the people of %orkshire and 1orthumberland rebelled. 7illiam rushed north and crushed the rebellion )owever the rising in the north fanned the flames of rebellion elsewhere. There were local risings in #omerset and :orset. There was also rebellion in the 7est /idlands. "urthermore a #a(on called Edgar, the grandson of Edmund Ironside, a previous #a(on ruler led a force of Irishmen to 1orth :evon. )owever local 1orman commanders crushed the uprisings and drove out the Irish. It was not over yet. In the autumn of *-6A Bing #wein of :enmark sent an e(pedition to England. 7hen the :anes arrived in %orkshire the people of %orkshire and rose in rebellion once again. 7illiam marched north and captured %ork. The :anes withdrew from northern England. This time 7illiam adopted a scorched earth policy. 7illiam was determined there would not be any more rebellions in the north. In *-6A&*-5- his men burned houses, crops and tools between the )umber and :urham. They also slaughtered livestock. There followed years of famine in the north when many people starved to death. This terrible crime was called the harrying of the north and it took the north of England years to recover. /eanwhile the :anes sailed south. They plundered 3eterborough and took the Isle of Ely as a base. /any #a(ons !oined the :anes. These #a(on rebels were led by a man called )ereward the 7ake.

Changes in Societ!
)owever in >une *-5- Bing 7illiam made a treaty with Bing #wein and the :anes left. The #a(ons kept on fighting in the "ens but by *-5* they were forced to surrender. )ereward escaped. 7illiam was now in control of all of England After the 1orman $on9uest almost all #a(on nobles lost their land. 7illiam confiscated it and gave it to his own followers. They held their land in return for providing soldiers for the king for so many days a year. 7illiam also changed the church in England. In those days the church was rich and powerful and the king needed its support. 7illiam replaced senior #a(on clergymen with men loyal to himself. Lanfranc, an Italian, replaced #tigand, the #a(on Archbishop of $anterbury. ,7ith the agreement of the 3ope.. Lanfranc then deposed #a(on bishops and abbots and replaced them with 1ormans. Among the lower ranks of society there were also changes. In late #a(on times the peasants were losing their freedom. This process continued under the 1ormans. 0n the other hand slavery declined. ,It died out by the middle of the *2th century.. In *-=+ 7illiam decided to carry out a huge survey of his kingdom to find out how much wealth it contained. The result was the :omesday Book of *-=6.

7illiam died in *-=5 and he was succeeded by his son, also called 7illiam ,he is sometimes called 7illiam ;ufus because of his reddish comple(ion.. )is brother ;obert became :uke of 1ormandy. 7illiam the $on9ueror was a ruthless man. )owever a writer of the time did say this about himF he kept good law . The eleventh century was a lawless age when a strong ruler who kept order was admired.