You need to review both article and lecture notes to answer the following questions. 1.

Briefly describe the greenhouse effect. What human activities are impacting natural

cycle of greenhouse effect? Any examples? The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring effect caused by certain chemicals such as methane, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. As the sun's radiation bounces of the Earth's waters, ice, and land, it is reflected away from the Earth towards space. Some of this radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases, which then proceed to reflect the radiation both towards space, and back down towards the Earth. The existence of greenhouse gases, and the greenhouse effect makes the Earth comfortable for human habitation. Before the mid 1950's and the great throws of the industrial age (anthropocene), these chemicals were in equilibrium with other processes; unfortunately, today, humans have increased the quantity of greenhouse gases to levels causing major climate change issues. These greenhouse gases are produced by unsustainable methods of transportation, agriculture, energy production, and industry[EPA].

1.

As described in A Safe Operating Space for Humanity, describe planetary

boundaries generally and explain why they are important. Planetary boundaries present a perspective of thinking to rival current limit to growth models. Where the limit to growth models variables according to gradual environmental effects, resource depletion, and economic trade-offs; planetary boundaries are based on the resource destruction, thresholds corresponding to non-linear environmental relationships, and absolute boundaries estimated by critical loads. [xx] Planetary boundaries describe proposed Earth-system processes we should be conscious of to prevent sudden environmental shifts moving the Earth out of its Holocene-like state. Ideally marked by quantitative thresholds, if these thresholds are broken, Earth's subsystems will more likely shift suddenly, unlike the slow change we are accustomed to perceiving.

2.

What are the branches of scientific inquiry that the authors of A Safe Operating

Space for Humanity have used in their study of planetary boundaries? The scientists have identified three primary branches of scientific inquiry. Through research of the human life support, and restrictions on economic growth due to earth-system processes thresholds, the scientists attempt to determine the scale of human actions in relation to Earth's capacity. Ecological economics is important, and inquiry suggests understanding human necessities, and the Earth's ability to provide. Understanding essential earth processes through global change research and sustainability is important in developing boundaries as these studies will help accurately quantify metrics, current levels, human impact, and earth processes history. Resiliency research explores the complex interactions between living systems, especially understanding when major environmental state shifts will occur due to surpassing an earth process system threshold. Resiliency is not defined as recovery time (ie engineering resiliency)[xx]; resiliency is defined as the amount of change necessary in inputs to create a change in system state due to non-linear relationships between the inputs and system, i.e how far till the tipping point.

3.

Based on class notes describe environmental and health impacts of coal

combustion and research their relation to the climate change. Byproducts of coal combustion produce some of the most toxic materials in the form of coal ash (identified by fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, flue gas, desulfurization, and fuidized bed combustion). Coalash is either disposed of, or reused. Many power plants use poor disposal techniques, including (1) using wet surface impoundments rather than dry landfills and (2) absence of composite liner to prevent leaking and leaching. As a local example, an abandoned quarry in Waterloo is used as a coalash landfill, and does not have leachate removal procedures, and does not use a composite liner. However,

Iowa's regent universities have all tested and found no contamination (full disclosure, the three universities all use the landfill to dispose of their coalash). Coalash toxins can seep through water, soil, and by air (fugitive dust), and the EPA has proven current coalash procedures do significantly increase risk of cancer or other diseases. (earthjustice, 7) Coal combustion is responsible for large amounts of carbon dioxide releases greenhouse gases and may be responsible for acid rain "With the highest carbon content of all the fossil fuels, carbon dioxide emissions from coal combustion represented 28.3 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2010" (c2es) An increase of greenhouse gases increases the amount of heat radiated back towards the earth, thus impacting climate. 4. What is the delicate balance described in the article? The delicate balance refers to thresholds and complex relationships between the different planetary boundaries, which ultimately sustain or jeopardize our Holocene state. Each process can operate either in a safe operating space, or a zone of uncertainty (separated by the planetary boundary. This zone of uncertainty signifies high risk towards leaving our Holocene state. Connected, non-linear, relationships between aggregated local/regional processes and systemic planetary processes, place all processes at risk of failure. For instance, if chemical pollution from carbon dioxide production pushes ocean acidification levels past its threshold, we will have increasing biodiversity loss.

5.

Explain why the humanity has the freedom to pursue long-term social and

economic development as long as the thresholds are not crossed? With proper calculations of non-linear relationships, our knowledge includes quantitative judgments of ecological concerns and the associated probability of loosing the Holocene resiliency. Nonlinear behaviors of ecosystems is a product of interactions between diverse ecological factors, human activities, and climate. Armed with this

knowledge humans can use adaptive management [xx] where solutions are proposed and implemented, but prescriptions are constantly re-evaluated. Under this methodology, long-term social and economic development can surely continue, although there will be economic and social costs of maintaining all planetary boundaries within safe operating space. These costs will probably be unequally distributed [xx] Essay According to scientists oceans are warming much faster than previously calculated values due to technologies available today such as wireless temperature sensors that can measure ocean temperatures in very deep waters and send the data to computer systems precisely. This may cause frequent hurricanes and storms that may devastate coastal areas. Similarly harsh temperature changes in Midwestern states may induce more frequent drought and flood cases as well as tornados and storms than ever before. If global warming and climate change become serious public concerns in your hometown or in general in Iowa, what might be your response to resolve and help reduce the environmental impacts of it? What are the challenges? Provide examples and offer methods to resolve the issue(s).