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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. AP-29, NO. 2, MARCH 1981

The Phase Retrieval Problem

LEONARD s . TAYLOR,
FELLOW, IEEE

The example above is weakened, however, by the obAbstrocr-The phaseretrievalproblemarises in applications of electromagnetic theory in whichwavephase is apparently lost or servation that physical object fields have finite nonzero eximpractical to measureandonlyintensitydataareavailable.The tent and, in the example above, only (sin x ) / x corresponds mathematics of the problem provides unusual insights into the nature to an object field of finite support. This observation is clariof electromagnetic fields. The theory is reviewed and illustrated. The fied by theorems [ 131-[ 151 whichstate,inpart,that if basic issue of the phase retrieval problem, stated for a one-diu(x') = F - ' ( F ( x ) } = 0 for t 0 (Titchmarsh) or if u(x') has mensional field, is that although a unique Fourier transform relation finite support (Paley and Wiener), then the real and imaginary exists between the field F ( r ) in the Fraunhofer plane and the field u(+') the dispersion relations Re F ( x ) = in the object plane, theinfiiite fold phase ambiguity which appears as parts of F ( x ) satisfy -ff {Im F ( x ) } , Im F ( x ) = ff [Re F ( x ) } where H denotes the result of thepossibilitiesof conjugating the zeros of F(z), z = x + jy the Hilbert transform. It is assumed here that F ( x ) is square implies that additional information or processing of the object wave a field with finite total energy. must be available to obtain the phase. Among the possible solutions integrable, i.e., represents which are described are reference beam addition, apodization and the Functions whicharesquare-integrableandwhichhaveordiuse of multiple intensity distributions, permitting the use of iterative naryFouriertransforms whicharezero outsideafinite incomputational procedures in some applications. terval are called band-limited functions.

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I. INTRODUCTION HE PHASERETRIEVALproblem arises inapplications of electromagnetic theory in which wave phase is apparentlylostorimpractical t o measure andonlyintensity dataare available.Thesecircumstances dooccurin microwave and optical problems, and in electron microscopy, when, for example, the index of refraction structure of thin objects or theheight distribution of a surface is t o be determined from the intensity distribution in the far field. The phase problem [ 11-[ 41 and is related to a also occurs in coherence theory series of questions arising in signal processing [ 51 -[ 61 as well as t o problems of antenna array design [ 71. It is also closely related t o a series of basicquestionsconcerning the role of causality, the relevance of analyticity, and the conditions which givenrise to dispersion relations in many branches of physics [ 81, [ 91. The present paper is intended as a cursive summary of thenature of theproblemandtheproposed solutionsinthecontext of phase retrieval for electromagnetic (EM) fields; the reader's attention is alsodirected to a more general and detailed review article by Ferwerda [ 101 and other related works[ 61 , [ 1 11. The basic issue, statedforone-dimensional fields, is that F(x) = although unique a Fourier transform relation, F(u(x')} exists (neglecting scaling factors) between the field F ( x ) in theFraunhoferplane(farfield)andthe field u ( x ' ) in the object plane, no such relation appears t o occur for the intensities. For example [ 121, the Fraunhofer fields, F ( x ) = (sin x)/x,(sin x ) / l x 1, I(sin x ) / x 1, I(sin x ) I/x yield the same intensity, I(sin x ) / x 1 2 , but correspond, via u(x') = f - ' [ F ( x ) } , toquitedifferentobjectplane fields. Hence it is initially concluded that one cannot expect t o uniquely its modulus, since the determine the phase of F ( x ) from object field u(x') would then alsobeuniquelydetermined by the Fourier transform.

Manuscript received May 21, 1980; revised November 14, 1980. The author is with the U.S. Naval Surface Weapons Center, White Oak, Silver Spring, M D 20910. His permanent address is the Electrical of Maryland, College Park, M D EngineeringDepartment,University 20742.

Dispersionrelations of the abovetypeare widespread in physics and include the famous Kramers-Kronig relationship between the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric permitivity.Theyexpress the general property of causality, e.g., thatthere is nopolarization field inadielectricuntil the exciting field is applied, or that there is noscattered wave fromascatteringpointuntil the incident wave hasarrived. They alsoprescribe the relationbetween the absorbingand linear system, preventing phase-shifting properties of any the type of casual contradiction whichcan result if one assumes that one can arbitrarily alter the absorbing properties of a system at some frequencies without affecting the phase shift at other frequencies. The existence of a dispersion relation between the real and imaginaryparts of F ( x ) seems,momentarily, t o resolve the phase retrieval problem. Given IF(x) I and knowing Im F ( x ) = H[Re F ( x ) } , can we notemploynumericalprocedures to obtain the phase @ ( x )= arg F(x)? The answer is that we can, but we will not, as shall be clarified, generally obtain a unique answer. (To be sure, for a weak object defiied by F ( x ) = 1 -!F,,(x) with iF,,(x) 1 Q 1 we have, approximately, Re ( F s c ( x ) } x f [ I H x ) I - 1 I and Im F ( x ) M ff[f[ IF(x) I -!l ] } [ 151-[171 .) We mayalso note that we cannot simply employ the logarithm t o separate the modulus and phase of F ( x ) , viz., use In F ( x ) = In IF(x) I j arg F ( x ) i n place of F ( x ) in the Titchmarsh or Paley-Wiener theorems because In F ( x ) is not square integrable; in general, F ( x ) + 0 as x -+ m and thus In F ( x ) + 00 as x -+ m. We may, however, hope t o modify F ( x ) , in some circumstances, say by the addition [ 181 ofaconstantunitamplitude field intheFraunhofer region, so that the logarithm of the modified field In [ 1 f F ( x ) ] is square integrable (we must also arrange that I F ( x ) < 1). Suchschemes will bediscussed inalatersection.First, however, it is necessary to note a second mathematical conclusion: namely, that if u(x') is nonzero only in 0 < a x < b , then F ( x ) is the boundary value function for almost all x of the function F ( z ) , z = x -!- j y , which is bounded for y > 0 and entire (analytic for all finite z). The fact that the analyticcontinuations of Fraunhoferfields(offiniteobjects) into the complex plane are entire functions is an extraordinary

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entire function F , ( z ) which has the same modulus and bandwidth. Thus the phase problem cannot, in general, be resolved without additional information or the possibility of processing the field in some manner. A simple example of the encoding by zeros can illustrate the mathematics. (A number of other examples are given by Voelcker [ 51). Consider a uniformly illuminated aperture, 0 < x < 1, which is obscured in < X < 1 by a mask with complex transmission factor a = r o d e o . Thus the object field is u ( x ) = rect (0, $) + (Y rect (+, 1). The Fraunhofer field is readily shown t o be F ( x ) = j x - 1(1 - e-ix/2)(l 4- Cre). Hence F ( z ) = j z - ( 1 - e-/)( 1 c d z / 2 ) . This function has twotypes of zeros: z , ( ) = 4nn and z,() = (4n -t 2)n - 200 2j In ro(n = i-1, +2, -.). For a clear aperture, a 1and the zerosarealongthe real axis, corresponding to intensity nulls. The Blaschke factors are identically unity and no ambiguity exists. For a # 1, every other zero of this lattice is perturbed along the real axis a distance -200 and up 2 In ro. The zeros into the upper half-plane (uhp) a distance z,(~) nolongercorrespond tointensity nulls buttohardto-observeinflections of theintensitypattern. Nevertheless, the position of these zeros encodes the object. (Because u ( x ) is discontinuous in this example, the zeros of F ( z ) do z,(~) across not lie alongasingleasymptote.)Flippingany the real axis yields afieldwith the same intensityinthe Fraunhofer plane, but a different objectfield. If all zeros of F ( z ) are either in the lower half-plane (Ihp) or on the real axis, then its projection on the real axis F H ( x ) is called the Hilbertfield,andhasminimumphase, GH(x). If any Zero z k of FH(Z) is replaced by its complex conjugate, the phase difference A Q k ( x ) = arg [ B k ( x ) ] is introduced. For thefieldwith N zerosintheuhp, AQ,(x) = arg F ( x ) arg F&) = Zk= arg [ B ~ ( x ) = ] Zk= tan- { 2 y k ( x x k ) / [ ( x - x k I 2 - y k 2 1 } . It follows that the zerosat large I x k I introduce relatively little difference; asymptotically, the phase difference introduced by a zero far from the origin decreases as k - I . A relativelysmall number of zerosnear the origin is responsible for the principal phase difference. Assuming that ail the zeros of F ( x ) are in the lhp or on the real axis, the Hilbertphasecanbecalculatedfrom the dispersionrelationsusing aschemedevisedbyBurge e t al. [ 2 3 ] . Although In F ( z ) i s not square-integrable along the real axis,\the function In F ( z ) / z vanishes sufficiently rapidly at large Iz 1 so that, assuming F ( 0 ) # 0, we may use contour integration t o evaluate S[ln F(z)/z(z~ - x ) ] dz along the X axis around the infinite semicirclein the uhp. Zeros of F ( z ) on the real axis, i.e., branch points ofIn F(Z)/Z, can be avoided by modifying the path on x into vanishingly small semicircles in the uhp around these points; neither these .nor the semicircle at infinity contribute, only the poles at x = 0 and X = x . Consequently,

and significant result considering that physical apertures and current distributions are finite. This result also bears directly on any scattering problem in which the single-scatter (Born) approximation can be employed. We also note that these F ( z ) growanisotropicallywith Iz I ; analyticcontinuations however, the rate of growth is limited. By the Paley-Wiener theorem [ 151, if F ( z ) is entire and square integrable along the real axis,and if u ( x ) is band-limited to the interval [a, b ] , 03 > b l a I , then F ( z ) = O(eb I). Such functions are of exponentialorderoneandtype b. (Because we can [0, 1 1, F ( z ) is usuallysaid t o alwaysscale the aperture to be of unitytype.Thatis,themaximumabsolute value of F ( z ) is increasing exponentially with radius r = Iz I .) The maximumabsolute valueplays acrucialrolein thetheory of entirefunctions [ 2 0 ] . Inparticularitnowfollowsthat F ( z ) is not a finite polynomial butis transcendental.

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11. ZEROS OF ENTIRE FUNCTIONS

Azero zk of F ( z ) is a solution of F ( z k ) = 0. Transcendentalentirefunctions have infinitely many zeros, though the number of zerosinanydisk of finiteradius r = Iz I is finite. Assume u ( x ) is continuous; the apppcqtion of the stationary phase approximation to Jnb.u(x)elzx !x or integration by parts yields F ( z ) = (jz)- [ d z b u ( b )- d z a u ( a ) ] O(z-) so that we see that asymptotically the zeros of F ( z ) are [ 101 z , {2nn - j In [ u ( b ) / u ( a ) ] ) / (b a ) . Theyare, therefore,asymptoticallydistributedalongaline parallel to the real axis. The number of zeros in a disk of radius r = Iz I is, asymptotically, (b - a ) r / n [ 141 , [ 2 1] . It is not difficult to prove that if z k is a zero of an entire function F ( z ) , then F ( z ) / (1 - z / z k ) is also an entire function [ 2 0 ] (we assume first-order zeros only for simplicity) and so is

F1 ( z ) = F(z)[ ( Z

-z ~ * ) / (z z k ) ] = F(Z)B(Z).

(1)

F l ( z ) has the same zeros as F ( z ) except that the zero at zk hasbeenflippedacross the real axis t o zk* by thefactor B ( z ) , called a Blaschke factor. Moreover,since i B ( x ) 1 = 1, IF, (x) I = I F @ ) I so that the intensities of the Fraunhofer fields, F , ( x ) and F ( x ) , are identical. Moreover using the convolution theorem

Thus u l ( x ) is seen t o bezerooutsidetheaperture also and F , ( z ) has the same bandwidth as F ( z ) [ 221. 11. THE AMBIGUITY PROBLEM

[a, b ]

In F(x) dx i n = - In [F(x)/F(o)]
X(Xff

-x)

The nature of the ambiguity in the phase problem is now clearer. TheFraunhofer field F ( x ) is the projection on the F ( z ) , of exponentialtype real axis of anentirefunction, which is encoded by its zeros zk. F ( z ) can in fact be repreHadamard product sented by (the principal value of) the [ 2 1 ] F ( z ) = C z m e D z H k = l( 1 - z / z k ) where C, D are conorigin. Multiplystants and m is the order of the zero at the any Blaschke factor(orproduct of Blaschke ing F ( z ) by factors) B ( z ) flips azero z k t o zk* andproducesanother

and the imaginary part of (3) yields the Hilbert phase. However, in general,some zeios are in the uhp, and the branch points of In F ( z ) must be circumnavigated by paths extending up from the real axis t o small circles around each point and thendown again. Each will contributea phase increment, corresponding to A&, but unless the locations of the zeros are known, this contribution cannot be calculated. The same difficultyappears if one attempts to simplyintegrate [ 2 4 ]

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. AP-29, NO. 2 , MARCH 1981

the Cauchy-Riemann equation -3 IF(z) I/ay = IF(z) la@/ax. We obtain for thephase

andthezeros of F ( z ) againappearasbranchpointswhich must be located. Unfortunately, little specific information on the distribution of zeros of entire functions of exponential type is available [ 251. If the zeros are all either real or in one-half the ) , then the logarithmic Hilbert trans complexplane ( y k 2 O form (3) can be employed. For the restricted classes of functions which have this property, the appropriate half-plane is determined by the edge conditions which locate the asymptotic line of the zeros. If u(a), u ( b ) are known, we can in effectchoosethis half-planebyorienting the x axis so that u ( z ) / u ( b ) 1 as required. Most functions, however,alsohave some zeros in theother half-plane. If theselatterarefar to the overenough from the origin that their contribution, a l l phase is small, then (3) may be used as an approximation. Suchfunctions may arise when u ( x ) is narrowand F ( x ) is consequently broad. Whatever the central behavior of F ( x ) , however, the regular asymptotic array of zeros eventually leads t o an oscillating behavior of F ( x ) with increasingx, and a consequent interlaced patternof sidelobe maxima.

will not diverge at +oO if u(x) doesnot.Hoenders also points out that ifwe can identify whether u(a) $ u ( b ) , we may employ the asymptotic expression forz , to determine alif F ( z ) or F*(z*) is the correct solution. Unfortunately, though this very general result is reassuring, it has not led to any practical approach. In a similar vein, the presence of a gap [ c , d l , a < c < d b, c - a # b - d , in which u ( x ) is known t o be zero, is sufficient t o insureuniqueness [ 271, [ 2 8 ] . Again from (2), if u ( x ) = 0 in [ c, d ] then after a single zero-flip,
u*(-x)

<

U1 (C

<X

< d ) = 2ykeizkxe-izktu(t>

dg # 0

(5)

so that u 1 is not zeroin the gap.Additionalzero-flipsand convolutions willle,ad as in (2) t o a finite sum of terms of form y k G ( z k ) d Z k X which cannot be identically zero for c < x < d ; an infinite sum is required. Thus, again recalling that the number of zeros in either the upper or lower halfplanesmustbe finite, we see that the only remainingpossibility is t o flip all zeros, i.e., effect F*(z*). Thecondition c a f b - d rules out the twin image as a possibility, however. Thus the presence of a gap or stop in the object plane will ensure uniqueness. Unfortunately, however, this consideration also does not appear t o lead t o a practical algorithm. Reference beam addition, a holographic technique, was firstintroduced asa solution of the phaseproblemin the context of coherence theory by Mehta 1291. In temporal IV. SOLUTIONS OF THE PHASE RETRIEVAL PROBLEM coherence theory, the complex degree of temporal coherence Solutions of the phase retrieval problem generally rely -y(t) = [oog(w)e-lWfdt where g(w) is the spectral density; of thefieldsorupona eitherupontheanalyticproperties also, the one-dimensional complexspatialcorrelationfunccomputational procedure, but all also depend upon the avdtion r ( x ) = JabS(p)e-lPx d p , where S(p) is the source radiability of additional information, typically about the proper[ a , b ] . S ( p ) and g(w) ancedistributionovertheaperture ties of the object field. (It has already been mentioned that arepositivedefinite,whichprovides an occasionallyuseful for weakfieldswhichsatisfy the Bornscatteringcondition restriction [ 4 ] , [ 301, but the determination g ( o ) , S ( p ) from such as occurin bright-fieldmicroscopy, the Hilberttransly(t) I and I r ( x ) I is closely related to the phase problem for forms can beused.) EM fields. Mehta [ 291 suggested the superposition of a light beam with known spectral density or, in the spatial case, A. Solutions Depending on Analytic Properties withaknownintensitydistribution.Thus,inourproblem, In some applications, notably microscopy, thefunction if it is possible t o superimposeanincoherentpointsource u(x) can itself be regarded as a band-limited function multi[241, [311 so u,(x) = u ( x ) + &(x - x o ) , then using the plied by an aperture function. That is, the analytic continuaf - 1 [ I F s ( x ) ! 2 } = f -(I f{us}12} = convolutiontheorem tion of u ( x ) , to the complex Z = x j y plane is itself an 6 ( x ) u(x - x 0 ) u*(x + xo) + u(x)*u*(x). As a entire function. Hoenders [ 26 1 has proven that this restriction result,measurement of IF&) I , themodulus of the comis sufficient t o reduce the phase ambiguity problem to a bined field is sufficient to determine u(x) provided that xOr u * ( - x ) . In(2), u ( x ) was single field, u(x), oritstwin, is chosen to lie at least one aperture width away from the assumed to include theaperturefunctionwhichrestricted nearestedge so thatthetermsin f- { IF,(x) I 2} donot [a, b]. itsnonzero values (andtheintegral)totheinterval overlap.Thisprocess is identical to that of lensless Fourier Before the aperture, u ( x ) extends from -a t o fw. If u ( x ) transformholography [ 321,butholographicreconstruction is thecorrectionsolution,however, u l ( x ) cannot be acorof the object field is not useful, since one must still determine rect solution, for when the aperture function is removed from the phase from the reconstructed field. The equivalent of offu ( x ) , it is seen that u 1 ( x r ) diverges ateither when y k # set reference beam holography [ 3 2 ] i s obtained by the super0. A finite number N of additionalzero-flips of F (or con- position of areferencebeam AdCX ontheobjectfield.so volutions of u ) will not alter this conclusion. Since the number that IFJx) I = A 2 IF(x) I -k AF(x)e-ICX A F * ( x ) d C X ofzerosineithertheupper orlower half-planes must be containsthe phase encoded in the offset image, separated finite, however, a simple argument can be made that the only fromtheotherterm, provided c b. It is clear thatthe other possibility is the twin field u * ( - x ) , since Fraunhofer plane intensity encodes the phase and thatin principle the phase can be recovered. From the point of view of zero location [ 19 I , since c > b and F ( z ) is O(eb ) on the F(u*(-x)} = F*(Z*)y=O = c x m (1 - X/Zk*) semicircle at a,if IA I > F ( x ) for all x, then IF(z) I < IABCZI k= 1 at all points of the boundary of uhp. Hence, since BCzhas no corresponds to flipping all the zeros of F ( z ) .Clearly, IF * ( x ) 1 = zerosintheuhpitfollowsby Rouches theorem [20] that IF(x) 1 so theFraunhoferplaneintensity is the sameand thecombinedfunction FJz) = F(z) Adcz has nozeros

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dure leads t o a unique solution, assuming the analyticity of the functions involved, aside from constant phase factors andexcluding the case of symmetricobjectsfor which the image cannot be distinguished from its twin. The similar uniqueness of the Misell procedure was demonstrated by Drenth et al. [ 441 and Hoenders [ 261 and may be understood from the following. If A , , A2 are the distances between the defocusedobjectsand the imageplane, the defocusedfields p = 1, 2 and only functions are Fp(x) = f {eiApxr2~f2u(x)], u ( x ) satisfying u(x) = e-jApx 2/pff-1 {Fp(x)}are possible. = F-(B,,p(x)~uH(x) are two different soluIf u,,(x) tions, we must have u&) = e-i(A1-A2)x2/fZup(x), whence combining and using the convolution theorem, we obtain&(x)FH(x)=f{e-i(A 1 - A2)X2/f2}*[Bp(x)F~(x)]. This last, however, cannot be satisfied as x + +-. Gerchberg and Saxton next proposed [36] an iterative algorithm tocomputerthe phase, using the measured ir1) step radiance fields lu(x) I and IF(x) I. Thus at the ( k = IuI arg [ f - ( I F I arg [f-l{uk}]}]. Viz., ateach transform step in the loop, the computed values of the intensity is corrected-replaced by the measured value. An algorithm similar to the Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm was proposedby Misell forapplication to the caseinwhichdefocused images are employed: at each step the measured IFp I is employed. Thus from F p = f { d * ~ ~ ~ u ( x ) } ,

in theuhp.Thustheaddition of the off-setbeamremoves the possibility of phase ambiguity; the phase GS of the combined field is theHilbert field andcouldconveniently be obtained from the logarithmic Hilbert transform. The GS. Fromthepoint phase of F is readilyobtainablefrom of view of the phase problem, it is fascinating to note, holography is a zero removal technique [ 191. [ 331, [34] is a procedure The apodization technique in which u(x) is modified so that the zeros of the modified field F A ( z ) aredisplaced so thattheircontributiontothe phase is diminished. The logarithmicHilberttransformcan then beused t o calculate the Hilbertphase of FA(x). The apodization concept follows from consideration of the bandlimited Fourier integral:

F(z) =

16

1 u(x) I e - y x

cos [xx

+ arg u ( x ) ] dx(6) + arg u(x)] dx.

+j

[I

u ( x ) Ie-yx sin

[XX

If lu(x) I is made t o decrease more rapidly, near the lower limit of the integrals, for example, then closeinspection of the first term shows that for this term to be zero, larger x , y will be required. Vu., a largerzero-freeareaaboutthe origin is created [ 251, reducing the phase contribution of the importantzerosinthelattice byhaving l u ( x ) l decrease more rapidly near the edges of the aperture. This can be accomplished by apodization, multiplication of lu(x) I by a suitable filter. The most convenient process involves the equivalent of multiplying u(x) by sinc (KX). This is because Z(x) = IF(x) l 2 = f f-l{F(x)F*(x)} = f {u(x)*u*(x)}. It follows, then,that f-{l(x)}sinc (KX)= [u(x)*u*(x)] [sinc (KX)* sinc (KX)] = [ u ( x ) sinc (KX)]*[U*X) sinc . Hence (KX)]
I(x)* rect (XJK)

= I F{u(x) sinc (KX)} 12.

(7)

Thus the apodization by sinc (KX) is obtained by an integratthe Fraunhofer plane. The ing aperture of width K - in Hilbert field u(x) sinc (KX)can be recovered by the Hilbert transform procedure and can be divided by sinc (KX) t o obtain the solution. The approximation in (7) fails at the ends of the interval so that the recovered field is distorted at the edges [331, [ 341. If an extended incoherent source is used to illuminate an object, the sinc (x) apodization occurs naturallybecause,by the VanCittert-Zerniketheorem,the coherence function for the illumination has this form. If the detector used t o measure theintensityintheFraunhofer ( x ) apodization efplane has a finite dimension, the sinc fectively occurs as a result of (7).
B. Solutions Depending on Numerical Procedures

Intuitively, it seems likely that the additional information required t o solve the phase problem could be acquired from intensity information obtained in both object and Fraunhofer planes. This approach was suggested by Gerchberg and Saxton [35]-[37]. A related procedure, involving the use of theintensitydistributions of two slightly defocusedimages was put forward by Misell [ 38]-[41]. Subsequently, Huiser et al. [421,[431 proved thatthe Gerchberg-Saxtonproce-

A number of workers [ 361, [ 3 7 ] , [45] -[SO] have tested the Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm using the discrete Fourier transformagainstavariety of functionaltypeswith mixed [ 361, [37 J tested against the results. Gerchberg and Saxton chirp function d k x t 2 rect (xf) and found that the algorithm would fail as a result of insufficientsampling, the incorrect result appearing, roughly, as a linear phase shift in one plane. Gonsalves [ 4 5 ] reported that he retrieved phase objects represented as third-order polynomials to 55. Huiser, van Toorn,andcoworkers [46],[47]foundthatthe algorithm did not converge tothecorrectsolutionforrandom phase functions; using a variety of one-dimensionaltestfunctions Fienup [481 found that the algorithm would generate multiple solutionsdepending onthe choice of initialtrialfunction. Devaney, ontheotherhand,reports[491,[50] successful application of the algorithm in adaptive optics systems. Tests of the Misell algorithm by Boucher [ 5 1J have shown failure t o converge.Southwell [52] has tested a different algorithm using object and Fraunhofer plane irradiances; in this algorithm the object phase is represented as a finite sum of Zernike polynomials, and the mean square error between the resulting Fraunhofer planeirradianceandthemeasuredvalue is minimized by adjusting the coefficients of the Zernike polynomial representation. The convergence of thisalgorithmintests is good, provided thata goodinitialestimateof the object is available. Tests of the Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm against the same objects used by Southwell have been carried out in this laboratory by N. Griff: The Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm failed to converge, while tests against the chirp function

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showedexcellentconvergence.The success of the algorithm appears t o depend on the function, the number ofsamples, and the initial estimate. A number of theoretical problems arise in connection with the use of these algorithms. First, it must be recalled that the uniqueness problem has been framed inthe context of analytic functions. Schiske [ 531 , using nonanalyticfunctions,constructed examples of intensity distribution pairs in object and Fraunhofer planes which arecompatiblewithanarbitrary number of phase ambiguities. Thus the question of assuring analyticity is raised. It has been shown [46], [47] that, while analyticity cannot be completely realized in numerical a procedure, the condition that the object wave function has a continuous first derivative in [ a , b] will reduce the ambiguities, butin general this refinement cannot guarantee successful retrieval. Other suggestions [54], [ 5 5 ] ,[ 101, [35] for the use of object and Fraunhofer plane intensities have involved the solution of the algebraic equations which connect the sampled intensities in each plane with the coefficients of the discrete Fourier transforms of the field. Early on in the consideration of the phase retrieval problem, Dialetis and Wolf [56] showed that in the temporal coherence problem the result of a single zero-flip into the lhp leads t o a n inhomogeneous differential equation in which the zero appears as an eigenvalue, and the spectral density appears in the forcing function. Consideration of the effects of a single zero-flip leads to an enlightening view of the phase retrieval problem. If u k ( x ) is the object plane field corresponding t o F k ( z ) which results from flipping a single zero zk of F ( z ) , it ) follows [57] from the Fourier transform of (1) thatI u ~ ( x l2 l u ( x ) l2 = ( 2 y k ) - d { h R ( x ) - u ( x ) I2}/dx, whence, as a particular field is generated from the Hilbert fie\d by a series of zero flips, the integrated intensity I(x) = lax I u(.$) I2dg is reduced (except at x = a , b ) by each flip. Thus a hierarchy of integrated intensities is generated by the zero-flipping process in anysequence.This is ageneralizationof the minimumenergydelaypropertyofcausalsequences [ 581 andshows that the Hilbert field will not usually be the solution of most interest, since it corresponds t oa n object with maximum intensitynear the edges. We have suggested [ 5 7 1 that computation of the integrated intensities can be useful in a Gerchberg-Saxton loop, assuming that if the loop is not con-verging t o t h e correctintensities, then it is converging t o a zero-flipped alternative solution. Such procedures are limited, however, t o one-dimensional objects since no two-dimensional Hadamard factorization exists.
V. CONCLUSION

found[59]that since the radiancedistribution is positive, the ambiguity in the retrieval problem is reduced in the twodimensional case wheretherepresentationof asetofdata points as a polynomial leads, usually but not invariably [ 6 0 ] , to a nonfactorizable form which defeats zero conjugation. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We want to acknowledge the participatiop and assistance of N. Griff and G. Hudson in this work.
REFERENCES E. Wolf, Is a complete determination of the energy spectrum of
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Although the theoretical context of the phase retrieval problem now appears t o be well understood and a number of examples of successful retrieval using apodization or multiple images have beenpublishedwhichadumbratethepractical application of phase retrieval in adaptive systems, a number of important questions, such as the effects of noise on retrieval, have not been answered. Additionally, the phase problem theory has been developed for the most part in terms of onedimensional fields; the extension to the two-dimensional case follows simply if it can be assumed that u is taken to be a separabletwo-dimensionalfunction.However, thecomputationalproblemisnotthe same. Fienup [48] found that, in computing the spatial coherence functionusing the GerchbergSaxton loop, there was a dramatic improvement in performance for two-dimensional objects. It h a s indeed now been

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