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(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
+
n n
inc
C z C
N
Equation 3
where C
n
= 0.24(1 - R) and the coefficient z = (1/0.7){/D - 0.3} with the argument {/D - 0.3} being nonzero only when /D
is greater than 0.3. D is the maximum pore diameter and is the plastic zone size at the notch root. For /D < 0.3,
(
,
\
,
(
j
+
DCS
D
R R
a
3
))] 1 ( 00025 . 0 ( 100 )[ 0266 . 0 1666 . 0 (
45 . 2
Equation 4
where
a
is the von Mises equivalent strain amplitude and DCS is the dendrite cell size, while for /D 0.3,
) 9 1 ( ))] 1 ( 00025 . 0 0023 . 0 ( 100 )[ 0266 . 0 1666 . 0 (
45 . 2
z R R + + . Equation 5
The propagation of a microstructurally small crack is given by
) (
th
MSC
CTD CTD G
dN
da
(
,
\
,
(
j
Equation 6
where G is a microstructural constant and CTD
th
is a threshold crack tip opening displacement taken as the Burgers vector
for pure aluminum. The crack tip opening displacement, CTD, is given by
2
0
8 . 4
1
0
6 . 0 8 . 0 (
) (
(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
+
]
]
]
,
,
(
(
,
\
,
,
(
j
DCS
DCS
C a
S
U
DCS
DCS
C f CTD
I
u
a
II
Equation 7
where S
u
is the ultimate tensile strength,
a
is the von Mises equivalent stress amplitude,
1
is the maximum principal stress
range, a is crack length, C
I
and C
II
are coefficients, and U = 1/(1 - R) for R < 0 and U = 1 for R 0. The function f() reflects
the influence of porosity, , and is given by
]
]
]
,
,
(
,
\
,
(
j
+
4
10 2
exp 1 1 ) (
f Equation 8
where is a constant. The propagation of a long crack is given by
( )
M
th eff
M
eff p
LC
K K A
dN
da
) ( ) (
,
(
,
\
,
(
j
Equation 9
where K
eff
is an effective stress intensity factor range and A
p
and M are constants. The appropriate growth law used to
calculate the crack growth rate is determined by
]
]
]
,
,
(
,
\
,
(
j
(
,
\
,
(
j
LC MSC
dN
da
dN
da
dN
da
, max . Equation 10
Input parameters required for the fatigue model (McDowell et al., 2003) are obtained from the finite element analysis,
fracture surface analysis, and published A380 material properties. The finite element analysis provided the stresses and
strains required for the fatigue analysis. Under maximum load, the 177.9 MPa stress and 0.6% strain observed around the
drilled hole and subsequent failure location are taken to be the maximum stress and strain. When the pivot arm is in the open
position, stresses and strains are assumed to be zero, giving a zero minimum stress and strain, a stress amplitude of 89 MPa, a
strain amplitude of 0.3%, and a stress ratio R = 0. The 0.0024 fracture surface void area fraction determined from the fracture
surface analysis is used as an estimate of the porosity throughout the volume of the casting. Values for the maximum pore
diameter and average pore diameter were also obtained from the fracture surface analysis. The A380 material properties,
elastic modulus and ultimate tensile strength, are taken from published data (Makhlouf et al., 1998).
To determine the remaining microstructural related parameters for A380 would require more extensive microscopy and
correlation of the fatigue model with experiments. However, the experimentally determined constants G, , C
I
and C
II
,
silicon particle diameters, and the dendrite cell size have been determined for cast A356-T6 (McDowell et al., 2003). While
the differences in the compositions of A380 and A356, shown in Table 3, result in different microstructural characteristics,
both are castable Al-Si alloys and the major defect related to final fatigue failure was pore size in both cases. Therefore, the
microstructural related parameters determined for A356 may also apply to the A380 pivot arm analysis. To verify that these
microstructural parameters can be used for A380, fatigue specimens were machined from a pivot arm and tested. The fatigue
specimens had a dog-bone shape with a rectangular cross section and were tested using a strain controlled setup. For the
fatigue tests the minimum applied strain was 10% of the maximum applied strain. Because the tests were conducted in the
low cycle fatigue regime, the specimens plastically deformed resulting in some compressive stresses being applied near the
minimum strain. This results in a negative stress ratio, R, for the experimental values in Figure 9. The fracture surface of
each specimen was examined to determine the maximum pore diameter and estimate the final crack length just prior to
monotonic overload. One of these fatigue specimens is shown in Figure 8. Using the information from the fracture surface
of each specimen, the strain amplitude, and the A356 microstructural parameters, the number of cycles to failure was
calculated for each specimen and compared to the experimental results in Figure 9. A stress life curve was also calculated,
using the A356 microstructural parameters and the porosity and pore diameter values for the pivot arm, and compared to
published stress life data for A380 (Makhlouf et al., 1998) in Figure 9. The good agreement of fatigue model results with
experimental and published data show the specific microstructural parameters determined for A356 can be used for the A380
pivot arm fatigue life calculation for this particular failure analysis. Further microstructure analysis is needed for A380
aluminum alloys in order for this fatigue model to be applicable for other defect severity cases.
Table 3. Composition Limits in Wt. % (ASM Handbook, 1990)
Si Mg Cu Mn Fe Zn Ti Ni Sn
A356 6.5 - 7.5 0.25 - 0.45 0.20 max 0.10 max 0.20 max 0.10 max 0.20 max - -
A380 7.5 - 9.5 0.10 max 3.0 - 4.0 0.50 max 1.3 max 3.0 max - 0.50 max 0.35 max
Fig. 8. Fatigue specimen fracture surface shows a large pore where fatigue failure initiated.
Fig. 9. This plot gives stress-life data comparing fatigue model (McDowell et al., 2003) results with experiments and
published values for cast A380 aluminum alloy.
A final crack length just prior to monotonic overload is required by the fatigue model (McDowell et al., 2003) to determine
when a propagating long crack has reached sufficient length to cause fracture. Due to the complex geometry of the pivot
arm, a precise determination of the stress intensity factor, K
I
, is difficult to obtain. Therefore, the equation
a K
I
, Equation 11
corresponding to a through thickness crack in an infinite plate subjected to a remote tensile stress, is used to a obtain a rough
estimate of the final crack length. By substituting the critical stress intensity factor, K
IC
, into Equation 11 for K
I
, a final crack
length just prior to monotonic overload can be calculated. To obtain a stress, , normal to the fracture surface, a stress
transformation calculation was performed using the normal and shearing stress components from the finite element analysis.
This gave a stress normal to the fracture surface, at the stress concentration in Figure 6, of 153 MPa. An extensive search
was conducted and no published value of K
IC
for A380 was found. Therefore, the K
IC
value of 17.3 MPa m for A356
(Horstemeyer et al., 2001) was used giving a final crack length of 4 mm.
All the input parameters for the fatigue model (McDowell et al., 2003) have been evaluated and determined for A380.
Stresses and strains were obtained from the finite element analysis. Porosity information was taken from the fracture surface
analysis. The experimental constants determined for A356 have been shown to apply to A380, and a final crack length has
been estimated. Using this information the pivot arms total fatigue life is calculated to be 1100 cycles by the fatigue model
(McDowell et al., 2003). This approximate fatigue life is well below the design life of the pivot arm. To illustrate the
influence of porosity on fatigue life, stress-life curves are calculated using the fatigue model for the two cases shown in Table
4. The porosity values for Case 1 correspond to the measurements made on the pivot arm fracture surface and Case 2 is a
hypothetical case with lower porosity values. The stress-life curves are presented in Figure 10 and show the fatigue life to be
increased by reducing the pore size and porosity level.
Table 4. Porosity Inputs for Fatigue Code
Porosity
Level
Max. Pore
Diameter (m)
Avg. Pore
Diameter
(m)
Case 1 0.0024 762 281
Case 2 0.0018 180 90
Fig. 10. Stress-life curves calculated using the fatigue model (McDowell et al., 2003) illustrates longer life for a less
porous material.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0.0E+00 2.0E+05 4.0E+05 6.0E+05 8.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.2E+06
Fatigue Life, N
S
t
r
e
s
s
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
(
M
P
a
)
Case 1
Case 2
CONCLUSIONS
The A380 die cast aluminum alloy pivot arm failed due to a crack initiating in a region of high localized stress, which
propagated under the cyclic loading conditions resulting in the pivot arm fracturing. As illustrated in Figure 10, the fatigue
life of the pivot arm can be improved by reducing stresses in the part and/or reducing the porosity in the casting. Stresses
could be reduced by redesigning the pivot arm. A redesign should focus on reducing the stress concentration around the
drilled hole, since stresses elsewhere in the pivot arm were well below the yield strength. Reducing the pore size and
porosity level in the casting can be accomplished through alterations in the casting process. An investigation of the casting
process would be required before specific improvements could be suggested.
An underlying theme in this paper is the practical application of a microstructurally-based fatigue model (McDowell et al.,
2003). While the fatigue model was developed for a cast A356 aluminum alloy, it has been applied to a cast A380 aluminum
alloy component to approximate the components fatigue life. This was accomplished through a finite element analysis to
determine stresses and strains in the component and a fracture surface analysis to characterize the porosity. A380 fatigue
specimens were tested to verify that certain fatigue model parameters defined for A356 could be applied to the A380
analysis. In general, the methodology used in this paper could be followed to apply the fatigue model (McDowell et al.,
2003) to other cast aluminum alloy components.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was made possible by the Center for Advanced Vehicular Systems department at Mississippi State University.
Several other individuals are to be recognized for their involvement in this project. The finite element mesh of the pivot arm
was constructed by Neil Littell using CATIA. The fatigue testing was conducted by Brian Jordon at the Northrop-Grumman
Testing Facility in New York. Dr. E. Jones is acknowledged for his support and guidance of this project.
REFERENCES
ABAQUS, V6.3, ABAQUS Inc., 2002.
ASM Handbook, Vol. 2, Tenth Edition, ASM International, 1990, pp. 164-170.
CATIA, V5 R11, Dassault Systemes, 1981.
Horstemeyer, Mark F., McDowell, David L., and Fan, Jinghong, From Atoms to Autos: A New Design Paradigm Using
Microstructure-Property Modeling. Part 2: Cyclic Fatigue, SAND2000-8661, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore,
CA (2000).
Makhlouf, M., Apelian, D., and Wang, L., Microstructures and properties of aluminum die casting alloys, NADCA
Publication, V215, pp 71-73 (1998).
McDowell, D.L., Fan, J., and Horstemeyer, M.F., Multi-length scale and analyses of cyclically loaded A356 cast aluminum
alloy, AFS Transactions, 99-136, pp 703-712 (1999).
McDowell, D.L., Gall, K., Horstemeyer, M.F., and Fan, J., Microstructure-based fatigue modeling of cast A356-T6 alloy,
Engineering Fracture Mechanics, V70, pp 49-80 (2003).