SUPERINTENDENTs MANUAL Super-Man Part II - Technical Part

Main Group 2 - Hull

Gp 23 - Cargo Area

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SUPERINTENDENTs MANUAL Table of Contents 23 230 230.0 231 231.1 231.10 231.2 231.20 231.3 231.30 231.4 231.40 231.5 231.50 231.6 231.60 231.7 231.70 231.8 231.80 231.9 231.90 232 232.1 232.10 232.2 232.20 232.3 232.30 232.4 232.40 232.5 232.50 232.6 232.60 232.7 232.70 232.8 232.80 232.9 232.90 233 CARGO AREA GENERAL General Guidelines OIL TANKERS / SINGLE HULL Structural Design General Loads/Exposure General Constructional Aspects General Failures/Damages General Risks and Consequences General Acceptance Criteria General Preventive Measures General Hull Repairs General Inspection General OIL TANKERS/DOUBLE HULL Structural Design General Loads/Exposure General Constructional Aspects General Failures/Damages General Risks and Consequences General Acceptance Criteria General Preventive Measures General Hull Repairs General Inspection General CHEMICAL TANKERS

PART II - TECHNICAL PART Page 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 9 9 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 14

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233.1 233.10 233.2 233.20 233.3 233.30 233.4 233.40 233.5 233.50 233.6 233.60 233.7 233.70 233.8 233.80 233.9 233.90 234 234.1 234.10 234.2 234.20 234.3 234.30 234.4 234.40 234.5 234.50 234.6 234.60 234.7 234.70 234.8 234.80 234.9 234.90 234.91 234.92 235 235.1 235.10 235.2 235.20 235.3 235.30 235.4 235.40

Structural Design General Loads/Exposure General Constructional Aspects General Failures/Damages General Risks and Consequences General Acceptance Criteria General Preventive Measures General Hull Repairs General Inspection General BULK CARRIERS/CONVENTIONAL TYPE Structural Design General Loads/Exposure General Constructional Aspects General Failures and Damages General Risks and Consequences General Acceptance Criteria General Preventive Measures General Hull Repairs General Inspection General Newbuildings Vessels in operation OPEN HATCH BULK CARRIERS, FOREST PRODUCT CARRIERS Structural Design General Loads/Exposure General Constructional Aspects General Failures/Damages General

14 14 16 16 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 23 23 23 23 24 24 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 27 27 27 29 29 29 30 30 30 30 31 31

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235.5 235.50 235.6 235.60 235.7 235.70 235.8 235.80 235.9 235.90

Risks and Consequences General Acceptance Criteria General Preventive Measures General Hull Repairs General Inspection General

31 31 31 31 31 31 32 32 33 33

List of Figures (Figures and sketches are inserted directly in the text where relevant). References See Introduction to MGp 2. (Note: Gp 23 has generally been structured without the standard headline - General Guidelines, as applied under each Sub-Group (SGp) for the other Main Groups (MGps) and Groups (Gps) of the Manual. The reason for this being lack of need/relevance).

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1 23 230 230.0 CARGO AREA GENERAL General Guidelines

Group (Gp) 23 contains information and guidelines specially related to problems and preventive measures within the cargo area of oil tankers, chemical tankers and bulk carriers. (Other types of vessels will be included in later updating of the Manual). The given guidelines are to be considered as supplementary to Gp 20/SGps 200, 201 and 202, being a further detailing of the general information given under those items. The cargo area is defined as the part of the vessel bounded aft by the engine area and forward by the fore ship, including possible pump room aft (and forward if any), but excluding any deeptanks for fuel or ballast at the ends of the cargo area. This definition applies to standard types of vessels, such as tankers, bulk carriers and normal general cargo ships.

231 231.1 231.10

OIL TANKERS/SINGLE HULL Structural Design General

The single hull tankers, comprising all tankers until double hull was required, are normally designed as indicated in 200.22 with two longitudinal bulkheads and a suitable number of wing and centre cargo tanks. The pre-MARPOL tankers are normally fitted with one pair of wing tanks for ballast only, however, other ballast configurations have also been used. Additionally selected cargo tanks are normally utilised for same purpose during ballast voyages. The relevant ballast conditions include departure, arrival and heavy weather condition. The single hull tankers built to MARPOL requirements with segregated ballast only, and with the later required protective location in combination with segregated ballast, are few in number and will not be further commented on here. The main difference compared with preMARPOL tankers is, however, that segregated ballast implies that these vessels do not require the same degree of tank cleaning during the ballast voyage. The bulkheads separating the tanks improve the vessels stability, further they contribute to longitudinal, transverse and torsional strength, reduce sloshing loads, as well as giving the vessel a possibility of segregation of different cargoes, normally 2-3 segregations. The number of possible segregations will further depend on the cargo piping arrangement. These tankers will have the structural flexibility to carry the relevant combinations of segregated parcels. Basic loaded and ballast conditions will be found in the vessel's Loading Manual. The major panel members are the deck, sides, bottom and bulkheads - longitudinal and transverse. The primary girder system in deck, bottom, sides and on longitudinal bulkheads will naturally be web frames arranged transversely with a typical spacing in the order of 3-5 Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

2 m, depending on size of vessel. Increased spacing of web frames with corresponding reduced number, generally favours the building yard and has in some cases resulted in spacing close to 6 m, which not always have proved successful. The secondary structural elements are almost exclusively longitudinals throughout, giving favourable fitting to the web frames and increased buckling strength of plating being stressed in the longitudinal direction. A typical web frame with one cross-tie is shown below. Some vessels are built with two or three or no cross-ties at all.

Transverse bulkheads have their primary structural members arranged either horizontally or vertically, occasionally in both directions. If only horizontal girders (stringers) are used, the secondary stiffening system will be vertical as shown in the below figure:

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3 In some tankers of moderate size, corrugated transverse bulkheads are used. They may be vertically or horizontally corrugated, dependent on direction of the girder system. 231.2 231.20 Loads/Exposure General

Single hull tankers are normally designed to carry a full load of cargo, 2-3 segregations in various, pre-selected combinations as well as departure (dirty) and arrival (clean) ballast conditions. In addition a heavy weather ballast condition is mandatory and shall be included. The dirty and clean conditions are only relevant for tankers utilising cargo tanks for ballast. In departure ballast condition, the cargo wing tanks are normally utilised for ballast, while in arrival condition the centre tanks, which have been cleaned during the ballast voyage, will be used. On tankers with sufficient segregated ballast capacity, the cleaning may be carried out in normal ballast condition. It is, however, not uncommon for vessels of some age to change their ballast pattern to even out the wear/erosion which is so typical on horizontal surfaces especially in arrival ballast tanks. This change in pattern can either involve selecting different wing and centre tanks for departure and arrival ballast respectively or changing to carry departure ballast in the centre tanks and arrival ballast in the wing tanks, or indeed a combination of the two. Regardless of the tanks chosen, it must be checked that the resulting loading conditions are acceptable, and if not already covered in the existing Loading Manual, they should be submitted to Class for approval. The loads on the different structures are caused by the above loaded and ballast conditions including the dynamic effects referred to in 200.3. The vessel will always have a record of relevant conditions, which should be studied and utilised for nomination of suspect areas prior to inspection. Other important selection criteria in this regard are historical data on previous problems/repairs, thickness measurements, coating condition, structural detail design, sister vessels/ship type information etc. Resulting still water bending moments and shear forces on the hull girder for standard/approved loading conditions may be found in the vessels Loading Manual. For other conditions the Loading Instrument may be used for calculation of same. Note: The still water bending moments and shear forces will only give the magnitude of the overall hull girder loading at the location (station) at which they are calculated. It will not give details of the actual loading of individual hull structural members, although some deduction/indications can be made based on these values.

When performing this exercise in search for suspect areas or for structures being most exposed due to loading, it is important that the various structural levels are considered, remembering that major panel members may have more than one function (overall strength and acting as flanges for primary and secondary structural elements).

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4 231.3 231.30 Constructional Aspects General

Constructional aspects of single hull tankers are relatively simple (ref. 231.10) and more or less similar for the whole length of the cargo area, except that the longitudinal strength material is somewhat reduced/tapered towards the ends. High tensile steel (HTS-36 or HTS-32) is mainly used in bottom and deck areas, for some vessels also in other structures as ship's sides and longitudinal and transverse bulkheads. Longitudinals are normally of flat bar type (T-bars and angles occur) in deck, angles at ship's sides and at longitudinal bulkheads, and T-bars in bottom. For detail design of cut-outs, stiffeners, brackets, etc. see Gp 20/SGp 202. 231.4 231.40 Failures/Damages General

In addition to indents from contact damages, common structural failures are cracks and buckles, often with corrosion as a contributing factor. Permanent ballast tanks are most subjected to corrosion, followed by combined cargo/ballast tanks. Of the combined tanks the arrival tanks are more exposed than departure tanks, since the former are more thoroughly washed by seawater and leave little or no oil protection on the structures. (This is due to the increased level of tank cleaning required to meet the MARPOL arrival ballast criteria). Additionally, arrival tanks are more exposed to pitting on horizontal surfaces/flanges of girders, and in the tank bottom, especially in the aft part. Necking corrosion, i.e. corrosion in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the weld, may also be found in the same tanks in or near weld connections of structural elements. This type of corrosion seriously reduces the effectiveness of the stiffening elements. The areas under the suction bellmouths should be carefully examined in all tanks, ballast as well as cargo tanks as the steel plating underneath is prone to erosion due to the high velocity of the passing liquids during pumping operations. Such erosions may also be found at drain holes in bottom longitudinals and transverse webs in the vicinity of bellmouths. Cracks may be found where static or dynamic loads cause maximum stresses and where stress concentrations are created by cut-outs, sniping of large flanges and change of direction of elements carrying large forces. HT steel structures are generally more susceptible to cracking, as a result of the generally higher stress level, especially if exposed to high dynamic loads. Further, fatigue cracking may be experienced in heat-affected welding zones. See also 232.40.

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5 231.5 231.50 Risks and Consequences General

The risk of leakage from or puncture of loaded cargo tanks with the consequential environmental hazards involved is probably the most frightening scenario for a tanker operator. Such incidents are normally connected with grounding or collision near shore, whilst leakages caused by structural failures normally occur at sea during rough weather (such leakages may be revealed during following loading), and thus not involving the same serious pollution of shore areas. Cracks in bulkheads between cargo tanks and ballast tanks may occur, resulting in oil leaking into the ballast tank, thus creating an explosive atmosphere and polluted ballast water. When the polluted ballast is discharged of, the vessel is usually in sensitive areas, like ports or coastal waters. Reactions to oil pollution by the relevant Port State(s) will always be costly and delay the vessel. Proper condition of bulkheads between oil and water should therefore always be ascertained, same for ballast pipes passing oil tanks and oil pipes passing ballast tanks. The risk of hull girder failures is limited, but with the very serious consequences involved, the possibility should not be excluded. Hence, all relevant structural elements should be assessed and inspected for verification of reliability. In order to detect inter-tank leakages it is important to continually monitor tank contents/liquid levels and to use ballast voyages to pressure test suspect bulkheads as well as the cargo and ballast lines. If PV valves do not function properly, over-pressuring may occur, see also 234.40. 231.6 231.60 Acceptance Criteria General

General information on acceptance level is given in Gp 20/200.8 and should be utilised when judging the necessity of temporary or permanent repairs. Even if specific hull acceptance values for a particular vessel are received from the Class, conclusions as to immediate action or not should always include the Class surveyor. There are occasions when the vessel is at sea where the Owner, preferably in consultation with Class, will have to deal with the problem at hand. In such cases Class should be called in at first opportunity to carry out their survey and make their recommendations, as the vessels class may otherwise be in jeopardy. (It should be remembered that if a vessel's class is suspended, this will seriously affect the vessel's insurance cover - see Part I/Ch. 9)

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6 231.7 231.70 Preventive Measures General

Since building of single hull tankers has come to an end, inspection details and preventive measures for newbuildings will be of less interest. For tankers in operation the main concern will be to reduce deterioration in general and corrosion in particular. Relevant precautions should be based on findings during inspections. However, a good upkeep of the vessel is best performed by keeping the coating in good condition, by recoating (as well as renewing anodes, if fitted) when and where necessary. Preventive measures may also include safeguarding against any overloading, by ensuring sufficient and easily available information on board about allowable loads. Structural problems may still be encountered while the vessel is at sea and it will in the first instance be the Owner that has to make his own judgement of the situation. Transfer of ballast/cargo can be important factors contributing to limiting further consequential damage. It is strongly recommended that such situation be discussed with the Class. 231.8 231.80 Hull Repairs General

Successful hull repairs are conditioned on good planning in every respect. Such repairs are normally carried out at scheduled dockings, based on thickness measurements and a thorough pre-inspection of all accessible structures/areas. Necessary repairs to be discussed and agreed with Class on beforehand. Relevant types of repairs are often fitting of extra panel stiffeners, reinforcement by fitting strip doublers (limited applications) and of course complete steel renewals due to diminution of the original steel structure. In all cases where extensive steel replacement is required, it is strongly recommended that the Class is contacted at an early stage with a view to reassessment of scantlings, as there in many cases may be possible to reduce the extent of steel renewals based on current rule requirements. Another option, which should be considered are changes in the vessels loading conditions, which again may result in rule scantling reductions. It should be noted that steel renewals are normally necessary when max. reduction in thickness from the rule minimum scantling criteria is exceeded. It is worth noting that the As Built scantlings shown on the construction drawings are not necessarily the rule minimum, see Gp 20. The experience related to single hull tankers is very comprehensive and to a large extent documented in the Guidance Manual for Tanker Structures (Ref. 1), including examples of structural deficiencies and proposed repair methods.

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7 231.9 231.90 Inspection General

Being ESP vessels and subject to ISM Certification, a scheduled inspection program is required for hull renewal and intermediate surveys. Owner's inspection program should be at least on a yearly basis. However, all cargo tanks can hardly be covered in such short intervals due to extensive requirements for cleanliness and safe atmosphere for access. Gas freeing and cleaning will have to be fitted in between other operational requirements on the ballast voyages. Not to forget the cost involved. Note: Cargo tanks or any other tanks for that matter are not required by Class rules to be inspected at annual intervals, with the exception of ballast tanks if the coating system is found unsatisfactory. All ballast tanks which are uncoated or where the coating rating is poor are to be examined by Class at each annual survey.

All single hull tankers will have a history, and normally a planning program for a previous hull renewal survey. All hull experience gathered in this way (including known problems on sister vessels) should be utilised in nominating tanks and areas where damages or discrepancies are most likely to occur. By inspection of high-risk areas as a beginning, the outcome may be used to decide on location and extent of similar areas judged to have a reduced risk. See also Gp 20/200.7.

232 232.1 232.10

OIL TANKERS/DOUBLE HULL Structural Design General

Double hull oil tankers are relatively new. They are designed with double bottom and double sides and a varying number of longitudinal bulkheads as shown in Gp 20/200.22. The double bottom and the double sides/spaces are utilised for ballast purposes and will as far as possible have the structural elements located inside the double structures to reduce cleaning problems in the cargo tanks. However, this significantly increases the coated surface area of the ballast tanks, which in combination with the very restricted access may become one of the future problems with this type of ships, if proper maintenance of the coating is neglected. Another problem is leakages from the cargo tanks into the ballast tanks and the limited reception facilities worldwide for polluted ballast water - see 231.5. . The main structural elements within the double structures, (the primary girder system) are arranged transversely, and the secondary members longitudinally.

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8 A typical transverse section with centreline longitudinal bulkhead is shown below. (For the sake of good order it should be noted that other cargo tank structural configurations exist, such as no longitudinal bulkhead, two longitudinal bulkheads, trunk deck in association with longitudinal bulkhead(s) etc.).

The deck structure is very similar to single hull design; with the exception that double hull normally has angle, T or bulb bar longitudinals in deck, whilst flat bars often are used for single hull. The reason being the increased depth of double hull tankers (to compensate the cargo capacity for lost volumes, i.e. ballast tanks). With the greater depth the amount of longitudinal structural material in deck may be reduced, thus not needing the cross sectional area of large flat bars. Another major difference between single and double hull tankers is the location and distribution of ballast. Double hull tankers have the ballast distributed over the full length of the cargo area, while single hull tankers benefit from the possibility of locating and distributing the ballast where it minimises longitudinal stresses. A homogeneously loaded tanker will be in sagging condition whilst some (empty) ballast capacity at or near amidships on single hull tankers will reduce the sagging moment. The result may be that double hull tankers frequently are loaded to their sagging limit at full load, whilst the ballast condition may give a hogging condition reaching the max. acceptable level. The long-term effect of the stress level being close to its limits is not known, but ample care should be borne in mind and exercised at inspections. Number of longitudinal- and transverse bulkheads should be chosen to facilitate all relevant load and ballast conditions as well as stability during loading and discharging. (Note: Double hull tankers without longitudinal bulkheads may experience stability problems during loading/ /discharging as partially filled cargo tanks cause large free surface effects and possibly negative GM - initial metacentric height). The cubic capacity of cargo tanks is the basis for contractual deadweight, often with a cargo of specific gravity in the order of e.g. 0,80-0,82 t/m3. However, to have the possibility of loading the tanks with a heavier cargo, it is recommended that the scantling draft is based on a higher specific gravity, say 0,87-0,88.

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9 The scantling draft will normally exceed the design draft. It is also important to ensure that relevant freeboard criteria are satisfied in case deeper loading is required. The double hull ballast tanks are required to be coated at newbuilding stage and preferably with a light coloured painting to ease inspection and detection of coating failures. Even if no specific requirements exist for maintenance of coating, proper maintenance should be in the Owners interest to avoid early and costly steel replacements within these complicated structures. Inspection of the tanks, and especially close-up of side tanks, may be difficult if no special arrangements for proper access are made at the design stage. A natural precaution might be to build in some horizontal girders with appropriate spacing for access over the full tank height. Introduction of such girders/platforms will additionally have a beneficial effect on structural relations, since the relative deformations of the primary girder system will be smoothened and overstressing of secondary members may be avoided. (Experience shows that requiring additional girders may be difficult, but installing platforms for inspection is easier.) Structural design of transverse bulkheads on double hull tankers is normally similar to single hull bulkheads. 232.2 232.20 Loads/Exposure General

Double hull tankers are generally designed for full load of cargo, parcel loads and ballast conditions as for single hull vessels. The normal ballast condition will be segregated ballast only, whilst an emergency condition with additional ballast in one or more cargo tanks will be planned for use in very heavy weather, if found necessary by the vessels Master. However, judging from experience gained with the MARPOL-required segregated ballast, additional ballast is very seldom used. (In this regard it should be remembered that special requirements govern subsequent discharge of any such water ballast. It will also be a time-consuming operation, as the vessels' normal cargo tank piping system is not set up for this mode of operation). As for single hull, it is a statutory requirement to include such heavy weather condition in the stability and loading manuals. The local loads on the hull structure are similar to the single hull exposure, with the exception that the extent of areas being one-sided loaded, is much greater on the double hull tanker than the single hull. With double sides, both the inner and outer side (shell) will be more or less fully one-sided loaded all the time, in one way or another. For the inner bottom and outer bottom/shell plating the same apply to the boundaries, but not fully acting on the primary girder system. The long-term effect of this extensive one-sided loading is not known, but attention as to possible effects should be paid at inspections. The transverse cargo bulkheads, apart from the end bulkheads, will be one-sided loaded only when part cargoes are carried, since all cargo tanks will be completely filled in the full load condition. The corrosion problems on cargo/ballast tank divisional bulkheads and other surfaces in the ballast tanks are well known and are mainly caused by elevated temperature and high Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

10 humidity level in the ballast tanks. However, the one-sided loading of the bulkheads further increases the corrosion rate. Considering the fact that the ballast tank bulkhead surfaces are increased by a multiple factor (according to some estimates about seven times) in comparison with the single hull tanker, it is reasonable to include a thorough examination of these areas in any inspection program. 232.3 232.30 Constructional Aspects General

When ordering a new double hull tanker, the design and constructional aspects should be thoroughly considered (including analysis of all critical areas), with trouble-free operation and a minimum of necessary maintenance in mind. This aim may be achieved by ensuring that the necessary details and flexibility are built into the vessel with respect to the variety of relevant load conditions. Further that the structures achieve the necessary scantlings and layout to avoid over-stressing with resulting cracking and/or buckling. Additionally, all structures exposed to a corrosive atmosphere should be well protected and maintained. The TSCFs Guidelines for the Inspection and Maintenance of Double Hull Tanker Structures (Ref.3), contain valuable information related to double hull tankers, which should be studied and utilised. Below are summarised some important items and guidelines, based on a major tanker owner's experience from building and operation of double hull tankers: * * Define critical areas. A proper fatigue analysis should be carried out for all end connections of longitudinals and at critical locations of transverse primary members such as hopper connections (used in some designs) and toe ends of transverse webs or stringers. Current practice is to use HT-32 steel in deck and double bottom longitudinal members and partly on transverse primary members to achieve suitable stiffness and fatigue life. T-profiles for side- and bottom longitudinals should be adopted instead of L-profiles, to give improved fatigue life. To enhance the fatigue strength at critical locations, smooth-grinding by disc grinder may be applied. Flat bars or bulb profiles should be used for deck longitudinals to avoid deposits that settle on the flanges. In most cases double-sided brackets should be arranged on the profiles at their end connections to transverse bulkheads, floors in double bottom and webs in double side. Sloshing analysis and relevant structural reinforcement should be carried out to avoid damages which may occur when tanks are partially filled with cargo or seawater ballast in heavy weather. Copyright NSA

* * * * * *

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* * *

A two-coat coating system should be applied in ballast tanks (min. 300 ), sacrificial zinc anodes should be installed as back-up. Close-up survey must be possible for areas prone to high stresses and fatigue. Cargo tanks should be coated at least on inner bottom and preferably underneath deck. This will further increase the fatigue life of the structure. Failures/Damages General

232.4 232.40

Current experience (2002) with double hull tankers is rather limited. The information given in the TSCF Guidelines is mostly based on chemical carriers and vessels of moderate size. Nevertheless, the references to possible location of failures and damages are very useful and should be fully utilised. When this information is coupled with relevant exposure/loading, the basis for proper newbuilding precautions and inspections as for well as preparing in service inspection programs, is much improved. Failures and damages experienced or anticipated are tied up with corrosion, cracking and buckling. For the low-aged double hull tankers, the ballast tanks are fully coated with minimum two coats, and provided the coating is well maintained, it is not expected that corrosion will be experienced as a major problem. In cargo tanks, which are mostly uncoated, some corrosion is experienced in the vapour area as well as some pitting in the inner bottom. (From present experience, the inner bottom of cargo tanks should be coated with solvent-free pure epoxy - P/E). Fatigue cracks may occur, especially in the side longitudinals at ballast draft where these are most exposed to cyclic loading. The problem will be accentuated where proper alignment has not been ensured during the construction process. It can further occur as a result of stress concentration in the crossing between the inner hull and the inner bottom when a bracketless connection is used. (This also applies to single hull tankers, see 231.4). 232.5 232.50 Risks and Consequences General

The risk of oil spill from double hull tankers with following environmental hazards is certainly greatly reduced compared with single hull, but this fact should not relax the continuous awareness to safeguard the hull integrity both internally and externally. As stated above, the experience with double hull tankers is still limited and a careful consideration of possible additional or increased risks compared with single hull is necessary. It is thus very important to instigate/establish inspection programs that will ensure that even unexpected structural problems are detected, identified and dealt with. Particular items causing concern are the above-mentioned large increase in one-sided loaded boundaries, and

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12 that hull girder often is continuously exposed to high bending moments close to the design/acceptable limits, with sagging in full load and hogging in ballast condition. The consequence of failures on any of the one-side loaded boundaries might not initially be fatal, but failures related to the longitudinal strength of the hull girder including longitudinal bulkheads, might have a disastrous effect, and especially if encountered during a full load voyage. 232.6 232.60 Acceptance Criteria General

The acceptance levels will generally be as given in 200.8. Although these criteria give a general basis for evaluation of structural problems, special care must be exercised when evaluating if immediate repairs are required or not, and when postponing repair of failures which may result in serious consequences if allowed to develop. This in order to avoid situations where further development may lead to further structural problems with the serious consequences that may lead to. The Class should therefore always be called in at the first available opportunity to examine and assess the situation and make their recommendations. Note: All classification societies' rules require that any damage/problem, which affects Class, is to be reported without delay. Preventive Measures General

232.7 232.70

For newbuildings a thorough assessment of the effect of preventive measures is of vital importance at the contract and design stages. This also includes the building specification and subsequently a thorough evaluation of the proposed design/construction drawings, not least with focus on structural detail design and access for future maintenance. Due to the limited experience with double hull so far, these evaluations should therefore primarily include structural items and elements that may or do behave differently, as a result of different loading or other factors, on double hull tankers as compared to their single hull predecessors. Double hull tankers have a number of ballast tanks with large surface areas and a corresponding number of structural elements exposed to a highly corrosive environment, if not properly protected. Proper hard coating corrosion protection is therefore now a Class requirement on all newbuildings. As previously mentioned the colour of such coating should be light to facilitate identification of coating break down. It is stressed that type of coating and preparation of tank surfaces prior to coating application are of vital importance and that the coating manufacturers application requirements should be strictly observed and complied with. A longest possible intact time period without maintenance may only be attained if structural failures like cracks or other problems requiring repairs are avoided. Consequently not only the coating is important, but also to choose structures and structural details which have Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

13 proved successful over a considerable time period under similar conditions. Grinding/breaking all sharp edges in way of cut outs etc. should be common practice at all yards (but may still be difficult to achieve). This to be done in order to prepare the structure for acceptable coating application. Cracks, structural discontinuities, sharp edges etc. will lead to local break down of the coating. Advice on preferred structural detail design etc. may be found in the publications from the Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum (TSCF). For double hull tankers the cargo tanks will normally be used for oil cargo only, since ballast seldom or never will be necessary in any cargo tank. Corrosion in cargo tanks is consequently greatly reduced, hence cargo tanks are normally not coated or given other corrosion protection. However, recent experience has shown that some corrosion takes place also in these tanks, mostly in top of the tanks and at the bottom in form of pitting or local bacteriological corrosion. Consequently the decision on coating seems to be rather important. (For pit guard anodes, see Part I/Ch. 5, - the same for preparation for and application of coating). Due to high stress level both in sagging and hogging the longitudinal strength elements amidships to be arranged continuous (Class requirement), and preferably without any discontinuities or cut-outs causing stress concentrations. Where HT steel is used in the longitudinal elements (is normally the case), the importance of reducing stresses and stress concentrations, especially in welding zones, should be even more highlighted. 232.8 232.80 Hull Repairs General

For reference see 231.80, Gp 20 and the TSCFs manual Guidelines for the Inspection and Maintenance of Double Hull Tanker Structures (Ref. 3). Ballast tanks and structural areas affected by repairs to be shot blasted and recoated immediately to avoid corrosion. The Class should generally be consulted for final decision as to extent and type/method of repairs. 232.9 232.90 Inspection General

For inspection of newbuildings in general see 200.64. For double hull tankers a considerable number of structures should be checked for alignment during newbuilding inspection. The importance of this control is stressed since the relevant structures are numerous and often carry large forces. By utilising the special features offered by the double hull concept in combination with anticipated loading for judgement of risks at Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

14 different locations, a trouble-free operation may be achieved. In this regard the critical areas where high stresses occur must be defined. For inspection in general of ships in operation see 200.7. Double hull tankers are subject to ESP and as such require a survey program where relevant history and special features of the particular vessel are taken into account when deciding extent of inspections required for intermediate and special surveys by Class. Due to the current (2002), limited experience with double hull tankers and the fact that few have passed their first renewal survey, satisfactory planning programs have not yet been established. Consequently, it will still take some time to establish the required experience as to where the inspection effort should be concentrated in search of possible but yet unidentified structural discrepancies. This will still for a long time be a demanding task requiring extensive awareness by responsible persons involved, ashore and on board. Even if maintenance of coating is first priority for double bottom and -sides, corrosion may develop when the vessel gets older. Structural integrity of girders and stringers will therefore be essential. A natural precaution when experience is lacking, will certainly be to expand the scope of inspections to be on the safe side. This should naturally be any prudent Owners choice.

233 233.1 233.10

CHEMICAL TANKERS Structural Design General

Chemical tankers are normally designed to carry a large variety of cargoes simultaneously, some with toxic and/or environmental hazards. Carriage of such cargoes is governed by the requirements of the BCH Code and also by MARPOL-requirements if oil cargoes are to be carried additionally. Number of tanks is normally high, and corrugated bulkheads often extensively used to ease cleaning. Structural elements in cargo tanks are generally avoided whenever possible, and may even result in arranging deck structural members/stiffeners on the upper side of the deck. (If so, remember proper drainage).

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15 The primary girder system will normally be arranged transversely in the form of ring webs, ref. below figure. The secondary structural members are normally arranged longitudinally as shown:

The bulkheads are normally corrugated either horizontally or vertically. A typical design is shown below:

The cargo tanks are always protected either by coating or rubber lining, or made of stainless steel. Clad steel (ordinary steel with a thin layer of stainless steel - see Part I/Ch. 4) is mainly used on older vessels, whilst newer chemical tankers normally are built with solid stainless steel in relevant areas. Many chemical liquids have specific gravity above 1,0 t/m3. Consequently the relevant cargoes and associated densities have to be taken into account already at the design stage, including the planned tank arrangement and loading pattern, deciding which tanks are to be designed for which specific gravity/type of chemical. A sensible solution might be to build most or all tanks for the higher specific gravity (Note: increased building cost). Detailed information on permissible loading etc. in the various tanks can be found on As built plans Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

16 and in loading manuals on board. 233.2 233.20 Loads/Exposure General

Structural loads and exposure on chemical carriers are very similar to those on an oil tanker, with the exception that some tank boundaries may be exposed to higher loading due to the higher specific gravity mentioned above, and the fact that parcel cargoes are more common in the chemical carrier trades. If structures are arranged on top of deck, the additional loads from rough weather and resulting green sea must be carefully considered and accounted for. For chemical tankers only designed for specific gravity corresponding to seawater (1,025 t/m3), requests for carriage of heavier cargo often come up. This will normally be accepted with reduced filling height, thus maintaining the same total cargo weight in the tank. While this may be acceptable from an overall strength point of view, due care must taken to the additional loads imposed by sloshing, which will depend on breadth and length of the tank. Application for such loading and partial filling must be directed to Class. (Note: Requests for carriage of cargoes other than originally designed for, may also have influence on piping systems, tank accessories, safety equipment etc.). 233.3 233.30 Constructional Aspects General

Constructional aspects of chemical carriers are generally quite similar to the double hull oil tanker except that corrugated bulkheads are more extensively used in chemical tankers than in traditional oil tankers. However, newbuildings ordered by the large chemical carrier companies, are becoming more and more specialised. 233.4 233.40 Failures/Damages General

Common failures are cracking with following inter-tank leakages. Such leakages may be very costly (and possibly dangerous) if involving mixing of non-compatible cargoes. (Note: Sensitive cargoes are often rejected by the receivers, even if only small percentages of contamination occur). To avoid such problems the boundary separation of relevant cargo tanks may be doubled with a cofferdam in-between. (For certain cargo combinations this is a requirement) ). Also the condition of tank coating is important, as blisters and rough edges make proper cleaning between loading of different cargoes difficult and the risk of contamination higher. The reason for cracking has very often been the use of corrugated bulkheads where proper

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17 structural design of adjoining elements has proved difficult. (Note: Both planes of vertical corrugations have to be properly supported). One solution may therefore be to avoid corrugated bulkheads, which, however, will complicate cleaning if double bulkheads are not used. (Note: Double bulkheads can give rise to problems if cargo seeps into the intermediate spaces with corresponding gas-freeing problems). Corrosion in ballast tanks will certainly cause same problems on chemical carriers as on other ships. The problem may actually be even greater if ballast tanks are bordering cargo tanks normally or occasionally carrying heated cargo. The cargo tanks are as previously mentioned, coated or of stainless steel, which should safeguard against corrosion. For stainless steel tanks, however, special types of corrosion, such as pinhole corrosion, have been experienced. If and when revealed, expert assistance should be sought at an early stage. See also Part I/Ch. 5. 233.5 233.50 Risks and Consequences General

Toxic and environmentally dangerous cargoes are required to have double separation to the sea, consequently not involving any large risk of pollution. Internal leakages, which normally represent high risks, with possible serious consequences if toxic cargo is involved, need special precautions as to control and cleaning. Often the cargo value is high, further favouring efforts to avoid such incidents. (In this regard it should be noted that it is the Owners/vessels responsibility to avoid dangerous situations and to give safety top priority independent of cargo value). 233.6 233.60 Acceptance Criteria General

General information about acceptance levels is given in 200.8. 233.7 233.70 Preventive Measures General

For newbuildings, main preventive measures relate to ensuring proper detail design in order to limit the causes leading to cracks and other structural problems that in turn may cause leakages and contamination of cargo. Additionally, choice of material, preparation of the steel prior to and the application of coating, etc. are vital elements in successful solutions. As indicated above the use of corrugated bulkheads may create cracking problems at connections with adjoining structures, if not carefully designed. For further reference see TSCFs manuals. (Note: Remember the importance of proper alignment when fitting crossing corrugated bulkheads).

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18 For vessels in service, preventive measures mostly relate to proper maintenance and repair/ improvement of any experienced design-related weaknesses. 233.8 233.80 Hull Repairs General

Repair of chemical carriers will in many respects be similar to oil tankers. However, in case repairs involve stainless steel, utmost care must be exercised as to choosing correct material and welding procedures/consumables. Welders to be qualified for the specialised work. 233.9 233.90 Inspection General

For inspection of newbuildings in general see 200.64. (Note: It is absolutely essential that comprehensive guidance on the handling of stainless steel during construction is sought, including how to ensure that Fe-contamination is avoided throughout the entire construction process). Since leakages may have serious consequences, the efforts to counteract such incidents at the newbuilding stage should be given priority. Main requirements to the cargo boundaries are that the structural elements are in line and that approved and tested welding procedures are applied. Any corrugated bulkheads and their connections to other boundary structures are of particular importance, and should be monitored accordingly throughout the vessels life. For ships in operation, inspections should generally be carried out as described in 200.7. Chemical carriers are covered by the ESP Program and consequently a Survey Program shall be worked out for the renewal surveys. For a novel design it is recommended that nomination and extent of suspect areas be included in the Survey Program and discussed with hull specialists from the Class. Such input should certainly also be utilised for the Owners own inspection program. Otherwise, inspection of chemical carriers is similar to oil tankers.

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19 234 234.1 234.10 BULK CARRIERS/CONVENTIONAL TYPE Structural Design General

Conventional bulk carriers have double bottom, hopper- and top wing tanks and mostly single sides, see Gp 20/200.23 and the related Fig. 200.20 B. With such layout it is natural that the primary members in double bottom, hopper- and top wing tanks are arranged transversely, with longitudinal secondary strength members within these tanks and areas. For ship's side a primary girder system is unnecessary, since the vertical span is covered by a secondary structural system in the form of vertical frames, supported by the hopper tank and the top wing tank. A typical structural transverse section is shown below:

It should be noted that the double bottom is shown with some longitudinal girders, which from a strength point of view may be judged superfluous. However, in the actual case these are very valuable in creating a redundant structure in the double bottom, and additionally resulting in a smoothening/levelling out of double bottom deformations when loaded. By this smoothening the stresses in the secondary structural members, caused by the deformations, are greatly reduced. The transverse bulkheads separating the cargo holds are normally vertically corrugated with a transverse stool at the bottom and sometimes at the top.

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20 A typical bulkhead (without lower stool) is shown below:

(Hatch covers may be of any type, but often side rolling is preferred for larger vessels. For details see MGp 3/Gp 30). 234.2 234.20 Loads/Exposure General

There are great varieties of bulk cargoes, with specific gravity normally ranging from say 0,7 to 3,0 t/m3. This will often result in loading of heavy cargo in alternate holds only, the main reasons being easier loading, discharging and cleaning as well as a less stiff vessel (reduced GM). Normal design conditions for bulk carriers are homogenous loading, alternate hold loading with heavy cargo and a couple of ballast conditions. One hold (mostly amidships) is often arranged/strengthened for carriage of ballast and used as such when necessary (heavy weather condition). It should be noted that not all bulk carriers are strengthened for alternate loading. Vessels, which are approved for alternate loading, will have a class notation to this effect. Bulk carriers are very seldom planned for partial loads or loading in two or more ports, neither for carriage of bulk cargo with specific gravity between homogenous full load and load in alternate holds. The Class does not require the vessels to be designed for such specific conditions, if not requested by the Owner. For the Owner it may, however, be difficult at the design/contract stage to foresee how the vessel will be used in operation, hence one might end up with lack of flexibility as to loading, if this is not closely evaluated at the design stage and included in the contract specification. (It should be mentioned that the standard bulk carriers being offered and delivered today, are highly optimised, especially with respect to the hull structure. They are, however, often designed for theoretical loading conditions with little relevance for the actual service they will encounter during their service lifetime. While these bulk carriers satisfy (most of) the applicable requirements on paper, it is very likely that they will operate outside their design limitations, either due to ignorance, incompetence or in the worst case knowingly being operated with reduced and unacceptable safety margins). Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

21

Details of loading arrangements where combinations of empty and loaded holds are envisaged, and where it is the intention to load fully any two adjoining holds with adjacent holds empty in sea-going or short voyage conditions, to be submitted to Class for approval. It is therefore recommended that new designs take into account the possibility of part loads, at least allowing the vessel to load or discharge part cargoes in two ports, to the extent such part loads may be relevant. If not known, approx. 20/80 % and 40/60 % should be covered. For a 9 hold vessel this part loading may result in conditions as given in the figures below:

22% cargo

44% cargo

56% cargo

78% cargo

Vessels capable of alternate loading of heavy cargo are normally designed for that particular cargo only. If specific gravity of cargo is somewhere in-between what is carried in alternate holds and the lighter cargo carried homogeneously, the design is seldom planned for operation with only one (or more) holds empty. In order to achieve such possibility it is recommended that the vessel should, in addition to empty alternate holds, be designed for having one or any combination of empty holds within 0,5 L amidships.

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22 For a 9-hold vessel the resulting conditions are shown below:

Full load

Full load

Full load

Full load

For single-sided bulk carriers, new requirements to strength in hold-flooded condition were introduced in 1998. These requirements were introduced as a result of numerous bulk carriers being lost at sea after accidental ingress of water into cargo holds, and requires that bulk carriers shall have sufficient strength reserves to withstand accidental flooding of any single cargo hold in all loaded and ballast conditions. See also 234.3-234.9. The operational structural limits of bulk carriers are further not governed by longitudinal strength only, but also by local strength of structures as tank top/double bottom and transverse bulkheads, also including deck between the hatches. Responsible ship officers may not always have sufficient information available to safeguard against overloading, and may hence have allowed overloading of the hull girder to take place, during loading as well as during discharging. It is therefore of great importance that necessary and comprehensive loading information as to the effect of structural operational limits is available on board at delivery, and that the limits related to permissible loading are observed at all times. A comprehensive Loading Manual (Class requirement) giving information about all basic load and ballast conditions including relevant loading and discharge sequences will serve the purpose. With the large number of bulk carriers lost in recent years emphasis has again been put on alternate hull loading and the problems experienced particularly for older vessels. The Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

23 tendency today (2002) is therefore that one does not advocate the use of these loading conditions on older vessels, as homogenous loading is considered to reduce hull stresses and improve safety. One of the problems, especially in major bulk ports such as in Australia, is with the loading rates used, to accurately determine the quantity of cargo actually loaded into each of alternate holds, as one can easily overshoot with a couple of thousands tons. 234.3 234.30 Constructional Aspects General

Newbuildings are to be designed with structures and scantlings sufficient to give the necessary flexibility for different loaded and ballasted conditions, including part loads mentioned above, with due consideration to operational aspects such as filling of ballast in heavy weather (to avoid slamming effects). However, it is certainly not up to the Class to specify which design criteria the Owner should opt for to meet the trade requirements - on the contrary it is up to the Class to approve any proposed loading condition in order to ensure that the necessary structural strength is built into the vessel. Due to the great number of accidents and losses of bulk carriers that have occurred during the past decades, there is currently (2002) work going on within some of the major classification societies to change the attitude regarding load conditions. One will most likely in the near future experience that IACS (and hence the classification societies) will start to define and require compliance with a set of minimum load and ballast conditions. Another likely measure will be to reinstall the forecastle on bulk carriers, thus creating additional strength and protection of the forward part of the vessel. Owners having the intention to contract new bulk carriers before these loading conditions and accompanying requirements have been made mandatory, are strongly recommended to discuss the matter with the Class prior to signing contracts, in order to avoid later expensive upgrading. Most probably IACS will also try to coordinate the Class notations related to bulk carriers, hence making it easier to avoid misunderstandings when vessels are transferred from one classification society to another. 234.4 234.40 Failures and Damages General

Common structural problems and failures as well as damages and proposals for their repair are described in IACS bulk carrier publication Guidelines for Surveys, Assessment and Repair of Hull Structure, (Ref. 2). On some bulk carriers, damages related to over-pressuring of top wing tanks caused by overpumping and undersized air pipes have occurred. Similarly, hatches and deck plating of cargo holds designed for carriage of water ballast have been damaged due to overpressuring or vacuum occurred during filling and discharging respectively. Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

24

A well known scenario is that the frames have been so heavily corroded and/or damaged by cargo handling equipment, that their strength has been reduced to such an extent that the ship's side collapses. Some possible precautions against these scenarios are described in 234.9. One a few vessels, small access hatches and/or ventilators/air pipes forward have been damaged during bad weather with subsequent filling of the forecastle and/or the forepeak. Such incidents will increase the forward draft and with the vessel still exposed to bad weather, the cargo hold hatch covers are subjected to very heavy sea loads, and eventually becoming overloaded with subsequent collapse. 234.5 234.50 Risks and Consequences General

Flooding of a cargo hold with subsequent collapse of transverse bulkheads is a major risk for bulk carriers. The bulkheads have proved structurally under-dimensioned in relation to withstanding flooding of the hold. When the bulkhead collapses under the induced load, this has in turn lead to progressive flooding and total loss of floatation capacity. The consequence of such scenario has in many cases been loss of the vessel, as well as lives, often including all on board. By an initiative taken by IMO and IACS, strengthening of the bulkhead between the two foremost holds on existing vessels was made mandatory, also including new structural and survival ability requirements for new vessels. As a result of this, the above risk is considered greatly reduced. Other major risks and possible consequences are mentioned in the referred IACS bulk carrier publication. 234.6 234.60 Acceptance Criteria General

For newbuildings, the class requirements have normally been used as the design standard for the vessel. However, as mentioned above, todays (2002) design standards and class requirements may not prove sufficient. Until these standards and relevant requirements have been satisfactorily improved, it is recommended to try to incorporate into the design the proposals for improved safety mentioned elsewhere in SGp 234. In this respect it is further recommended to study the progress of the safety work being performed by IACS. For existing vessels, utmost care should be exercised if postponing repair of failures that may develop into grave consequences. See also Gp 20/SGp 200/200.8 and 231.60/232.60.

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25 234.7 234.70 Preventive Measures General

It is assumed that the introduction of SOLAS requirements for increased safety of bulk carriers, will affect the layout and design of new vessels in such a way that current experience and know-how are insufficient for a total evaluation of the hull structure. Hence, all available expertise and general knowledge should be utilised to ensure that new ships are built as safe and easy to operate as possible, with minimum maintenance requirements. Important in this regard is the earlier mentioned variety of design load and ballast conditions and the completeness of structural information on board, limiting the operation of the vessel. It is further required that ballast tanks are effectively protected against corrosion, in particular double side tanks. Such tanks will normally be relatively narrow and with comprehensive internal structures, providing restricted access only. This will render proper re-protection at a later stage, such as in service blasting and re-coating, difficult and costly. It should also be remembered that anode protection is only effective as long as the anodes stay submerged, see Part I/Ch. 5. Complete filling of the tanks may further be prevented by air being trapped between beams and girders, if not sufficient air holes. Additionally the cargo holds on new bulk carriers are required coated and presumed maintained in good condition during the operational phase. (Ballast tanks are also required coated during new construction and expected maintained during the vessels life, although there are no Class rule through which the Owner can be made to maintain the coating in the ballast tanks. The Class will, however, require poorly coated ballast tanks to be inspected annually). From the past experience related to accidents with bulk carriers, a number of improvements can be built into new vessels at a relatively low cost. This includes limiting the number of deck openings to a minimum, and that those that have to be arranged, are positioned and protected in the best possible way. Breakwaters should also be considered fitted to achieve additional protection. Furthermore, the strength of all access hatches, ventilators, air pipes as well as hatch coamings and cargo hatch covers should be especially evaluated for extreme sea loads and considered strengthened above Class requirements. A more costly precaution will be to build the vessel with forecastle, ref 234.30. This will naturally give improved protection to the foremost cargo hold hatch covers and coamings as well as an opportunity to position necessary openings in a protected position at the aft end of (or inside) the forecastle. On the operational side, the importance of proper closing procedures as well as execution of these procedures, for all small hatches etc. before leaving port, to be emphasized and the crew to be continuously drilled in this regard. See also 234.9.

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26 234.8 234.80 Hull Repairs General

Repairs should be well planned and preferably carried out during drydocking/yard visit. The mentioned IACS publication (Ref. 2) should be consulted for guidance on hull repairs. If the vessel is subject to retroactive requirement to improved strength of the bulkhead between the two forward holds and the double bottom in hold no. 1, the Class should be contacted for assistance as to the extent of strengthening. Currently (2002) such requirements are found in two different IACS Unified Requirements:

S19 Evaluation of Scantlings of the Transverse Watertight Corrugated Bulkhead between Cargo Holds Nos. 1 and 2, with Cargo Hold No. 1 flooded, for existing Single Side Skin Bulk Carriers. S22 Shear Strength of Double Bottom in Flooded Condition for Existing Single Side Skin.

Details of the Unified Requirements may be found on IACS homepage on Internet at http://www.iacs.org.uk/ or by contacting the Class directly. The dates set by IACS for compliance with these requirements are found in IACS Unified Requirements S23:

For ships which will be 20 years of age or more on 1 July 1998, by the due date of the first intermediate, or the due date of the first special survey to be held after 1 July 1998, whichever comes first. For ships which will be 15 years of age or more but less than 20 years of age on 1 July 1998, by the due date of the first special survey to be held after 1 July 1998, but not later than 1 July 2002. For ships which will be 10 years of age or more but less than 15 years of age on 1 July 1998, by the due date of the next special survey after the date on which the ship reaches 15 years of age but not later than the date on which the ship reaches 17 years of age For ships which will be less than 10 years of age on 1 July 1998, by the date on which the ship reaches 15 years of age.

The above requirements have emerged as a consequence of recent years many tragic losses of bulk carriers, new as well as old.

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27 234.9 234.90 Inspection General

This section deals with some special items to be considered on bulk carriers, both for newbuildings as well as for vessels in operation. In general, any known problems related to sister ships should be addressed with some urgency. Additionally, relevant experience from building and operation of similar ship types/designs will always prove useful. 234.91 Newbuildings

For inspection of newbuildings in general see 200.64. Particular attention to be given to highly stressed areas with respect to structural continuity, structures being sufficiently in line, welding and proper workmanship. At ends of the cargo area, the transition elements for top wing tanks and hopper tanks should be carefully checked to ensure proper scarping details. For all openings in weather deck to spaces below, the securing arrangement should be thoroughly inspected for workmanship and functioning. Likewise scantlings and support of all small hatches, ventilators etc. to be closely evaluated, see also 234.7. 234.92 Vessels in operation

For inspection of ships in operation, see Gp 20/200.7. Bulk carriers are nominated for ESP and for ISM (July 98). Both requirements necessitate an Owners program for a planned inspection at regular intervals, even if the vessel is surveyed periodically by the Class. Important items for inspection will certainly be the ones which, when failing, may have grave consequences. All critical areas are important inspection items even more so if their failure may lead to consequential situations, such as loss of side shell plating and corresponding cargo hold flooding, rupture of main deck and separation of the hull girder, collapse/failure of the vessels cargo hatches with sea water ingress into the cargo holds etc. The collapse of the side shell mentioned in 234.40 is one of the reasons for loss of bulk carriers in the past years. Most of these accidents can be traced back to weakening of the frames extending between the hopper tank and the top wing tank, caused by corrosion and/or mechanical damage, this in combination with the fact that the side frames are difficult to inspect properly. It is not sufficient to view the frames from the inner bottom, they must be inspected from close distance, and the thickness measured and checked against the Class rules. Any sign that one or more of the frames are deformed or have started to part from the side shell, to be taken as a serious sign of weakness, and must be dealt with immediately. With the past years' focus Super-Man/Basic Edition/Part II Copyright NSA

28 on structurally optimised designs and reduced weight and cost, and the related extensive use of HT steel, weakening of the side frames have even been seen on vessels of 10 years or less of age. Flooding of holds is the most serious consequence. Hence careful inspection of ships side with frames and their attachment to the side shell, as well as hatches and the deck between hatches, is necessary. Other important checkpoints are deck plating at hatch corners, hatch coamings with brackets, intersection between inner bottom and sloping hopper tank plating, side shell plating in way of hopper/top wing tanks, connection of transverse frames, connection between vertically corrugated bulkheads to lower stool and sloping top wing tank plating, boundaries lower stool/inner bottom and connections between access trunks/sloping hopper tank plating. All structures should be assessed for nomination of risks and possible consequences and in this connection the importance of weaknesses. With reference to the previously mentioned problems related to access hatches, ventilators, air pipes etc., the following are important items for inspection:

Access hatches, ventilators and air pipes to be checked for corrosion and cracks, including ventilators and air pipes for forecastle and forepeak tank. Check for mechanical damage. Consider reinforcements, fitting of breakwaters or additional support if damages are found. Check that all cleats and other securing devices are intact, well maintained and in good operational condition. All gaskets to be in good condition.

Likewise, the cargo hatches with coamings/supports as well as securing arrangements and gaskets should be checked regularly. Any sign of defects or corrosion to be dealt with accordingly.

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29 235 235.1 235.10 OPEN HATCH BULK CARRIERS, FOREST PRODUCT CARRIERS Structural Design General

A typical section of this type of bulk carrier with square holds is shown in Gp 20/200.23. Such vessels may occasionally carry bulk cargo but are normally utilised for forest products and containers, and as such not nominated for ESP. (Vessels with a square cargo hold configuration, i.e. vessels without hopper tanks and with double sides, are not designated as traditional bulk carriers and are therefore not subject to the ESP requirements). The primary girder system in double bottom and double side will naturally be arranged transversely, resulting in longitudinal stiffening as secondary structural members throughout the cargo area. A typical section is shown below:

As shown in the figure, longitudinal girders are arranged both in double bottom and double side. These girders create structural redundancy and distribute the loads, thus avoiding overstressing the longitudinals by forced deflections at the ends of the holds. Additionally, the girders in the double side (stringers) facilitate access for inspection. (It should, however, be noted that the girders are primarily for strength purposes. The fact that they can be used for access to the structure is an added benefit). The bulkheads will often be of the cofferdam type with same width from bottom to deck. In this way the cargo area on tank top and the hatch opening will be maximised to facilitate loading and stowage of containers and forest products.

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30 A typical bulkhead is shown below:

The large hatch covers, usually of the pontoon type, are normally handled by the vessels own gantry cranes. 235.2 235.20 Loads/Exposure General

Open hatch type bulk carriers are often built with the possibility of keeping alternate holds empty at full draft, but this is very seldom utilised in operation. These vessels will normally be more or less homogeneously loaded at full draft, and quite rarely operated in pure ballast condition. As a consequence, design loads for some structural elements will normally be higher than loads experienced in operation. This is particularly the case for double bottom structures, bulkheads and inner sides bordering possible ballast hold not in use as such. Hatches are normally designed and strengthened for carriage of cargo on top (containers). For loads in general see Gp 20/200.3. 235.3 235.30 Constructional Aspects General

Typical constructional aspects for the cargo area is shown in the figures above, with details as given in Gp 20/SGp 202. If HT steel is used in structures exposed to dynamic loads of any magnitude, the fatigue strength should be especially considered. Otherwise, structures exposed to hull twisting deformations should be documented with regard to reliability. This applies particularly to structures in hatch corners and near resting pads and locking devices.

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31 235.4 235.40 Failures/Damages General

For open hatch type bulk carriers, hull damages resulting in casualties comparable with ordinary bulk carriers, have so far not been experienced. Generally the open hatch types have operated successfully, except for some fatigue cracking in the side longitudinals, some cracking in longitudinal hatch coaming ends, in crane rails with foundation and in the hatch coaming stays/brackets near the pads and locking devices (increased loads). See also MGp3/Gp 30. Additionally these vessels often operate in waterways where they are particularly exposed to contact damages of shell plating. 235.5 235.50 Risks and Consequences General

As stated above, the open hatch bulk carrier is not known to have any built-in hull related risks, endangering the safety of ship and crew. The worst experienced consequences have been loss of or damage to valuable cargo, caused by inadequate securing of cargo in holds or on deck, including rather frequent damage to and loss of containers. Other probable consequences may be water damage to sensitive cargo. Possible ingress of water into the holds will in all probability come through the hatch covers. Other potential dangers in this regard include ventilation ducts, pipes passing through cargo holds and adjacent ballast tanks. Clean bilge wells and a proper working bilge system as well as secure sounding pipes must be ensured. 235.6 235.60 Acceptance Criteria General

For general information see Gp 20/200.8. 235.7 235.70 Preventive Measures General

Even if the open hatch type vessels in general have served successfully so far, the possible problems and damages mentioned above should be carefully studied at the design stage and as far as possible catered for. Normally the deck structures will be built of HT steel, which in case also should be applied for the longitudinal hatch coamings. These coamings should further be built as continuous since the distance between hatches is very small and hardly sufficient for a successful tapering of the coamings at the hatch ends. When arranged continuously, it is important that the continuity is kept intact as far as possible, without openings or cut-outs, which may initiate cracking.

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32 Generally, the crane rails with foundation are also recommended to be continuous. A condition is, however, that the rails are of suitable and weldable material quality. If the rails are made of a steel quality with high hardness (e.g. railway quality), they have to be bolted to a foundation, which should be continuously welded to the deck. The foundation(s) will then take part in the longitudinal strength of the vessel. If the rails are made of the same steel quality as the foundation/the supporting structure, they may be continuously welded to the foundation and included in the vessels longitudinal strength. See also MGp 3/Gp 33. The tooth bar of the driving unit on the gantry crane(s) might preferably be continuous as well, but is considered complicated due to difficulties with material quality. If not continuous, the bar should be of small lengths, say 3 m, and only bolted to the foundation. If welding is used, this should be limited to a short distance at the middle of the bar. The torsional deformations of the hull and the very stiff hatches result in the hatch pads moving on the coaming top, creating wear down if friction is high. This problem may be solved by using low friction material in the pads or on top of coaming. With low friction material the hatch locking devices become more important and they must be able to absorb all forces imposed when the vessel is rolling and pitching with maximum load on the hatches. It is further important that locking devices are only two in number on each pontoon, with one at each end. See also MGp 3/Gp 30. If new vessels are going to be operated in waterways where contact damages may be expected, suitable strengthening of relevant local areas as shoulders and where tugs will be pushing, is recommended. (This precaution naturally applies to other ship types as well). Such areas should be clearly marked on the ships side. Otherwise, coating and precautions in this regard should be as for other ships. For vessels in operation, preventive measures are tied up with frequent and programmed inspections and resulting maintenance requirements. 235.8 235.80 Hull Repairs General

If damages to coamings, packing arrangement or hatches occur, successful repairs may prove difficult. The hatch covers with packing arrangements and securing devices are highly specialised equipment. Repairs and improvements should therefore be discussed with the manufacturers prior to attempting repairs. Proposed repairs should be brought up with the Class.

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33 235.9 235.90 Inspection General

For inspection of newbuildings in general see Gp 20/200.64 as well as Part I/Ch. 6 of the Manual. For ships in operation see Gp 20/200.7. Even if the open hatch type bulk carrier is not nominated for ESP, or for ISM within the first years, it is still strongly recommended that a scheduled inspection program is worked out and adhered to.
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