The Dual Ordering of Actors and Possessions Author(s): Thomas Schweizer Source: Current Anthropology, Vol. 34, No.

4 (Aug. - Oct., 1993), pp. 469-483 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743760 . Accessed: 16/12/2013 06:19
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Volume 34, Number 4, August-October 1993

ofseaJ., AND F. HOLE. I99I. The ecology ofagriculture in theNear East. sonal stiessand the origin

469

MC CORRISTON, MILLER,

Althoughanthropological is oftenconceived fieldwork as a "qualitative" undertaking, as a matterof fact ethnographers gatherconsiderablenumerical information 57:482-94. in the course of censuses, surveys,and systematicobNAHEV, Z., AND R. H. WHITTAKER. I979. Structural and floservationsin theirfield sites (BernardI988). Typically ofshrublands and woodlands in northern ristic Israel diversity these data sets coverrather largesets ofunits (individuand other Mediterranean areas. Vegetatio 4I:I7I-90. als, households, etc.) in terms of qualitative concepts NIKLEWSKI, J., AND W. VAN ZEIST. I970. A late Quatemary from northwestem pollendiagram Acta BotanicaNeerSyria. the presence/absence of attributes, memberspecifying landica I9:737-54. or the rankorderof such ship in a systemof categories, ROBERTS, N., AND H. E. WRIGHT, JR. I993. "The Near East categories. Examples are data on the occurrence/nonocand southwest Asia," in Global climatic changes since the last of materialpossessions, classifications currence of resiEditedbyH. E. Wright, glacial maximum. Jr., J.E. Kutzbach, dence,religiousaffiliation, F. A. Street-Perrott, occupation,and social class, T. WebbIII, W. F. Ruddiman, and P. J. ofMinnesota Bartlein. Press. Minneapolis: University and observationson the amounts of power and social F. A., AND A. PERROTT. I993. "Holocene STREET-PERROTT, status which actors possess within a social system.In lake levels,and climateofAfrica," in Global vegetation, the language of formaldata analysis (Gifi I990) these climatessince thelast glacial maximum.EditedbyH. W. variables are called categorial or discrete.The empiriT. WebbIII, W. F. Ruddiman, F. A. Wright, Jr., J.E. Kutzbach, and P. J.Bartlein. of Street-Perrott, Minneapolis: University cal relationshipsthey express can be formallyrepreMinnesota Press. sented as nominal scales (statingthe presence/absence VAN ZEIST, W., AND S. BOTTEMA. I977. Palynological investi- of a or membershipin a systemof categories) property in western Iran.Palaeohistoria gations I9:I9-85. or ordinalscales (conceptualizing the amount of a prop. I99I. Late Quatemary vegetation in theNear East. One can count and comparethe frequencies zum Tiibinger ofthe A (Natur- erty). Atlas des Vorderen Beihefte Orients, I8. wissenschaften), values of discretevariables,but the categoriesare not VAN ZEIST, W., S. BOTTEMA, H. WOLDRING, AND D. STAdivisibleas are continuousvariablesmeasuredon interPERT. I975. Late Quatemary vegetation and climate of southval or ratio scales (where,as, forexample, with moneeastern Palaeohistoria Turkey. I7:53-I43. tary income, the exact difference between numerical VAN ZEIST, AND W., AND H. E. WRIGHT, JR. I963. Preliminary pollenstudiesat Lake Zeribar, southZagrosMountains, values has empirical meaning). Continuous variables western Iran. Science I40:65-67. are,however,veryrarein social research. P. J. I99I. "Origins of food production in westem WATSON, Observationaldata are usually arrangedin the form NorthAmerica," in Quaternary Asia and eastern landscapes. of n x m matrixofn units of observation a rectangular EditedbyL. C. K. Shaneand E. J.Cushing, pp. I-37. Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press. (rows)and m variables (columns),and the values of the T. A. I969. Palynology ofthefirst WIJMSTRA, 30 meters of a variables are coded numerically.An arbitrary element I 3o-m-deep sectionin northem Greece. Acta BotanicaNeerlan- of this data matrixspecifiesthe value of variable j for dica I8:5II-27. unit i. Social researchers oftenhave recourseto tabular man in the WRIGHT, H. E., JR. I960. "Climateand prehistoric analysisof two or more variables,a weak procedurefor eastern Mediterranean," in Prehistoricinvestigations in Iraqi Kurdistan. Editedby R. J.Braidwood and B. Howe,pp. 7I-97. detectingthe structureof relationshipsamong all the
ofChicago. Chicago:Oriental Institute, University . I96I. Pleistocene in Kurdistan. glaciation Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart I12:I3i-64. . I968. Naturalenvironment ofearlyfoodproduction in theNear East. Science I6I:334-39. . I976. Environmental for setting plantdomestication in theNear East. Science I94:385-89. . I984. "Palaeoecology, climaticchange, and Aegeanprehisin Contributions tory," to Aegeanarchaeology: Studiesin honorof WilliamA. McDonald. Editedby N. C. Wilkieand W. D. E. Coulson,pp. I83-95. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt. . I989. The amphi-Atlantic distribution oftheYounger fluctuation. Dryasclimatic Quaternary ScienceReviews

N. I99I. "Archaeobotanical in theNear East," research in Progress in Old World palaeoethnobotany. EditedbyW. van and K.-E.Behre, Zeist,K. Wasylkikowa, pp. I33-60. Rotterdam:Balkema. ofplantcultivation . i992. "The origins in theNear East," in The origins in international ofagriculture Edperspective. pp. 39-58. Washington, itedbyC. W. Cowan and P. J.Watson, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. MOORE, A. M. T. I985. The development ofNeolithicsocieties in theNear East.Advancesin World I: I-70. Archaeology MOORE, A. M. T., AND G. C. HILLMAN. i992. The Pleistocene and humaneconomy to Holocenetransition in Southwest Asia: The impactoftheYounger Dryas.American Antiquity

American Anthropologist93:46-69.

The Dual Orderingof Actors and Possessions1

Institutfir Volkerkunde, University of Cologne, Albertus-Magnus-Platz, W-5ooo K5ln 4I, Germany.
6 IV 93
THOMAS SCHWEIZER

variateanalysisofthe whole data matrix-"the analysis ofan arbitrary with the explicitpurrectangular matrix, the matrixin termsofa smallernumpose ofdescribing ber of parametersand of making pictures of this re-

oftheset(Gifi variables I990:43-46).

Inprinciple multi-

8:295-306. WRIGHT, H. E., JR., J. H. MC ANDREWS, AND W. VAN ZEIST. 1967. Modern pollenrainin western Iranand its relation to

and Quatemary plantgeography vegetation history. Journal of Ecology5 5:4I 5-43.

social scientists analysis involving from theUniversity ofCaliforCRNS (Paris), nia,Irvine, andtheUniversity ofCologne. An earlier version was presented at a conference on discrete in the structures social sciencesat the Maison Sugerin Parisin September i992. I thankVincent Duquenne,Douglas R. White, Hartmut Lang,MichaelBollig,Christoph Brumann, AparnaRao, participants in the and anonymous forthis joumal fordetailed conference, referees and helpfulcomments. Duquenne's (i992a) formal support and workon theJavanese computational data set wereinvaluable.

I. Thispaper is anoutcome ofa joint project ondiscrete structure

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470 1 CURRENT

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a better data presentation" (Gifi I990:49)-provides focused analyticsolution. It has, however,traditionally almost exclusivelyon continuousvariablesand statistiforthe analysisofmultinormally cal models appropriate variables(Gifi I990:43), and this orientation distributed on data analysis.Model has imposed severerestrictions assumptionshave rarelybeen met by empirical social discrete variables have been research. Furthermore, treatedas special cases of continuousvariables,and no has been given to problemsof disspecial consideration and cretedata analysis (see, however,Bishop,Fienberg, Holland I97-5). Recentlythe situationhas changedsubstantially:fromapplied statisticshas emergedthe new and rethinkofdata analysis,challenging (sub)discipline ing old assumptions, models, and techniques (Gifi argues that "all data are i). Gifi (i990:52) i990:chap. discrete (or categorial)," continuous models being apcalculations and approximaplied to them "to simplify to convert tions," and that it may even be appropriate on continuousvariablesto discretedata for observations of the pattern ofrelationthe purposeofbetterrecovery ships among them (pp. 2I-32). in social science data analysis recentcurrent Another graphtheset theory, ofmethodsfrom is the exploration ory,algebra,and formallogic (as branches of discrete structuralrelationships mathematics)for representing among categorialdata (see White and Duquenne I993 foran overview).The focus on qualitative data and the are most appealingto anthropolconcernwith structure ogy; recourse to well-establishedconcepts and proceduresfromdiscretemathematicsadds formalprecision, lackingin and analyticflexibility rigour, methodological In addition,there structuralisms. earlieranthropological are now computerprogramsthat make data analysis practical (see, e.g., Duquenne I992b; White I99I; Degenne and Lebeaux i992). So far,anthropologicaland analysis social science applicationsof discretestructure have included graphanalysis of kinship,exchange,and (Hage and HararyI 983, I 99 I; White symbolicorderings analand Jorion i992), lattice and statisticalentailment ysis of social networkand cognitivedata (Freemanand White i992, White and McCann I988, White et al. and Boolean dissection of causal patterns(DeI993),

the culturaluse of and exchangeaffects tion,production, thingsat the local level. New theoreticaland empirical questions have been posed, and a richerunderstanding of material culture has been gained. There has been, in systematic improvement however,no corresponding methods for assessing ethnographicdata on material culture.In thispaperI shall explorethe prospectsofone discretemethod,lattice analysis,forthe elucidation of of actors and possessions in materialposthe ordering sessions data. Ethnographic and comparative research produces many data sets which simplyspecifyfora set of actors households)which items froma list ofposses(persons, studiedare sions consideredrelevantin the community presentor absent (Castro, Hakansson, and Brokensha is displayedin a table of Oftenthis information I98I). actors(rows)and possessions (columns).2In data analytheirattentionto univarirestrict sis many researchers ate frequenciesof particularpossessions or to the profiles of specific actors, present valuable and partial on the meaning,value, and use information background ofselecteditems,or compute (sometimescrude)indices of materialwealth. However,thereis more to these biifeverare these narydata matricesthan this,and rarely and comprehensive way data analyzedin a sophisticated (Kay I964 is an early exception).The discretemethod thatI proposefordata analysiscan be appliedto material possessions data of this canonical formin an attempt patternamong actors and posto recoverthe ordering sessions systematically(Schweizer I993b; Duquenne
i992a,

probleminherentin materialposThe dual ordering sessions data can be introducedwith Bourdieu's (I979) [see Elster I98I]) studyof (and controversial influential Frenchsociin contemporary social class and life-styles ety. Bourdieu analyzes the symbolic and social values associated with particular possessions-the way in reproducethemselves which classes and class fractions and engagingin by payingclose attentionto life-styles competitiveconsumptivedisplays.He hyever-shifting pothesises a mapping between social actors (that is, classes or class fractions)and particular patterns of consumption and uses the statistical technique of analysis (Weller and Romney iggo) to correspondence genne i992; Lang I993a, b; Schweizer I993a). In a sense thismovementpursuesthe concernsofolderstructural- representit in a common geometric space of low This leads to the notion of dual orderanaly- dimensionality. isms in the social sciences,but today'sstructural among possessions,giventheirparticuan ordering ing: in data with precise empirical examines sis orderings methods and computerprogramsand thus avoids the lar distributionamong the set of actors, an ordering ofpossessions, by theirprofiles amongactors,generated flawsof its predecessors. Aftera long period of neglect,material culture has recentlyreceived renewed attention (Appadurai I986; (e.g.,the tablein Ichimatrices possessions-by-actor McCracken 2. Formally, FeatherstoneI99I; Ferguson I988, I992; can be treated the same way by transposing kawa I99I:I42-43) I989; Miller I987; Rutz and Orlove I989; Sahlins I988; rows and columns.A valued and thus interchanging the matrix see Douglas and Isher- datamatrix Thomas i99I; for forerunners can easilybe transofpossessions on thefrequencies researchfocuseson formed datamatrix intoa binary (see also GifiI990: chap.2). Conwood I978, BourdieuI979). Current unitsofobservation has to be madebetween a distinction the culturalconstitutionof things,the symbolicvalue ceptually meapossessions) items, and variables (attributes, objects) (actors, nexus, of goods, the production-exchange-consumption thelatticemodel In explaining theunitsofobservation. suredfor lifein distinctions particular the expressionof social and in an apdistinction, I shall use the generalobject/attribute to styles,and the way in which the embeddednessof com- pliedmaterial morespecifically I shallrefer context possessions or actors/items. ofcommunica- actors/possessions even global networks munitiesin larger,

b).

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Volume 34, Number 4, August-October

'993

| 47I

and the interlocking patternconnectingthe two. This TABLE I notion,thoughnot alien to Bourdieu'swork,is not fully Presence(i) or Absence (o) of Seven Consumer Goods developed there or conceptualized precisely.However, for40 Households in Papeete (afterKay I964:I6I-62) whateverone's substantiveand theoreticalinterpretations of such data on materialculture,representing the HouseHousedual ordering of actors and possessions in a precise and hold hold systematicway is fundamental.Lattice analysis has A F K V R B P Number A F K V R B P Number some important prospectsforthis task: it staysclose to the observationaldata and is well suited to dissecting 0 0 0 0 I I I I I I I I I I 2I and the in-depthpattern I the overall ordering structure 00 0 0 2 22 I I I I I I I I I I in binarydata matrices. Building 0 I I I I I I of objects/attributes 0 0 I 0 0 I I 3 23 on earlierwork (Duquenne i992b, Schweizer I993b), I 0 I I I I I 0 0 0 I 0 I I I 4 24 0 0 0 0 0 I I 5 25 shall trace dual orderingstructuresamong actors and 0 I I I I I I 0 0 0 0 0 I I 6 26 possessions with this discretemethod. The focus will 0 I I 0 I I I 0 I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I I I I 7 27 be on ethnographic data sets fromdifferent cultures,il- 0 0 I I I I I 0 0 0 0 0 28 8 I I the potentialof lattice analysis forcompara- 0 0 I I I I I lustrating 0 0 0 0 0 I I 9 29 0 0 I 0 00 0 0 0 I I I I I IO 30 tive studies.
0 0 0 0

CASE

STUDIES

OF ELEMENTARY

ORDERING

PATTERNS

I I 0

0 0

0 0

I I I I

I I I I

I I I

I I I

II

0 0 0 0

I2 I3 I4 I5

00 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

I I

I 0 I I

3I 32

A well-knownmaterial possessions data set collected by Kay (i964) in Papeete, FrenchPolynesia,recordsthe distributionof seven consumer durables among 40 householdsin this Tahitian town (table I). Kay detected it an interlocking dual ordering patternand represented in a Guttman scale, rankingthe households according to the frequency of theirpossessions and the durables if a accordingto theirjoint occurrence.In this ranking, houshold possesses a certainitem, it will also possess all the items orderedbelow that item; if a household does not possess a particularitem, it will not possess any ofthe items above thatitem in the order.If such an is possible empirically, then actorsand possesordering in a Guttmanscale. Thus Guttsions can be represented man scalinglooks fora maximallytransitive and consistentrepresentation of the rows and the columns of the data matrix.However,the Guttmanmodel-a sophisticated tool of data analysis at that time-imposes a union the inputdata. Formost empirdimensionalordering ical data sets and forlargesets ofitemsthisstrict pattern will be ratherunlikely and at best only approximated. Hence a more general solution should allow fora less restrictive (multidimensional) representation of dual ordering structures. In a recentintroduction to corresponit in a two-dimensional lyze the Kay data and represent geometricspace. Figure i is a simplified version of the results of correspondence analysis depictingthe common presences among the set of durables (computed with the UCINET IV programsuite forsocial network analysis [Borgatti, Everett,and Freeman i992]; in their more comprehensive analysis Weller and Romney also include the nonoccurrenceof items). The closer two items are in geometricspace, the more frequent is their joint occurrencein the set of households. In this case the successive ordering of the items in space (from right to left)reflectsthe orderof theiracquisition and their value. This sequence leads fromprimusstove and bicycle as widely shared consumer items of low value radio and two-wheeledmotorvehicle and then through

0 0 0
0

I I I
I I

I
I

I
I

33
34
35

0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

I I
I I

I I
I I

i6
I7 I8 I9 20

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 00

I
I I I 0

36 37
38 39 40

0 0 0 0

A, automobile; B, bicycle;F, refrigerator; or K, kerosene vegas stove;P, primus stove;R, radio;V, two-wheeled motor hicle.
NOTE:

denceanalysis Weller and Romney (I990:79-83)

reana-

keroseneor gas stove and refrigerator to automobile as a rareand highlyvalued luxuryitem. Households could be placed in those partsof the space which fittheirparticular arrays of durables-for example, poorer ones close to theprimusstove,richones nearthe automobile, and middle-classones in between. Given the usefulgeometric representation (e.g.,fig.i) and the data reductioncapacityof standardmethodsof statistical data dredging, what additional analytic insightcan be gainedby applying discretemethodsto materialpossessionsdata? One should note initiallythatat the rootof all materialpossessions examples are logical implications,if-thenrelations specifying joint occurrences among the items of the set. These relations of actors. For among items lead to a discreteordering instance,ifan actorpossesses item A, then does he/she also possess items B and C, etc.? Logical implications are the basis of lattice analysis (Duquenne igg2a, b; Freemanand White i992; Wille I990), and therefore it is naturalto represent binarymaterialpossessions data in a lattice.Latticeanalysisextracts all thelogical implications among the items of the set and represents the order generated among actorsofthe set by theirparticular combinationsofpossessions. This interlocking order is faithfully and comprehensively computed fromthe raw data. Lattice analysis is best conceived as a method ofdual scalingwhich looks forstrict implicationsin the data and represents the nestedordering ofattributes and objects (= actors,units of observation). The dual order-

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472 1 CURRENT

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4.54 AUTO 3.26

1.99 KEROSENE REFRIG BICYCLE VEHICLE -2.54 -1.76 -0.97 RADIO

0.71

PRIM

-0.56

-0.18

0.60

keroseneor gas stove, two-wheeled FIG. i. Optimal scaling of consumerdurables (automobile,refrigerator, motorvehicle,radio, bicycle,primus stove) in 40 Papeete households. ing patterncan be visualized in the formof a line diagram.Thus lattice analysis yields precise information on the total patternof logical implicationscontainedin the data and represents the exact dual ordering structure of actorsand possessions in termsof implications. Latticeanalysis can be applied to any binarydata matrix.For data analysis I use the GLAD (General Lattice Analysis and Designs) programdeveloped by Vincent Duquenne (igg2b).3At presentthe program can handle up to 32 attributes. The data are input as a raw binary data matrixsuch as that of table i. Withinthe program a preprocessing of the data is executed by extracting rows and columns which are duplicates or composites of attributesand objects retained in the reduced data set. This loss ofstructurally is unimportant information and the lost information documented, can be recovered; when the user demandsfrequenciesoutput,all the data are included.In a routineapplicationof GLAD, the reduced data set is analyzed, and two images are drawn: an image of the partialorderof attributes and an image ofthelatticedepicting all implicationsamongattributes and the nested ordering of objects. The list of implications producedby the program is fundamental forcomputingand drawingthe images. The totalset ofimplicationsforthe Kay data is shown in table 2. The first implication,forinstance,is, that if a household owns an automobile (A), then it also possesses a refrigerator (F), a kerosene or gas stove (K), a two-wheeled motorvehicle (V), a radio (R), a bicycle(B), and a primusstove (P). This situationis the case in 2 of
quenne, IO bis, rue A. Payen, F-750I5 Paris, France. A single-user personal license costs $ioo. Other programs for lattice analysis (e.g., BurmeisterI99I, Vogtand Bliesener i99i) are available from the Department of Mathematics, Technical University of Darmstadt, Schlossgartenstrasse7, D-6 Ioo Darmstadt, Germany.

the 40 households. There will be no household with an automobilewhich does not also possess all the indicated items (readerscan check this claim by inspectingthe raw data in table I). A single occurrenceof an automobile withoutany of the otheritems would have falsified this implication. In lattice analysis exceptions to the strictimplicativerules are not allowed (but see below on relaxationof this condition).Empiricallyin the Kay data, all implicationsexcept the last one containpremises with one elementonly,that is, one attribute in the of the hypothesis.The last one contains if-component a multiple-element premise. These elements are connectedby a logical conjunction(onlyifall conditionsin the premiseare true can we expect the outcome in the conclusion):ifa household owns a keroseneor gas stove (K), a two-wheeledmotorvehicle (V), a bicycle (B), and a primusstove (P), then it also owns a radio (R). This is the case in 7 households of the sample. The two images
2

TABLE

Implicationsamong ConsumerDurables and Number of Cases Fulfilling Each in Papeete

Premise A F K V R KVBP
NOTE:

Conclusion FKVRBP RBP BP

BP

NumberofCases
2

thatcan be ordered V. Du3. GLAD is a shareware program from

BP R

II I4
22

A, automobile; B, bicycle:F, refrigerator; or K, kerosene gas stove;P, primus stove;R, radio;V, two-wheeled motor vehicle.

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Volume 34, Number 4, August-October '993 1473 on implications mentionedabove use the information in the data set in different ways. The image of the partial order of attributesfocuses exclusivelyon implicationswith single-element premises. Veryoften, however,the gistofthe implicationsof a data set is alreadycapturedby these implications;in the Kay data set this is clearlythe case. Therefore the can be unvisualizationofthe partialorderof attributes derstoodas a roughview of the structure of attributes. will be placed towards Frequentand common attributes the top,morespecificand rareones towardsthe bottom. The top node is empty (conceptualizingthe case in are nonoccurring). which all attributes Movingupwards along the lines or arrows connectingattributestraces of the the implicationalordering among the attributes set based on single-element implications.The line diagramsof lattice analysis (in contrastto geometricplots fromcontinuous multivariateanalysis, e.g., Gifi I990, Wellerand Romneyi990) have no metric;onlythe relativepositionsofpointsconnectedbylines are important. The line diagramof thelattice includes all attributes and objects (from the reduced data set) and all implications.This image is certainly more informative but also morecomplicatedthan the image of the partialorderof attributes. the dual ordering of Generallyit represents attributes and objects in such a way that the top of the lattice depicts the union of all objects and the bottom the union of all attributes. Objects are placed underthe attributes whichtheypossess. Ascendinglines show logical implications;along these lines all of the logical implications between attributesand the particularcombination of attributespossessed by an object can be in upperpartsofthe latrecovered. Attributes appearing tice are more generaland frequent, those in lower parts more specific and restricted in their distribution. Objects towardsthe top possess fewerattributes thanthose in the lower parts of the lattice (hence objects which possess none ofthe attributes are pushed to the top,and therewill be no object at the bottomnode when no one possesses all attributes). Followingthe lines, hierarchical orderings among the attributesand among the objects can be recovered.Given the faithfulone-to-one mappingof the (reduced)data matrixinto the lattice, one can reconstruct foreach object its exact profileof attributes. Thus data and theirvisual representation in the lattice are closely relatedand can be cross-checked to increaseunderstanding. With many attributes and abundantvariationin the data set the patternand consequentlythe line diagrams will be complex. Reducingthe data set by eliminating information is a first superfluous steptowardsthereductionofcomplexity. In addition, partialand moreabstract views of the lattice are available withinlattice analysis as aids to patternrecognitionfor complicated data. A further developmentin lattice analysis is the inclusion of statisticalprocedures.In the preprocessing stage statistical entailmentanalysis (White i99i) can be used to eliminate random variation in the data. When the transformed data are input into the lattice program, the assumptionof strictimplicationsis thereby relaxed(see SchweizerI993b). The use and mastery ofa comprehensive lattice analysis program such as GLAD require some time and experience.The programautomatically drawsline diagramsofthe partialorderofattributes and the lattice.After inspectionand with some skill the imbe optimizedwithinthe program ages can often bymoving points to enhance the clarityof the drawings.This "art" componentof lattice analysis does not affect the structural information on a data set (includingthe fundamental computationsand images); this information will always be the same for any user of the program. the diagramswithin Rather,it is a matterof refining the limits of the implicational order.Pictures become clearer when fewer lines intersect,and more parallel lines are createdby movingpoints accordingly. Fordata sets thatare well structured and not too large,the computer-produced images themselves are ratherinformative. For example, figures2 and 3 are taken rightfrom theprogram, and figures redrawn but 4 and 5 are slightly were alreadyrevealingas machine-produced. Breaking down complex data sets calls formore experienceand technicalassistance. There are, however,acceptable ininformation is altermediate results,and the structural ways therealbeit more or less clouded. After all, visualin empiricaldata is an important ization ofpattern task in itself and often an essential part of data analysis chaps. 3, (Tufte I983; Klovdahl I98I; Gifi I990:60-6I, Figure2 is an image of the partial orderof attributes and hence ofall implicationswith single-element premises (depictedby arrows)in the Tahitian sample. In contrastto the geometricplot of figurei, the nonspatial lattice image includes the exact implicationalrelationships (based on single-elementpremises) among the items. Following the arrows,presence of an item at the bottom of the lattice implies presence of items at the top. The items are orderedby generality fromtop (common items such as primus stove and bicycle) to bottom(restricted items such as automobile and refrigwe can exactly specifydifferent erator).Furthermore, implicationalpaths. For instance,refrigerator is associated onlywithradio,bicycle,and primusstove,not with kerosene or gas stove or two-wheeledmotor vehicle. Keroseneor gas stove, two-wheeledmotorvehicle, and radio are structurally equivalent in that theyhave the same consequences. Figure3, based on the reduced data set of table 3, is an image of the lattice and thus gives a complete view of the possessions patternin the Tahitian case-all implicationsamong items,includingthose with multipleelementpremises,are shown,and the ordering ofhouseholds is depictedas well. (Forthese data this point does not make much difference, because all but one implication are based on single-element premises.)Households are depictedundertheirparticularcombinationsofpossessions.Whenthereare severalhouseholdswithidentical patterns, only one case is represented (see table 3), but histogram bars in the diagramshow the frequency of each combinationin the complete raw data. The set of households is partitionedinto wealth classes acI 3).

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474

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B 33

p 39

RR

FIG. 2. The partial orderof consumerdurables in K, Papeete. A, automobile; B, bicycle; F, refrigerator; keroseneor gas stove; P, primus stove; R, radio; V, two-wheeledmotor vehicle; I, absence of all items.

The lattice of the dual ordering of consumer durables and households in Papeete. A, automobile; B, bicycle; F, refrigerator; K, kerosene or gas stove; P, primusstove; R, radio; V, two-wheeledmotor vehicle.
FIG. 3.

to theirparticularcombinationsof possessions. cording A wealth gradient can be graspedleadingfromthe richest households at the bottom through middle-class householdsin betweento the pooresthouseholds at the top. Thus in one condensedimage latticeanalysisyields AFKVRBP a comprehensive, precise,and parsimoniousrepresentation of the dual orderingof actors and possessions in 0000000 this stratified society. OOOOOIO in an urbanneighbor- OOOOOOI The Tahitian data weregathered hood of a stratified society.What does a lattice of ma- OOOOOII terial possessions data look like in a more egalitarian OOIOOII OOOIOII society,mainly based on the division of labor by age OOOOIII and sex? This question will be answeredby turning to OOIOIII group OIIOII possessions data collected in a contemporary of hunter-gatherers. In a paper on economic changes OOOIIII OIOII0I of the Teturi region of OOII01I among Mbuti hunter-gatherers
eastern Zaire, Ichikawa (I99I:I42-43) reports data on the material possessions of i2 individuals in I980.
I0 IIIII

Reduced Data Set forPresence (i) or Absence (o) of Seven Consumer Goods for40 Households in Papeete
Numberof Households
I I

TABLE

Household Number forLattice

40

6
I I 6 I 2

33 39

32 23 24 22 IO 7

4
2

I6
I2

2
2

Huntingis a major preoccupationin this group,which nearby. ties to agriculturalists is relatedbypatron-client NOTE: A, automobile; or B, bicycle;F, refrigerator; K, kerosene Meat tradingand wage labor create a commercialout- gas stove; motor vestove;R, radio;V, two-wheeled P, primus look and establishlinks to the largereconomy.Hunting hicle.

IIIIIII

9
2

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Volume 34, Number 4, August-October '993 1475 basis usingnets. TABLE 5 is organizedon a communal and family Premises tech- Implicationswith Single-Element "The Mbuti still dependon the traditional hunting nologyratherthan the traps of steel wire mainly used among Mbuti Possessions and Number of Cases Each to buy the new Fulfilling by the villagers.... They cannot afford technology which would enable them to huntindividulected by Ichikawa in

ally" (Ichikawai99i:i59).

therewere some industrialproductsfromthe outside world,such as cooking pots, enamel ware and printed of the cloth owned by all the Mbuti." Preprocessing Mbuti data eliminatedsome possessions forthe reduced data set (table 4). The implicationswith single-element premisesare shown in table 5, and figure 4 presentsthe partialorderof attributes. fromtop to bottomaccording Possessions are ordered The two top layersof the partition to theirfrequencies. containbasic huntingtools (hunting net,machete,bow) and possessions associated with hunting(hoe, dog).The thirdsubset classifies special tools (shovel, tusk hammer)and cheap consumergoods (mortars, spoon).At the bottom rare musical instrumentsand rare consumer goods or tools (metal cup, iron pan forgold mining)are added. At the top lattice analysis detects a basic split betweentwo fundamental possessions, the huntingnet and the machete. Particularpossessions are clustered hoe goes withhunting withthisfundamental difference: net; bow, dog,and tuskhammerarefusedwithmachete. I consider this partitionto indicate different hunting techniques:net huntingis communal and predominant tells us), but additionallythereis (as the ethnographer and moreindividualistic another traditional activity pattem based on machete and bow which has escaped ethnographic scrutiny. Then, at a morerefined level, special tools and consumergoods are added to these fundamental possessions (shovel,anvil, small mortar, spoon),and here the different huntingpatternsare cross-connected
TABLE

tionalandmodern goods(I99I:I44):

I980

table col- Premise The possessions

reveals a mixtureof tradi-

Conclusion M H HBM HMBs BM HBM HBMN HBM HBMO HBMON BM M

NumberofCases

"Evenat thistime

B h s I o C N D m k d

IO
3 5 4 5
2
2

I I

NOTE: B, bow; C, metalcup; D, drum;d, dog;H, hunting net; h, hoe; I, ironpan for goldmining; k, tuskhammer; M, machete; m, bambooflutes; N, spoon; 0, largemortar; o, smallmortar; s, shovel.

by special possessions. In addition,the rareitems at the or indirectly with manyof the bottomco-occurdirectly others.These infrequent possessions establisha greater than usual degree of specialization (in music or gold mining)or wealth (metal cup as an indicatorof valuofthis image would require ables). A deep interpretation on the use and meaning moreethnographic information

Reduced Data Set forPresence (i) or Absence (o) of Material Possessions among Mbuti Hunter-Gatherers H B M h s I A 0 o C N D m k d Individual
I I I I I I I 0 0 I I 0 I 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 O O 0 0 0 0 I 0 I I1 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 I 0 I O 0 01 I 0 0 0 0 0 0I I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I I 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I I 0 I I I I I I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I II 7 9 4 5 2 I2 8 10 3

H h

M d k

I I0 I I I I I I O0 I I I I I

I
FIG.

~~~~~L

NOTE: A, anvil; B,bow;C, metal d,dog;H, huntcup;D, drum; M, machete; m, bamboo flutes; N, spoon; 0, large M, ingnet;h,hoe;I, iron panfor gold mining; k,tusk hammer; machete; m,bamboo flutes; N, spoon; 0, large mortar; o, small mortar;o, small mortar;s, shovel; i, absence of mortar; s, shovel. all items.

4. The partial orderof material possessions among Mbuti hunter-gatherers. A, anvil; B, bow; C, metal cup; D, drum; d, dog; H, huntingnet; h, hoe; I, ironpan forgold mining; k, tuskhammer;

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does not ing machete/dog, on the one hand, and machete/bow/ of possessions. In addition,the ethnographer betweenhunt- mortar/tusk difference commenton the fundamental hammer,on the other.All the otheractors At own bothhunting representation. net and bow and machete,combining ingtechniquesdetectedbythe formal huntingpatternsand addingspecial items. the level of raw observations,perhaps this difference the different special goods. In con- The reduceddata set oftable 4 shows considerableoverwas clouded by cross-connecting implica- lap amongrows as well as some individualdeviationin trast,the formaldissection can trace different patterns thepossessionofparticular reveal hiddenordering items.In thelatticetheshartionalpaths and thereby in a reliable and systematicway. Thus a formalrepre- ing of typesof possessions is depictedby an abundance lines in the centreofthe imageleadsentationsuch as figure4 can be veryuseful to ethno- ofcross-connecting because it breaksdown the struc- ing to similar possession points. Subset or individual interpretation graphic are indicated by moving actors away from tural skeleton which is oftennot fullyevident to the preferences observer.The logical expressionsof table 5 the centre(the poor and outsidersdepicted at the top) participant implicationalchains and theirfrequen- or by locating them to that part of the centre(bottom different specify middle) which accords with theirspecial secies in the set of actors. These are typical"possessions left,right, shows paths." In the Mbuti case thereis no overallchainingof lection ofpossessions. The lattice representation particular individualsoccupying Tahitian thatwe can distinguish of the stratified possessions (the main finding positions in the possessions structure by condata set). Many implications associate special goods different the ownership ofrareitems. Lookingat the data huntingtraits.This indicatesthe sidering with the fundamental sharingof many types of possessions. It is interesting and the image of figure5 this seems immediatelyeviofstructure in Ichikawa's raw data that many logically possible combinations of posses- dent,but exploration task. The sions do not occur empirically.Thus some goods are (I99I:I42-43) would certainlybe a difficult patternamong possessions and actors associatedonlywith certainothersand not linkedto the specificordering and whole set (for instance,I, C, d, h). The missinglinks (or becomesvisibleonlywhen the data arepreprocessed decomposed. Regardingthe differences holes") in the data are clearlyevidentin the systematically "structural image; they show the nonrandomnature of the Mbuti amongactors,actor9, forinstance,is wealthyand mod4 rep- ern,owningan ironpan and a metal cup but none ofthe of possessions in figure data.4To me the ordering Actors7 and 2 are similarto 9 but ofthe division musical instruments. fundamental and finedistinctions resents possessing either an iron pan or a metal community:firsta basic less affluent, of labor in a hunter-gatherer techniques,thenconsiderable cup. Actors 4 and 5, owning drum and bamboo flutes betweenhunting contrast are the musicians of the group. Overall, sharingof types of special possessions, and last some respectively, and occupationalspecializationin however,below the subset of poor outsidersthereis a wealthdifferentiation lot of connectednessamong actors in terms of shared the set of rarepossessions. is evidence pattern Figure5 is a line diagramof the lattice forthe Mbuti typesofpossessions.This clustering ofpossessions is a bit more elaborate of the egalitarianpossessions structurethat might be data. The ordering split betweenthe expectedin a band of hunter-gatherers. 4, but the fundamental than in figure To summarize,lattice analysis of Ichikawa's Mbuti typesofhuntingactivitiesis visible at the two different in top,and the special tools and consumergoods are added possessions data extractsa fundamentaldifference of actors,entirely lackingin hunting down. The ordering techniquesand thenan elaborationofthisbasic farther by special tools, common consumergoods, and 4, is most revealing.First,in the upperpartofthe pattern figure rarepossessions. The ordering of items seems to be inthe set of actors i, 8, and I2. latticeone can distinguish activThese actorshave fewerpossessions than the othersin ducedmainlybythe divisionoflaborand different of actors partithe sample. Most actors are placed in the middle of the ity patternsin the group.The ordering lattice,which means that theyown more goods and se- tions outsiders from core members. There are some in occupational specialization and wealth lect similarones. Deviating fromthis common pattern, differences the topmostactorsseem to be poor as well as outsiders. amongactorsdue to the possession ofrareitems,but on Concerning consumer preferencesthe lattice reveals thewhole themembersofthisgrouppossess manysimilar items. Thus lattice analysis of the possessions data that actor i is an antipode to actors 8 and I2. Actor i specializes in net huntingby possessing net and hoe, shows that in I980 the Mbuti had adopted many imtools and portedgoods, but meat tradingand wage labor had not whereas actors 8 and I 2have no net-hunting the ratheregalitariansharingof both selfassociate themselves with the machete/bow hunting transformed actors8 and I2 contrast bypossess- producedand Westernpossessions. complex.Internally, both Tahitian and Mbuti data sets are Structurally and in both cases patternrecognitionis rather simple, an overall I conducted in thispaper 4. Forall thedatasetsanalyzed What happensto lattice analysisofmaEver- straightforward. in UCINET IV (Borgatti, Usingprocedures analysis. stability the task is more difficult? when How does terial culture of the same order matrices ett,and Freeman i992), I constructed num- the methodcope with more items,a larger withrandom thesematrices datasets,filled as theempirical set of actors, data and a more diffuse withthe empirical matrices therandom bers,and correlated An empiricalanpatternof sharing? The empirical procedure. assignment quadratic setsin theiterative this swer to methodological question emergesfroman with the correlated significantly data sets were not statistically in a Jaof on material data examination possessions in these (sometimes the structure randommatrices;therefore vanese village. data setsis not due to chance. small)empirical rather

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Volume 34, Number 4, August-October I993

477

H h d

12

A, anvil; FIG. 5. The lattice of the dual ordering ofmaterial possessions among Mbuti hunter-gatherers. B, bow; C, metal cup; D, drum; d, dog; H, huntingnet; h, hoe; I, ironpan forgold mining; k, tusk hammer; M, machete; m, bamboo flutes;N, spoon; 0, large mortar;o, small mortar;s, shovel.

A COMPLEX

CASE

Data on the material possessions of Javanesepeasants were collected as part of an anthropologicalstudy of the ruraleconomyin a rice-producing village in Central Java by Margarete Schweizer and myselfin I978-79 (Schweizeri987, i989). The data set consists of binary data on the presence/absenceof 34 consumer items one-third of the village; among 98 households (roughly in the lattice analysis the reduced data set uses 7I householdsand 26 items).The observations coverhousing,furniture and consumerdurables,and livestock. in ruralJava,difThe backbone of class stratification ferentiating an upperclass ofvillage officials, large-scale farmers, and rich merchantfamilies,a middle class of small-scalefarmers, tenants,craftsmen, traders, and factoryworkers, and a lower class of farmlaborersand casual workers,is ownershipof irrigated land. The majorityof people in the village earn their living in the agrarian sector,but 43% ofhouseholdsare landless. Offfarmemployment, sideline activities,seasonalityof la-

bor use, and migrationto the cities are importantincome-producing strategiesfor the village population. Thus Javanese villages are deeplyembeddedin the larger society,and since the igth century many Westernconsumergoods have diffused into the countryside and become partoflocal life-styles and (Alexander, Boomgaard, White i99i, Schweizer I993b).Wealth differentials find visible expressionin different standardsof living and different habits of consumption.Class differentiation is mediated to a certain extent by crosscuttingkinship ties, neighborhood obligations, religious affiliations, and common ritual activities (Schweizer,Klemm, and some valuable material possessions. For instance,motorbikescan be lent out if need be; neighbors regularly meet in the home of theirrich patronto watch television; kerosene pressure lamps and furniture may be shared at festivals.Thus cultural rules and socioeconomic conditionsgeneratea rathercomplex social system with class stratification and life-style differences,

Schweizer I993).

This extends to thecommunal use of

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on the one hand,but also a considerableamountofsharon the other. ing of goods and common traditions, How can lattice analysis decompose the interlocking ofactorsand possessions in this Javanese data set? order breaking As participant observers we had difficulty Apartfroma basic down this structure systematically. class difference amonghouseholds and theirpossessions among particularconwe noted typicalco-occurrences sumer items and many exceptions in detail. The frequencies and the prices of consumer items provided clues to their economic and cultural values, but the A factoranalysis of whole patternwas ratherdiffuse. factors and thusrevealed thedata detectedI4 orthogonal among a rather of co-occurrences complicatedstructure the consumeritems (Schweizer I989: 236-39). Given such a large and complex data set, the lattice of the total (even reduced) data matrixwill be nearly because all theimplicationalrelationincomprehensible image. Even ships will be displayedin one overcrowded will be hard the image of the partialorderof attributes to read. Thus it is wiser to begin by studyingsubsets livestock)to of the items (housing,furniture/durables, foreach domain.It it also usedetectpatterns separately fulto conductmore abstractanalyses of the whole data the overall ordering set to represent pattern(Duquenne igg2b).This data reductionsacrificesdetail in orderto In thispaperI shall skip thepartialanalgraspstructure. fromabstractanalyses yses and presentsome findings methodsofdata ofthe data set as a whole. Two different reductionwill be employed.The first and more radical and objects into blocks according to one fusesattributes the regularity of their relationshipswith members of otherblocks. In this procedurewhat is orderedis not individual objects and attributes but more abstract and objectswhich blocks representing sets of attributes In this data occupy similar positions in the structure. reductionvia groupingthere is no longera one-to-one mappingbetween the data and the blocked lattice. The image producedby this blockingprocedureis comparable to a technicalexplosionwhereby pointsare still coninto the strucnectedbut movedapartto provideinsight tural skeleton. The technical term for this blocking analysisand the visualization of its resultsis gluing.In the analysis of a data set within the gluing procedure of GLAD, the programwill always detect an identical but optimizingthe picturecan lead to gluingstructure, The second procea morerevealing image ofthepattern. dure of data reductionis called boxing.In boxingsome are erasedto increasethe clarlines ofminorimportance ity of the image. Generallyboxing preservesthe correspondencebetween the image and the data. However, in a complexdata set boxingmay be less successfulthan gluingas an aid to patternrecognition. Figure6 presentsan overallimage ofthe dual ordering forthe whole set of materialpossessions (fromthe reduced data set) based on gluing(Duquenne i992a:8-Io). Those items and actorshave been fusedtogether into a blockwhich standin the same regular relationordering ship to membersof otherblocks. Thus the items/actors in a block are interchangeable in that theystand in the

same sharing relationship to elements in the other blocks above or below them and thus generatethe same ordering order in general, (on block modellingand regular see Borgatti and Everetti992). Membershipin a block does not necessarilymean that the substitutable items withinit are simultaneously presentin a household (althoughthey may be); however,any item presentin a block is absent in a block located above it along ascendinglines. Hence an actorin a particular block could possess any of the items containedin the blocks above it but none of those in the blocks below it. Fromtop to bottomthe blocks are ordered according to wealth.Thus households at the top are poor, whereas those at the bottomare rich and those fromblocks in between are in an intermediate position. Items at the top are highfrequency goods with (often)low economic value; possessions towardsthe bottomof the lattice are rareand/ orexpensive.In figure 6 the first line ofthelabel foreach blockmentionsthe itemsfrom above typically sharedin the block, while the second line mentions the crucial new possessions added to the patternin this block. The breakdownof material possessions in figure6 reveals thathousing featuresare most fundamental forthe ordering structure;furnishings/durables and then livestock are added as subsidiary possessions to enrichand refinethe basic pattern.In Bourdieu's terms(I979) the overallblockingstructure revealsfundamental class differentiation (in this agrariansocietymainlydetermined by landownershipand occupation), whereas at a finer level ofclassification blocks can be considered particular as typicallife-styles ("habitus") of particularclass fractions. In block i of figure 6 is displayedthe set of common possessions (rememberthat these items need not be presentin full in each household of the block): ownership of a house, brick (not concrete) floor,brick (not bamboo)walls, well, bathroom, largehouse, set of bamboo chairsand table,radio,wristwatch, bicycle,and bantam chickens. I would hesitate to say that these items representthe typical pattern of possessions of poor households,but clearlytheyare common,and poorfamilies do not in principleown anything more than these items.They do not have access to the widelydistributed valuable goods in the lower blocks, and in realitythey of the items of the top block. oftenown only a fraction The households mentionedas the typical examples of block indeed belongto the lower-classsegment the first ofthe village; theyearn theirlivingfrom farmlabor and casual labor and have only a fewpossessions,confining themselvesto necessities. Below the fundamental first block the pattern into two different selecbranches pathsbycharacteristic tion of items fromabove and additionofnew elements. The branchingto the left reflectsa more traditional which is moreagrarian/livestockmode ofconsumption whereas the blocks to the righttend towards oriented, more modern,urban-influenced life-styles. In block 2 people live in theirown brick-walled homes the and keep ducks as a moderate capital investment, regularcare of which is a full-time job forone member

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Volume 34, Number 4, August-October I993

I 479

block1
0 :

MfKERIbrWYH

22 block block
MIK:KE 105 ?5

111
_

4 ~~~~~~~~~block

~~~~~~~~~KEI: Cs

MKE:
6

D
38 76 112 13

114 54 1~~~~~~~~07 5 block

18

45

block 3

6 block
FiG.. 6. Block decompositionof material possessions and households in a Javanesevillage. A, bathroom; a, C, water closet; D, recorder;d, ducks; E, well; f,brick (not concrete)floor; alarm clock; b, bamboo furniture; g,goats; H, bantam chickens; I, large house; K, brick (not bamboo) walls; L, kerosenepressurelamp; 1,plastic M, own house; m, Manila ducks; 0, geese; p, pedigreedchickens; R, motorbike;r,radio; s, sewing furniture; machine; T, mattresses;U, water buffalo;V, televisionset; W, wristwatch;w, wall clock; Y, bicycle.

ofthe family. The eggsare producedand sold to traders. These items characterizea small-scale farming pattern in capital and standardof livingthan slightly better-off the consumerpatternofpoor laborersofblock i. In fact the couples in this block are in their thirtiesand are engagedin farming as laborersand tenants. Block 3 elaborates on this patternby adding a well to the housing structure, keeping goats, and having a recorder. Goats are anothernot too expensivepossibility of small-scale livestock specialization and are kept as slaughter animals to be sold to villagersat religiousfestivals.The recorder-mostlyused forplayingtraditional Javanese gamelan music or popular Indonesian songsfitsinto this patternin that some people earn a little

money by lending their recordersto the organizersof rituals.The householdsin this block have access to regfactory workand a little ular althoughlow income from with the inland of theirown. This contrastsmarkedly situationofpeople fromthe upcome and employment per blocks-casual laborers are contractedon a daily basis onlyand receivethe lowest wages,and landownership is totallylacking.In my view this economic condition marks the shiftfromthe lower class to the lower this third middle class in the thirdblock. Furthermore, block is linked to block 4 of the lattice,in block branching Turningto the right of the 4 we findbrickwalls and wells as characteristic housing situation. Families here, instead of owning a

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house, invest in betterliving conditions. There is no consumeritems and capital goods. Thus in the set of rentingof houses in the village, so people living in a possessionswe can observea hierarchical wealth differhouse not theirown are oftenresidingin the house of ence but also a rural/urban contrastin tastes and ecorelativeswho eventuallygive it to them.Alternatively, nomic specialization (agrarian vs. nonfarm/modern). to have someone Amongthe set of actorslattice analysisreveals a graded the landlordis a migrantwho prefers occupy the house because otherwiseghosts could in- ordering into lower-class(blocks i and 2), lower-middletrudeand make the place uninhabitable.The people in class (blocks 3 and 4), upper-middle-class (block 5 and the fourthblock also enhance theirhomes with mat- parts of 6), and upper-class(block 6) positions. These tresses and sets of plastic chairs and tables. This is gradedpositions are characterizednot only by differclearly a more modern style of living preferred by ences in occupation,income, landownership, and thus youngerpeople. A typical case is the household of a economiccapital but also by differences in age and stage youngcouple in theirtwentieswith threechildren, liv- withinthe familycycle. At the level ofhouseholdsgening in a house which belongsto the husband's aunt. He derseems to be less important as a factor in the distribustartedwith casual work in an iron-processing factory tion of material possessions (withinhouseholds, howoutside the village and now earns a considerablewage ever,thereis importantage and genderdifferentiation as driverforhis boss. His personal life-style is urban- ofpossessions). influenced: he wears blue jeans, reads comics, listensto Figure7 is a breakdownof the upper-middleand upall of per-classblock at the bottom of figure6. This is not a pop songs, and smokes manufactured cigarettes, which contraststrongly with the patternof traditional gluingdissectionbut a partialand simplified representabatik clothing,gamelan music, and self-produced ciga- tion of a sublatticeof the raw data based on the boxing his spouse, and manyother procedure rettestypicalofhis parents, (Duquenne i992a:8-Io). The ascendinglines more traditional villagers. can be read as strict implications, and the clustered In block S this modernpattern is moreelaborate.The itemsare invariably presentin the householdstheyconhouses are bigger because ofthe age and householdcycle nectto. Figure7 revealsthatthe richare subdividedinto of theiroccupants-people in theirthirtieswith larger several subsets by livestock variables. This may be an families.These people buymiddle-classconsumeritems unexpected finding,but it makes sense ethnographisuch as waterclosets and sewingmachines.Trade (often cally. The subdivisionis induced by different levels of a femaleoccupation) and better-paid positionsin facto- wealth and by occupational specialization. Top-down, riesprovidesteadyhigher ifpracticed households are contrastedby livestock keeping.Below incomes. Farming, at all, is a sideline. Members of this block belong to the upper subset without any livestock there is a the ruralmiddle class. People of blocks 4 and 5 do not branching into capital-intensive buffalokeepingto the is secondary. specialize in livestock,and farming left, inexpensivechickenkeepingin the middle,and inBlock 6, at the bottom of the lattice,is occupied by termediate-level goat keepingto the right.The subsets combinationsof livestock the uppermiddle and upperclass of the village. Here all are established by different the housingcharacteristics are fused:people live in big items. Overall I see a nonagrarianupper patternand houses oftheirown with brickwalls and wells and may below a division into large-scale (buffalo),common have all the items fromthe upper blocks. Among the (chicken),and small-scale (goat) agrarianpatterns.The of this in-depth set of special possessions occurring forthe first view of the upperand uptime in main finding this block are some rareand expensiveconsumeritems permiddleclass is thatthe richesthouseholds (subset i) and some capital investments:kerosenepressurelamp, are not those with the most materialpossessions when televisionset,wall clock, alarm clock, motorbike, pedi- livestock is included. In contrastto the housing attrigreedchickens,Manila ducks, and water buffalo. Live- butes and consumerdurables,which follow an additive householdsare,themorethey stock is rearedby these households as an occupational pattern (themoreaffluent specialization,and the investmentis considerable.Buf- possess of these items), livestock is not just added as difanimals forploughing faloesare used as draught the rice anotherasset to the patternbut makes a significant fields.A look at the households classifiedin this block ference.Livestock keeping breaks apart the upper and in uppermiddle class in accordance with capital, activity clearlyrevealstheirsuperior position.Heterogeneous the richand occupationalspecialization.First, age and occupationalspecializationbut homogeneousin patterns, termsof highincomes, this block containswhite-collar est people in the village (subset i) do not keep livestock of material successfulmerchants, and at all. Wealth is measured independently employees,wealthyfarmers, and monetary village officials. possessionsby considering landownership Summarizingthe dual orderingstructure,figure6 income. These people ("the real elite"), whose status is demonstrates the prevalenceof housing characteristics the highestin the village, earn theirincome in the offas indicatorsof economic welfare(incidentally, the Ja- farmsectors of services and trade or fromlarge-scale vanese use housingas an indicatorofwealth).Then pos- ricegrowing withhiredlabor.They live in better-quality sessions are subdividedinto a traditionalagrarianpat- homes and amass consumergoods,but livestockis not tern with specialization in livestock keeping and a part of theirhabitus. Second, households keeping livemodern pattern with urban-influenced life-stylefea- stockare less wealthyin termsofland and income than and upper-classblock these the first tures.In the upper-middlegroup.They keep livestockas a sidelineand are enrichedby expensive subdividedfurther tendenciesare fused and further by the amount of capital they can

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Volume 34, Number 4, August-October 1993 subset 1

I48I

subset3
FIG.

5 subset

7. Breakdown of material possessions and households in the uppermiddle and upperclass in a Javanese d, ducks; f,brickfloor;g, goats; H, bantam chickens; L, kerosene village. A, bathroom;b, bamboo furniture; m, Manila ducks; r,radio; s, sewingmachine; T, mattresses;U, water pressure lamp, 1,plastic furniture; buffalo;V, televisionset; W, wristwatch;Y, bicycle. theirown. This land is worked with draughtanimals, and if thereis slack time farmlabor using the buffalo becomes a sideline. with the elite subset i by chicken Subset 4 contrasts keeping.The households in this subset are less affluent thanthose of subset i, but theyare in a good economic position.They own land, some people earn theirliving wealthypeople. as merchants, and thereare also retired Subset5 fuseshouseholdsengagedin goatkeepingand chickenkeeping.Goats are less expensivethanbuffaloes and need less care. In subset 5 we findhouseholds that crop production I990:270-74]). engagein cattlekeepingas a sideline,theirmain occupa(cloves[see Schweizer farmlabor,or factory work. In this Subset 2 is a bit exceptional,because it is veryrare tion beingfarming, foragrarian households to keep onlybuffaloes. Here the subset thereare severalwidows with childrenwho care fine-grained lattice dissectiondetectsan exceptionto a forthe goats. broadculturalpattern.The household representative of To summarize,the image in figure7 yields a subtle subset 2 exhibitsan agrarianspecialization. These peo- breakdownof capital and occupational specialization ple own ricefields but in addition are tenantsand work amongmembersof the upperand uppermiddle classes. as laborerswith their draughtanimals ploughingthe Particular macombinationsofkeyvariables(livestock), fieldsof others. and even exceptionsto the overallpattern jorsubgroups, Subset 3 is a continuationof this pattern. In addition are detected.What looked in the macroscopicview like to buffaloes thesefamilieskeep bantams.Typicallythey a fusion of agrarian and modern possessions in the are rich farmers with a considerableamount of land of wealthyblock at the bottomof figure6 is disentangled invest in this specialty.In more detail the subsets can be describedas follows: Subset i is characterized by the absence of livestock. It containsthe most affluent people of the village,who earn theirlivingfromwhite-collar jobs as employeesor This village elite does not investin livevillageofficials. stock because more profitable venturesare available to it. In the village its members hire labor, including draught animals,to workin theirricefields. Outside the educationfortheirchildren, villagetheyspendon higher business (riceor retailtrade,transport), or land forcash-

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and the ensuingdual ordering patternin these data. Dependingon the complexityof the task at hand, we can studythe ordering of attributes by focusingon implications with single-element premises(a condensed structuralview); we can analyze the whole set of logical implications in the input data and the orderingof both attributes and actorsin the lattice; we can conductpartial analysesofsubsetsofthe itemsor actors.The gluing and boxingbreakdownsare more or less powerful tools pattern fordissecting and representing the totalordering in abstractways. Thus lattice analysis is a veryprecise method for studyingglobal implicational structureas well as for detectingpattem in material possessions in the fieldofdiscretedata analysis efforts data. Current AND CONCLUSION DISCUSSION are providing programsand empirical examples of the latticeanalysisto material use of discretemethodsin the social sciences. There is Whatdo we gain by applying possessions data? Data on material possessions are momentumforlinkingsubstantiveproblemswith forof the Jaforthe studyof the fundamen- mal solutions.A more completeinvestigation meaningful intrinsically and in a secondaryanalysis I of vanese data is in progress, principlesand the basic scaffolding tal organizational data on the data on materialcultureare am assessingPolly Wiessner'sethnographic societies.Presence/absence historical,and even materialpossessions of the !Kung San of Botswana (see widely available in ethnographic, foran overview), the extending i982:79-83 to Wiessner archaeologicalrecordsand veryrevealingwith regard sociforaging social hierarchiesand the division of communitiesac- studyofmaterialwealth in contemporary whereas I have focusedhere on patcordingto age, gender,occupational specialization,etc. eties. Furthermore, At the heartof materialpossessions data are logical im- tems of consumptionin these communitiesat a single The available point in time, White and Scudder (n.d.),analyzingposplicationsand the notion ofdual ordering. Elizabeth Colson's and Scudder'slondo not recover and repre- sessionsdata from methodsgenerally quantitative forthe gitudinalstudyof the Gwembe Tonga in Zambia, comsent implications,but this task is fundamental of the particular pare different temporalpatternsin the acquisition and studyof material culture irrespective of goods. Thus the element of time may the data. distribution adoptedforinterpreting theoretical perspective Lattice analysis representsthe empirical possessions eventuallybe studied systematicallyand precisely in on the discretemodels of materialpossessions. data in a formalmodel. The crucial information of meaningand use of the items or the characteristics record. the ethnographic the actorshas to be added from skeletonof the The formalimage reveals the structural Cited References data: it tracesall implicationsand displaysthe dual orAND BEN WHITE. deringof possessions and actors. This visualization of ALEXANDER, PAUL, PETER BOOMGAARD, activiNon-farm In theshadow ofagriculture: Editors. I99I. of the oftencomplex data enables deeperunderstanding Amsterdam: present. and past economy, the Javanese ties in a to ethnoinherent patternand provides spur ordering RoyalTropicalInstitute. graphicinterpretation. The social lifeofthings: ARJUN. I986. Editor. APPADURAI, empirI have appliedlatticeanalysisto threedifferent Cambridge Cambridge: in cultural perspective. Commodities Press. University ical cases. In the Tahitian case, the method detected in cultural methods a hierarchicalchaining of possessions and an ensuing BERNARD, H. RUSSELL. I988. Research Newbury Park:Sage. anthropology. of households. In the case of the Mbuti BISHOP, stratification AND PAUL B. FIENBERG, YVONNE M. M., STEPHEN possessions were decomposed into hunter-gatherers, analysis:Theory 1975. Discretemultivariate W. HOLLAND. M.I.T. Press. Cambridge: and practice. special traitsand cross-connecting fundamental hunting goods,and the set of actors was brokendown into out- BORGATTI, STEPHEN P., AND MARTIN G. EVERETT. I992. matrices. Social multimode ofmultiway, blockmodels Regular sidersand core members.The lattice images clearlyreI4:9I-I20. Networks vealed the divisionof labor and the egalitariandistribu- BORGATTI, STEPHEN P., MARTIN G. EVERETT, AND LIN data tion ofpossessions.Lattice analysisofthe Javanese TechS.C.: Analytic i992. UCINET IV. Columbia, FREEMAN. nologies. led, on the one hand, to a regular orderingof housCritiquesociale du PIERRE. 1979. La distinction: and livestock items and, on BOURDIEU, ing, furniture/durables, de Minuit. Paris:Editions jugement. the otherhand, to a patternof class and class fractions BURMEISTER, aufdem IBM-PC. PETER. I99I. Begriffsanalyse though among the set of actors. Class differentiation, Technische HochschuleDarmstadt, Mathematik, Fachbereich is byno means the onlysourceofvariation Darmstadt. fundamental, AND in the dual ordering pattern.Age, occupational special- CASTRO, ALFONSO PETER, N. THOMAS HAKANSSON, ofruralinequality. Indicators I98I. BROKENSHA. DAVID ization, and stage in the familycycle create additional 9:40I-27. Development World among possessions and actors. orderings An households: ALAIN. i992. Mutualhelp between DEGENNE, lattice analysis is a As these examples demonstrate, I S. In press. exampleofBooleananalysis.Social Networks LEBEAUX. i992. Anathe logical implications DEGENNE, ALAIN, AND MARIE-ODILE powerfultool forrepresenting

houseanalysis of figure7. The affluent in the in-depth holds in this village are set apartfromthe less wealthy not just by a higherlevel ofpossessions (thisis villagers fromthe overall view); the image of the the impression livesublattice clearly shows that capital-dependent stock specializationis involved in the internaldivision of the upper middle and upper class. The breakdown finding thatthepeople in the vilrevealsthe interesting lage who are higheston housingand durablesas well as land and income do not possess livestockat all, whereas householdswithless capand upper-middle-class upperital and land keep livestockas a sideline.

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Volume 34, Number 4, August-October I993

lysebooleenedes questionnaires: Programme BOOLEEN, Versionoi/o9/92. Paris:LASMAS-IRESCO. AND BARON ISHERWOOD. DOUGLAS,MARY, I979. The world ofgoods: Towardsan anthropology London: ofconsumption. AllenLane. DUQUENNE, VINCENT. i992a. Models ofpossessions and latticeanalysis. MS, CRNS and Maison des Sciencesde l'Homme,Paris. (GLAD). CRNS and Maison des Sciencesde l'Homme,Paris. ELSTER, JON. I98I. Snobs.LondonReviewofBooks,November Consumer culture and postmod. i992b. General lattice analysis and design program

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5-I8, pp. IO-I2. FEATHERSTONE, MIKE. I99I.

ernism. London: Sage. FERGUSON, JAMES. I988. Cultural exchange: New developments in the anthropologyof commodities. Cultural Anthropology3:488-5 I 3. . i992. The cultural ofwealth:Commodity topography
LINTON C., AND DOUGLAS R. WHITE. I992. "Us-

pathsand thestructure ofproperty in rural Lesotho. American Anthropologist 94:55-73.

EDWARD R. I983. The visual displayofquantitative information. Cheshire: Graphics Press. I99I. VOGT, FRANK, AND JORG BLIESENER. Diagramprogram. Fachbereich Math'ematik, Technische HochschuleDarmstadt, Darmstadt. ROMNEY. I990. Metric WELLER, SUSAN C., AND A. KIMBALL Park:Sage. scaling:Correspondence analysis.Newbury DOUGLAS R. I99I. Statistical entailment WHITE, analysisproofAnthropology, ofCalifomia, gram. Department University Irvine. . I992. PGRAPH i.oo. Kinship network analysissoftware: anduser'sguide.Department ofAnthropology, Program UniversityofCalifornia, Irvine. DOUGLAS WHITE, R., AND VINCENT DUQUENNE. I993. Ediand discrete tors.Social network structure analysis.Social I S. In press. Networks DOUGLAS WHITE, R., AND PAUL JORION. i992. Representing A new approach. CURRENT ANTHROPOLand analyzing kinship: TUFTE, OGY 33:454-463. DOUGLAS WHITE, R., AND H. GILMAN MCCANN.

ingGallois latticesto represent network data,"in Sociological methodology V. Marsden. San Francisco: I993. Editedby Peter In press. Jossey-Bass. GIFI, ALBERT. I990. Nonlinear multivariate analysis.Chichester:Wiley. HAGE, PER, AND FRANK HARARY. I983. Structural modelsin anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge Press. University . I99I. Exchange in Oceania: A graphtheoretic analysis. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ICHIKAWA, MITSUO. I99I. The impactofcommoditisation on theMbutiofeastern Zaire. SenriEthnological Studies30:
KAY, PAUL. I964.

FREEMAN,

"Cites and fights: Materialentailment analysisoftheeighchemicalrevolution," in Social structures: A teenth-century network Wellmanand S. D. Berkoapproach. EditedbyBarry Press. witz,pp. 380-440. Cambridge: Cambridge University DOUGLAS SCUDDER. n.d. Social difWHITE, R., AND THAYER and material in GwembeTonga.MS, ferentiation acquisition ofCalifornia, ofAnthropology, Irvine. Department University ofconsensus Conflicts in social cognition: in a Tlaxcalanvillage.MS. Beliefsystems POLLY. and social influWIESSNER, I98 2. "Risk,reciprocity, in Politicsand history enceson !KungSan economies," in band societies.EditedbyElizabethLeacockand Richard B. Press. Lee, pp. 6I-84. Cambridge: Cambridge University RUDOLF. I990. Conceptlatticesand conceptual knowlWILLE, Hochedgesystems. Fachbereich Mathematik, Technische schuleDarmstadt, Preprint I340.
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I988.

A Guttman scale modelofTahitianconsumerbehavior. Southwestern Journal 2o: ofAnthropology

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I35-62.

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HARTMUT. I993a. Who survived? A reanalysis of the Donnerparty. at theSunbeltSocial Networks Paperpresented Conference, Tampa,Fla.,February. . I993b. The logicofdowry and competition: A reanalysis. MS, Institute ofEthnology, University ofCologne. MC CRACKEN, G. I989. Culture and consumption. Urbana:Uni-

cial Networks 3:I97-2I4.

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A noteon imagesofnetworks. So-

MILLER,

DANIEL. I987. Materialculture and mass consumption.Oxford: Blackwell. RUTZ, HENRY J., AND BENJAMIN S. ORLOVE. I989. Editors. The social economy ofconsumption. Lanham:University

versityof Illinois Press.

The Genetic Structure of AncientHuman Populations1

HENRY ALAN C. HARPENDING, AND STEPHEN MARK T. SHERRY,

ofcapitalism: The trans-Pacific sectorof "theworldsystem." Proceedings ofthe British Academy74: I-5 I. SCHWEIZER, THOMAS. I987. Agrarian transformation? Rice production in a Javanese village.BulletinofIndonesianEconomic
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I988. Cosmologies

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. I993b. The cultural use ofthings: in rural Consumption IndonesiaCircle6o. In press. Java.
THOMAS,
I993. SCHWEIZER.

Differences among human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences are an importantsource of data in uplandand lowlandKlaten.Inter- about the history of our species. Since mtDNA seContrasting developments nationales Asienforum 21:259-77. quences are not brokenand reformed by recombination, 9.I93a. Actor and event orderingsacross time: Lattice rep- theyare tips of a tree of descent. There are several apresentation and Booleananalysisofthepoliticaldisputein proachesto using mtDNA sequences to infer properties Chen village, China. Social Networks Is. In press.
BohlauVerlag.
1.I990. A centuryof change in the Javanese rural economy:

Studies 23(2):38-70. 1.I989. Reisanbauin einemjavanischen Dorf.Cologne:

Departmentof Anthropology, PennsylvaniaState University University, Park, Pa. I6802 (Harpending, and Stoneking)/Department Sherry, of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84II2 (Rogers),U.S.A.

R. ROGERS,

STONEKING

A network on ritualand social structure. perspective Social Networks I 5. In press. THOMAS, NICHOLAS. I99I. Entangled objects:Exchange, material culture, and colonialism in thePacific.Cambridge: Harvard UniversityPress.

Ritual as action in a Javanese community:

ELMAR KLEMM, AND MARGARETE

ported in part by NSF grant go-2o567 to Mark Stoneking.

Research. All rights reserved We OOII-3204/93/3404-0007/$I.00. are grateful forcomments and suggestions fromStan Ambrose, Adam Connor,JamesCrow, RichardKlein and Jeffrey Kurland, Ozzie Pearson, andNaoko Takezaki.Laboratory research was sup-

I. C I993

byThe Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological

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