Attempts to Buddhicise the Cult of Chinggis Khan

N. HURCHA1 Editorial Ofce of the Inner Mongolia Social Sciences Inner Mongolian Academy of Social Sciences Daxue Lu Huhhut, Inner Mongolia, 10010, Peoples Republic of China ABSTRACT Buddhism and the cult of Chinggis Khan are part of the Mongolian cultural and religious heritage. Through extensive textual and historical analysis, N. Hurcha argues that the cult of Chinggis Khan instituted in the thirteenth century has survived repeated attempts of Buddhist monks to incorporate it into the Buddhist ritual and cosmology. The paper poses important questions as how to balance the conicting moral qualities represented by these two cultural and religious institutions of the Mongols.

Ever since the penetration of Red Hat (Nyingmapa) Buddhism into Mongolia in the late 13th century, Buddhist lamas regarded the cult of Chinggis Khan as a hindrance to the spread of Buddhism. However, since they had no courage to prohibit the proud central feature of the nomadic culture the ancestral cult of the Mongolian royal family (altan urag) they could only try to bring it closer to Buddhism itself. In the 16th century, when Yellow Hat (Gelugpa) Buddhism began to spread among Mongols, the cult of Chinggis Khan was again considered a block to the lamas efforts. However, they refrained from antagonising the Mongols by denouncing it. Instead they attempted to subject it to their inuence. However, all their efforts eventually ended in failure. In this paper I would like to expound on this interesting phenomenon. CREATING PUBLIC OPINION Before undertaking an important endeavour, it is a usual practice to create favourable public opinion. Lamas were no exception in making the necessary preparation before their attempt to turn the cult of Chinggis Khan towards Buddhism.
Inner Asia 1 (1999): 4557 Reprinted 2008 Global Oriental Ltd

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Hutugal Sechen Hung Taiji (15401586) wrote in his celebrated Arban Buyantu Nom-un Cagan Tehe (White History of Ten Virtues), After that, in a Mongolian place called Ksen- Jad, the reincarnation of Vajra-Pani Temjin, the prince was born. He pacied with his erce name the twelve recalcitrant kings, put the entire Jambudvipa2 under his control, and implemented impeccably the ancient dual system (of politics and religion). Since then, the name of the August Chinggis Khan spread to Heaven, and was heard all over the Jambudvipa.3 This must have been the reection of the aristocratic opinion of the time. Here, Chinggis Khan is portrayed as a reincarnation of the bodhisattva Vajra-Pani, leaving the impression upon people that the worship of Chinggis Khan and the worship of Buddhist saints were equivalent. As is well known, the practice of conferring Sanskrit names of saintly persons and nobles upon Mongol Khans began with the Phagspa Lama (12351280). For example, he gave the title Chakravartin (universal Buddhist king) to Khubilai Khan. The later practice of calling Chinggis a reincarnation of Vajra-Pani was related to this tradition of the Phagspa Lama. Thus in the ritual song of the Chinggis shrine, Tengri-n Arban Hoyar Dagu (Twelve Songs of Heaven), Chinggis became the great virtuous holy Bodhisattva and was asked to enjoy imperishable happiness and peace. In general, no one other than the Phagspa, Dalai or the Panchen Lamas ever had the right to confer titles on Chinggis Khan posthumously. This tradition was maintained until very recently as can be seen in Ejen Bogda-yin Serjim (Offerings to the Holy Lord), written in the 20th century, which begins,
The reincarnation of the majestic Vajra-Pani, The Heaven that supports the whole world, Chinggis Khan, the heavenly lord, And his queens and companions are invited.4

It is evident that the frequent use of the following phrases in sutras dedicated to Chinggis are manifestations of a Buddhist inuence: [He] was reincarnated as the heroic Bodhisattva Vajra Pani, born at Delign Boldog of the Onon River, or [He] was evidently reincarnated as the majestic Vajra-Pani.5 Such an equation led Mongols, especially the Ordos Mongols, to worship Vajra-Pani on a large scale. By 1949, all the Borjigin royal clan princes and nobles worshipped Vajra Pani. Another point worth mentioning is the so-called genealogical link of the Mongol Khans to the Indian and Tibetan kings. According to scholars, this was rst mentioned in Had-un nds- Huriyangui Altan Tobchi (The Comprehensive Golden Chronicle of the Khans) and in greater detail in Sagang Sechen Hung Taijis (1604-1669) Erdeni Tobchi (Bejewelled Summary). According to Batbagan, it was such canons as the Cihula Hereglegci Tegs Udh-a tu Shastir (The Indispensible Comprehensive Sutra), Ulagan Debter (Red Chronicle)

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and Mashi Todorhai Uhagdahun Hemehu Sudur (Sutra Called the Very Clear Meaning) that systemised the tradition of linking the rise and fall of Buddhism to the deeds of Indian, Tibetan and Mongol Khans.6 Khubilai Khan reportedly remarked in the White History: [The dual system of politics and religion] was rst instituted by Maga Sambadi Khan of Ancient India and then renovated by the Sakyamuni Buddha. Later it was unwaveringly followed and implemented by Tibets three great Chakravartin kings; nally it came to Mongolia and my grandfather, august Chinggis Khan, meticulously carried it out to rule the empire and people.7 These explanations are no more than attempts to legitimate the Buddhicisation of the cult of Chinggis Khan. PACIFYING THE CULT OF CHINGGIS KHAN An earlier way for the lamas to carry out their mission had been to pacify ritually ferocious people or cult leaders by tying them with an invisible thread called machig. In their description of Chinggis Khan, he had some endish features: dangerous or rough, surrounded by red mountains, immersed in the sea of blood, and had a red body, one face, two mudra (gesture-making-arms), three round red eyes, reddish yellow sparse beard and eyebrows, protruding teeth, brandishing a spear in his right hand, and holding a thread in his threatening left hand which is put upon his heart.8 It goes without saying that such a ferocious cult gure which ate meat and blood, and drank tea and wine9 did not appeal to the high ranking lamas who had taken oaths to transform the great river with blood waves into a clear sea with milk.10 Thus they used another method to pacify the heretical sides of the cult. According to Tabudugugar dri-yin dalai lama-yin neyislel orugsan temdeglel (Record of the Fifth Dalai Lamas Visit to the Capital): In the palace of the Jinong (deputy Khan) prince was a tangka portrait of Chinggis Khan. I was told that if the portrait was revealed, people would die, so it had had to be offered blood sacrice. Later that secret stuff [i.e. the portrait] was enveloped and left there within a case by the Phagspa.11 This record shows that at least according to later Mongolian tradition, as early as the second half of the 13th century, the Phagspa tried to envelope or cover the erce looking gure worshipped with blood sacrices. Although his religious activities had some inuence upon some Mongol nobles, the Phagspa was not able to erase Chinggis image from the heart of the Mongol people in general. After the collapse of the Yuan dynasty, thanks to the weak inuence of Red Hat Buddhism, the cult of Chinggis Khan was fully revived among the Mongols. Since such a psychological habitat was extremely unfavourable to the spread of Yellow Hat Buddhism in Mongolia, after the sixteenth century lamas had to wage a second campaign to pacify the cult. In Offerings to the Holy Lord, we read:

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Recall the vows of the great lamas, Headed by Agvangjamsu Vajra-dhara, Read the unforgettable oath, Deign to do all the good deeds, And spread the impeccably virtuous temple and religion.12

It was Chinggis Khan, the holy lord who was being reminded of his oath and urged to spread the impeccably virtuous temple and religion. It must have been the fth Dalai Lama Agvanglubsanjamsu who had given the cult a machig. There are several reasons for deducing this: First, Agvangjamsu, mentioned in the text, was an abridged name of Agvanglubsangjamsu. One piece of circumstantial evidence is a document entitled Erhe Chorji-yin Ug Ehe-yi Medegleh Hagudasu (Memo on the Origin of the Powerful Chorji), which recorded, the fth Dalai Lama Navangjamsu (sic.) Gegeen. Second, Vajra-dhara was a title of the Dalai Lama, because people believed that the Dalai was a reincarnation of the Vajra-dhara Bodhisattva. Here the phrase Headed by Agvangjamsu Vajradhara means Headed by the Vajra-dhara Dalai Lama Agvangjamsu. Third, at the invitation of the Yongzheng emperor of the Qing dynasty, the 5th Dalai went to Beijing. On his way, he passed by Olan Bulag of Ordos, i.e. todays Ejen Horoo (where the shrine of Chinggis Khan is located). The Dalai wrote about this in his Autobiography of the 5th Dalai Lama: On the second day of the 10th month of the black dragon year (1652), he arrived at Tosutu. On the following day, when we arrived at Olan Bulag, I was received by the leader of the white palace tribe the descendant of Chinggis Khan ordained by Heaven Erinchin Jun Wang, together with Rinchin Beise, Sereng Beise, Chohur, Jamsu Gung, Guushi Noyan, Erhe Sechen, Shajaban Shira, and Lanabu, along with one thousand horsemen, and I was offered 100 taels of silver and 300 horses.13 This meeting coincided with the Tasuman (thong) ritual at the Chinggis shrine, which was held on the third of the tenth lunar month. The meeting was unusual in that the Dalai was met by so many aristocrats: the governor of the Ordos Yeke Juu League Erinchin Jun Wang (who became Jun Wang [prince of the second rank] in 1649 and died in 1656); the governor of Uushin banner Rinchin Beise (who became Beise [prince of the fourth rank] in l649 and died in l661); the governor of Jungar banner Sereng Beise (who became Beise in 1649 and died in l676); the governor of Hangin banner Jamsu Gung (who became Gung [duke] in 1649 and died in 1670); Guushi Noyan (chief), and Sagang Erhe Sechen Hung Taiji and other civil and military ofcials of Ordos. At the meeting, even if no machig was given to the cult, a foundation was laid for that. In fact the foundation had been laid as early as 1586 when the third Dalai Sodnamjamsu (1543-1588) came to Mongolia at the invitation of Altan Khan. He personally banned the esh and blood offerings, and in their place, he made the rule of making three tasty offerings. He replaced Onggod idols with the seven-armed black Mahakala, the protective lord of Buddhism. It was written about the third Dalai in Erdeni Tunumal Neret Sudur (Sutra Called Preciously Clear):

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When the Bodhisattva Saint Vajra-dhara Dalai Lama arrived, The leader of the white tents of the Holy Lord, The Jinong with decree of heaven, Invited [the Dalai] at the place called Olan Bulag. [The Dalai who] upheld virtues innitely, Made abundant blessings, For the benet of the universal parents of all living beings. [The Jinong] received instruction to prolong the consecration, To ensure general peacefulness, extensive power, and four ferocious deeds.14

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Furthermore, Tseven Jamtsarano wrote in 1913 in his travelogue The Chinggis Khan Shrine in Ordos as follows:
It is said that reading sutras in the Yellow Hat Buddhist way was decreed by the third Dalai Lama and the fth Panchen Lama. I dont know how true it is. According to the Darhad, when these two great incarnate lamas decided to ban the sheep offering sacrice, Chinggis Khan became very angry, so they agreed to keep the ritual intact.15

This further tells that the Darhad were not so pleased with some of the Buddhist prohibitions, so they used the pretext that Chinggis Khan became very angry. It is not clear from historical sources just what machig the Dalai Lama gave to the cult of Chinggis Khan. But in the Sudu Bogd Chinggis Hagan-u Sang (Incense Offering to August and Holy Chinggis Khan), Mergen Gegeen Lubsangdambijalsan of the Urad (1717-1766) wrote:
On the throne made of incomparable treasures On the carpet decorated with eight lotus owers Deign to rest here joyfully The harmonious guardian deity, great white Upasaka (vow-bearer) And all the companions, ministers and deities.16 In this Chinggis Khan became a great white vow-bearer who was invited to sit on the beautiful carpet of the treasure-laden throne. By the force of the miraculous power of The remarkable three deities, The all-powerful guardian, the great white Upasaka, The ministers and the companions, Satisfy all what is wished for.17

In this Chinggis is again the great white vow-bearer and it is prayed that all the wishes be fullled. This indicates that the Dalai might have given Chinggis Khan the machig of upasaka. Therefore the Ejen Chinggis Hagan-u chig Tahil (Prayer to the Lord Chinggis Khan), another piece written by Mergen Gegeen, it reads:

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Chinggis Khan, who had the power of three thousand people, His body was wrapped by the ten thousand white moon rays. He had one face, two arms, and three eyes. He was smiling wryly, Brandishing to the centre of the sky a white spear in his right hand. In his left hand he was holding close to his heart a plate full of treasures. He got rid of poverty in the samsara and nirvana. His white garment was uttering in front of his chest.

In this we see that Chinggis Khan took up a meditating posture, his wisdom eye had opened, and he thus acquired three eyes, and both his body and clothes became white, pandering to the traditional Mongolian colour symbolism. Such a tranquil-imaged cult gure must have been useful in the 18th century. Ubasi or Upasaka is a Sanskrit word, referring to a lay man taking vows to adhere to the following Five Precepts: 1. Refrain from taking life. 2. Refrain from taking what which is not given. 3. Refrain from misuse of the senses. 4. Refrain from telling lies. 5. Refrain from self-intoxication with drinks and drugs. An Upasaka is not supposed to wear yellow or red coloured gowns. In the late l7th century and the early 18th century, lamas granted the Upasaka machig freely to any men who loved power, material life, women and children and who still wished to worship Buddha. The attempt to pacify the prowess of the Mongols or to Buddhicise the Mongols started from that period. Under such circumstances, lamas gave the Upasaka machig to Chinggis Khan, in order to pacify him, to get rid of the poverty in samsara and nirvana, making him the great virtuous Bodhisattva or heavenly Upasaka. Bogda Chinggis Ejen-u Dalalg-a (Beckoning [the soul] of the Holy Lord Chinggis) reads,
The decree of the foundation lamas, Headed by the Vajra-dhara Dalai Lama Navangjamsu Gegeen, And his reincarnation Sayangjamsu, Reminds [Chinggis] of the not-to-be-forgotten oath. Construct the deeds of us, the followers of the Yogacara18.

This shows that the sixth Dalai Lama Sayangjamsu (1683-1746), when preaching his religion in Ordos in the rst half of the 18th century,19 also issued some decrees regarding the cult of Chinggis Khan.

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ATTEMPTS TO BUDDHICISE THE CULT OF CHINGGIS KHAN COMPILING PRAYERS

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As soon as the cult of Chinggis Khan had been put under the Buddhist rules and regulations, lamas deemed it necessary to compile corresponding prayers. For such an urgent demand, knowledgeable lamas did not refrain from offering their services, nor indeed could they possibly have refused. If we examine the hitherto available prayers written by lamas, they were initially less coloured by Buddhism, but later they became heavily imbued with Buddhist hues. For instance, an incense-burning prayer possibly written between the 16th-l7th centuries started with Uva a-a, huu gurabata. In this six-stanza prayer, Buddhist elements are mentioned only twice:
The great virtuous bodhisattva, my holy lord, The unexaggeratably great virtuous holy lord, May all of you be happy. ... In order to guard the life and soul, In order to spread the religion of the renowned Sakyamuni, In order to multiply your livestock and subjects, We kneel down to pray to the gracious holy lord.

Furthermore, the rst stanza came from Au au au edeh, one of the twelve songs for the lion holy lord, and the nal stanzas also reected the fact that Buddhism was not yet fully spread among Mongols. In the 18th century, when Yellow Hat Buddhism took root in Mongolia, several inuential prayers were written. In the words of Galdanvangchugdorji (1801-1854), the governor of Urad West Gung banner, The Mergen Gegeen once went to Wang banner of Ordos, and he had the local sage Hutung-in Lhungrub Bandita, who was famous everywhere, write sutras and mantras in Tibetan and Mongolian.20 One of the sutras and mantras was the 97 line sutra Ejen Bogdayin Serjim (Offerings to the Holy Lord). Although Lhungrub Bandita dedicated this sutra to the Chinggis cult, he blended in a lot of Buddhist elements, and even portrayed Chinggis as born to support Buddhism:
Especially the three important blessing of lamas, Multiply the sangha of the splendid temples, Increase the magnicent descendants, Deign to grant grace to all. ... On the bank of the Borotohoi [i.e. Ordos], Support the holy names of Buddhism. Guardian of virtuous deeds, Holy Chinggis, proceed solemnly.21

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He further wrote as if the fame of Chinggis Khan in the world was spread by the order of the lamas! For example:
By the order of the gracious lamas, [You] became famous by the name of Holy Lord Chinggis. Enjoy happily the offering made with fruit. In the land of Mongolia, Multiply the timely rain, livestock and crops, Spread the treasure, seed and fruit, Become like the palace of Valcaraman god.22 May all be peaceful and happy.23

In the same period, the sixth Panchen Lama Lubsangbaldanyeshe (17381780) also wrote a sutra in Tibetan. According to the translation of Mergen Toin Dorji Da Lama, it reads as follows:
Headed by Chinggis Khan with great power, Deities of all earthly and heavenly cults, companions, Deign to rest here. Starting with pure food and koumiss, [There are] offerings of meat and blood libations. The erce deities of earth and heaven, May you be happy with companions. We frequently pray and praise. Befriend those who sit and stand. Full the wishes of the great time. Protect us from thieves, robbers, and wild animals, From epidemics and diseases. May the radiance and gain spread widely. May all those wishes be fullled. May the good virtue be lled with ocean-like happiness.24

Furthermore, the seventh Panchen Lama Lubsangbaldandambinima (17821853) wrote several sutras for the Chinggis Khan cult at the urging of regional leaders, namely Todi, the deputy governor of Uushen banner, the governor of Hangin banner Rashijamsu Beise (who became Beise in 1806 and died in 18l2), the governor of Otog banner Sodnamrabjai Beise (who became Beise in 1798 and died in 1838), and Vanchingjigmeddorji who was the son of the governor of Hangin banner Chavanbaljur Beise (who became Beise in 1717 and died in 1772). Also he was asked to personally draw and consecrate portraits of Chinggis Khan, his companions and relatives.25 Now, let me quote a few sentences from the memoir of Todi, the deputy governor:
From the sky of the Land of [Buddhist] Law came the lamas, guardian deities, bodhisattvas, powerful great lord heavenly Chinggis Khan, queens, sons, wise ministers,

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deities of all directions, to sit here. ... In the blazing bonre were burning all sorts of offerings, smoke becoming like a cloud mass. With this, lamas, guardian deities and bodhisattvas were puried and worshipped; you Lord Chinggis Khan were puried and worshipped; queens and sons were puried and worshipped; deities of all directions were puried and worshipped.26

The fact that the Panchen Lamas also frequently wrote sutra indicates how important the Chinggis Khan cult was for Yellow Hat Buddhism. However, Lhungrub Bandita and Lubsangbaldanyeshes sutras written in Tibetan might have been inuential among lamas, but they failed to be accepted by ordinary Mongols, especially the Darhad who were the guardian people of the Chinggis Khan shrine. Although some sutras were translated into Mongolian later, they were not so popular as the lamas hoped. Only the renowned poet Mergen Gegeen Lubsangdambijalsans 64 line sutra lyric written in the 18th century27 came to be popular among Mongols, and it is read even today. The sutra, written in Mongolian, was rather rhythmic. Even the scope of the content widened, catering to the expectations of the Mongols. Its popularity was also due to the special breathing technique required for reading it. Reading this sutra was even a kind of physical exercise. Since he was a truthful disciple of Yellow Hat Buddhism, the Mergen Gegeen could not but squeeze in many Buddhist elements into the sutra. For instance:
[You are] the best of 84,000 kings, Who has the power like that of the universal king Chakravartin. [You are] the conqueror of the heretical enemies of Buddhism. [We] praise and prostrate to you, the all-powerful guardian deity.

In this sutra, the Mergen Gegeen also admonished those who betrayed Buddhism, and urged the spreading of the religion of Vajra-dhara, the thunderboltholder:
Dismember with strong thunderbolt sword, The enemy who opposes Master Buddhas teachings, Cut up his aorta. Spread the religion of the Vajra-dhara.

Then he begged to permanently input appropriate deeds, grace and merit to Chinggis Khans spirit, which had taken vows of Upasaka:
By the salvation of the lamas, guardian deities and Three Jewels28 Especially by the guardian deities who took vows, Do impeccably well the appropriate deeds. Enter happiness and blessing to the great time.

Despite this, Mongols did not think this sutra was a Buddhist sutra, rather regarding it as the best prayer possible for Lord Chinggis, which has been recited for the last two hundred years. Accordingly, the famous Mongolist W. Heissig

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wrote in his The Religions of Mongolia29

The Mergen Diyanci-yin Gegeen also wrote an offering-prayer in connection with Chinggis Khan in the middle of the eighteenth century for his national liturgy in the Mongolian language; this text was diffused widely among the Mongols and was still being newly printed in Eastern Mongolia in 1930s.

ATTEMPTS TO CHANGE THE RITUAL Lamas had never been negligent in their effort to model the Chinggis worship ritual after that of Buddhism. For example, in the latter half of the 18th century, the sixth Panchen Lama tried to exert Buddhist inuence by inserting in the Chinggis Khan incense prayer:
Uva a-a Huu. Fill the sky with the assembly, Of the mantra and samadhi (meditation), Of the incense-burning and ritual idols blessed with mudra.30

His successor, the seventh Panchen Lama made further clarication in Drben Jilt iles-i Trgen-e Btgegci Egesig Dagun (The Vowel Song to Speed up Completing the Four Kinds of Deeds): Along with preparing materials useful for making the ritual food offerings, make blessing in proportion to that to be fullled.31 He further wrote, I prostrate to those who dont deviate from Buddhism, to those who eliminate the sinful and keep the vow, and to those who protect Buddhism the Supreme one and Maharagca. He systematised all the protocols of making offering to the spirit of Chinggis Khan, making repentance, blessing the fullling oblations (made to the terrible deities), making food offerings, making memorials, making restitution, reading mantras, and singing praises. And he instructed his followers to make appropriate customs that dont contradict the recent conventions, bring about rm decoration to the end [of life] with prayers that salute power, and cover all those attendants with lucky rain at the time of praying. In the Sasa Tahilg-a-yin Sudur (Sutra for Offerings), it is written as follows,
The holy Panchen, the universal petitioner, in his reincarnation as Lubsangbaldan Dambinim-a, decreed three kinds of the hundred thousand sayings: blissful Jikir pagoda of the heart, hat, and many offerings such as the religious vestments called garsha. He wrote teachings that would pacify deities and dragons of the earth, lords and monsters of eight kinds of places, beings with devilish features, and mischievous beings.[...] In various works he wrote about the bond between the powerful holy lord

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Chinggis, his companions and his relatives. In other works he wrote about the great mountain deity called Tachinrahaba, and the customs regarding lords and deities of oboos (cairns) and places, and he wrote prayers of offerings.32

It is evident that the seventh Panchen put much of his heart into regulating religious affairs in Mongolia and he designed suitable customs for all sorts of deities and guardian spirits. In this, the ritual designed for the powerful lord holy Chinggis, companions and relatives was rather interesting. In Chinggis Khan-u Chadig-un Tobchi ba Ahul Jres-n Sachural (A Brief Biography of Chinggis Khan and Libation to his Descendants)33 it is written that the ritual designed by Lubsangbaldandambinim-a for holy lord Chinggis, his children and companions is clearly described in a comprehensive book called Gegen Toli (Clear Mirror) which has been shown to Vangiri. It is thus clear that the details of the ritual designed by the seventh Panchen must be in a book called Gegen Toli. In what is believed to be a later version, Batu Jebseg Hemegci Orosiba (Book named Strong Weapons)34 which is a hand-written copy, it is specied:
Those who wish to make offerings to Chinggis Khan should prepare the most aromatic incenses, Buddhist offerings, sutras, display pictures in a clean comfortable place, and purify them in whatever way one has become familiar with. To simplify, repeat thrice the three-word mantra, purify tangkas if there are any, otherwise, purify the place in front of you.... Make music by blowing conches and copper bugles.

However, for hundreds of years, the Darhad people, who had been worshipping and guarding the shrine of Chinggis Khan, deemed it unnecessary to follow lamas instruction as how to worship Chinggis, and they strictly maintained the original rituals. Thus they had never surrendered the right of controlling the rituals to Yellow Hat Buddhism. At the time, since almost every activity in every corner of Mongolian society was permeated with Buddhist doctrines, it was impossible for the Darhad to openly defy the lamas. Thus they gave the appearance of being frightened and obedient on the surface, but in reality, they neither accepted the theory of the rituals designed by the Panchen, nor implemented them. In the 19th century, however, when Yellow Hat Buddhist monasteries were built around the Chinggis Khan shrine from four directions, many Darhad started to send their children to monasteries to become monks. Thus, even the houses of those Darhad faithful to Chinggis Khan were hung with Buddhist tangkas, and were frequented by lamas. Later the lamas went a step further by burning incense and blowing conches on the Gandariin Sili Oboo close to the eight white tent shrine of Chinggis. They beat cymbals and drums at the doors of the shrine palaces. On this Tseveen Jamtsarano wrote:
At the tomb of Chinggis, there were several Darhad lamas who would not refrain from burning incense, reading sutras in Tibetan, ... and offering liquor and whole sheep.35

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To conclude, when Buddhism came to the Mongols, lamas encountered the inevitable question of how to resolve the problem of the Chinggis Khan cult. Since the cult had gradually become the psychological pillar of the Mongols, ignoring it would not enhance the prestige of lamas, nor would banning it win the heart of Mongols. To resolve this contradiction, they made sure they neither shamed the mother, nor punished the calf, and adopted a method that was both favourable to Buddhism and welcomed by the Mongols, i.e. Buddhicising the Chinggis Khan cult. This task was initially assigned to the Mongol rulers who wanted to use Buddhism, and they openly supported the lamas scheme. However, Chinggis Khan had never been seen by the Darhad as a reincarnation of Vajra-Pani, but as the son of heaven, and therefore no ofcial change was made to the rituals of the Chinggis Khan shrine. This set a strong contrast to the harsh policies of eliminating shamanic idols and fetishes. Later, however, because the Mongol rulers became subservient to Buddhist manipulation, lamas indeed managed to inuence the cult of Chinggis Khan. However, because of the successful resistance of the Darhad people, lamas were not entirely successful until Buddhism itself met with decline in this century. By examining this historical process, we should be clear that high-ranking lamas, such as the Dalai and Panchen Lamas, were faithful to their religion, and for the sake of its dissemination they did not refrain from transforming the nomadic culture on the Mongolian plateau into a Buddhist culture. Mongols, on the other hand, loved their own civilisation, and were rm on certain issues essential for Mongol values. NOTES
The paper was originally published in Mongolian under the title Eminent Monks Attempts to Buddhicise the Cult of Chinggis Khan, Social Sciences of Inner Mongolia (Mongolian Edition) 1997, No. 4, pp. 31-43. It is translated here by Uraydn E. Bulag. 2 Rose-apple continent the southernmost of the seven worlds or major continents which surround the mythical Mount Meru in Buddhist cosmography. 3 Liu Jingsuo (ed. & annotation), Arban Buyantu Nom-un Cagan Tehe. (Huhhot,1981) pp. 75-76. 4 See Tabdugar Dr-yin Yongzung Gegen Agvanggelingjamiyanjamsu-yin Johiyal Orosibai. (Hailar 1992), pp. 399-400. 5 See sutras Altan Ordu-yin Golomta-yin Yehe chig and Bogda Chinggis Ejen- Dalalga Orosiba. 6 Batubagan-a, Monggul ndsten- Gn Uhagan-u jel Sanagan-u Tehe-yin Sudulul, (Huhhot, 1993) pp. 241-242. 7 See note 3. 8 Batu Jebseg Hemegchi Orosiba, handwritten copy, in the library of the Inner Mongolian Academy of Social Sciences. 9 Ordus-un Tayilg-a Tahilg-a Yirgel Magtagal, (Huhhot, 1990), p. 98. 10 Hhendr (annotation), Erdeni-yin Tobchiy-a, (Beijing, 1987) p. 248.
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See Zhongguo Xizang, 1993, No. l. See note 4. 13 Xibei Minzu Yanjiu, 1995, No. 1. 14 Erdeni Tunumal Neretu Sudur Orosiba, hand-written copy, in the library of the Inner Mongolian Academy of Social Sciences. 15 Ordos dah Chingisiin Ongon, Monggul Sudulul-un Medegelel (Cyrillic Edition) 1994, No.2 and 1995, No. 1. 16 Hand-written copy, in the library of the Inner Mongolian Academy of Social Sciences. 17 Ibid. 18 See note 9. 19 N. Hurcabilig, Jirgadugar Dalai Lama Zangyangjamsu-yin Ordus-tu Higsen Shashin-u Ajillag-a, Alasha Hele. No.3, 1986 20 Bayasgulang-i Huragachi Sm-e-yin Ug Ehi-yin Dangsa, hand-written copy. 21 See note 4. 22 He is the guardian of the northern quarter of the world and god of riches, popularly known by his abbreviated Tibetan name, which is pronounced Namsray. 23 See note 4. 24 Ejen Chinggis Hagan-u Sang Orosiba, hand-written copy, in the library of the Inner Mongolian Academy of Social Sciences. 25 Choidar, Sagang Secen-u Sharil-un Ongun-u Tayilg-a Tahilg-a, vr Monggul-un Neyigem-un Sinjileh Uhagan, No.2, 1990, pp. 59-60. 26 Ibid. 27 The sutra he wrote for the cult of Chinggis Khan has been known as Ejen Sang. According to Vajra-dhara Mergen Diyanchi Blam-a-yin Gegen-u Gbum Jarlig-un Garcag Bichig Erdeni Erihe Orosiba, the full name of Ejen Sang is Ahuu Horiyan-u Oron-u Ejen- Sang Tahil. In some versions, the sutra has 65 lines, while in others, it has 72 lines. 28 I.e. Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. 29 W. Heissig, The Religions of Mongolia, translated from German by Geoffrey Samuel, (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980) p. 64. 30 See note 24. 31 Drben Jilt Trgen-e Btgegci Egesig Dagun, hand-written copy. 32 vr Monggul-un Neyigem-un Sinjilehu Uhagan, 1992, No.3, p. 111. 33 Hand-written copy in the library of the Inner Mongolian Academy of Social Sciences. 34 Hand-written copy in the library of the Inner Mongolian Academy of Social Sciences. 35 See note 15.

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