title : Lexicography : An Introduction author : Jackson, Howard.

publisher : Taylor & Francis outledge isbn10 | asin : print isbn13 : !"#$%$&'("%#% ebook isbn13 : !"#$)#)'(%*&' language : +nglish subject Lexicography. publication date : %$$% lcc : ,&%".J&& %$$%eddc : '*&..$%# subject : Lexicography. ,age i Lexicography This -ook is an accessi-le introduction to lexicography / the study o0 dictionaries. 1e rely on dictionaries to pro2ide us with de0initions o0 words, and to tell us how to spell the3. They are used at ho3e and at school, cited in law courts, ser3ons and parlia3ent, and re0erred to -y crossword addicts and scra--le players alike. 4ut why are dictionaries structured as they are5 1hat types o0 dictionary exist, and what purposes do they ser2e5 1ho uses a dictionary, and 0or what5

Lexicography: An Introduction pro2ides a detailed o2er2iew o0 the history, types and content o0 these essential re0erence works. Howard Jackson analyses a wide range o0 dictionaries, 0ro3 those 0or nati2e speakers to the3atic dictionaries and learners6 dictionaries, including those on 789 :;, to re2eal the ways in which dictionaries 0ul0il their dual 0unction o0 descri-ing the 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish and pro2iding a use0ul and accessi-le re0erence resource. 4eginning with an introduction to the ter3s used in lexicology to descri-e words and 2oca-ulary, and o00ering su33aries and suggestions 0or 0urther reading, Lexicography: An Introduction is concise and student90riendly. It is ideal 0or anyone with an interest in the de2elop3ent and use o0 dictionaries. Howard Jackson is ,ro0essor o0 +nglish Language and Linguistics at the <ni2ersity o0 7entral +ngland. His pu-lications include Grammar and Vocabulary = outledge, %$$%>, Words and their Meaning =Long3an, *!##>, and Words, Meaning and Vocabulary =7assell, %$$$>. ,age ii This page intentionally le0t -lank. ,age iii

Lexicography
An introduction Howard Jackson

London and ?ew @ork ,age i2 First pu-lished %$$% -y outledge ** ?ew Fetter Lane, London +7', '++ Ai3ultaneously pu-lished in the <AA and 7anada -y outledge %! 1est &)th Atreet, ?ew @ork, ?@ *$$$* Routledge is an imprint of the aylor ! "rancis Group This edition pu-lished in the Taylor & Francis e9Li-rary, %$$&.

B %$$% Howard Jackson All rights reser2ed. ?o part o0 this -ook 3ay -e reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any 0or3 or -y any electronic, 3echanical, or other 3eans, now known or herea0ter in2ented, including photocopying and recording, or in any in0or3ation storage or retrie2al syste3, without per3ission in writing 0ro3 the pu-lishers. #ritish Library $ataloguing in %ublication &ata A catalogue record 0or this -ook is a2aila-le 0ro3 the 4ritish Li-rary Library of $ongress $ataloging in %ublication &ata A catalog record has -een reCuested IA4? $9%$&9'("%#9$ ;aster e9-ook IA4? IA4? $9%$&9%'(($9# =:+4 For3at> IA4? $9'*)9%&*"%9# =h-k> IA4? $9'*)9%&*"&9( =p-k> ,age 2

Contents
%reface &ictionaries cited * % & ' ) ( " # ! *$ 1ords Facts a-out words The dictionary The -eginnings he 'e( )nglish &ictionary <p to the present <sers and uses ;eaning in dictionaries 4eyond de0inition +ty3ology 2ii ix * *$ %* &* '" (* "' #( *$* **"

** *% *& *'

8ictionaries 0or learners A-andoning the alpha-et 7o3piling dictionaries 7riticising dictionaries References Index

*%! *') *(* *"& *#' *#!

,age 2i This page intentionally le0t -lank. ,age 2ii

re!ace
;uch has happened, -oth in respect o0 the 3aking o0 dictionaries and in respect o0 their acade3ic study, in the twel2e or so years since 3y pre2ious -ook on dictionaries =Words and heir Meaning, Long3an, *!##>. Then, the Dcorpus re2olution6 = undell and Atock *!!%> had only Eust -egun / Words and heir Meaning Eust 3anaged to catch the 0irst =*!#"> edition o0 the $ollins $*#+IL& )nglish &ictionary. ?ow 2irtually all dictionaries pu-lished in the <F 3ake so3e clai3 to ha2e used a co3puter corpus in their co3pilation. ?ot only ha2e learners6 dictionaries de2eloped -y leaps and -ounds / the *xford Ad,anced Learner-s &ictionary was in its third edition then, now in its sixth, and the $ambridge International &ictionary of )nglish was still a long way o00 / -ut nati2e speaker dictionaries ha2e also seen signi0icant de2elop3ents / the pu-lication o0 the 'e( *xford &ictionary of )nglish in *!!#, as well as three editions o0 the $oncise *xford, not to 3ention the second edition o0 the great :+8 in *!#! and the -eginning o0 the 3assi2e re2ision that will result in the third edition, planned 0or %$*$. 8ictionaries ha2e also appeared during the period in electronic 0or3at, nota-ly as 789 :;s, opening up new possi-ilities, not only in how dictionaries can -e used and exploited, -ut also in how dictionary 3aterial can -e organised and presented. 8ictionaries are also accessi-le online, through the internet, including the :+8, ena-ling su-scri-ers to 2iew the re2isions that will constitute the third edition, as they are posted Cuarterly. The study o0 lexicography has also de2eloped and 0lourished during the last doGen years. They saw the launch o0 the highly success0ul International .ournal of Lexicography in *!##, 0or the 0irst ten years under the editorship o0 o-ert Ilson, and latterly that o0 Tony 7owie. The 3ighty three92olu3e )ncyclopedia of Lexicography =Haus3ann et al/ *!#!/ !*> delineated the state o0 the art, and the &ictionary of Lexicography =Hart3ann and Ja3es *!!#> 3apped the territory. ;ore recently, einhard Hart3ann6s eaching and

Researching Lexicography =%$$*> has set the agenda 0or the -usiness o0 acade3ic lexicography. And Aidney Landau has updated his reada-le &ictionaries: he Art and $raft of Lexicography =second edition, %$$*> with its transatlantic perspecti2e. It is ti3e 0or a new treat3ent o0 the su-Eect in the <F. I a3 grate0ul to Louisa Ae3lyen and to outledge 0or taking this on. The -ook is dedicated to all the ,age 2iii 0inal9year students who ha2e ena-led 3e to de2elop the 3aterial -y taking 3y DLexicography6 3odule on the +nglish degree at the <ni2ersity o0 7entral +ngland in 4ir3ingha3 o2er 3ore years than I care to recall. Howard Jackson 4ir3ingha3 August %$$* ,age ix

"ictionaries cited
The 0ollowing dictionaries are 3entioned in the course o0 this -ook. =?ote: a superscript nu3-er, e.g. *!##%, re0ers to the editionH in this case, the second edition pu-lished in *!##.> #ati$e speaker dictionaries $hambers )nglish &ictionary, =*!##"> edited -y 7atherine AchwarG, Ieorge 8a2idson, Anne Aeaton and Jirginia Te--it. $hambers 01st $entury &ictionary =*!!(> edited -y ;airi o-inson. $ollins $oncise &ictionary =*!#%H *!##%H *!!%&H *!!!', edited -y 8iana Tre00ry>. $ollins )nglish &ictionary =*!"! edited -y ,atrick Hanks, *!#(% edited -y ,atrick Hanks, *!!*.!'& edited -y ;arian ;akins, *!!#' edited -y 8iana Tre00ry>. $oncise *xford &ictionary =*!** edited -y H.I. and F.1. Fowler, *!%!%, *!&'&, *!)*', *!('), *!"((, *!#%", *!!$#, *!!)!, *!!!*$ edited -y Judy ,earsall>. )ncarta $oncise )nglish &ictionary =%$$*> edited -y Fathy ooney, 4loo3s-ury. Longman &ictionary of the )nglish Language =*!#', *!!*% edited -y 4rian :6Fill>. A 'e( )nglish &ictionary on 2istorical %rinciples =*###/*!%#> edited -y Ja3es ;urray, Henry 4radley, 1.A. 7raigie and 7.T. :nions. 'e( *xford &ictionary of )nglish =*!!#> edited -y Judy ,earsall.

*xford )nglish &ictionary =*!&& edited -y Ja3es ;urray et al/, *!#!% edited -y John Ai3pson and +d3und 1einer>. he 'e( 3horter *xford )nglish &ictionary on 2istorical %rinciples =*!!&> edited -y Lesley 4rown. Webster-s hird 'e( International &ictionary of the )nglish Language =*!(*> edited -y ,hilip Io2e. %onolingual learners& dictionaries $ambridge &ictionary of American )nglish =%$$$> edited -y Aidney Landau. $ambridge International &ictionary of )nglish =*!!)> edited -y ,aul ,roctor. $ollins $*#+IL& )nglish &ictionary =*!#", *!!)%, %$$*&> edited -y John Ainclair. Longman &ictionary of $ontemporary )nglish =*!"# edited -y ,aul ,roctor, *!#"% edited -y 8ella Au33ers and ;. undell, *!!)& edited -y 8ella Au33ers>. ,age x Longman Language Acti,ator =*!!&> edited -y 8ella Au33ers. Longman Lexicon of $ontemporary )nglish =*!#*> co3piled -y To3 ;cArthur. *xford Ad,anced Learner-s &ictionary of $urrent )nglish =*!'# edited -y A.A. Horn-y, +.J. Iaten-y and H. 1ake0ieldH *!(&% edited -y A.A. Horn-y, +.J. Iaten-y and H. 1ake0ieldH *!"'& edited -y A.A. Horn-y, with A.,. 7owie and J. 1indsor LewisH *!#!' edited -y A.,. 7owie, *!!)) edited -y Jonathan 7rowtherH %$$$( edited -y Aally 1eh3eier>. 'he(atic dictionaries A hesaurus of *ld )nglish =*!!)> co3piled -y Jane o-erts and 7hristian Fay, with Lynne Irundy. Longman &ictionary of 3cientific +sage =*!"!> co3piled -y A. Iod3an and +.;.F. ,ayne. Longman Language Acti,ator =*!!&> edited -y 8ella Au33ers. Longman Lexicon of $ontemporary )nglish =*!#*> co3piled -y To3 ;cArthur. Roget-s hesaurus of )nglish Words and %hrases =*#)%>, Long3ans, Ireen and 7o. he 3cots hesaurus =*!!$>, edited -y Isea-ail ;cLeod. )bbre$iations In order to sa2e space, dictionaries regularly cited will usually -e re0erred to in the course o0 the -ook -y the 0ollowing a--re2iations:

778 / $ollins $oncise &ictionary 7+8 / $ollins )nglish &ictionary 7ha3-ers / $hambers )nglish &ictionary 7I8+ / $ambridge International &ictionary of )nglish 7:4<IL8 / $ollins $*#+IL& )nglish &ictionary 7:8 / $oncise *xford &ictionary +7+8 / )ncarta $oncise )nglish &ictionary L8+L / Longman &ictionary of the )nglish Language L8:7+ / Longman &ictionary of $ontemporary )nglish ?:8+ / 'e( *xford &ictionary of )nglish :AL8 / *xford Ad,anced Learner-s &ictionary :+8 / *xford )nglish &ictionary A:+8 / 3horter *xford )nglish &ictionary 1& / Webster-s hird 'e( International &ictionary/ 1here the a--re2iation is 0ollowed -y a nu3-er, e.g. 7:8#, the nu3-er re0ers to the edition, i.e. $oncise *xford &ictionary, eighth edition. ,age *

1 *ords
1+1 *hat is a word,
@ou take a dictionary o00 the shel0, or access a dictionary on your co3puter, and open it -ecause you want to look up a Dword6. 8ictionaries are the repositories o0 words. 1ords are arranged in dictionaries in alpha-etical order, and as you look down the colu3n in a print dictionary or the list in an electronic dictionary, you are reading a list o0 words. :r are you5 Here is the list o0 the %) Dheadwords6 -etween (ant and (ardrobe in 7:8*$ =i.e. $oncise *xford &ictionary, tenth edition: see D8ictionaries cited6, p. ix>: want, wanting, wanton, wapentake, wapiti, 1ar., war, waratah, war -a-y, war-le*, war-le%, war-le 0ly, war-ler, war-y, war chest, war cri3e, war cry, ward, 9ward, war dance, warden, warder, ward heeler, ward o0 court, wardro-e. A nu3-er o0 ite3s in this list do not Cuite 3atch our usual concept o0 what constitutes a

word, which is / I suggest / Da seCuence o0 letters -ounded -y spaces6. Indeed, only *) o0 the %) ite3s could -e descri-ed in this way. Two o0 the re3aining ite3s are less than a 0ull word: the a--re2iation War/ =0or War(ic4shire>, and the su00ix 5(ard =used to 0or3 words like bac4(ard, s4y(ard / see 7hapter %>. The other eight ite3s all consist o0 3ore than one Dword6: se2en o0 the3 ha2e Eust two words, and one has three =(ard of court>. @ou will also ha2e noticed that one word =(arble> is entered twice. Ao, Eust what is a Dword65 The word -e0ore (ant in the 7:8*$ list is (annabe. Is that a word, or is it three =(ant to be>5 In our usual concept o0 a word, it is one, -ecause it is a seCuence o0 letters -ounded -y spaces. This conception o0 words co3es, o0 course, 0ro3 writing, the 3ediu3 in which we are 3ost conscious o0 wordsH and dictionaries are -ased on the written 0or3 o0 the language. In speech, though, words are co3posed o0 sounds and sylla-les, and they 0ollow one another in the 0low o0 speech without spaces or pauses. 1e 3ake no 3ore pause in saying (ar baby than we do with (ardrobe, e2en though the 0irst consists o0 two words in writing and the second o0 only one. ,age % There is, clearly, a 3easure o0 con0usion here that needs so3e sorting out in a -ook a-out words and dictionaries. Let us 3ake the 0ollowing distinction o0 ter3s: orthographic (ord a word in writing, a seCuence o0 letters -ounded -y spaces phonological (ord a word in speech, a seCuence o0 sounds =the -oundaries o0 phonological words are deter3ined -y rules o0 sylla-le structure, stress, and the like> lexeme a word in the 2oca-ulary o0 a languageH it 3ay occur as a headword in a dictionary. A lexe3e 3ay, there0ore, consist o0 3ore than one orthographic word, as (arble fly, (ar chest, (ard of court. +2en though they are listed as headwords, we should exclude a--re2iations and a00ixes =see *.( -elow> 0ro3 the category o0 lexe3e.

1+- .a(e sound/ sa(e spelling/ di!!erent word

1e noticed that (arble is entered twice in 7:8*$. The co3pilers o0 this dictionary are 0ollowing co33on practice and recognising two di00erent lexe3es with the sa3e spelling =and, as it happens, the sa3e pronunciation>. The 0irst (arble is the 2er- that re0ers to -irdsongH the second is a noun denoting Da swelling or a-scess -eneath the skin on the -ack o0 cattle K caused -y the presence o0 the lar2a o0 a war-le 0ly6. Howe2er, the 0act that the 3eanings o0 the two lexe3es are co3pletely unrelated is not the pri3ary criterion 0or distinguishing the3. 8ictionaries usually operate with the criterion o0 ety3ology =see 7hapter *$> 0or deciding that a single orthographic word represents 3ore than one lexe3e. I0 a single spelling can -e shown to ha2e 3ore than one origin, then it constitutes 3ore than one lexe3e. In the case o0 (arble, the D-irdsong6 lexe3e has its origin, according to 7:8*$, in the :ld ?orthern French word (erble, which ca3e into +nglish during the ;iddle +nglish period =*$((/*)$$>. The Da-scess6 lexe3e also originates in the ;iddle +nglish period, -ut it has a di00erent, according to 7:8*$ Duncertain6,

pro2enance. Lexe3es that share the sa3e spelling and pronunciation, -ut ha2e a di00erent ety3ology, are ter3ed ho(ony(s =a Ireek word, 3eaning Dsa3e =homo> na3e =nym>6>. Another orthographic word with a dou-le entry in the dictionary is tear. The 0irst tear lexe3e relates to Dpulling or ripping apart6, the second denotes the drop o0 salty liCuid that co3es 0ro3 the eyes when so3eone weeps. In this case, howe2er, the sa3e spelling has di00erent pronunciations, i.e. phonological words. Aince the dictionary is -ased on spelling, tear is entered twice. As 3ight -e expected, tear =rip> and tear =weep> also ha2e di00erent origins, -oth 0ro3 :ld +nglish, the 0irst 0ro3 teran and the second 0ro3 t6ar. Lexe3es that share the sa3e spelling, -ut not the sa3e pronunciation, are called ho(ographs =0ro3 Ireek, Dsa3e6 L Dwriting6>. There are not 2ery 3any ho3ographs in +nglish, -y ,age & co3parison with the nu3-er o0 ho3ony3s. Here are so3e 0urther exa3ples 0or you to 0igure out =or look up>: -ow, curate, denier, irony, prayer, re0use, reser2e, sow, supply, wind. ;uch 3ore co33on in +nglish are the counterparts to ho3ographs: lexe3es that are pronounced the sa3e, -ut spelled di00erently, e.g. pale.pail. These present no pro-le3 to a dictionary, since it is the spelling that takes priorityH and each is entered as a headword at the appropriate place in the alpha-etical seCuence. Lexe3es that share the sa3e pronunciation, -ut not the sa3e spelling, are called ho(ophones =0ro3 Ireek, Dsa3e6 L Dsound6>. Here are so3e 0urther ho3ophone pairs in +nglish: -are.-ear, gait.gate, haul.hall, leak.leek, 3iner.3inor, paw.poor.pore. pour, sew.sow, stake.steak, taught.taut @ou will notice that 3ost ho3ophones arise -ecause 2owel sounds that used to -e pronounced di00erently, as represented -y the spelling, ha2e in the course o0 historical sound changes co3e to -e pronounced the sa3e.

1+3 Lexe(es and $ariants

I0 you look up sung in a dictionary, you will 0ind a 2ery -rie0 entry along the lines o0 Dpast participle o0 sing6, which is a cross9re0erence to the entry 0or sing. I0 you look up the word tal4ed, which is the past participle o0 tal4, you will not 0ind an entry. For -oth these words, the dictionary gi2es their description under a single entry: sing 0or sung, and tal4 0or tal4ed. @ou do not need a separate treat3ent o0 sung or tal4ed, -ecause what is said a-out sing or tal4 is eCually applica-le to the3. They are 3erely D2ariants6 o0 the entry wordH in e00ect they are the Dsa3e word6. The lexe3e sing, 0or exa3ple, has the 0ollowing 2ariants: sing, sings, sang, singing, sung. The lexe3e tal4 has one 2ariant 0ewer: tal4, tal4s, tal4ed, tal4ing. 1hat we are looking at are the in0lections o0 2er-s in +nglish:

-ase.present tense third person singular.present tense past tense present participle past participle

sing sings sang singing sung

tal4 tal4s tal4ed tal4ing tal4ed

The 2er- tal4 represents the Dregular6 paradig3, where the past tense and the past participle ha2e the sa3e 0or3, with the 57e8d su00ix. The 2er- sing is one o0 a nu3-er with Dirregular6 in0lections. There is a sense in which sing, sings, sang, singing and sung are all the Dsa3e word6H they are di00erent 3ani0estations o0 the sa3e lexe3e, 2ariants chosen ,age ' according to the gra33atical context o0 the lexe3e. For exa3ple, i0 the su-Eect o0 a sentence is a Dthird person singular6 =eCui2alent to he, she or it> and the speaker.writer has chosen present tense, then the 0or3 o0 the 2er- will -e sings or tal4s, with the Ds6 su00ix 3arking the Dthird person singular present tense6 =e.g. Duntil the 0at lady.she sings6> 1e need a 0urther ter3 to distinguish this type o0 Dword6: (ord9form an in0lectional 2ariant o0 a lexe3e To illustrate word90or3s we ha2e chosen 2er-s, -ecause 2er- lexe3es ha2e 3ore in0lections than any other type o0 lexe3e in +nglish. Two other types o0 lexe3e regularly ha2e in0lectional 2ariants and so 3ore than one word90or3: nouns and adEecti2es / though not e2ery 3e3-er o0 these classes, as is the case with 2er-s. 7ounta-le nouns =biscuit, coin>, -ut not uncounta-le nouns =dough, salt>, ha2e a Dplural6 in0lection. Ao3e nouns, 3ainly re0erring to ani3ate -eings, ha2e a Dpossessi2e6 in0lection. The word9 0or3s 0or plural nouns ha2e a 57e8s su00ix as the regular in0lection =bananas, oranges, mangoes>. A s3all nu3-er o0 counta-le nouns 0or3 the plural irregularly, e.g. feet, geese, mice, teethH childrenH 4ni,es, loa,esH nuclei, millennia, formulae, hypotheses, criteria. The possessi2e in0lection is nor3ally 3arked in the singular noun -y an apostrophe L s =e.g. cat-s, girl-s, nephe(-s>, and in the plural noun -y an apostrophe only, placed a0ter the plural su00ix =e.g. cats-, girls- nephe(s->. This, o0 course, applies to writing: in speech, the possessi2e singular adds 57e8s, and so is no di00erent 0ro3 the pluralH and the plural possessi2e is the sa3e as the nor3al plural, except where the plural is 0or3ed irregularly =e.g. mice-s, children-s, (omen-s>. Au33arising, the word90or3s o0 =so3e> noun lexe3es are: -ase.singular plural possessi2e singular girl girls girl-s child children child-s

possessi2e plural

girls-

children-s

?ote that the three in0lected 0or3s o0 girl =the Dregular6 paradig3> ha2e the sa3e pronunciation. Ao3e adEecti2e lexe3es in +nglish ha2e a Dco3parati2e6 and a Dsuperlati2e6 0or3. The adEecti2es concerned are Dgrada-le6 =e.g. long, :uic4, small>, rather than Dungrada-le6 =daily, mortal, sterile>. ;ost grada-le adEecti2es that are one9sylla-le in length can ha2e these 0or3s, as 3ay 3ost two9sylla-le grada-le adEecti2es. The regular in0lection 0or the co3parati2e is 5er, and 0or the superlati2e 5est =e.g. longer.longest, :uic4er.:uic4est, smaller.smallest>. There is a 2ery s3all nu3-er o0 irregular 0or3s: good, better, bestH bad, (orse, (orst. An alternati2e way o0 expressing co3parison, applied to so3e two9 sylla-le adEecti2es and to nearly all grada-le adEecti2es o0 three sylla-les or 3ore, is with the ad2er-s more and most =e.g. more.most s4ilful, more.most treacherous>. Au33arising, the word90or3s o0 =so3e> adEecti2e lexe3es are: ,age ) -ase co3parati2e superlati2e slo( slo(er slo(est good better best

1hen one9sylla-le adEecti2es do not per3it word90or3s with 5er.9est, it is usually -ecause their pronunciation is so3ehow awkward =e.g. sourer, (ronger>.

1+0 *ar chests and wards o! court

In the list 0ro3 the 7:8*$ in *.* we noted se2eral lexe3es co3posed o0 3ore than one orthographic word. A nu3-er o0 the3 ha2e (ar as their 0irst ele3ent: (ar chest, (ar crime, (ar cry, (ar dance. Two independent lexe3es ha2e co3e together to 0or3 a new lexe3e with a specialised 3eaning, to denote so3e entity that is considered worth ha2ing its own Dna3e6. 1e call such lexe3es co(pounds =see 0urther 7hapter %>. Ao3eti3es co3pounds are written, as in the exa3ples with (ar, with a space -etween the two ele3ents. :ther co3pounds are written as a single orthographic word =e.g. (arhead, (arlord, (arpath, (arship>, while others ha2e a hyphen Eoining the two ele3ents =e.g. (ar9torn, (indo(9shop, (orld9class>. The current tendency is away 0ro3 Dhyphenated co3pounds6 towards either Dsolid co3pounds6 =one orthographic word> or Dopen co3pounds6 =two or 3ore orthographic words>. The other 3ulti9word lexe3e in the list is (ard of court, which is a phrase rather than a co3pound. hrasal lexe(es ha2e a nu3-er o0 co33on structures, o0 which the Dnoun L preposition L noun6 o0 (ard of court is one. Here are so3e 0urther exa3ples o0 this structure: age o0 consent, cash on deli2ery, chapel o0 rest, ho3e 0ro3 ho3e, hostage to 0ortune, 3an a-out town, 3eals on wheels, place in the sun, rite o0 passage, skeleton in the cup-oard.

A second phrasal structure consists o0 a noun in the possessi2e 0ollowed -y another noun, e.g. athlete6s 0oot, -anker6s card, collector6s ite3, 0ool6s paradise, hair6s -readth, lady6s 0inger, plough3an6s lunch, potter6s wheel, saint6s day, s3oker6s cough, tra2eller6s cheCue, writer6s -lock. A third phrasal structure consists o0 two words o0 the sa3e type =noun, 2er-, adEecti2e> Eoined -y the conEunction and. These are so3eti3es called D-ino3ials6. Here are so3e exa3ples: -ells and whistles, -lack and white, -ow and scrape, down and out, 0ast and 0urious, ha33er and tongs, nip and tuck, pins and needles, rock and roll, sweet and sour, ups and downs, you and yours. ,age ( There are also a 0ew cases o0 Dtrino3ials6, e.g. hop, s4ip and ;umpH hoo4, line and sin4er. @ou will notice that a nu3-er o0 these ite3s are used 3etaphorically: hammer and tongs has nothing to do with the literal instru3ents used -y the -lacks3ith, -ut re0ers to the intensity or 2igour with which so3ething is done. A 0ourth kind o0 phrasal lexe3e consists o0 a 2er- L ad2er- =so3eti3es called a Dparticle6>, to 0or3 what are called Dphrasal 2er-s6. Here are so3e exa3ples: -reak up, cal3 down, 0ind out, gi2e in, look o2er, pass out, show up, take o00, waste away, wear out. Ao3e o0 these phrasal 2er-s ha2e a literal or near9literal 3eaning, others are 3ore9or9less 0igurati2e in 3eaning. In one o0 its 3eanings, ta4e off is literal =e.g. re0erring to aircra0t lea2ing the runway>, in another it is 0igurati2e =in the sense o0 Di3itate6>. A 0i0th kind o0 phrasal lexe3e, i0 indeed we can count the3 as lexe3es, are typically 3etaphorical or 0igurati2e in 3eaning. They are idio(s, which ha2e a range o0 structures 0ro3 phrase up to whole sentence. An idio3 has two essential characteristics: its 3eaning is 3ore than the 3eaning o0 the su3 o0 its parts, and usually 0igurati2eH and it has a relati2ely 0ixed structure. The idio3 a storm in a teacup =A3erican +nglish eCui2alent a tempest in a teapot> has the 0igurati2e 3eaning o0 a D0uss a-out nothing6, and there is no possi-ility o0 su-stituting or adding anything to its structure. In pull the (ool o,er someone-s eyes, the 3eaning is 0igurati2e =i.e. Ddecei2e6>, and the only su-stitution possi-ilities are appropriate in0lections 0or the 2er- pull and an appropriate possessi2e noun or pronoun in the place o0 someone-s. Idio3s are all per2asi2e in language and show a di2ersity o0 0or3 and 3eaning =see Fernando and Fla2ell =*!#*> 0or a 0uller treat3ent>. Here are a 0ew 3ore exa3ples 0ro3 +nglish: know which side one6s -read is -uttered, at the drop o0 a hat, go against the grain, co3e to a pretty pass, take so3eone 0or a ride, spill the -eans, throw the -a-y out with the -athwater, walk on eggshells.

@ou will notice that in so3e cases =e.g. ta4e someone for a ride> a literal interpretation is also possi-le. :nly the context will re2eal whether the literal or the 3etaphorical =idio3atic> 3eaning is the intended one.

1+1 Classi!ying words

In talking a-out words, we o0ten, as already in this chapter, need to re0er to the3 -y the con2entional -road classi0ication into Dparts o0 speech6, or Dword classes6 as the pre0erred ter3 now is. ather than assu3e that this is general knowledge, as 3ost dictionaries do, we will de2ote a little discussion to it. Although we ha2e school9-ased de0initions in our 3inds, such as Da 2er- is a doing word6, words are classi0ied 3ore rigorously largely on the -asis o0 the roles they play in the structure o0 sentences. +nglish has 0our large classes, into ,age " which 3ost new words go, and 0our s3aller, 0airly static classes. The 0our large classes are: < nouns are the largest class -y 0arH they represent the ani3ate and inani3ate o-Eects that are the participants in sentences as su-Eects, o-Eects, etc. =beauty, cat, leaf, niece, nonsense, (ater>

,erbs represent the action, e2ent or state that the sentence is a-out, and hold the pi2otal < position in the sentence, deter3ining which other ele3ents need to -e present =brea4, decide, fall, ha,e, 4eep, lo,e> < ad;ecti,es occur in 0ront o0 nouns as descripti2e words, as well as a0ter 2er-s like be with a si3ilar 0unction = feeble, gigantic, la=y, ne(, rough, ,ain>

ad,erbs are a di2erse class, in part representing circu3stantial in0or3ation such as ti3e =again, al(ays, sometimes, soon> and 3anner =clearly, efficiently, :uic4ly, tentati,ely>, in part < acting as 3odi0iers o0 adEecti2es or other ad2er-s =:uite, some(hat, ,ery>, in part 0or3ing connections -etween sentences =ho(e,er, moreo,er, therefore>. The 0our s3aller word classes, whose 3aEor 0unction is to link the 3e3-ers o0 the larger classes together in sentence structure, are: pronouns stand 0or nouns and their acco3panying words =noun phrases> to a2oid unnecessary repetition, including personal pronouns =I, you, he, she, it, (e, they>, possessi2e pronouns < =mine, yours, hers>, re0lexi2e pronouns =myself, yourself, themsel,es>, relati2e pronouns =(ho, (hose, (hich>, inde0inite pronouns =someone, nobody, anything> determiners acco3pany nouns and are su-di2ided into Didenti0iers6 and DCuanti0iers6H identi0iers include the articles =a, the>, de3onstrati2es =this, that> and possessi2es =my, your, 2 her, our, their>H Cuanti0iers include the nu3erals =t(o, fi,eH second, fifth> and inde0inite Cuanti0iers = fe(, many, se,eral> < prepositions co3-ine with nouns or noun phrases pri3arily to 0or3 prepositional phrases =at, for, from, in, of, on, o,er, through, (ith>

con;unctions are used to connect clauses or sentences, -ut also phrases and wordsH they < include the co9ordinating conEunctions =and, but, or> and a larger nu3-er o0 su-ordinating conEunctions =although, because, if, until, (hen, (hile>. @ou should consult a gra33ar -ook i0 you need a 3ore extensi2e explanation o0 the word classes.

1+3 'aking words to pieces

In the course o0 this chapter, we ha2e 3entioned ter3s like Da00ix6 and Dsu00ix6, which are parts o0 words. This section looks at the analysis o0 words into their constituent ele3ents and suggests so3e ter3s that will -e use0ul in talking a-out word structure. First o0 all, we need a ter3 to denote an ele3ent o0 a word: it ,age # is (orphe(e. 1ords are co3posed o0 3orphe3es. ;any words, so3eti3es called Dsi3ple6 words, consist o0 only one 3orphe3e: -ed, drea3, go, in, o2er, please, shallow, treat, usual, 2ote, whole, yellow. Here are so3e words co3posed o0 3ore than one 3orphe3e: -edroo3, drea3y, going, li2e9in, o2erland, displease, shallowest, 3istreat3ent, usually, 2oters, whole3eal, yellowish. +ach o0 these words has, as one o0 its 3orphe3es, a Dsi3ple6 word 0ro3 the earlier list, which 0or3s the Droot6, or in the case o0 co3pounds like bedroom one o0 the roots, o0 the word. The root 3orphe3e is the kernel o0 the word, with the 3ain 3eaning, which is 3odi0ied -y other 3orphe3es in 2arious ways. 7o3pounds are co3posed o0 two or 3ore root 3orphe3es: bedroom, li,e9in, o,erland, (holemeal. These co3pounds ha2e a 2ariety o0 structures in ter3s o0 the word class 3e3-ership o0 the roots: noun L noun, 2er- L preposition, preposition L noun, adEecti2e L noun. ;any co3pounds are like bedroom, where the 0irst part 3odi0ies the second and the word class o0 the co3pound is that o0 the second part, in this case a noun: a D-edroo36 is a kind o0 Droo36. The other three co3pounds are di00erent: li,e9in, with a preposition as second part, is an adEecti2e =as in a li,e9in nanny>H o,erland, with a noun as second part is either an adEecti2e =an o,erland ;ourney> or an ad2er- =(e-re tra,elling o,erland>H and (holemeal, again with a noun as second part, is an adEecti2e =(holemeal bread>. The other words in the list are all co3posed o0 root L a00ix. DA00ix6 is the general ter3 0or 3orphe3es that cannot -e used -y the3sel2es as si3ple wordsH they only occur D-ound6 to another 3orphe3e. I0 they occur -e0ore the root, and so are -ound to the right, they are called Dpre0ixes6 =e.g. dis9 in displease>. I0 they occur a0ter the root, and so are -ound to the le0t, they are Dsu00ixes6 =e.g. 9ish in yello(ish>. ?ote that, when writing a00ixes, the con2ention is to put a hyphen on the side where the a00ix is -ound, i.e. to the right o0 pre0ixes and to the le0t o0 su00ixes.

Ao3e o0 the su00ixes 3ark Din0lections6 =see *.& a-o2e>: go9ing =present participle>, shallo(9est =superlati2e>, ,oter9s =plural>. There are no in0lectional pre0ixes in +nglish. The resulting words are Dword90or3s6 =in0lectional 2ariants> o0 the root lexe3e. The other a00ixes represent Dderi2ations6. The addition o0 the a00ix creates a new, deri2ed lexe3e. 1e would expect it to -e entered in a dictionary so3ewhere, though, as we shall see =7hapter #>, dictionaries 2ary in how they treat deri2ations. The addition o0 a su00ix usually changes the word class o0 the root, though a pre0ix rarely does: dream =noun> L 9y dis9 L please =2er-> mis L treat =2er-> dreamy =adEecti2e> displease =2er-> mistreat =2er->

,age ! mistreat L 9ment usual =adEecti2e> L 9ly ,ote =2er-> L 9er yello( =adEecti2e> L 9ish mistreatment =noun> usually =ad2er-> ,oter =noun> yello(ish =adEecti2e>

?ote that an in0lectional su00ix, e.g. the plural Ds6 on ,oters, is always the 0inal su00ix in a word. 1e 3ight conclude 0ro3 our discussion o0 3orphe3es so 0ar that roots are always D0ree6 =i.e. can occur as si3ple lexe3es>, and a00ixes are always D-ound6 =i.e. they need a root to attach to>. Howe2er, there is a certain set o0 words in +nglish, 3ostly co3pounds, that ha2e -ound roots. Here are so3e exa3ples: anthropo3orphic, astronaut, -i-liography, -iology, neuralgia, synchrony, telepathy, xenopho-ia. These lexe3es are 0or3ed 0ro3 =-ound> roots that are taken 0ro3 the classical languages =Ireek and Latin> and put together to 0or3, 0or the 3ost part, new words that were unknown in classical Ireek and Latin. They are known as Dneo9classical co3pounds6, and their parts are called Dco3-ining 0or3s6. :ur exa3ples are 0or3ed as 0ollows: < < < < anthropo9 =hu3an> L 9morphic =in the 0or3 o0> astro9 =star> L 9naut =sailor> biblio9 =-ook> L 9graphy =writing> bio9 =li0e> L 9ology =study>

< < < <

neuro9 =ner2e> L 9algia =pain> syn9 =sa3e> L 9chrony =ti3e> tele9 =distant> L 9pathy =0eeling> xeno9 =0oreigner> L 9phobia =0ear>.

Ao3e roots 0ro3 the classical languages occur in deri2ations, when they are also -ound, e.g. chron9ic, graph9ical, naut9ical, neur9al, path9etic. To su33arise: a word is co3posed o0 one or 3ore 3orphe3es a 3orphe3e 3ay 0unction as a root or as an a00ix =pre0ix or su00ix> a root 3orphe3e is usually 0ree, an a00ix is always -ound -ound roots are usually co3-ining 0or3s 0ro3 Ireek or Latin.

1+4 5urther reading

@ou can 0ind a 0uller treat3ent o0 words and word structure in Jackson and MN A32ela6s Words, Meaning and Vocabulary: An Introduction to Modern )nglish Lexicology =%$$$> and in Francis Fata3-a6s )nglish Words =*!!'>. ,age *$

5acts about words

In 7hapter *, we exa3ined the a3-iguity o0 the ter3 Dword6 and suggested a set o0 ter3s 0or resol2ing the a3-iguity. 1e also outlined the 3orphology o0 the word in +nglish and proposed ter3s 0or talking a-out the structure o0 words. This chapter 3akes a 0urther contri-ution to the lexicology =study o0 words> o0 +nglish, -e0ore we 3o2e on to the study o0 dictionaries =lexicography> in the next chapter.

-+1 *here 6nglish words ca(e !ro(

The 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish contains words 0ro3 3ore sources than the 2oca-ulary o0 any other language, as a conseCuence o0 its history and the contacts -etween its speakers and those o0 other languages. As 0ar as its -asic co3ponents are concerned, it is use0ul to 2iew the 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish as -eing co3posed o0 a nu3-er o0 strata, rather like a rock 0or3ation in geology. The su-stratu3 o0 +nglish is Anglo9Aaxon, the collection o0 dialects that de2eloped a0ter the in2ading Ier3anic tri-es, the Angles, Aaxons and Jutes, colonised +ngland 0ollowing the departure o0 the o3an legions in the 0i0th century A8,

dri2ing the 7eltic inha-itants to the 0ringes o0 the country in 1ales and 7ornwall. The language -eca3e known during this ti3e as D+nglish6, and we re0er to the language during the period up to the 3id9ele2enth century as D:ld +nglish6. The only signi0icant in0luence on the language 0ro3 outside during this period was 0ro3 across the ?orth Aea, the Jiking in2aders, who also spoke a Ier3anic language, :ld ?orse. For a ti3e the country was di2ided, with D8anelaw6 on the eastern side o0 a line 0ro3 7hester to the 1ash. :ld +nglish and :ld ?orse were to a great extent 3utually intelligi-le, and the in0luence o0 :ld ?orse on :ld +nglish was li3ited. The greatest linguistic legacy o0 the Jikings was in place na3es, e.g. ending in 5by or 5thorpeH -ut also 3any words -eginning with s49 co3e 0ro3 :ld ?orse, as do the third person plural pronouns =they, them, their>. +2en with these additions, the 2oca-ulary o0 :ld +nglish was essentially Ier3anic, with a hand0ul o0 words 0ro3 7eltic, and a nu3-er o0 ecclesiastical ter3s taken 0ro3 Latin 0ollowing the introduction o0 o3an 7hristianity as a result o0 Augustine6s 3ission in )!". =Aee o-erts et al/ *!!) 0or a description o0 :ld +nglish 2oca-ulary.> ,age ** The next stratu3 o0 2oca-ulary -egan to -e laid with the ?or3an conCuest in *$((. The in0luence o0 this e2ent, and its political and social conseCuences, on +nglish 2oca-ulary was 3onu3ental, though it took a couple o0 centuries 0or its 0ull e00ects to -e worked out. The language o0 go2ern3ent, ad3inistration and the law -eca3e =?or3an> FrenchH +nglish was not used 0or any o00icial written purposesH in due course 3any people, especially in the rising 3erchant class, -eca3e -ilingual in +nglish and French. It is esti3ated that in excess o0 *$,$$$ words entered +nglish 0ro3 French -etween the twel0th and 0ourteenth centuries. French is a o3ance language, with its origins in LatinH so a Latinate stratu3 was -eing o2erlaid on the Ango9Aaxon su-stratu3. Indeed, the su-stratu3 su00ered considera-le erosion, with a large proportion o0 the :ld +nglish 2oca-ulary -eing replaced -y words 0ro3 the Latinate superstratu3. A 0urther Latinate stratu3 was laid during the latter hal0 o0 the sixteenth century and into the se2enteenth, during the period that is called the D enaissance6. It was a period in which the classical ci2ilisations o0 Ireece and o3e were redisco2ered, ad3ired and cele-ratedH their literatures repu-lished and extensi2ely studied, translated and i3itated. 1hile words had -een co3ing into +nglish directly 0ro3 Latin, as well as 2ia French, 0or so3e centuries, the trickle now -eca3e a 0lood, and 3any thousands o0 Latin words were added to +nglish, as well as Ireek words, though these o0ten ca3e 2ia Latin. The enaissance also saw the -eginnings o0 exploration, which de2eloped in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries into colonisation and e3pireH the contact with 3any di00erent cultures and languages has enriched the 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish 0ro3 a 3ultitude o0 sources. The su-stratu3 o0 +nglish 2oca-ulary is Anglo9Aaxon, and the one hundred 3ost 0reCuently occurring words in -oth writing and speech are o0 Anglo9Aaxon origin. :2erlaid on this su-stratu3 is a stratu3 o0 Latinate 2oca-ulary, 3ainly o0 French origin, 0ro3 the 3edie2al period: we do not recognise the 2ast 3aEority o0 these words as 0oreign i3ports any 3oreH they ha2e -eco3e Cuite naturalised. :2erlaid on this is a 0urther Latinate stratu3, taken directly 0ro3 Latin during and a0ter the enaissanceH 3any o0

these words still -etray their origin, and they -elong 0or the 3ost part to the 2oca-ulary o0 acade3ic discourse and specialist Eargon. Additionally, +nglish has i3ported words 0ro3 countless languages around the world, and continues to do so =see 7rystal *!!):*%(0.>.

-+- %aking new words

There are two -asic 3ethods -y which a language 3ay increase its 2oca-ulary. The 0irst is to use the 3aterial =3orphe3es> a2aila-le in the language already =see *.(> and to reco3-ine it in new ways. The other is to i3port a word 0ro3 another language =3entioned in %.* a-o2e>, a process called, rather curiously, D-orrowing6 / there is, a0ter all, no intention to return the -orrowed ite3, which is ter3ed a Dloanword6. ?early all new words are added to the larger word classes =*.)>, especially nouns, 2er-s and adEecti2es, with the 3aEority -eing nouns. ,age *% 2.2.1 Compounds 7o3pounds are 0or3ed -y Eoining two or 3ore root 3orphe3es or =classical> co3-ining 0or3s =see *.(> into a single lexe3e. A new disco2ery, product, sensation or process is o0ten suita-ly na3ed -y a co3pound, whose status as a lexe3e is rein0orced -y usage and con0ir3ed -y inclusion in a dictionary. 7o3pounds are o0ten idio3atic in 3eaning, or at least not entirely transparent. For exa3ple, the 3eaning o0 seat belt / as a sa0ety restraint in 2ehicles or aircra0t / is not i33ediately o-2ious 0ro3 the two parts o0 the co3pound. I0 you were un0a3iliar with the o-Eect, you would need so3e explanation o0 the word. This is e2en 3ore so in the case o0 neo9classical co3pounds, where a knowledge o0 Ireek and Latin would -e reCuired 0or their interpretationH e.g. calligraphy =D-eauti0ul6 L Dwriting6>H mastectomy =D-reast6 L Dcut out6>H pachyderm =Dthick6 L Dskin6>, denoting a large 3a33al with a thick skin, such as an elephantH stenothermal =Dnarrow6 L Dheat6>, i.e. tolerant o0 only s3all changes in te3perature. 1here a co3pound is co3posed o0 3ore than two roots, a structure is usually e2ident a3ong the parts, which is so3eti3es re0lected in how the co3pound is written. For exa3ple, four9(heel dri,e indicates that four and (heel -elong together and relate as a unit to dri,eH whereas golden handsha4e indicates that hand and sha4e -elong together and golden is then added to 0or3 the three9part co3pound. An interesting co3pound is 0or3ed -y the co3-ination o0 two roots and the addition o0 the 5ed su00ix, to 0or3 an adEecti2e. The 5ed su00ix looks like the past participle in0lection o0 2er-s =*.&>, -ut there is no 2er- in2ol2ed in this word 0or3ation. Here are so3e exa3ples: dar49haired, empty9handed, hard9nosed, ;et9lagged, muddle9headed, open9 minded, :uic49(itted, round9shouldered, sharp9tongued, (arm9hearted. They are 3ostly, -ut not exclusi2ely, co3posed o0 DadEecti2e L noun9ed6. A special type o0 co3pound is 0or3ed -y -lending two rootsH the 0irst root loses letters.sounds 0ro3 the end and the second 0ro3 the -eginning, e.g. brea4fast Llunch O brunch, smo4e L fog O smog, transfer L resistor O transistor. Ao3eti3es, one o0 the

ele3ents does not lose any 3aterial, e.g. car L hi;ac4 O car;ac4, cheese L hamburger O cheeseburgerH or there are shared letters, e.g. circle L clip O circlip, floppy L optical O floptical, t(ig L igloo O t(igloo. 2.2.2 Derivatives The addition o0 a deri2ational pre0ix or su00ix to a lexe3e 0or3s a deri2ati2e. The lexe3e 3ay -e Dsi3ple6 =i.e. a single 3orphe3e>, or it 3ay -e a co3pound, or it 3ay -e a deri2ati2e alreadyH e.g. care9ful, landscape97e8r, national9ity. Ao3e deri2ational a00ixes ha2e their origin in Anglo9Aaxon =e.g. 9ful, 9er>, others ha2e co3e 0ro3 French or Latin =e.g. 9al, 9ity>H and while there is a tendency to use Anglo9Aaxon a00ixes with Anglo9 Aaxon roots and Latinate a00ixes with Latinate roots, so3e 3ixing does occur, e.g. beauti9ful, preach9er =Latin root L Anglo9Aaxon su00ix>, fals7e89ity, ship9ment =Anglo9 Aaxon root L Latin su00ix>. ,age *& ,re0ixes, o0 which usually not 3ore than one is added to a root, do not nor3ally change the word class o0 the ite3 to which they are added. 7o33on pre0ixes include those with a Dnegati2e6 or Dopposite6 3eaning, such as dis9, in9=and its 2ariants il9, im9, ir9>, un9, the Dagain6 pre0ix re9, the Dattitude6 pre0ixes pro9and anti9, and the self9 pre0ix. Here is an exa3ple o0 each: dis9please, in9decision, il9legible, im9patient, ir9re,ersible, un9certain, re9read, pro9life, anti9free=e, self9addressed. Au00ixes are nu3erous and usually change the word class o0 the ite3 they are added to. 7hanging 2er-s to nouns are: 9er =the Ddoer6.Dagent6 su00ix>, 97t8ion, 9ment, 9anceH e.g. ba47e89er, educat7e89ion, en;oy9ment, perform9ance. 7hanging adEecti2es to nouns are: 9ity, 9nessH e.g. sincer7e89ity, smooth9ness. 7hanging adEecti2es to 2er-s are: 9en, 9ify, 9iseH e.g. thic49en, solid9ify, internal9ise. 7hanging 2er-s to adEecti2es are: 9able.9ibleH e.g. a,oid9able, collaps7e89ible. 7hanging nouns to adEecti2es are: 9al, 9ful, 9lyH e.g. cultur7e89 al, hope9ful, friend9ly. And changing adEecti2es to ad2er-s is: 9lyH e.g. :uic49ly, smooth9ly. ;ore than one deri2ational su00ix 3ay -e added to a root, e.g. friend9li9ness, reco,er9 abil9ity, care9ful9ly, nation9al9is7e89ation. A special type o0 deri2ation occurs which changes the word class o0 a lexe3e -ut does not add a su00ix. It is called Dcon2ersion6. For exa3ple, bottle is pri3arily a noun, -ut it is used as a 2er-, with the sense Dput into a -ottle6, -y con2ersion. A contrary con2ersion would -e catch, where the 2er- can also -e used as a noun. There are 3any cases o0 con2ersion =e.g. dirty =adEecti2e to 2er->, s4in =noun to 2er->, spill =2er- to noun>, spoon =noun to 2er->> and it is still a producti2e process, especially 0ro3 nouns to 2er-s, e.g. doorstep, handbag, progress, sho(case, text9message. A 3inor type o0 deri2ation is D-ack0or3ation6, a kind o0 deri2ation in re2erse, in which a supposed a00ix is re3o2ed 0ro3 a word. This is how the 2er- edit was deri2ed 0ro3 the noun editor, -y re3o2ing the supposed Ddoer6 su00ix 9or =co3pare actor, ad,isor>. A si3ilar -ack0or3ation deri2ed babysit 0ro3 babysitter, commentate 0ro3 commentator, malinger 0ro3 malingerer, sca,enge 0ro3 sca,enger. Automate was deri2ed -y -ack0or3ation 0ro3 automation, destruct 0ro3 destruction, enthuse 0ro3 enthusiasm,

greed 0ro3 greedy, sedate 0ro3 sedation, tele,ise 0ro3 tele,ision. 2.2.3 Acronyms A 3inor, -ut ne2ertheless 3uch used word 0or3ation process takes the initial letters o0 a phrase and creates a word, called an acrony3. +ither the acrony3 is pronounced as a nor3al word =e.g. AI8A =AcCuired I33une 8e0iciency Ayndro3e>, <?+A7: =<nited ?ations +ducational, Acienti0ic and 7ultural :rganisation>>, or the letters are spelled out =e.g. AT; =Auto3ated Teller ;achine>, HIJ =Hu3an I33unode0iciency Jirus>>. Ao3eti3es the two 0or3s are co3-ined, e.g. 789 :; =7o3pact 8isc / ead :nly ;e3ory>. The acrony3 is usually spelt with capital letters, -ut a 0ew acrony3s no longer -etray their origin in this way, e.g. laser =Dlight a3pli0ication -y sti3ulated e3ission o0 radiation6>. Here are so3e 0urther exa3ples, 0irst o0 Dsaid6 acrony3s: ,age *' 8AT =8igital Audio Tape>, 81+; =8ead 1hite +uropean ;ale>, ;I8I =;usical Instru3ent 8igital Inter0ace>, AI;; =Aingle In9line ;e3ory ;odule>H then o0 Dspelled out6 acrony3s =also called Dinitialis3s6>: 4A+ =4o2ine Apongi0or3 +ncephalopathy>, 7AA =7hild Aupport Agency>, FAP =FreCuently Asked Puestion>, HT;L =HyperText ;arkup Language>, L;A =Local ;anage3ent o0 Achools>. A 0urther type o0 acrony3 is 0or3ed -y taking the 0irst sylla-le o0 the words o0 a phrase, e.g. biopic =-iographical picture>, infotech =in0or3ation technology>, *fsted =:00ice o0 Atandards in +ducation>, pixel =picture ele3ent>. In the case o0 *fsted, the second ele3ent =st> does not consist o0 the 0ull sylla-le, and an x has -een added to pixel to Eoin the two sylla-les. These Dsylla-ic acrony3s6 are a relati2ely rare 0or3ation. 2.2.4 Loanwords 1hen a word is D-orrowed6 0ro3 another language and added to the 2oca-ulary, it is a Dloanword6. Ao3e loanwords continue to -etray their origins, either in their spelling or their pronunciation, or -oth =e.g. blit=4rieg =Ier3an>, 4ibbut= =He-rew>, spaghetti =Italian>>H while others ha2e -eco3e naturalised =e.g. coach =Hungarian>, gong =;alay>, tycoon =Japanese>>. 1ords ha2e -een -orrowed into +nglish 0or a nu3-er o0 reasons. A0ter the ?or3an conCuest, a new language was i3posed on top o0 the +nglish, and so, 0or exa3ple, beef, mutton and por4 appeared alongside co(, sheep and pig. 8uring the enaissance, excessi2e ad3iration 0or o3an and Ireek cultures and languages led to the -orrowing o0 words 0ro3 Latin and Ireek to re3edy what was 0elt to -e a lack in +nglish o0 erudite 2oca-ularyH and so abscond was -orrowed alongside hide, calculate 0or count, emporium 0or shop, manuscript 0or boo4, protect 0or (ard, transgress 0or sin, ,alediction 0or fare(ell. 1hen the explorers and colonists went to new countries, experienced di00erent 0oods, and ca3e into contact with plants and ani3als they had ne2er encountered -e0ore, they o0ten took the words 0or these things 0ro3 the local languages. Ao, we ha2e chipmun4 0ro3 AlgonCuian =in ?orth A3erica>, 4oo4aburra 0ro3 1iradhuri =in Australia>, 4i(i 0ro3

;aori =in ?ew Mealand>, chutney 0ro3 Hindi, poppadom 0ro3 Ta3il, lychee 0ro3 7hinese, sushi 0ro3 Japanese, impala 0ro3 Mulu, sherbet 0ro3 Turkish, and so on. Through the centuries, when a culture has -een ad3ired 0or its prowess in a particular area, +nglish has -orrowed its words 0or that topicH e.g. 3usical ter3s 0ro3 Italian =concerto, opera, soprano, tempo>, culinary ter3s 0ro3 French =casserole, fricassee, au gratin, pur>e, saut>>. 1hen a pro0ession has sought an erudite 2oca-ulary to 3ark o00 its supposed area o0 co3petence, it has usually looked to the classical languages 0or its Eargon. The law, 0or exa3ple, has taken 3any ter3s 0ro3 Latin, such as: ad litem =Din a lawsuit6>, bona fide =Dwith good 0aith6>, corpus delicti =D-ody o0 o00ence6>, e;usdem generis =Do0 the sa3e kind6>, in personam =Dagainst the person6>, lis pendens =Da lawsuit pending6>, obiter dictum =Da passing re3ark6 / -y a Eudge>, prima facie =Dat ,age *) 0irst i3pression6>, subpoena =Dunder penalty6 / i.e. to attend court>, ultra ,ires =D-eyond =one6s legal> power6>. ;edicine, on the other hand, has tended to look 3ore to Ireek 0or its Eargon: an in0la33atory disease ends in 9itis =bronchitis, peritonitis>, a surgical re3o2al ends in 9ectomy =hysterectomy, ,asectomy>, the 3edical care o0 particular groups ends in 9iatrics =geriatrics, paediatrics>. +nglish continues to enhance its 2oca-ulary -y taking in loanwords 0ro3 languages around the world. Ao3e recent -orrowing includes: balti =<rdu>, ciabatta =Italian>, gite =French>, intifada =Ara-ic>, ;uggernaut =Hindi>, 4arao4e =Japanese>, nou,elle cuisine =French>, ombudsman =Awedish>, paparra=i =Italian>, perestroi4a = ussian>, salsa =Apanish>, ti44a =,unEa-i>.

-+3 *ord (eaning

:ne o0 the 3ost i3portant tasks o0 a lexicographer is to capture the D3eaning6 o0 a word in a Dde0inition6 =see 7hapter #>. 1e need to deter3ine 0irst o0 all what constitutes the D3eaning6 o0 a word, which is the purpose o0 this section o0 the chapter. The suggestion is that the 3eaning o0 a word is co3posed o0 a nu3-er o0 0eatures: its relation with the real world, the associations that it carries with it, its relations with other words in the 2oca-ulary, and the regular co3pany that it keeps with other words in sentence and text structure. ;any words ha2e 3ore than one 3eaningH they 3ani0est Dpolyse3y6. Ascertaining how 3any 3eanings, or Dsenses6, a lexe3e has, and in what order to arrange the3 are di00icult decisions 0or a lexicographer to 3ake, and dictionaries 3ay di00er Cuite 3arkedly in their analysis. :ur i33ediate discussion, howe2er, is concerned with the general 0actors that 3ay apply to any lexe3e or sense o0 a lexe3e. 2.3.1 Reference The pri3ary 0eature o0 3eaning is the relation o0 re0erence -etween a lexe3e and the entity / person, o-Eect, 0eeling, action, idea, Cuality, etc. / in the real world that the lexe3e denotes. The exact nature o0 the re0erence relation has exercised the 3inds o0

linguists and philosophers o2er 3any centuries =Lyons *!"">. 1e use words to talk a-out and 3ake re0erence to the world we li2e in, our experience o0 that world, our speculation a-out what 3ight ha2e -een or could -e, our i3agination o0 other possi-le worlds and possi-le scenarios. :ur worlds are inha-ited -y hu3ans and other creatures, -y natural o-Eects and arte0acts, -y our ideas, opinions and -elie0s, which possess characteristics that we descri-e, and which interact in a 3yriad ways. 1e can talk a-out all these things and co33unicate a-out the3 with other people who speak the sa3e language, -ecause we ha2e a shared 2oca-ulary and gra33ar. In particular, we agree a-out which word re0ers to which aspect o0 reality or our experience o0 it. The re0erence o0 so3e words is -oth 3ore o-2ious and 3ore easily descri-ed. This is the case especially 0or tangi-le o-Eects =bicycle, trumpet> and 0or physical actions = ;ump, spill>. For words that denote 3ore a-stract entities, the ,age *( re0erence relation is less clearly discerni-le. This is the case 0or 3any a-stract nouns =deference, solitude>, 0or 2er-s expressing 3ental and e3otional states and processes =thin4, (orry>, and 0or adEecti2es generally, especially where they are grada-le =long, (arm> or e2aluati2e =ridiculous, superb>. For so3e words, -elonging to the s3aller, gra33atical classes =*.)>, a relation o0 re0erence 3ay -e scarcely discerni-le =about, this>. 1hat we are o0ten interested in, including lexicographically, is how words that ha2e a si3ilar re0erence di00er 0ro3 each other. For exa3ple, how do happen, occur, befall, transpire and, perhaps, materialise di00er5 They all denote Dco3e a-out6 or Dtake place6 =L8+L%:"*#>. The di00erences are su-tle and 3ay ha2e little to do with re0erence as such, and 3ore to do with context: occur would -e 0ound in a 3ore 0or3al context than happenH befall has an old90ashioned ring to itH transpire and materialise are, perhaps, particular kinds o0 Dco3e a-out6. 1e cannot isolate a word either 0ro3 the typical contexts in which it occurs or 0ro3 its relationships with other words. 2.3.2 Connotation A distinction is o0ten drawn -etween the Ddenotation6 o0 a word and its Dconnotation6. 1hile the denotation is the straight0orward, neutral relation -etween a word and its re0erent, the connotation -rings in the, o0ten e3oti2e, associations that a word 3ay ha2e 0or a speaker or a co33unity o0 speakers. For 3any +nglish speakers, the word champagne, while denoting a sparkling wine 0ro3 a particular region o0 France, has the connotation o0 cele-ration or expensi2e li2ing. Ao3e words spread particular negati2e or positi2e connotations =se3antic prosodies> across the phrases or sentences in which they occur. For exa3ple, fundamentalist or fundamentalism, which denote Dadherent.adherence to the 0unda3ental teachings o0 a 3o2e3ent or religion6, are usually used in a negati2e context and with a connotation o0 a 0anaticis3 that should -e disappro2ed o0. :n the other hand, inspire, denoting Dcreating the desire to do or 0eel so3ething6, usually has a positi2e connotation and spreads a positi2e se3antic prosody, occurring typically with nouns like confidence, enthusiasm or

loyalty. Auch connotations are widely shared and 3ay -e or -eco3e intrinsic to the contexts in which the users o0 a language generally situate the words. 7onnotations 3ay -e 3ore restricted in scope, to a particular generation =e.g. blit= to those who li2ed through 1orld 1ar II>, or to a particular group =e.g. safe to those who ha2e haGardous occupations>, or e2en to an indi2idual. A connotation that is shared -y a large proportion o0 speakers can -e considered as a contri-utory 0eature to the 3eaning o0 a lexe3e. 2.3.3 Sense relations A third contri-utory 0actor to the 3eaning o0 a lexe3e or a sense o0 a lexe3e is the se3antic relations it contracts with other lexe3es in the 2oca-ulary, o0ten ,age *" ter3ed Dsense relations6. They include: sa3eness or si3ilarity o0 3eaning =synony3y>, oppositeness o0 3eaning =antony3y>, the Dkind o06 relation =hypony3y>, and the Dpart o06 relation =3erony3y>. Aynony3y is a widespread relation in +nglish, in large part -ecause there are words with si3ilar 3eaning 0ro3 3ore than one o0 the strata that 3ake up the 2oca-ulary =%.*>. For exa3ple, begin has an Anglo9Aaxon origin, while its synony3 commence entered +nglish 0ro3 French during the 3edie2al periodH si3ilarly with 4eep and retain, lea,e and depart, tell and inform, li,e and reside, share and portion, and so on. +Cually, synony3 pairs exist that deri2e, on the one hand, 0ro3 French in the 3edie2al period, and on the other, 0ro3 Latin during the enaissance: complete and plenary, ;oin and connect, sign and portent, taste and gustation, ,ote and plebiscite. There are, e2en, synony3 triplets 0ro3 each o0 the three strata o0 2oca-ularyH e.g. end, finish, terminateH hatred, enmity, animosityH 4ingly, royal, regalH sin, trespass, transgression. In general, as the exa3ples cited con0ir3, the synony3 0ro3 the Latinate strata tends to -e used in 3ore 0or3al contexts than the one 0ro3 the Anglo9Aaxon su-stratu3. The other 3aEor source o0 synony3 pairs is dialect di00erence, either -etween national 2arieties =e.g. 4ritish and A3erican +nglish> or -etween dialects within a national 2ariety. The 3aEor di00erences -etween 4ritish and A3erican +nglish are in 2oca-ulary, rather than in gra33ar, e.g. =4r+ word 0ollowed -y A3+ word> biscuit, coo4ieH car par4, par4ing lotH dra(ing pin, thumbtac4H flannel, (ashclothH lorry, truc4H single 7tic4et8, one9 (ayH (aistcoat, ,estH and 3any 3ore. Here are so3e synony3 pairs 0or Acottish +nglish and +nglish +nglish: birl, (hirlH dree, endureH fan4le, entangleH 4ir4, churchH lum, chimneyH neep, turnipH out(ith, outsideH ,ennel, alley. Antony3y is a less 0reCuently occurring sense relation than synony3y. It is 3ost pre2alent a3ong grada-le adEecti2es, where the antony3s represent the opposite ends o0 a scale, e.g. big, smallH (ide, narro(H beautiful, uglyH :uic4, slo(. :ther word classes also show antony3y: 2er-s begin and end, nouns bottom and top, prepositions into and out of, ad2er-s abo,e and belo(. ?ot all antony3y is o0 the sa3e type. In the case o0 grada-le antony3s, the words are in a D3ore.less6 relation: (ide and narro( co2er o2erlapping parts o0 a spectru3, and an o-Eect is (ide or narro( in relation to so3e nor3. In contrast

so3e antony3s ha2e an Deither.or6 relation: (in and lose are 3utually exclusi2e, you do either one or the other. A third type o0 antony3 shows a Dcon2erse6 relation: buy and sell are the con2erse o0 each otherH i0 Q sells so3e goods to @, then @ -uys the3 0ro3 Q. Hypony3y relates words hierarchically, with a superordinate word =hyperny3> ha2ing a 3ore general 3eaning than the su-ordinate word =hypony3>. The hypony3s are in a Dkind o06 relation to the hyperny3. For exa3ple, 4nife, for4 and spoon are kinds o0 cutleryH so, cutlery is the superordinate word, with general 3eaning, and 4nife, for4 and spoon are its hypony3s, with 3ore speci0ic 3eaning. These is turn 3ay -e superordinate words to their hypony3sH spoon, 0or exa3ple, has the hypony3s teaspoon, tablespoon, dessertspoon, ladle. A large part o0 2oca-ulary can -e 2iewed as -eing related -y hypony3y, -ut, as with language generally, there is no neat syste3 o0 hypony3y relations organising the whole 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish. ,age *# ;erony3y is like hypony3y in that it relates words hierarchically, -ut the relation is a Dpart o06 relation. The 3erony3s o0 a superordinate word represent the parts o0 that word. For exa3ple, ball, heel and instep are 3erony3s o0 footH hub, rim and spo4e are 3erony3s o0 (heelH flo(er, root and stal4 are 3erony3s o0 plant. Together, hypony3y and 3erony3y ser2e to group words into se3antic sets, known as Dlexical 0ields6, in which the lexe3es all re0er to the sa3e area o0 3eaning =see 0urther 7hapter *%>. 2.3.4 Collocation The sense relations -etween words are Dparadig3atic6 relations: a synony3, antony3, hypony3 or 3erony3 would su-stitute 0or its counterpart in so3e slot in the structure o0 sentences. The 3eaning o0 a word is also deter3ined -y its Dsyntag3atic6 relations, speci0ically -y its collocation, the other words that typically acco3pany it in the structure o0 sentences and discourses. For exa3ple, the noun ban is typically 3odi0ied -y the adEecti2e total or complete, is associated with the 2er-s impose and lift, and is 0ollowed -y the preposition on. In a sentence with the 2er- spend, the :-Eect would typically consist o0 either an a3ount o0 3oney =t(o hundred pounds> or a period o0 ti3e =last (ee4end>. The adEecti2e flippant typically associates either with a noun re0erring to so3ething said =remar4, ans(er, comment> or with the noun attitude. The word Dtypically6 occurs in all these state3ents a-out collocation, -ecause collocation is a 3atter o0 the statistical pro-a-ility or likelihood that two words will co9occur. :ne o0 a pair 3ay exercise a stronger attraction than the otherH 0or exa3ple, (ine is 3ore likely to co9occur with red than red is with (ine, -ecause red can co9occur with 3any nouns, while (ine occurs with only a s3all nu3-er o0 adEecti2es. 8escription o0 collocation is 3ost relia-ly -ased on the analysis o0 large co3puter corpora o0 texts, which can yield appropriate statistical data. To su33arise, the co3ponents o0 =the sense o0 > a lexe3e6s 3eaning are: its relations with the Dreal world6 in the 0or3 o0 its denotation and connotationH its relations with other =senses o0 > lexe3es in the 2oca-ularyH its relations with the other lexe3es that typically acco3pany it in the structure o0 sentences.

-+0 "escribing words

In this concluding section o0 the chapter, we shall exa3ine what constitutes the description o0 a lexe3eH in other words, what in0or3ation a-out words a lexicographer needs to take account o0 in 0ra3ing a dictionary entry. Following Hudson =*!##>, Dlexical 0acts6 include: the 0or3 o0 a word, its structure, its 3eaning, its gra33ar, its usage, and its origin. 4y the D0or36 o0 a word is 3eant its pronunciation =phonology> and spelling =orthography>. The description o0 pronunciation speci0ies what sounds =phone3es> a word has, i0 it has 3ore than one sylla-le how they are each stressed, and i0 the pronunciation is su-Eect to any 2ariation in connected speech =e.g. ,age *! 2owel reduction or change in stress>. The description o0 spelling speci0ies the letters that 3ake up the word, any 2ariant spelling, and possi-ly where the word 3ay -e -roken at the end o0 a line. The structure o0 a word re0ers to its co3position in ter3s o0 3orphe3es =*.(>, how the roots relate to each other in a co3pound word, what pre0ixes and su00ixes the word has and how they 3odi0y the 3eaning o0 the root. The description o0 structure also needs to indicate i0 there are any pronunciation or spelling changes, either in the root or in an a00ix, as a result o0 Eoining 3orphe3es together to 0or3 the word. For exa3ple, clear changes pronunciation and spelling when the su00ix 9ify is added =clarify>, as does discreet with the su00ix 9ion =discretion>H ba4e loses an De6 when 9er is added to 0or3 ba4er, as does debate with su00ix 9able =debatable>. The su00ix 9able alternates with 9ible =discernible>, with no di00erence in pronunciation, depending on which Latin root it is added to. The 3eaning o0 a word was discussed Cuite 0ully in %.&. 4oth the re0erence relation and any other rele2ant se3antic relations =sense relations, collocation> need to -e descri-ed 0or an adeCuate account o0 3eaning. The description o0 gra33ar has two aspects: the in0lections that a word has, and how a word 0its into the syntax o0 sentences. For in0lections, the description speci0ies which in0lections the word 3ay ha2e =*.&>, how they are pronounced and spelled, and any changes to the 0or3 o0 the root that result 0ro3 their addition. For exa3ple, the addition o0 plural su00ix 97e8s changes hoof to hoo,9es, city to citi9es, the addition o0 the past tense. past participle su00ix 97e8d changes cry to cri9ed, slap to slapp9ed. I0 a word has an irregular 0or3 =e.g. o0 plural or past tense>, this too will -e speci0ied, e.g. foot 5 feet, appendix 5 appendices, criterion 5 criteria, buy 5 bought, tell 5 told, see 5 sa(. The description o0 the syntactic operation o0 words -egins with their assign3ent to a word class =*.)>, which is an initial speci0ication o0 where the word 3ay -e used in the structure o0 sentences. Any de2iation 0ro3 the nor3al expectation needs to -e speci0ied, e.g. i0 an adEecti2e is restricted to one o0 the three possi-le positions 0or adEecti2es =i.e. Dattri-uti2e6 / -e0ore nouns =the bro(n suit>, Dpostpositi2e6 / a0ter nouns =time enough>,

and Dpredicati2e6 / a0ter a 2er- like be =the suit is bro(n>>. For exa3ple, a(a4e occurs as predicati2e =the baby is a(a4e> -ut not as attri-uti2e, and chief occurs as attri-uti2e =our chief concern> -ut not as predicati2eH galore, emeritus and extraordinaire occur only in postpositi2e position. For 2er-s, the speci0ication o0 syntactic operation is e2en 3ore co3plex, including not only whether a 2er- 3ay take an :-Eect, 7o3ple3ent, etc., -ut also what type o0 :-Eect =e.g. noun phrase, no3inal clause> and so on. The description o0 usage speci0ies whether a word, or any o0 its senses, is restricted to particular contexts. The restriction could -e geographical =a national 2ariety or a dialect>, it could -e ti3e9-ound =an o-solete or archaic 3eaning>, it could -e the 0or3ality o0 the situation or the word6s status in the language =e.g. slang or ta-oo>. The restriction could -e linked with the expression o0 the speaker6s or writer6s attitude, to indicate disappro2al or an insult, or to -e appreciati2e. :r a word 3ay -e restricted in its usage -ecause to use it would -e o00ensi2e to a particular group o0 people. ,age %$ Finally, the description o0 a word includes a speci0ication o0 its origin, i0 it -elonged to Anglo9Aaxon or i0 it has -een D-orrowed6, 0ro3 which language and when. D:rigin6 is so3eti3es taken to 3ean the Dulti3ate6 origin, as 0ar as this can -e ascertainedH 0or exa3ple, a word taken 0ro3 French during the 3edie2al period 3ay ha2e its origin traced -ack through older French to Latin. This part o0 the description 3ay also chart the history o0 changes in the 0or3 =spelling and pronunciation> and in the 3eaning o0 the word. These are the 0eatures o0 words, their lexical description, that lexicographers 3ust grapple with and 0ro3 a3ong which they 3ust choose what to include in their lexicographical descriptions, which are pu-lished in dictionaries.

-+1 5urther reading

For 3any o0 the topics o0 this chapter, see: Jackson and MN A32ela6s Words, Meaning and Vocabulary =%$$$> and 8a2id 7rystal6s he $ambridge )ncyclopedia of the )nglish Language =*!!)>, especially ,art II. :n new words, see: John Ayto6s (entieth $entury Words =*!!!> and +liGa-eth Fnowles and Julia +lliott6s he *xford &ictionary of 'e( Words =*!!">. Aense relations are discussed 0ully -y 8.A. 7ruse in his Lexical 3emantics =*!!(>. Aee 8ick Hudson6s article in I.L =*!##> 0or a D7hecklist o0 Lexical Facts6. ,age %*

3 'he dictionary
How 3any ti3es ha2e you heard so3eone say, or ha2e you said yoursel0, DI6ll look it up in the dictionary65 The assu3ption -ehind such a co33ent is that Dthe dictionary6 is a single text, perhaps in di00erent 2ersions, rather like the 4i-le. +2ery household is

assu3ed to ha2e oneH children are taught how to consult the dictionary in schoolH there is one in e2ery o00ice. Lawyers Cuote the dictionary in court, teachers and lecturers appeal to it, politicians and preachers argue 0ro3 its de0initions. The dictionary is part o0 the cultural 0a-ric o0 our societyH each 3aEor new edition warrants a re2iew in the daily press. And we all take what the dictionary says as authoritati2e: i0 the dictionary says so, then it is so. Li0e would -e i3possi-le i0 the dictionary was not the 0inal ar-iter in our linguistic disputes. @et, walk into any -ookshop and cast your eye o2er the shel0 where the dictionaries are, pick a 0ew up and exa3ine the3, read the -lur- on the dust Eacket, and you will soon notice that they are all di00erent. They are all recognisa-ly dictionaries, with a 3ore or less alpha-etical list o0 words and in0or3ation a-out the3, -ut they ha2e di00erent 0or3ats, highly 2aria-le nu3-ers o0 pages, a 2ariety o0 page layouts, and so on. 7o3pare so3e o0 the entries, and you soon realise that the notion o0 Dthe dictionary6 as a single text is wide o0 the 3ark. 1hat distinguishes the3 is 3ore nota-le than what they ha2e in co33on.

3+1 *hat is a dictionary,

A dictionary is a re0erence -ook a-out words. It is a -ook a-out language. Its nearest cousin is the encyclopedia, -ut this is a -ook a-out things, people, places and ideas, a -ook a-out the Dreal world6, not a-out language. The distinction -etween dictionary and encyclopedia is not always easy to draw, and there are o0ten ele3ents o0 one in the other. 4ut they do not share the sa3e headword list / you would -e unlikely to 0ind resemble in an encyclopedia / and they do not pro2ide the sa3e in0or3ation 0or the headwords that they do ha2e in co33on. 7o3pare the 0ollowing entries 0or toad: toad Any o0 the 3ore terrestrial warty9skinned 3e3-ers o0 the tailless a3phi-ians =order Anura>. The na3e co33only re0ers to 3e3-ers o0 the ,age %% genus 4u0o, 0a3ily 4u0onidae, which are 0ound worldwide, except 0or the Australian and polar regions. Toads 3ay grow up to %) c3.*$ in. long. They li2e in cool, 3oist places and lay their eggs in water. The eggs are laid not in a 3ass as with 0rogs, -ut in long strings. The co33on toad 4. -u0o o0 +urope and Asia has a rough, usually dark9-rown skin in which there are glands secreting a poisonous 0luid which 3akes it unattracti2e as 0ood 0or other ani3alsH it needs this protection -ecause its usual progress is a slow, ungainly crawl. =2utchinson 'e( $entury )ncyclopedia> toad.t gd.n/ 1 any 0roglike a3phi-ian o0 the 0a3ily 4u0onidae, esp. o0 the genus 4u0o, -reeding in water -ut li2ing chie0ly on land. - any o0 2arious si3ilar tailless a3phi-ians. 3 a repulsi2e or detesta-le person. toadish ad;. R:ld +nglish tadige, tadde, tada, o0 unknown originS =7:8!>

8ictionaries are usually arranged in alpha-etical order o0 the headwords. Indeed the expression Ddictionary order6 is synony3ous with Dalpha-etical order6. 4ut there are word -ooks that are arranged -y topic or the3e, rather than -y alpha-et =see 7hapter *%>, and they ha2e a long history =HTllen *!!!H ;cArthur *!#(>. 8ictionaries are re0erence -ooks. ,eople consult the3 to 0ind out in0or3ation a-out words. 1e 3ust assu3e that co3pilers o0 dictionaries / lexicographers / include in0or3ation that they know or expect people will want to look up. 1hat we cannot assu3e, howe2er, is that lexicographers will exclude in0or3ation that they 3ight expect users will not want to look up. A dictionary is 3ore than Eust a re0erence -ookH it is also a =partial> record o0 the 2oca-ulary o0 a language. Any dictionary contains entries and in0or3ation that 0ew, i0 any, users will want to access, either -ecause they know it already, or -ecause it is o0 no interest to the3. It would -e the rare user who would consult a dictionary 0or in0or3ation on the word the, and yet no dictionary would -e without an entry 0or the. Howe2er, anyone serious a-out disco2ering the su-tleties o0 the de0inite article in +nglish would -e 3ore likely to consult a gra33ar -ook than a dictionary. I0 the dictionary is distinguished, as a re0erence -ook, 0ro3 the encyclopedia on the one hand, it is distinguished, as a linguistic description, 0ro3 the gra33ar -ook on the other. A gra33ar -ook, as the description o0 the gra33atical syste3 o0 a language, deals with the general rules and con2entions 0or the structure o0 sentences and tends to deal with words as classes or su-classes. A dictionary descri-es the operation o0 indi2idual lexical ite3s, including, where rele2ant, how they 0it into the general patterns o0 gra33ar. Ira33ar and dictionary are co3ple3entary parts o0 the description o0 a language, and a dictionary will use ter3s that are de0ined -y the gra33ar. The point at which gra33ar and dictionary con2erge in their treat3ent o0 words concerns pri3arily the so9called Dgra33atical6 words, like the de0inite article, which play a crucial and o0ten co3plex role in gra33ar. ,age %& 1ho, then, are the users o0 dictionaries, and 0or what purposes do they use the35 1e readily think o0 students and learners, acade3ics, word ga3e and crossword puGGle -u00s as regular, i0 not 0reCuent, users o0 dictionaries. ;ost people pro-a-ly ha2e occasion to consult a dictionary 0ro3 ti3e to ti3e, and 3any o0 us ha2e a 0ascination with words and dictionaries, as the long9running tele2ision series $all My #luff and $ountdo(n de3onstrate. Ao3eti3es we Eust want to esta-lish the existence o0 a word, perhaps a deri2ation that we6re not sure o0. :r we want to check the spelling o0 a word. :r we look up a word that we ha2e 3et and with which we are not 0a3iliar, and whose 3eaning we need to ascertain. These, sur2eys ha2e shown, are the 3ain uses that people 3ake o0 dictionaries. :ccasionally, so3eone 3ay wish to 0ind out the pronunciation o0 a word that they ha2e encountered only in writing, or 0or the sake o0 general interest look up a word6s ety3ology. The upshot o0 this is that any dictionary contains a 2ast a3ount o0 in0or3ation that is unlikely to -e consulted -y any o0 its users. It is there -ecause o0 the dictionary6s recording 0unction, its description o0 the lexical resources o0 the language. The 0ul0il3ent

o0 its recording 0unction 3ay, though, -e in con0lict with the dictionary6s re0erence 0unction, to pro2ide use0ul in0or3ation in an easily accessi-le 3anner. 1e shall explore so3e o0 these issues 0urther in 7hapter ".

3+- "ictionaries/ not 7the dictionary&

I0 there is no such pu-lication as Dthe dictionary6, what is the range o0 pu-lications that are called Ddictionary65 First, we should distinguish -etween those dictionaries that treat a single language 0ro3 those that treat 3ore than one, usually two languages: the 0or3er are D3onolingual6 dictionaries and the latter are D-ilingual6 dictionaries. Although, as we shall see in 7hapter ', -ilingual dictionaries ha2e the longer pedigree and they contain in part si3ilar in0or3ation to 3onolingual dictionaries, they are per0or3ing a Cuite di00erent 0unction and ha2e a nu3-er o0 crucial distincti2es. In particular, -ilingual dictionaries ha2e two sections, an A9language to 49language section =e.g. +nglish/Ier3an>, and a 49 language to A9language section =e.g. Ier3an/+nglish>H and in -ilingual dictionaries the de0initions o0 words are the translation eCui2alents in the other language. This -ook is concerned only with 3onolingual dictionaries. Aecond, we should distinguish a3ong 3onolingual dictionaries -etween those whose purpose is pri3arily historical and those that seek to descri-e the 2oca-ulary at a particular point or period o0 ti3e. The pri3ary historical dictionary 0or +nglish is the 3ulti92olu3e *xford )nglish &ictionary, and its a--re2iated two92olu3e o00shoot, the 3horter *xford )nglish &ictionary, which ai3 to chart the -irth, death, and de2elop3ents in 0or3 and 3eaning o0 words that ha2e constituted the 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish since **)$ 0or the :+8 and since *"$$ 0or the A:+8. The Dsynchronic6 dictionary, -y contrast, takes a snapshot o0 the 2oca-ulary at so3e point in ti3e. Auch a dictionary 3ight chart the 2oca-ulary o0 :ld +nglish = o-erts et al/ *!!)> or o0 ;iddle +nglish =e.g. Furath and Fuhn ,age %' able ?/1 7o3parison o0 the $ollins range $)&@ ,age siGe ?o. o0 pages D e0erences6 D8e0initions6 ,rice =%$$*> *#" U %($ 33 *"#) L xxx2ii *#$,$$$ *!(,$$$ V%!.!! $$&@ *)% U %&' 33 *"'$ L xxi no clai3 no clai3 V*(.!! $%)&@ *$" U *)* 33 (&% L 2ii no clai3 '',)$$ V".!!

*!)'>, or, 3ost usually, o0 the conte3porary language. 1hile we de2ote a chapter =)> to the :+8, -ecause o0 its i3portance in the de2elop3ent o0 lexicography, we are 3ostly concerned in this -ook with dictionaries charting the conte3porary 2oca-ulary. +2en a3ong dictionaries o0 the conte3porary language there is a -ewildering 2ariety.

8ictionaries 2ary according to siGe, 0ro3 desk9siGe, through concise, to pocket and s3aller, with 2arying di3ensions, nu3-ers o0 pages, and co2erage. All dictionaries present a selection 0ro3 conte3porary 2oca-ulary, -ut it is 2ery di00icult to 3ake co3parisons, -ecause o0 the con0usingly di00erent 3ethods o0 counting the contents =Jackson *!!#>. Ta-le &.* pro2ides a rough esti3ate o0 the relati2e siGes. 8ictionaries also 2ary according to their intended audience or user group. Ao3e dictionaries are ai3ed at young users at 2arious stages in their growth and educational de2elop3entH they are characterised -y an appropriate selection o0 2oca-ulary, li3ited a3ounts o0 in0or3ation 0or each entry, and o0ten the use o0 pictures and colour. There is a range o0 3onolingual +nglish dictionaries that is ai3ed at learners o0 +nglish as a second or 0oreign language, which take into account the particular needs o0 this group o0 users. The D3onolingual learners6 dictionaries6 =;L8s> are an interesting set o0 re0erence works, and they ha2e -een associated with so3e o0 the 3ost exciting lexicographical inno2ations. They are discussed in 3ore detail in 7hapter **. The dictionaries ai3ed at the nati2e speaker adult user 3ight -e ter3ed the Dgeneral9purpose6 dictionary =4NEoint %$$$:'$>. They are the dictionary that 3ost people own, and they are the 0ocus o0 3uch o0 the discussion in this -ook. 4esides the general9purpose dictionary, a wide 2ariety o0 Dspecialist6 dictionaries is pu-lished. Ao3e specialist dictionaries 0ocus on an aspect o0 lexical description: there are dictionaries o0 pronunciation =e.g. Jones *!!"H 1ells %$$$>, dictionaries o0 spelling =e.g. 1est *!('>, and dictionaries o0 ety3ology =e.g. 1eekley *!(">. :ther specialist dictionaries 0ocus on the 2oca-ulary o0 a topic or su-Eect93atter, e.g. 8ictionary o0 +cono3ics =,earce *!!%>, 8ictionary o0 Lexicography =Hart3ann and Ja3es *!!#>. Auch dictionaries de0ine the ter3inology that is crucial 0or talking a-out the su-EectH they exclude so3e lexical in0or3ation =e.g. pronunciation, gra33ar, ety3ology>H and they tend towards the encyclopedic, -oth in the extent o0 their de0initions or explanations, and in their inclusion o0 entries 0or people who ha2e 3ade a signi0icant contri-ution to the de2elop3ent o0 the su-Eect. ,age %) The ter3 Ddictionary6 is thus applied to a di2erse range o0 re0erence pu-lications. :ur 0ocus will -e on the general9purpose dictionary o0 desk and concise siGe, with so3e consideration o0 historical dictionaries and those 0or learners.

3+3 *hat is in a dictionary,

Fro3 the perspecti2e o0 its D3acro9structure6, there are potentially three parts to a dictionary: the 0ront 3atter, the -ody, and the appendices. Ao3e dictionaries do without appendices, -ut 3ost ha2e 0ront 3atter, howe2er -rie0. The 0ront 3atter usually includes an introduction or pre0ace, explaining the inno2ations and characteristics o0 the edition concerned, together with a guide to using the dictionary, which 3ay consist o0 a single9 page diagra3 or so3e lengthier account. :ther 0ront 3atter 3ight -e an explanation o0 the transcription syste3 used 0or indicating pronunciation, a list o0 a--re2iations used in the dictionary, and an essay on so3e rele2ant topic, such as the history o0 the language or 2arieties o0 +nglish around the world. Appendices 3ay -e 2arious and e2en non9lexicalH

here is a selection: a--re2iations, 0oreign words and phrases, ranks in the ar3ed 0orces, counties o0 the <F and states o0 the <A, weights and 3easures, 3usical notation, Ireek and 7yrillic alpha-ets, punctuation, works o0 Ahakespeare. The -ody o0 a dictionary contains an alpha-etical list o0 Dheadwords6. +ach headword is acco3panied -y a nu3-er o0 pieces o0 in0or3ation, which together with the headword constitute the Dentry6. The headword is usually printed in -old type and hangs one or two spaces to the le0t o0 the other lines. +ntries are presented in two colu3ns on each page, though there 3ay -e three colu3ns in so3e, usually larger dictionaries =e.g. ?:8+, 1&, -ut also +7+8>. The headwords represent the particular selection o0 2oca-ulary and other ite3s that the editors ha2e decided 3erit inclusion, gi2en the siGe and purpose o0 the dictionary. Ieneral9purpose dictionaries will all tend to share a headword list that enco3passes the core 2oca-ularyH where they di00er will -e in the a3ount o0 technical and specialist, as well as colloCuial, slang and dialect 2oca-ulary they include. +ditors will -e concerned to -e up9to9date, especially in socially and culturally signi0icant areas such as co3puting, 3edicine, the en2iron3ent, 0ashion, and so on. The inclusion o0 the latest 2oca-ulary in such areas is o0ten used as a selling point 0or a new edition. I0 you exa3ine the headwords in a general9purpose dictionary, you will 0ind that it includes 3ore than Eust lexe3es. In ter3s o0 lexe3es, it will include: Dsi3ple6 lexe3es =*.(>H co3pounds, possi-ly all, -ut at least those written solid =without a hyphen>H and deri2ati2es whose 3eanings are considered to need a separate de0inition 0ro3 their roots. :ther deri2ati2es are contained within the entry 0or the root, as Drun9ons6, usually in -old type -ut without a de0inition. The headword list will usually include in0lected 0or3s where these are Dirregularly6 0or3ed =*.&> and are alpha-etically so3e distance 0ro3 the citation 0or3 =e.g. bought in relation to buy>: the entry will contain Eust a cross9re0erence to the citation 0or3. The list 3ay also include ite3s that are not lexe3es, especially deri2ational a00ixes and co3-ining 0or3s =*.(>, and a--re2iations. In so3e ,age %( dictionaries =e.g. 7+8, ?:8+> the headword list includes na3es o0 places and people, introducing geographical and -iographical entries, e.g. 8ir(ingha(.6-uh3ing=h>e3.%nd largest 4ritish city, in the 1 ;idlands o0 +nglandH a 3aEor industrial, ser2ice, and transport centre with growing high9tech and light industriesH ho3e o0 two uni2ersities, a sy3phony orchestra, and the ?ational +xhi-ition 7entreH est. pop. !!#,%$$ =*!#"> =L8+L%> )ngelou.6 :., ;aya =-.*!%#>, A3erican no2elist and poet, acclai3ed 0or the 0irst 2olu3e o0 her auto-iography, I Ano( Why the $aged #ird 3ings =*!"$>, which recounts her harrowing experiences as a -lack child in the A3erican Aouth.

=?:8+> Ao3e headwords will -e entered 3ore than once. This applies to ho3ony3s =*.%>, e.g. spell, with 0our entries in 7:8!, and to ho3ographs, e.g. bo(, with one entry pronounced . . and two entries pronounced . .. In so3e dictionaries =e.g. L8+L> each word class that a headword -elongs to will occasion a separate entryH 0or exa3ple, rear has 0our entries in L8+L%, one each 0or the 2er-, noun, adEecti2e and ad2er- uses o0 the headword. The D3icro9structure6 o0 a dictionary re0ers to the arrange3ent o0 the in0or3ation within the entries. The range and type o0 in0or3ation within an entry will 2ary according to the kind o0 headword, -ut will typically include so3e or all o0 the 0ollowing =co3pare %.'>: W 3pelling: the headword indicates the nor3al spelling, -ut any 2ariations will 0ollow. W %ronunciation: within rounded = > or slash .. -rackets, together with any 2ariations. W Inflections: i0 these are 0or3ed irregularly or occasion so3e spelling adEust3ent such as dou-ling o0 consonants, dropping o0 De6 or changing Dy6 to Di6. W Word class: usually indicated -y con2entional a--re2iations, Dn6 0or noun, DadE6 0or adEecti2e, etc.H 2er-s are also 3arked 0or Dtransiti2e6 =2t> or Dintransiti2e6 =2i>. W 3enses: where a lexe3e has 3ore than one 3eaning, each sense is usually nu3-eredH where a sense, or group o0 senses -elong to a di00erent word class or su-class, this is indicated -e0ore the sense=s> concerned. W &efinition: each sense is gi2en a de0inition, which is an explanation o0 its 3eaning. W )xamples: where the elucidation o0 a sense -ene0its 0ro3 an illustrati2e phrase or sentence, usually gi2en in italic type. W +sage: where a sense is restricted in its contexts o0 use, an appropriate la-el precedes the sense concernedH i0 the restriction applies to all the senses o0 a lexe3e, the la-el precedes any o0 the senses.

,age %" W Run9ons: unde0ined deri2ati2es =with a word class la-el>, idio3s, phrasal 2er-s =i0 they are not included as headwords>, usually in -old type.

W )tymology: con2entionally in sCuare -rackets as the 0inal ite3 in the entry. Ao3e dictionaries include additional in0or3ation, 0or exa3ple on collocation or the syntactic operation o0 words. Learners6 dictionaries, especially =see 7hapter **>, contain detailed in0or3ation on these topics, as well as other additional 3aterial. 4y way o0 illustration, here is the entry 0or drin4 0ro3 7:8!: drink.drXYk. ,/ ! n. ,. =past drank.drZYk.H past part. drunk.dr Yk.> 1 a tr. swallow =a liCuid>. b tr. swallow the liCuid contents o0 =a container>. c intr. swallow liCuid, take draughts =dran4 from the stream>. - intr. take alcohol, esp. to excess =I ha,e heard that he drin4s>. 3 tr. =o0 a plant, porous 3aterial, etc.> a-sor=3oisture>. 0 refl. -ring =onesel0 etc.> to a speci0ied condition -y drinking =dran4 himself into a stupor>. 1 tr. =usu. 0oll. -y a(ay> spend =wages etc.> on drink =dran4 a(ay the money>. 3 tr. wish =a person6s good health, luck, etc.> -y drinking =dran4 his health>. n. 1 a a liCuid 0or drinking =mil4 is a sustaining drin4>. b a draught or speci0ied a3ount o0 this =had a drin4 of mil4>. - a alcoholic liCuor =got the drin4 in for $hristmas>. b a portion, glass, etc. o0 this =ha,e a drin4>. c excessi2e indulgence in alcohol =drin4 is his ,ice>. 3 =as the drink> collo:. the sea. drink deep take a large draught or draughts. drink in listen to closely or eagerly =dran4 in his e,ery (ord>. drink o!! drink the whole =contents> o0 at once. drink to toastH wish success to. drink a person under the table re3ain so-er longer than one6s drinking co3panion. drink up drink the whole o0H e3pty. in drink drunk. drinkable ad;. R:ld +nglish drincan =,.>, drinc7a8 =n.>, 0ro3 Ier3anicS 1e exa3ine the 3icro9structure and the in0or3ation contained in dictionary entries in 3ore detail in 7hapters #, ! and *$.

3+0 Co(piling a dictionary

?o lexicographer o0 +nglish starts with a -lank sheet o0 paper, -ut rather stands in a tradition o0 dictionary 3aking that reaches -ack 3ore than six centuries =Ireen *!!(:&!>, a history that we shall -egin to trace in the next chapter. 1hile so3e lexicographers 0ind the3sel2es re2ising and updating an existing dictionary to produce a new edition, others take on the challenge o0 inno2ation and hack a 0resh path 0or lexicography. +2en then, they -uild on the work o0 pre2ious generations o0 lexicographers, -oth in deter3ining the headword list and in deciding what kinds o0 in0or3ation to pro2ide. 4rie0ly, we 3ay identi0y three aspects to dictionary co3pilation: the selection o0 headwords, the sources o0 data, and the writing o0 the entries. Any dictionary contains a selection 0ro3 the total 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish, which is di00icult to esti3ate -ut pro-a-ly lies -etween one and two 3illion words =7rystal *!!)>. 8ictionaries do not usually re2eal

their headword count, which would -e ,age %# able ?/0 $)&@ gl. gla-ella gla-rescent gla-rous glacN glacial glacial acetic acid glacialist glacial period glaciate glacier glacier crea3 glacier 3ilk glacier ta-le glaciology glacis glacis plate glad Ilad-eck gladden gladdon glade glad eye '*&) ILA gla-ella gla-rous glacN glacN icing glacial glacial period glaciated glaciation glacier Ilacier 4ay ?ational ,ark glaciology glacis glad* glad% gladden gladdon glade glad eye glad9hand gladiator gladiolus glad rags

glad hand gladiate gladiator gladiatorial gladiolus glad rags gladso3e Iladstone Iladstone -ag Ilagolitic

Iladstone Iladstone -ag Ilagolitic

unrelia-le in any case, as it depends on what ite3s are included as headwords =e.g. a00ixes and a--re2iations> and how co3pounds and deri2ati2es are treated. A desk9siGe dictionary pro-a-ly contains no 3ore than *$$,$$$ headwordsH the 789 :; 2ersion o0 7:8*$ gi2es the headword count as (',("!. Headword lists in si3ilar siGe dictionaries di00er only at the 3argins: the core 2oca-ulary is standard, Eudge3ents are 3ade a-out specialist and non9standard =slang, dialect> lexe3es. 7o3pare the -rie0 lists o0 headwords -etween gl9 and glag9 in 7+8' and ?:8+, -oth pu-lished in *!!# shown in Ta-le &.%. The lexicographers6 data co3es 0ro3 a nu3-er o0 sources. First o0 all, they ha2e access to pre2ious dictionaries, which can -e 3ined -oth 0or the headword list and 0or lexical in0or3ation. It is not unusual to 0ind the sa3e de0inition reproduced in successi2e editions o0 a dictionary. Aecond, dictionary pu-lishers ,age %! keep a Dcitation 0ile6, which records the results o0 the pu-lisher6s reading progra33e in identi0ying new words together with exa3ples o0 their contexts o0 use, usually in the 0or3 o0 co3plete sentences. Ao3e citation 0iles go -ack a long way, :x0ord6s, 0or exa3ple, to the 3id9nineteenth century, when citations -egan to -e collected 0or what -eca3e the :+8 =see 7hapter )>. Third, and o0 increasing i3portance, lexicographers ha2e access to co3puter corpora, large collections o0 texts in electronic 0or3. :x0ord and Long3an lexicographers use the #ritish 'ational $orpus, a *$$ 3illion9word corpus o0 -oth spoken and written +nglishH 7ollins lexicographers use the #an4 of )nglish, a growing corpus, de2eloped at the <ni2ersity o0 4ir3ingha3, now o0 3ore than '$$ 3illion words, originally put together 0or the pioneering 7:4<IL8 learners6 dictionary =see 7hapter **>. A co3puter corpus can -e searched rapidly and e00iciently. It can -e used 0or checking in0or3ation, or 0or seeking answers to speci0ic Cueries. 4ut, 3ore signi0icantly, it can pro2ide the raw data 0or the construction o0 dictionary entries. <sing a Dconcordance6

progra3, a lexicographer can per0or3 a F1I7 =Fey 1ord in 7ontext> search and o-tain a list o0 all the occurrences o0 a lexe3e in a corpus, together with a speci0ied a3ount o0 context 0or each. The results o0 the search suggest to the lexicographer how 3any senses to identi0y 0or the lexe3e and pro2ide exa3ples o0 use. The third aspect o0 co3piling a dictionary, identi0ied earlier, was writing the entries. It is rare that a dictionary is the work o0 a single lexicographer. A tea3 is 3ore usual, with so3e 3e3-ers specialising in particular aspects o0 lexical description. ;any dictionaries ha2e a pronunciation specialist, 0or exa3ple, or an ety3ology specialist, as well as consultants 0or technical areas o0 2oca-ulary or 0or other 2arieties o0 +nglish. Lexicographers write the de0initions, and editorial sta00 coordinate the input o0 all the contri-utors. 8ictionaries are nowadays co3piled on co3puter, so that all 3e3-ers o0 a tea3 can ha2e si3ultaneous access to the de2eloping dictionary text. This 3akes rigorous editorial checking, always a necessity, e2en 3ore i3portant, -e0ore a dictionary is released 0or pu-lication. 1e pursue the topic o0 dictionary co3pilation in 7hapter *&.

3+1 6$aluating a dictionary

8ictionaries are co33ercial pu-licationsH pu-lishers in2est considera-le su3s o0 3oney in their de2elop3entH and they are tailored to percei2ed 3arket needs. Like any other -ook pu-lication, they are su-Eected to re2iew in newspapers, 3agaGines and pro0essional Eournals. ?ewspaper re2iews o0 dictionaries tend towards the tri2ial, 0ocusing on Dnewsworthy6, o0ten idiosyncratic 0eatures, such as who has -een included and excluded 0ro3 the -iographical entries, or supposed 3odish, usually slang, lexical ite3s. Howe2er, dictionaries are not Eust co33ercial pu-licationsH they are also linguistic descriptions and so they are o0 interest to language and linguistics scholars, who su-Eect the3 to acade3ic scrutiny and criticis3. Indeed, a specialist -ranch o0 linguistic studies has de2eloped whose concern is speci0ically lexicography: it has its scholarly associations ,age &$ =e.g. +< AL+Q / the +uropean Association 0or Lexicography>, its own Eournals =e.g. International .ournal of Lexicography>, a three92olu3e encyclopedia de2oted to it =Haus3ann et al/ *!#!>, and its own courses and research proEects. Acade3ic lexicography, or D3etalexicography6 =4NEoint %$$$:#n>, is concerned, a3ong other things, with the -usiness o0 Ddictionary criticis36 =:sselton *!#!>, which proposes 3ethods and criteria 0or re2iewing and e2aluating dictionaries. The re2iewing o0 dictionaries is not like that o0 other -ooks. It would, 0or exa3ple, -e i3possi-le 0or a re2iewer to read the whole text o0 a dictionary: 7+8' clai3s to ha2e &.( 3illion words o0 text, and ?:8+ ' 3illion. 8ictionary re2iewers 3ust 0ind other 3ethods, such as sa3pling, or ha2ing a care0ully selected checklist o0 ite3s and 0eatures to in2estigate. :ne approach is to take the clai3s that a dictionary 3akes a-out itsel0, in the -lur- on the co2er or -ook9Eacket or in the 0ront 3atter, and check these against the practice o0 the dictionary as re0lected in its content, as well as against the accu3ulated insights and Eudge3ents o0 the scholarly co33unity. An alternati2e approach esta-lishes a set o0 criteria that arise 0ro3 the acade3ic study o0 lexicography and applies these to the

dictionary under re2iew. It is o0ten use0ul to ha2e a tea3 o0 re2iewers, each o0 who3 takes a separate aspect 0or critical scrutiny, e.g. the treat3ent o0 pronunciation, o0 gra33ar, o0 3eaning, o0 ety3ology =co3pare Higashi et al/ *!!%>. A 0urther consideration in dictionary criticis3 is the perspecti2e 0ro3 which the re2iew is conducted. The acade3ic 3etalexicographer6s pri3ary 0ocus is pro-a-ly on the adeCuacy o0 a dictionary as a lexical description. An alternati2e 0ocus 3ight -e that o0 the user, particularly where accessi-ility and co3prehensi-ility o0 the in0or3ation could -e an issue, as with a learners6 dictionary, or where a speci0ic set o0 users is -eing targeted, as with a children6s dictionary. 8ictionary criticis3 is an i3portant acti2ity. It not only pro2ides in0or3ed re2iews o0 dictionaries 0or potential users, it also contri-utes to ad2ances in lexicography and to i3pro2e3ents in dictionaries. 1e explore it 0urther in 7hapter *'. Au33arising, this chapter has sought to distinguish dictionaries 0ro3 encyclopedias and gra33ars, to show that dictionaries are the products o0 a tradition o0 lexicography, to suggest so3e o0 the range o0 re0erence works with the Ddictionary6 title, to sur2ey the content o0 general9purpose dictionaries, to raise so3e o0 the issues in dictionary co3pilation, and to introduce the -usiness o0 dictionary criticis3. 1e ha2e set the agenda 0or the re3ainder o0 the -ook, -eginning with an account o0 the history o0 dictionary 3aking in +nglish.

3+3 5urther reading

A good o2er2iew is Aidney Landau6s &ictionaries: he Art and $raft of Lexicography =originally *!#!, now in a second edition, %$$*>. Also reco33ended is Henri 4NEoint6s =*!!'> radition and Inno,ation in Modern )nglish &ictionaries, 7larendon ,ress :x0ord, repu-lished in paper-ack, with only 3inor updating, in %$$$ as Modern Lexicography: An Introduction, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. ,age &*

0 'he beginnings
This chapter and the next two trace the history o0 dictionary 3aking in +nglish up to the present ti3e. This chapter takes us up to Aa3uel Johnson6s dictionary in the 3id9 eighteenth century, the next is de2oted to the *xford )nglish &ictionary, and 7hapter ( 0irst recaps on the A3erican practice and then -rings the story up to date.

0+1 8ilingual beginnings

The -eginnings o0 +nglish lexicography go -ack to the :ld +nglish period =%.*>, speci0ically to the introduction =0ro3 )!"> o0 the o3an 0or3 o0 7hristianity and the de2elop3ent o0 3onasteries. The language o0 the o3an 7hurch was LatinH its priests and 3onks needed to -e co3petent in Latin in order to conduct ser2ices, and to read the 4i-le =Jero3e6s DJulgate6 2ersion> and other theological texts. The 3onasteries were the

institutions o0 education 0or the clergy in the language o0 the church, as well as in the doctrines and practices o0 the 0aith. ;any 3onasteries also de2eloped extensi2e li-raries o0 theological and other 3anuscripts =printing was still ")$ years in the 0uture>, which would ha2e -een written in Latin, and which -eca3e o-Eects o0 study and co33entary. As +nglish 3onks studied these Latin 3anuscripts, they would so3eti3es write the +nglish translation a-o2e =or -elow> a Latin word in the text, to help their own learning, and as a guide to su-seCuent readers. These one9word translations, written -etween the lines o0 a 3anuscript, are called Dinterlinear glosses6H they are seen as the -eginnings o0 =-ilingual> lexicography =HTllen *!#!>. In due course, and to aid in the teaching and learning o0 Latin, these glosses were collected together into a separate 3anuscript, as a glossary, which 3ay -e regarded as a prototype dictionary. The words in the glossary were then ordered, either alpha-etically, in early glossaries only -y the 0irst letter, then -y second and su-seCuent letters, or topically =7hapter *%>. :ne o0 the -est known topical glossaries was co3piled -y [l0ric, who was the A--ot o0 the 3onastery at +ynsha3, near :x0ord, during the 0irst decade o0 the ele2enth century. [l0ric was well known as an educator: he wrote a gra33ar o0 Latin, as well as a nu3-er o0 other instructional works. His glossary, known as DThe London Joca-ulary6, is 0ound appended to a nu3-er o0 extant copies o0 his Ira33ar. ,age &% The glossary is a list o0 Latin words, arranged -y topic, together with an :ld +nglish eCui2alent 0or each o0 the3. [l0ric6s topics enco3passed a wide range o0 2oca-ulary, 0ro3 DIod, hea2en, angels, sun, 3oon, earth, sea6 to Dher-s6 and Dtrees6, to Dweapons6 and D3etals and precious stones6 =0or 0ull, -ut slightly di00ering lists, see ;cArthur *!#(:"), HTllen *!!!:(' / reproduced in *%.%>. Latin continued as the language not only o0 the church -ut also o0 education and learning generally throughout the 3edie2al period. It was the language o0 instruction 0or all su-Eects in the 3edie2al uni2ersities =:x0ord dates 0ro3 **(", 7a3-ridge 0ro3 *%&$>, and scholarly pu-lication was in Latin, the +uropean lingua 0ranca o0 education. Acade3ics were expected to -e a-le to -oth speak and write 0luently in Latin. 1hen schools were 0ounded in order to prepare students 0or entry to the uni2ersities, they concentrated on teaching Latin / the origin o0 the Dgra33ar6 school. There thus de2eloped a considera-le de3and 0or instructional 3aterial 0or the teaching and learning o0 Latin gra33ar and 2oca-ulary. 8ictionaries were co3piled to 3eet this de3and, -oth Latin/ +nglish =e.g. the 2ortus Vocabulorum, Dgarden o0 words6, o0 around *'&$> and +nglish/Latin =e.g. the %romptorium %ar,ulorum, Dstoreroo3 0or young scholars6, o0 *''$>. 4oth o0 these dictionaries appeared in due course in printed 0or3, the 2ortus in *)$$, and the %romptorium in *'!!. Latin took on a new signi0icance during the period o0 the enaissance =%.*>, as scholars redisco2ered the literature o0 o3an authors and 3ade their works known, -oth through pu-lication in the original language and through translations into +nglish. It is the latter that are o0 particular signi0icance. 1hen translators ca3e across a Latin word 0or which they could not 0ind a ready eCui2alent in +nglish, a co33on solution would -e to D-orrow6 the Latin word into +nglish. Aince Latin had -een 0or so long the co33on

language o0 acade3ic discourse, this practice see3ed the 3ost con2enient to 3any translators. Howe2er, since 3any readers would not -e as 0a3iliar with Latin, so3e translators appended a glossary o0 such D-orrowed6 words to their translations. ,hile3on Holland, 0or exa3ple, who pu-lished a translation o0 ,lutarch6s Moralia in *($&, appended DAn explanation o0 sundry tear3es so3ewhat o-scure, in this translation o0 ,lutarch, in 0a2our o0 the unlearned eaderH a0ter the order o0 the Alpha-et6. The Dunlearned6 reader was one who did not know Latin. As it happens, Holland6s translation was the last to contain such a glossary, -ecause o0 a signi0icant de2elop3ent in lexicography. 4e0ore we co3e to that, let us note that the enaissance period saw not only the re2i2al o0 the classical languages o0 o3e and Ireece, -ut also a -urgeoning interest in the 2ernacular languages o0 +urope. This interest, pro3pted -y increasing tra2el, resulted in a nu3-er o0 -ilingual dictionaries: 0or French and +nglish, John ,alsgra2e6s )sclarcissement de la langue francoyse =*)&$> and andle 7otgra2e6s A &ictionarie of the "rench and )nglish ongues =*(**>H 0or Italian and +nglish, John Florio6s A Worlde of Wordes =*)!#>H 0or Apanish, +nglish and Latin, ichard ,ercy2all6s #ibliotheca 2ispanica =*)!*>. 8ictionaries 0or +nglish and Latin also continued to -e pu-lished, e.g. ichard Huloet, Abecedarium Anglo9Latinum =*))%>, Tho3as Tho3as, &ictionarium Linguae Latinae et Anglicanae =*)#">. ,age &&

0+- 7Hard& words

The 0irst 3onolingual +nglish dictionary is considered to -e o-ert 7awdrey6s A able Alphabeticall o0 *($', which contained in 0uller -ook 0or3 the kind o0 list that ,hile3on Holland had appended to his translation o0 ,lutarch. The title page o0 7awdrey6s dictionary proclai3s it to -e: A Ta-le Alpha-eticall, conteyning and teaching the true writing, and understanding o0 hard, usuall +nglish wordes, -orrowed 0ro3 the He-rew, Ireeke, Latine, or French, &c. 1ith the interpretation thereo0 -y plaine +nglish words, gathered 0or the -ene0it & helpe o0 Ladies, Ientlewo3en, or any other unskil0ull persons. 1here-y they 3ay the 3ore easilie and -etter understand 3any hard +nglish wordes, which they shall heare or read in Acriptures, Aer3ons, or elsewhere, and also -e 3ade a-le to use the sa3e aptly the3sel2es. D<nskil0ul6 persons, like Holland6s Dunlearned reader6, would -e those without a knowledge o0 the classical languages, especially LatinH and since girls and young wo3en did not enEoy the sa3e educational opportunities as -oys and young 3en / the Dpu-lic6 schools and the uni2ersities were exclusi2ely 3ale preser2es / this applied to all wo3en, apart 0ro3 those with parents enlightened and wealthy enough to ha2e pro2ided the3 with pri2ate tutoring. 7awdrey6s A able Alphabeticall -egins a tradition o0 Dhard word6 dictionaries. @ou will ha2e noticed that 7awdrey uses the word Dhard6 twice on his title page. A Dhard6 word

was a loanword, usually o0 recent -orrowing, whose use was not yet widespread and which was not readily co3prehensi-le to Duneducated6 readers. 8espite his inclusion o0 He-rew in his list o0 languages o0 origin and the D&c6 =i.e. etc.> a0ter DFrench6, 7awdrey 3arks only words o0 Ireek origin =with Dg6 or Dgr6> and words o0 French origin =with D\6>, the un3arked ones -eing assu3ed to ha2e a Latin origin. 7awdrey6s -ook, despite its recognition as the 0irst 3onolingual dictionary, is not entirely originalH in *)!( he )nglish 3choole Master -y +d3und 7oote had appeared, which contained a gra33ar, the catechis3, prayers, and a 2oca-ulary, and it is this last that 7awdrey 3ined 0or his work / e2en the title pages ha2e si3ilar wording. 7awdrey, though, has twice as 3any words as 7oote, and he used other sources as well. 7awdrey6s 0irst edition contained around %)$$ Dhard6 words, and it went through 0our editions, the last pu-lished in *(*", -ut there was little aug3entation o0 the word list. +ach word in the dictionary is pro2ided with a synony3 or explanatory phrase in Dplaine +nglish words6. Here are the 0irst 0ew words o0 7awdrey6s A able Alphabeticall: \ A4andon, cast away, or yeelde up, to lea2e, or 0orsake A-ash, -lush a--a, 0ather \ a--esse, a--atesse, ;istris o0 a ?unnerie, co30orters o0 others ,age &' \ a--ettors, counsellors a-erration, a going a stray, or wandering a--re2iat, > to shorten, or 3ake short \ a--ridge, > \ a--ut, to lie unto, or -order upon, as one lands end 3eets with another a-ecedarie, the order o0 the Letters, or hee that useth the3 K Apocrypha =g>, not o0 authoritie, a thing hidden, whose originall is not knowne 7awdrey6s pioneering work was 0ollowed in *(*( -y John 4ullokar6s An )nglish )xpositor, whose title page proclai3ed: An +nglish +xpositor: Teaching the Interpretation o0 the hardest words used in our Language. 1ith Aundry +xplications, 8escriptions, and 8iscourses. 4y I.4. 8octor o0 ,hysicke. 4esides ha2ing 3ore entries than 7awdrey / it contained Dsundry olde words now

growne out o0 use, and di2ers ter3es o0 art, proper to the learned6 / 4ullokar also pro2ides 3ore expansi2e explanations, e.g. 2ereti4e. He that 3aketh his owne choice, what points o0 religion he will -elee2e, and what he will not -elee2e. 2ereditarie. That which co33eth to one -y inheritance. 2eriot. The -est li2ing -east which a Tenant hath at his death, which in so3e ;annors is due to the lord o0 who3 the land is holden. 2ermaphrodite. :0 -oth natures: which is -oth 3an and wo3an. 2ermite. :ne dwelling solitarie in the wildernesse attending onely to de2otion. 4y his death in *('*, the )xpositor had reached its third edition with little re2ision. A radical re2ision and expansion o0 the )xpositor in *((& -y so3eone who styled the3sel0 DA Lo2er o0 the Arts6 greatly increased its popularity and it continued to -e repu-lished until *"&*. ,art o0 the expansion o0 4ullokar6s )nglish )xpositor in *((& in2ol2ed extensi2e -orrowing 0ro3 a third hard9word dictionary, which had -een 0irst pu-lished in *(%&, Henry 7ockera36s he )nglish &ictionarie, and the 0irst to use Ddictionary6 in its title. :n the title page o0 one o0 the 0irst editions, though not su-seCuently repeated, 7ockera3 acknowledged his de-t to 7awdrey and 4ullokar: The +nglish 8ictionarie: or, An Interpreter o0 hard +nglish 1ords. +na-ling as well Ladies and Ientlewo3en, young Achollers, 7larkes, ;erchants, as also Atrangers o0 any ?ation, to the understanding o0 the ,age &) 3ore di00icult authors already printed in our Language, and the 3ore speedy attaining o0 an elegant per0ection o0 the +nglish tongue, -oth in reading, speaking and writing. 4eing a 7ollection o0 the choicest words contained in the able Alphabeticall and )nglish )xpositor, and o0 so3e thousand o0 words ne2er pu-lished -y any hereto0ore. 7ockera36s target audience is wider than 7awdrey6s, e2en extending to the 0oreign learner o0 +nglish =DAtrangers o0 any ?ation6>. ;oreo2er, 7ockera36s &ictionarie has three parts: the 0irst is the list o0 hard words, together with their glosses and explanations =3ore in the style o0 7awdrey than o0 4ullokar>H the second is a list o0 D2ulgar6 words together with their Dre0ined or elegant6 eCui2alents, as an aid to writing with good styleH and the third, 0ollowing the practice o0 so3e Latin/+nglish dictionaries, is a list o0 DIods & Ioddesses6. The *((& re2ision o0 4ullokar6s )xpositor included the second and third parts o0 7ockera36s &ictionarie. 7ockera36s work went through twel2e editions, the last, a su-stantially re2ised one, in *("$. The scope o0 the hard9word dictionary had already widened since the pu-lication o0 A

able Alphabeticall. It was widened 0urther with the pu-lication in *()( o0 Tho3as 4lount6s Glossographia, whose title page declared: Ilossographia: or a 8ictionary, Interpreting all such Hard 1ords, 1hether He-rew, Ireek, Latin, Italian, Apanish, French, Teutonick, 4elgick, 4ritish or AaxonH as are now used in our re0ined +nglish Tongue. Also the Ter3s o0 8i2inity, Law, ,hysick, ;athe3aticks, Heraldry, Anato3y, 1ar, ;usick, ArchitectureH and o0 se2eral other Arts and Aciences +xplicated. 1ith +ty3ologies, 8e0initions, and Historical :-ser2ations on the sa3e. Jery use0ul 0or all such as desire to understand what they read. 4lount, lawyer -y pro0ession, -orrowed extensi2ely 0ro3 other dictionaries, -oth 3onolingual and -ilingual, -ut he also included words that he had co3e across in his reading or that he had heard spoken around hi3 in London. 4lount6s de0initions 2ary in length, 0ro3 single words to extensi2e explanations, -ut his singular inno2ation was the introduction o0 ety3ologies and Dhistorical o-ser2ations6. The ety3ology consists o0 the word in the original language in -rackets a0ter the headword, e.g. &eprehend =deprehendo> to take at unawares, to take in the 2ery act. &epression =depressio> a pressing or weighing down. The Dhistorical o-ser2ations6 are included in the explanation and are so3eti3es rather 0anci0ul, e.g. ,age &( 2ony9Moon, applyed to those 3arryed persons that lo2e well at 0irst, and decline in a00ection a0terwardsH it is hony now, -ut it will change as the 3oon. 4lount is also nota-le 0or gi2ing his sources, or citing his authorities, an issue that would -eco3e increasingly i3portant. For exa3ple: &epredable =depreda-ilis> that 3ay -e ro--ed or spoiled. #ac. The D#ac/6 re0ers to Francis 4acon =*)(*/*(%(>, the philosopher and scientist, 4lount6s source 0or this word. 4lount is 3ore co3prehensi2e than any o0 his predecessors, -ut the 0ocus is still on the Dhard6 words, with the addition o0 the technical ter3s o0 Darts and sciences6. Hard word dictionaries continued to expand: +dward ,hillips6 he 'e( World of )nglish Words o0 *()# contained around **,$$$ entries, which had increased to *",$$$ -y the 0i0th edition in *(!(, the year o0 ,hillips6 death. +lisha 7oles6 An )nglish &ictionary o0 *("( expanded his headword list to %),$$$, largely -y adding dialect words, old words 0ro3 7haucer and Iower, and canting ter3s. The canting ter3s were thie2es6 slang words, and 7oles Eusti0ies their inclusion as 0ollows: 6Tis no 8isparage3ent to understand the 7anting Ter3s: It 3ay chance to sa2e your

Throat 0ro3 -eing cut, or =at least> your ,ocket 0ro3 -eing pick6d. 7oles6 dictionary represented the state o0 the art in lexicography at the end o0 the se2enteenth century. Howe2er, it still did not contain the e2eryday 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish. A truly co3prehensi2e dictionary was still to co3e.

0+3 Co(pleteness
The 3onolingual +nglish dictionary had started li0e at the -eginning o0 the se2enteenth century as a 3odest list o0 loanwords. As the century progressed the word list expanded, 3ostly in the direction o0 the 3ore unusual type o0 lexe3e. +ty3ology -egan to -e attended to, and -e0ore the century ended two ety3ological dictionaries had appeared: Atephen Akinner6s )tymologicon Linguae Anglicanae, pu-lished 0our years a0ter the author6s death in *("*H and the anony3ous Ga=ophylacium Anglicanum in *(#!, which took 3uch o0 its 3aterial 0ro3 Akinner. The -eginning o0 the eighteenth century -rought a new 0ocus to the 3onolingual +nglish dictionary, with the pu-lication in *"$% o0 A 'e( )nglish &ictionary, whose author is identi0ied only -y the initials DJ.F.6 It is widely supposed that the author is John Fersey, who re2ised +dward ,hillips6 'e( World of )nglish Words in *"$( and who pu-lished a dictionary under his 0ull na3e in *"$#, the &ictionarium Anglo9#ritannicum. J.F.6s dictionary proclai3s itsel0 to -e: ,age &" A ?ew +nglish 8ictionary: :r, a 7o3pleat 7ollection :0 the ;ost ,roper and Aigni0icant 1ords, 7o33only used in the LanguageH 1ith a Ahort and 7lear +xposition o0 8i00icult 1ords and Ter3s o0 Art. The whole digested into Alpha-etical :rderH and chie0ly designed 0or the -ene0it o0 @oung Acholars, Trades3en, Arti0icers, and the Fe3ale Aex, who would learn to spell truelyH -eing so 0itted to e2ery 7apacity, that it 3ay -e a continual help to all that want an Instructor. ;ost o0 J.F.6s %#,$$$ headwords had ne2er -e0ore appeared in a dictionary. Its ai3 is to -e Dco3pleat6 and to identi0y the Dproper6 words o0 the languageH its target audience includes the increasingly literate trades3en and cra0ts3enH and its pri3ary purpose is to aid its users in correct spelling. ;any o0 the current school text-ooks contained spelling listsH J.F. incorporates this 0eature into his dictionary and thus -rings into the dictionary the words o0 e2eryday 2oca-ulary. ;any o0 the headwords in A 'e( )nglish &ictionary ha2e only the scantiest o0 de0initions or explanations, e.g. An Apron, 0or a 1o3an, &c. An Arm o0 a 3an6s -ody, o0 a tree, or o0 the sea. An )lephant, a -east. May, the 3ost pleasant ;onth o0 the @ear.

Little serious attention was paid to ety3ologyH at -est, the language 0ro3 which a loanword was -orrowed is indicated. The two principles, o0 co3pleteness and ety3ology, ca3e together in ?athaniel 4ailey6s An +ni,ersal )tymological )nglish &ictionary o0 *"%*, which pro3ised -oth a larger scope and a wider group o0 users than its predecessors: An <ni2ersal +ty3ological +nglish 8ictionary: 7o3prehending The 8eri2ations o0 the Ienerality o0 1ords in the +nglish Tongue, either Antient or ;odern, 0ro3 the Antient 4ritish, Aaxon, 8anish, ?or3an and ;odern French, Teutonic, 8utch, Apanish, Italian, Latin, Ireek, and He-rew Languages, each in their proper 7haracters. And Also A 4rie0 and clear +xplication o0 all di00icult 1ords K and Ter3s o0 Art K Together with A Large 7ollection and +xplication o0 1ords and ,hrases us6d in our Antient Atatutes K and the +ty3ology and Interpretation o0 the ,roper ?a3es o0 ;en, 1o3en, and e3arka-le ,laces in Ireat 4ritainH Also the 8ialects o0 our 8i00erent 7ounties. To which is Added a 7ollection o0 our 3ost 7o33on ,ro2er-s, with their +xplication and Illustration. ,age &# The whole work co3pil6d and ;ethodically digested, as well as 0or the +ntertain3ent o0 the 7urious, as the In0or3ation o0 the Ignorant, and 0or the 4ene0it o0 young Atudents, Arti0icers, Trades3en and Foreigners. 4ailey6s '$,$$$ words were culled 0ro3 a wide 2ariety o0 sources and enco3pass -oth the e2eryday and the less usual. For the 0irst ti3e pro2er-s were included =so3e ninety in all>, and serious attention was paid to ety3ology, e.g. )merald, =)smeraude, F. )smeralda, Apan. 3maragdus, L. o0 incorrect spelling o0 preparation It also includes notes entitled DA,+LL7H+7F6 a0ter words that are pronounced the sa3e =i.e. ho3ophones>, e.g. here and hear, as well as Dusage6 notes 0or pairs that are 0reCuently con0used, e.g. complement and compliment. The dictionary in the electronic 3ediu3 =see (."> o00ers the possi-ility o0 allowing the user to choose which types o0 in0or3ation a-out headwords will -e displayed on any lookup occasion. The :+8% on 789 :; has -uilt in a nu3-er o0 options o0 this kind. The user can choose whether to ha2e the Cuotations displayed or not, and there are Dswitches6 to acti2ate the display o0 Dpronunciation6, Dspellings6 =i.e. 0or3 history>, and Dety3ology6. I0 all the options are turned o00, the display o00ers only the de0initions and usage la-els 0or the nu3-ered senses o0 a lexe3e. The *xford al4ing &ictionary has a 3ore li3ited set o0 switches: the Cuotations can -e excluded, and the thesaurus 0acility is acti2ated -y a switch. +lectronic dictionaries generally di2ide their display into a headword list window and a dictionary entry window, and each can -e scrolled

separately. The headword list window operates in part like a spelling dictionary, except that deri2ati2es, co3pounds and so on that are nested in dictionary entries 3ay not -e included in the list. The electronic 3ediu3 does, though, open up possi-ilities 0or selecti2e display o0 dictionary in0or3ation that ha2e not yet -een 0ully exploited.

4+1 Learners
There are two sets o0 users whose needs ha2e -een care0ully considered and 0or who3 dictionaries ha2e -een speci0ically tailored: children, and learners. 7hildren6s dictionaries range 0ro3 the large90or3at work with pictures and an i3aginati2e use o0 colour, ai3ed at those Eust -eginning to learn to read, to school dictionaries that look like the adult 2ersion, except with a 3ore selecti2e headword list, the o3ission o0 so3e word senses and o0 in0or3ation such as ety3ology, and de0initions written in a si3pler language. 1e could exa3ine 3ore closely the range o0 children6s dictionaries, -ut our 0ocus here will -e on dictionaries ai3ed at learners o0 +nglish as a 0oreign or second language. 1e discuss these dictionaries in detail in 7hapter **H in the context o0 the present chapter, we look Eust at the re0erence needs o0 this group. A learner, or indeed a nati2e speaker, 3ay consult a dictionary when engaged in one o0 two -road types o0 language task. :n the one hand, a learner 3ay -e ,age #' engaged in the task o0 reading or listening, and they encounter a word or phrase that 3akes no sense to the3 and whose 3eaning they cannot deduce 0ro3 the context: the dictionary is used as an aid to Ddecoding6 the ite3 read or heard. :n the other hand, a learner 3ay -e engaged in the task o0 writing or preparing to speak, and they do not necessarily need to 0ind an unknown word, -ut rather to disco2er how a known word 3ay -e used in the appropriate context: the dictionary is used as an aid to Dencoding6 accepta-le sentences and texts. For a nati2e speaker, spelling is the 3ain encoding purpose that they 3ight consult a dictionary 0orH whereas learners 3ay need to 0ind out a-out spelling, pronunciation, in0lections, how a word 0its into gra33atical structure, what other words can appropriately acco3pany it =its collocations>, and whether there are any social or cultural restrictions on its usage. 8ictionaries 0or learners, there0ore, need to consider not only their decoding needs, which are not 2astly di00erent 0ro3 those o0 nati2e speakers, -ut 3ore particularly their encoding needs. This 3eans that learners6 dictionaries need to contain 3ore explicit, 3ore co3prehensi2e and 3ore syste3atic in0or3ation a-out the syntactic and lexical operation o0 words than a dictionary 0or nati2e speakers. Argua-ly, this in0or3ation should -e contained in any dictionary that purports to -e an accurate and co3prehensi2e lexical description =Hudson *!##>, -ut in practice it is precisely in these areas that in nati2e speaker dictionaries the in0or3ation is scantiest and least syste3atic =see 7hapter !>. 4esides, as we noted earlier, it is not Eust a 3atter o0 containing the in0or3ation, it is also a 3atter o0 presenting the in0or3ation in such a way that it is readily accessi-le and takes account o0 users6 prior knowledge and re0erence skills =Jackson *!!)>. The early learners6 dictionaries, such as H.+. ,al3er6s A Grammar of )nglish Words

=*!&#> or the precursor to the :AL8, A.A. Horn-y et al/6s Idiomatic and 3yntactic )nglish &ictionary =*!'%>, concentrated, as their titles suggest, on pro2iding accurate and syste3atic in0or3ation a-out the gra33atical operation o0 words. The su-seCuent history o0 learners6 dictionaries =7owie *!!!> shows the de2elop3ent and ela-oration o0 that purpose, not only in gra33ar -ut also in phraseology and collocation, with an increasing attention 3ore recently on 3aking the in0or3ation 3ore readily accessi-le and usa-le. This has -een achie2ed in a nu3-er o0 ways. For exa3ple, the early editions o0 :AL8 presented in0or3ation a-out the gra33atical operation o0 2er-s -y 3eans o0 a set o0 codes -ased on a syste3 o0 D2er- patterns6 de2eloped -y Horn-y. +ach sense o0 a 2erwas coded =e.g. DJ,(, J,*), J,%*6>. The regular user o0 the dictionary would learn which patterns were represented -y the co33only occurring codes, and could look the less 0a3iliar ones up in the guide to the dictionary in the 0ront 3atter. The coded in0or3ation was usually supported -y illustrati2e exa3ples, so that the user could see a typical context 0or the word in the gi2en sense. It -eca3e clear o2er ti3e that, while language teachers 3ay ha2e 3ade good use o0 the gra33atical codes, 3any student users o0 the dictionary did not 3ake the e00ort to learn the syste3 and relied largely on the exa3ples. In later editions o0 :AL8 the coding syste3 has -een a-andonedH the gra33atical in0or3ation is presented in a 3ore accessi-le 0or3, e.g. -y 3eans o0 0or3ulae such as D]sth =to ,age #) s->6H and 3ore attention is paid to ensuring that the exa3ples pro2ide a suita-le 3odel. As we shall see in 7hapter **, learners6 dictionaries ha2e de2eloped in 3ore 2aried ways than Eust in the presentation o0 gra33atical in0or3ation. +ntry structure has in so3e cases -een su-stantially re2ised, in0or3ation and ad2ice on usage is incorporated, 2arious types o0 additional 3aterial is included. ;uch o0 the inno2ation has -een in response to the percei2ed needs o0 this particular user group, so that the learner6s dictionary has in 3any respects 3o2ed away 0ro3 the con2entions o0 the nati2e speaker dictionary = undell *!!#>.

4+3 5urther reading

It is use0ul to read the pre0aces and other 0ront 3atter to a nu3-er o0 dictionaries, as well as the -lur- on their dust Eackets, to gain an idea o0 how dictionaries are presenting the3sel2es to their potential users. 7hapters ' and ) o0 Henri 4NEoint6s Modern Lexicography =%$$$> discuss the ai3s o0 dictionaries, their 0unctions in society, and the re0erence needs o0 their users. A Duser perspecti2e6 is also pro2ided -y 7hapter ( o0 einhard Hart3ann6s eaching and Researching Lexicography =%$$*>. 4o A2ensNn discusses dictionary users in relation to types o0 dictionary in 7hapter % o0 his %ractical Lexicography =*!!&>. ,age #(

9 %eaning in dictionaries
In 7hapter ", we identi0ied checking spelling and 0inding out a-out 3eaning as the two principal reasons why so3eone would consult a dictionary. 4ecause dictionaries are -ased on the written 0or3 o0 the language and their word lists are arranged in alpha-etical order, they coincidentally and ine2ita-ly pro2ide in0or3ation a-out spelling. It is, thus, in explaining, descri-ing and de0ining the 3eaning o0 words that the 3aEor 0unction o0 dictionaries is considered to lie, and on which they are Eudged. 1e discussed so3e o0 the co3ponents o0 word 3eaning in 7hapter %, and in this chapter we explore how and with what success dictionaries descri-e the 2arious aspects o0 lexical 3eaning. First, though, we need to deter3ine exactly what the o-Eects are whose 3eaning dictionaries are atte3pting to characterise.

9+1 'he objects o! de!inition

8ictionaries present us with a list o0 headwords as the o-Eects to -e de0ined, though so3e ite3s within the entry under a headword 3ay also -e su-Eect to de0inition. The headword list 3ay contain a 2ariety o0 types o0 ite3. 7onsider the two 0ollowing short lists 0ro3 7+8': hook, hookah, hook and eye, hooked, hooker*, hooker%, Hooke6s law, hooknose, hook9tip, hook9up, hookwor3, hookwor3 diseaseH its, it6s, itsel0, itsy9-itsy, IT<, ITJ, 9ity, i9type se3iconductor, I<, I<=7>8, Iulus, 9iu3 The headword list in 7+8' =personal and geographical na3es are excluded> contains Dsi3ple6 words like hoo4 and hoo4ah, -ut it also contains a range o0 other ite3s: W deri2ed words / hoo4ed, hoo4er0 co3pound words, including those written solid =hoo4nose, hoo4(orm, itself>, those W hyphenated =hoo49tip, hoo49up, itsy9bitsy>, and open co3pounds =2oo4e-s la(>, as well as co3-inations o0 these =hoo4(orm disease, i9type semiconductor> W -ino3ials =hoo4 and eye>

,age #" W a--re2iations =I +, I V, I+, I+7$8&>, whose Dde0inition6 consists only in spelling out the words whose initial letters 3ake up the acrony3 or initialis3

W a00ixes =9ity, 9ium>, which ha2e si3ilar de0initions to those 0or words W contractions =it-s>, 0or which only the 0ull 0or3s are gi2en. Ao3e headwords / a--re2iations, contractions / are not included 0or de0inition as such,

Eust 0or explanationH si3ilarly, word 0or3s 3ani0esting irregular in0lections are o0ten entered with a cross9re0erence to the -ase 0or3 =or le33a>, e.g. !elt the past tense and past participle o0 !eel Ao3e o0 the ite3s that 7+8' includes in its headword list would 0eature as nested or run9 on ite3s in other dictionaries, including deri2ati2es and so3e co3pounds. The practice 2aries, with, 0or exa3ple, so3e dictionaries listing solid co3pounds as headwords, -ut not hyphenated or open co3pounds. 7+8' itsel0 includes so3e ite3s within entries that are 0urther de0ined. <nder hoo4, 0or exa3ple, it de0ines: -y hook or =-y> crookH get the hookH hook, line, and sinkerH o00 the hookH on the hookH sling one6s hookH hook it. These are 2arious kinds o0 phrase, including idio3s =by hoo4 or croo4, sling one-s hoo4>, trino3ials =hoo4, line, and sin4er>, and slang expressions =get the hoo4, hoo4 it>. :ne ite3 in the list is entered twice: hoo4er, with the sa3e pronunciation, and with the 0ollowing 3ain 3eanings: hooker1 a co33ercial 0ishing -oat using hooks and lines instead o0 nets hooker- a person or thing that hooks At 0irst glance, you would think that the 3eaning o0 hoo4er1 would -e included in the 3ore general 3eaning o0 hoo4er0. 1hy then does hoo4er ha2e two ho3ographs =in 0act, ho3ony3s>, which are entered as separate headwords, especially as the 3eanings see3 so close5 The -asic criterion that dictionaries use to identi0y ho3ographs is ety3ology: i0 two or 3ore di00erent origins can -e identi0ied 0or the sa3e spelling, then the orthographic word is entered as 3any ti3es as there are di00erent ety3ologies. In the case o0 hoo4er, the 0irst ho3ograph is identi0ied as a loanword 0ro3 8utch hoe4er in the se2enteenth century, and the second is the deri2ation -y 3eans o0 the su00ix 9er 0ro3 the 2er- hoo4, which has its origin in the :ld +nglish hoc. 1ith hoo4er, the ho3ographs ha2e not too dissi3ilar 3eanings. The opposite case can also -e 0ound. 7onsider the 0ollowing 3eanings 0or the word table =de0initions 0ro3 7+8'>: a 0lat horiGontal sla- or -oard, usually supported -y one or 3ore legs, on which o-Eects 3ay -e placed an arrange3ent o0 words, nu3-ers, or signs, usually in parallel colu3ns, to display data or relations. ,age ## Intuiti2ely, you 3ight think that these 3eanings 3ust -e associated with words o0 di00erent origin, -ut that is not the case. There is a single entry 0or table in 7+8', since -oth 3eanings are associated with the word that ca3e into +nglish 0ro3 :ld French in the twel0th century, with its origin in Latin tabula, Da writing ta-let6. Another criterion that 3ay -e used to trigger 3ultiple headwords 0or the sa3e spelling is word class 3e3-ership. This criterion operates in L8+L, where table has three entries,

one each 0or the noun, adEecti2e =e.g. table manners>, and 2er-. The criterion operates alongside the ety3ological one, so that a ho3ograph identi0ied -y ety3ology 3ay also ha2e 3ultiple entries on the -asis o0 word class 3e3-ership. For exa3ple, line is entered 0our ti3es in L8+L%: 1line =put a lining in, 0or exa3ple, a gar3ent> is distinguished 0ro3 the others on the -asis o0 ety3ology: it has its origin in ;iddle +nglish linen, deri2ed 0ro3 lin, the :ld +nglish 0or D0lax6, which de2eloped into 3odern +nglish linen. The other entries 0or line also ha2e a ;iddle +nglish origin, -ut 0ro3 :ld French ligne, though this word, interestingly, goes -ack to a Latin word 3eaning D3ade o0 0lax6. This line has three ho3ographs -ased on word class 3e3-ership, one each 0or the noun, 2erand adEecti2e. ;any words are polyse3ousH they ha2e 3ore than one 3eaning, as table cited earlier. For any spelling =orthographic word>, there0ore, 0or which a lexicographer identi0ies 3ultiple 3eanings, a decision 3ust -e 3ade whether the di00erent 3eanings arise 0ro3 polyse3y or -ecause there are ho3ographs. The lexicographer applies the criterion o0 ety3ology, and, according to dictionary policy, that o0 word class 3e3-ership. I0 the criteria are satis0ied, then 3ultiple headwords are entered in the dictionary. I0 not, then a single headword is entered with 3ultiple 3eanings or senses. 1e shall see =7hapter **> that these criteria do not necessarily apply in learners6 dictionaries, -ecause they 3ay -e regarded as not ser2ing the re0erence needs o0 this user group.

9+- Lu(ping and splitting

I0 polyse3y is identi0ied, how does a lexicographer decide how 3any 3eanings or senses o0 a word to recognise5 The lexicographer collects the e2idence, such as citations and concordance lines =7hapter *&>, which indicate the di00erent contexts o0 use. 1hat is then done with the e2idence depends on whether the lexicographer is a Dlu3per6 or a Dsplitter6 =Allen *!!!:(*>: The Dlu3pers6 like to lu3p 3eanings together and lea2e the user to extract the nuance o0 3eaning that corresponds to a particular context, whereas the Dsplitters6 pre0er to enu3erate di00erences o0 3eaning in 3ore detailH the distinction corresponds to that -etween su33ariGing and analysing. Here are the entries 0or the noun horse 0ro3 ?:8+ and 0ro3 7+8': one o0 these is a Dsplitting6 and the other a Dlu3ping6 dictionary. ,age #! horse ^ noun 1 a solid9hoo0ed plant9eating do3esticated 3a33al with a 0lowing 3ane and tail, used 0or riding, racing, and to carry and pull loads. W ):uus caballus, 0a3ily +Cuidae =the horse !a(ily>, descended 0ro3 the wild ,rGewalski6s horse. The horse 0a3ily also includes the asses and Ge-ras. _ an adult 3ale horseH a stallion or gelding. _ a wild 3a33al o0 the horse 0a3ily. _ Rtreated as sing/ or pl/S ca2alry: forty horse and sixty foot/ - a 0ra3e or structure on which so3ething is 3ounted or supported, especially a

sawhorse. 2 'autical a horiGontal -ar, rail, or rope in the rigging o0 a sailing ship 0or supporting so3ething. 2 short 0or :);L'<#= H>?.6 3 R3ass nounS informal heroin. 0 informal a unit o0 horsepower: the huge B?9horse CD19cc engine/ 1 Mining an o-struction in a 2ein. =?:8+> horse n 1 a do3esticated perissodactyl 3a33al, ):uus caballus, used 0or draught work and riding: 0a3ily ):uidae. - the adult 3ale o0 this speciesH stallion. 3 wild horse. 3a a horse =):uus caballus> that has -eco3e 0eral. 3b another na3e 0or r@ewalski&s horse. 0a any other 3e3-er o0 the 0a3ily ):uidae, such as the Ge-ra or ass. 0b =as modifier>: the horse family. 1 = functioning as pl> horse3en, esp. ca2alry: a regiment of horse. 3 Also called: buck. Gymnastics. a padded apparatus on legs, used 0or 2aulting, etc. 4 a narrow -oard supported -y a pair o0 legs at each end, used as a 0ra3e 0or sawing or as a trestle, -arrier, etc. 9 a contri2ance on which a person 3ay ride and exercise. A a slang word 0or heroin. 10 Mining. a 3ass o0 rock within a 2ein or ore. 11 'autical. a rod, rope, or ca-le, 0ixed at the ends, along which so3ething 3ay slide -y 3eans o0 a thi3-le, shackle, or other 0ittingH tra2eller. 1- $hess. an in0or3al na3e 0or knight. 13 Informal. short 0or horsepower. 10 =modifier> drawn -y a horse or horses: a horse cart. =7+8'> ?:8+ has 0i2e nu3-ered senses, -y co3parison with 7+8'6s 0ourteen. The 0irst sense in ?:8+ enco3passes the 0irst 0i2e senses in 7+8'H ?:8+6s second sense enco3passes senses six, se2en and ele2en in 7+8'H ?:8+6s & corresponds to 7+8'6s !, ?:8+6s ' to 7+8'6s *&, and ?:8+6s ) to 7+8'6s *$. 7+8' has so3e senses not co2ered -y ?:8+: #, *%, *'. Ao3e o0 7+8'6s senses are Dsu-senses6 =introduced -y the sy3-ol _> to the Dcore6 senses in ?:8+. The arrange3ent o0 ?:8+ suggests that it is essentially a Dlu3ping6 dictionary, whereas 7+8' 0alls 3ore o-2iously into the Dsplitting6 category. ;ost dictionaries tend to -e o0 the Dsplitting6 type, though di00erent dictionaries do not necessarily agree on where to 3ake the splits -etween senses. 7o3pare the 0ollowing entries 0or the noun length in 7:8! and 778': ,age !$ length n+ 1 3easure3ent or extent 0ro3 end to endH the greater o0 two or the greatest o0 three di3ensions o0 a -ody. - extent in, o0, or with regard to, ti3e =a stay of some lengthH the length of a speech>. 3 the distance a thing extends =at arm-s lengthH ships a cable-s length apart>. 0 the length o0 a swi33ing pool as a 3easure o0 the distance swu3. 1 the length o0 a horse, -oat, etc., as a 3easure o0 the lead in a race. 3 a long stretch or extent =a length of hair>. 4 a degree o0 thoroughness in action =(ent to great lengthsH prepared to go to any length>. 9 a piece o0 3aterial o0 a certain length =a length of cloth>. A %rosody the Cuantity o0 a 2owel or sylla-le. 10 $ric4et a the distance 0ro3 the -ats3an at

which the -all pitches =the bo(ler 4eeps a good length>. b the proper a3ount o0 this. 11 the extent o0 a gar3ent in a 2ertical direction when worn. 1- the 0ull extent o0 one6s -ody. =7:8!> length n 1 the linear extent or 3easure3ent o0 so3ething 0ro3 end to end, usually -eing the longest di3ension. - the extent o0 so3ething 0ro3 -eginning to end, 3easured in 3ore or less regular units or inter2als: the boo4 (as BDD pages in length. 3 a speci0ied distance, esp. -etween two positions: the length of a race. 0 a period o0 ti3e, as -etween speci0ied li3its or 3o3ents. 1 a piece or section o0 so3ething narrow and long: a length of tubing. 3 the Cuality, state, or 0act o0 -eing long rather than short. 4 =usually pl> the a3ount o0 trou-le taken in pursuing or achie2ing so3ething =esp. in to great lengths>. 9 =often pl> the extre3e or li3it o0 action =esp. in to any length =s>>. A %rosody, phonetics. the 3etrical Cuantity or te3poral duration o0 a 2owel or sylla-le. 10 the distance 0ro3 one end o0 a rectangular swi33ing -ath to the other. 11 'E inf. the general ideaH the 3ain purpose. =778'> Ta-le #.* shows how the senses 3atch in these two concise dictionaries. 7:8! has only hal0 o0 its twel2e 3eanings directly 3atched in 778', while 778' has se2en o0 its ele2en senses 3atched in 7:8!H the disparity arises 0ro3 the 0act that Aense " in 7:8! is 3atched to two senses =" and #> in 778'. There is one sense that looks closely related -ut is not a direct 3atch: Aense ( in 7:8! and Aense ) in 778'. The two dictionaries ha2e not car2ed up the 3eaning o0 length in the sa3e way, and there are senses in each that do not ha2e counterparts in the other =the gaps in Ta-le #.*>. Are there any criteria, or rules o0 thu3-, that lexicographers use in deciding what senses to recognise in analysing the 3eaning o0 a lexe3e5 7ontext, clearly, plays a part, -ut context can -e analysed 3ore or less 0inely. For exa3ple, the 0irst 0our senses o0 the noun interest in 7+8' are gi2en the 0ollowing de0initions: * the sense o0 curiosity a-out or concern with so3ething or so3eone % the power o0 sti3ulating such a sense & the Cuality o0 such sti3ulation ' so3ething in which one is interestedH a ho--y or pursuit.

,age !* able F/1 $*&G * $$&@ * $$&@ * $*&G *

% & ' ) ( " # ! *$ ** *%

' & *$

% & ' ) ( & %

", #

" #

" " ! '

! *$ **

L8+L% encapsulates these 3eanings under one nu3-ered sense with two parts: 1a readiness to -e concerned with, 3o2ed -y, or ha2e one6s attention attracted -y so3ethingH curiosity 1b the Cuality in a thing that arouses interest K also so3ething one 0inds interesting 7learly, in the end, it co3es down to the lexicographer exercising their in0or3ed Eudge3ent in the 0ace o0 the e2idence that they ha2e to work with. There are, howe2er, two 0actors that a lexicographer can take into account when distinguishing the senses o0 words: gra33ar, and collocation =7lear *!!(>. It is possi-le that the use o0 length Dusually plural6 as against Do0ten plural6 led the 778' lexicographer to distinguish senses " and # =see a-o2e>. The 0act that reply can -e used intransiti2ely, as against transiti2ely with a clause as o-Eect, distinguishes the 0irst two senses in 7+8': 1 to 3ake an answer =to> in words or writing or -y an actionH respond: he replied (ith an unexpected mo,e. - =trH ta4es a clause as ob;ect> to say =so3ething> in answer: he replied that he didn-t (ant to come. Ao3e senses ha2e a specialised or restricted use, and are la-elled as such, e.g. the Iy3nastics, ;ining, ?autical, 7hess and In0or3al uses o0 horse in the 7+8' entry gi2en earlier. Ao3e senses enter into particular collocationsH as indicated -y the words in -rackets in these senses 0or isometric 0ro3 7+8': =o0 a crystal or syste3 o0 crystalliGation> ha2ing three 3utually perpendicular eCual axes =o0 a 3ethod o0 proEecting a drawing in three di3ensions> ha2ing the three axes eCually

inclined and all lines drawn to scale. ,age !% Howe2er, collocation has not -een exploited as 3uch as it could -e -y lexicographers 0or this purpose =7lear *!!(>. Ha2ing decided what senses to recognise 0or a polyse3ous lexe3e, the lexicographer 3ust then decide how to order the3 in the dictionary entry. In an historical dictionary / :+8 or A:+8 / the order is gi2en: 0ro3 earliest sense to latest sense, according to the citational e2idence. Howe2er, e2en in historical dictionaries, things are not always as si3ple: so3e words ha2e a co3plicated Dsense history6, with 3ore than one D-ranch6 =see 4erg *!!& 0or a description o0 the entry structure in :+8%>. In general9purpose dictionaries, the practice 2aries. $hambers 0ollows the historical order: There are at least two possi-le ways o0 ordering K de0initions. :ne way is to gi2e the 3ost 3odern 3eaning 0irst and the oldest last. The other is the way selected 0or this dictionary, historical order. In this 3ethod the original or oldest 3eaning o0 the word is gi2en 0irst and the 3ost 3odern or up9to9date last. 4oth 3ethods are eCually easy to use -ut historical order is perhaps 3ore logical since it shows at a glance the historical de2elop3ent o0 the word, each entry pro2iding a potted history o0 the word. =p. 2i> This is a 3atter o0 opinion, and whether anyone would consult a general9purpose dictionary 0or a Dpotted history6 o0 a word is de-ata-le. The alternati2e argu3ent would 0ocus on likely user needs, which would pri2ilege the 3ore 3odern senses. In 0act, dictionaries that 0ollow the D3odern 3eaning 0irst6 principle are usually rather 3ore su-tle in their arrange3ent o0 senses, e.g. 7+8': As a general rule, where a headword has 3ore than one sense, the 0irst sense gi2en is the one 3ost co33on in current usage. 1here the editors consider that a current sense is the Dcore 3eaning6 in that it illu3inates the 3eaning o0 other senses, the core 3eaning 3ay -e placed 0irst. Au-seCuent senses are arranged so as to gi2e a coherent account o0 the 3eaning o0 a headword K closely related senses are grouped togetherH technical senses usually 0ollow general sensesH archaic and o-solete senses 0ollow technical sensesH idio3s and 0ixed phrases are usually placed last. =p. xxi> L8+L% atte3pts a synthesis o0 the historical and conte3porary approaches: ;eanings are ordered according to a syste3 which ai3s -oth to show the 3ain historical de2elop3ent o0 the word and to gi2e a coherent o2er2iew o0 the relationship -etween its 3eanings. ;eanings that are current throughout the +nglish9speaking world are shown 0irstH they appear in the order in which they are 0irst recorded in +nglish, except that closely related senses 3ay -e grouped together regardless o0 strict historical order. They are 0ollowed -y words Rsic / presu3a-ly 0or D3eanings6S whose usage is restricted,

,age !& such as those current only in in0or3al use or in A3erican +nglish. Aenses which ha2e -eco3e archaic or o-solete are shown last. =p. x2i> 7o3pare the order o0 senses in the entries 0or the noun mate 0ro3 7+8' and L8+L%: (ate 1 the sexual partner o0 an ani3al. - a 3arriage partner. 3a Informal, chiefly #rit/, Austral/, and '/E/ a 0riend, usually o0 the sa3e sex: o0ten used -etween 3ales in direct address. 3b =in combination> an associate, colleague, 0ellow sharer, etc.: a classmate, a flatmate. 0 one o0 a pair o0 3atching ite3s. 1 'autical. 1a short 0or !irst (ate. 1b any o00icer -elow the 3aster on a co33ercial ship. 1c a warrant o00icer6s assistant on a ship. 3 =in so3e trades> an assistant: a plumber-s mate. 4 Archaic. a suita-le associate. =7+8'> (ate 1a an associate, co3panion / o0ten in co3-ination `flat3ateO `play3ateO 1b an assistant to a 3ore skilled work3an `plumber-s IO 1c chiefly #r ! Austr a 0riend, chu3 / used esp as a 0a3iliar 0or3 o0 address -etween 3en - an o00icer on a 3erchant ship ranking -elow the captain 3 either 3e3-er o0 a -reeding pair o0 ani3als `a sparro( and his IO 3c either o0 two 3atched o-Eects `a I to this glo,eO 0 archaic a 3atch, peer =L8+L%> Mate entered the language during the ;iddle +nglish period, with the general Dco3panion6 3eaning. The L8+L% entry re0lects the later =sixteenth9century> addition o0 the Dsexual partner6 3eaning, though this co3es 0irst in 7+8' -ecause it is considered the 3ore co33on and central 3eaning in 3odern +nglish.

9+3 "e!initions
:nce identi0ied, each sense needs a de0inition. The de0inition is a characterisation o0 the 3eaning o0 the =sense o0 the> lexe3eH it is not an exhausti2e explanation o0 the possi-le re0erents =Mgusta *!"*:%)%00.>. Like other linguistic state3ents, de0initions in 3onolingual dictionaries consist o0 Dlanguage turned -ack on itsel06, using the sa3e language to descri-e as is -eing descri-ed. ;uch o0 the art o0 lexicography =co3pare the title o0 Landau *!#!, %$$*> consists in 0inding apt wording 0or constructing telling de0initions. A nu3-er o0 general principles can -e identi0ied: W W a word should -e de0ined in ter3s si3pler than itsel0 =Mgusta *!"*:%)">, which is not always possi-le with the Dsi3ple6 words circularity o0 de0inition should -e a2oided, i.e. de0ining two or 3ore lexe3es in ter3s o0 each other =A2ensNn *!!&:*%(>

,age !' a de0inition should -e su-stituta-le 0or the ite3 -eing de0inedH so the head o0 the de0inition W phrase should -elong to the sa3e word class as the de0ined lexe3e =Mgusta *!"*:%)#H A2ensNn *!!&:*%"> W di00erent 0or3s o0 de0inition are appropriate to di00erent types o0 word =Mgusta *!"*:%)#>. The 3ost co33on 0or3 o0 de0inition is the Dendocentric phrase6 =Mgusta *!"*:%)#>, the Dco3pletely analytical one9phrase de0inition6 =,re0ace to 1&>, which consists o0 Dstating the superordinate concept next to the de0iniendu3 =genus proximum> together with at least one distincti2e 0eature typical o0 the de0iniendu3 =differentia specifica>6 =A2ensNn *!!&:*%%>. A good exa3ple o0 such a de0inition is that gi2en 0or the 0irst sense o0 horse in ?:8+, cited earlier: a solid9hoo0ed plant9eating do3esticated 3a33al with a 0lowing 3ane and tail, used 0or riding, racing, and to carry and pull loads. The Dde0iniendu36 =horse> is related to its Dgenus6 =mammal>, i.e. its Dsuperordinate concept6, and gi2en a nu3-er o0 Ddi00erentiae6 =solid9hoofed, plant9eating, domesticated, (ith a flo(ing mane and tail, used for riding, etc.>, which are Dtypical 0eatures6 ser2ing to distinguish this 3a33al 0ro3 other 3a33als. The Dgenus L di00erentiae6 style o0 de0inition, as it is so3eti3es called, is used 0or a great 3any words 0ro3 3ost o0 the word classes, with Ddi00erentiae6 appropriate to whether the 3eaning is concrete or a-stract, re0erring to a thing, e2ent, Cuality, and so on. Here are so3e 0urther exa3ples 0ro3 a range o0 types o0 word, taken 0ro3 a nu3-er o0 dictionaries =the Dgenus6 is in each case in italics>: beat =2er-> to stri4e with or as i0 with a series o0 2iolent -lows R7+8'S clean =adEecti2e> free 0ro3 dirt, stain, or whate2er de0iles R7ha3-ersS gla(our =noun> a ro3antic, exciting, and o0ten illusory attracti,eness RL8+L%S hu(ble =adEecti2e> of low social or political ran4 R7:8!S so(ewhat =ad2er-> to a 3oderate extent or by a 3oderate amount R?:8+S see =2er-> percei,e with the eyes R7:8*$S $ariety =noun> the :uality or condition o0 -eing di2ersi0ied or 2arious R7+8'S A second 3aEor type o0 de0inition consists o0 a synony3, a collection o0 synony3s, or a synony3ous phrase. ;any, especially a-stract, words are not easily de0ined analytically -y the Dgenus L di00erentiae6 styleH and lexicographers resort to the use o0 synony3s. It is this type o0 de0inition that is 3ost likely to create circularity, where a set o0 synony3s is used to de0ine each other. A3aller dictionaries, where space is 3ore li3ited, use synony3y as a de0ining 3ethod 3ore extensi2ely. 7o3pare these entries 0ro3 the $ollins %oc4et )nglish &ictionary =%$$$>:

,age !) (iserable 1 2ery unhappy, wretched. - causing 3isery. 3 sCualid. 0 3ean unhappy 1 sad or depressed. - un0ortunate or wretched wretched 1 3isera-le or unhappy. - worthless The larger $ollins $oncise =*!!!> is already an i3pro2e3entH although it still relies largely on synony3y 0or de0ining, its 3ore extensi2e treat3ent creates less circularity: (iserable 1 unhappy or depressedH wretched. - causing 3isery, disco30ort, etc. 3 conte3pti-le. 0 sordid or sCualid. 1 3eanH stingy. unhappy 1 not Eoy0ulH sad or depressed. - un0ortunate or wretched. 3 tactless or inappropriate. wretched 1 in poor or piti0ul circu3stances. - characterised -y or causing 3isery. 3 despica-leH -ase. 0 poor, in0erior, or paltry. Interestingly, the parent, desk9siGe 7+8' adds al3ost nothing to the de0initions o0 the $oncise 0or these words. A third style o0 de0inition speci0ies what is Dtypical6 o0 the re0erent. This style is nor3ally used in co3-ination with one o0 the others, usually the analytical style, and is introduced -y the ad2er- typically. Here are so3e exa3ples 0ro3 7:8*$: day o! rest a day set aside 0ro3 nor3al acti2ity, typically Aunday on religious grounds gingha( lightweight plain9wo2en cotton cloth, typically checked (easles an in0ectious 2iral disease causing 0e2er and a red rash, typically occurring in childhood scra(ble 3o2e or 3ake one6s way Cuickly and awkwardly, typically -y using one6s hands as well as one6s 0eet ululate howl or wail, typically to express grie0 The last exa3ple adds a typi0ying de0inition to a synony3 one, while the others add it to an analytical de0inition. A 0ourth type o0 de0inition explains the Duse6 to which a word or sense o0 word is put, usually in the gra33ar o0 the language. This type is typically e3ployed 0or de0ining Dgra33atical6 or D0unction6 words =deter3iners, pronouns, conEunctions, prepositions, auxiliary 2er-s / see 7hapter *>, especially where these ha2e no re0erence outside o0 language. Here are so3e exa3ples 0ro3 7:8*$: and =conEunction> used to connect words o0 the sa3e part o0 speech, clauses, or sentences ,age !(

do =auxiliary 2er-> used -e0ore a 2er- in Cuestions and negati2e state3ents e$er =ad2er-> used 0or e3phasis in Cuestions expressing astonish3ent or outrage hersel! =pronoun> used as the o-Eect o0 a 2er- or preposition to re0er to a 0e3ale person or ani3al pre2iously 3entioned as the su-Eect o0 the clause that =pronoun.deter3iner> used to identi0y a speci0ic person or thing o-ser2ed or heard -y the speaker us =pronoun> used -y a speaker to re0er to hi3sel0 or hersel0 and one or 3ore others as the o-Eect o0 a 2er- or preposition All these de0initions are introduced -y used, and they are 3ostly 0ra3ed in ter3s o0 how the word operates in the gra33atical structure o0 the language. In the case o0 the ad2ere,er, though, the Duse6 relates to its 0unction in discourse, i.e. 0or e3phasis. 8e0initions ai3 to descri-e the re0erence relations =7hapter %> o0 a lexe3e, speci0ically their denotations. They do not usually co33ent on the connotati2e or associati2e 3eaning o0 a lexe3e, though this 3ay occasionally 0ind 3ention, as in the de0initions o0 champagne and youth in ?:8+: cha(pagne a white sparkling wine 0ro3 7ha3pagne, regarded as a sy3-ol o0 luxury and associated with cele-ration youth the state or Cuality o0 -eing young, especially as associated with 2igour, 0reshness, or i33aturity. ;ore o0ten, connotation is indicated -y appropriate la-elling =see 7hapter !>, as 0or the 0ollowing words in 7:8!: crony =o0ten derogJatoryK > a close 0riend or co3panion ethnic cleansing =euphemJisticK > the 3ass expulsion or exter3ination o0 people 0ro3 opposing ethnic or religious groups within a certain area ladyship =ironJicalK > a 0or3 o0 re0erence or address to a wo3an thought to -e gi2ing hersel0 airs (issi$e = ;ocJularK > a letter, esp. a long and serious one wrinkly =slang offensJi,eK > an old or 3iddle9aged person.

9+0 .ense relations

In 7hapter %, we identi0ied the Dsense relations6 that 3ay hold -etween lexe3es within the 2oca-ulary as: synony3y, antony3y, hypony3y, and 3erony3y. In ,age !" this section, we shall explore how these 3eaning relations are represented in dictionaries.

1e ha2e noted already =#.&> that =loose> synony3y is used as a de0ining style 0or so3e words. A so3ewhat tighter synony3y is so3eti3es indicated -y the phrase Dalso called6, when an alternati2e ter3 is gi2en 0or the headword under consideration. For exa3ple, -oth 7+8' and ?:8+ gi2e Dalso called: $iper6 under adder, and Dalso called: hydrophobia6 under rabies. 4ut there is no consistency o0 treat3ent. For exa3ple, in 7+8' hoo4ah is gi2en the 0ollowing alternati2es: hubble9bubble, 4alian, narghile, (ater pipeH and their de0initions all contain the phrase Danother na3e 0or hookah6. ?:8+, howe2er, does not gi2e these alternati2es in its entry 0or hoo4ah, though hubble9bubble is de0ined si3ply as Da hookah6, narghile has Da hookah6 included in its de0inition, and (ater pipe has a si3ilar de0inition to that 0or hoo4ah -ut without 3aking the connection. Aalian is not entered in ?:8+. 7+8' is perhaps particularly co33enda-le 0or 3aking these synony3 connections, as the 0ollowing exa3ples 0ro3 a single colu3n in the dictionary show: lo$e apple an archaic na3e 0or to(ato lo$ebird another na3e 0or budgerigar lo$e !east Also called: agape lo$eBinBaB(ist Aee also !ennel!lower lo$eBinBidleness another na3e 0or the wild pansy lo$e knot Also called: lo$er&s knot lo$e(aking an archaic word 0or courtship lo$ey #rit/ informal. another word 0or lo$e =sense **>. Another way o0 treating synony3s in dictionaries is to draw together near9synony3s under one o0 the ite3s and discuss the3. This procedure is used -y L8+L% and -y +7+8. The latter has the 0ollowing account o0 Dgenerous6 words: .C#>#C%. generous/ magnanimous/ munificent/ ountiful/ li eral 7: + ;+A?I?I: gi2ing readily to others generous willing to gi2e 3oney, help, or ti3e 0reelyH (agnani(ous 2ery generous, kind, or 0orgi2ingH (uni!icent 2ery generous, especially on a grand scaleH bounti!ul =literary> generous, particularly to less 0ortunate peopleH liberal 0ree with 3oney, ti3e, or other assets. The sense relation o0 antony3y is so3eti3es used in de0initions, when the opposite o0 the =sense o0 the> lexe3e -eing de0ined is preceded -y not, e.g. =0ro3 7:8!> ,age !# arti!icial not real con$entional not spontaneous or sincere or original

longBstanding not recent $acant not 0illed or occupied Ao3eti3es, an antony3 3ay -e indicated 3ore explicitly. ?:8+, 0or exa3ple, introduces antony3s with the phrase Dthe opposite o06, -ut this is 0or a li3ited nu3-er o0 3ostly Cuite technical ter3s, e.g. anode / cathode, holis3 / ato3is3, sinistral / dextral, Genith / nadir. 7+8' uses the phrase Dco3pare6 to 0ul0il a si3ilar 0unction, -ut again with a s3all nu3-er o0 0airly technical ter3s. Antony3y is not a well9represented sense relation in the text o0 dictionaries. Hypony3y is -etter represented, largely -ecause the analytical de0inition =#.&> is 0or3ed using the hypony3y relation. The Dgenus6 ter3 is, or should -e, the superordinate o0 the lexe3e -eing de0ined, the Dde0iniendu36. 7onsider the 0ollowing de0inition 0ro3 7+8': serge a twill9wea2e woollen or worsted 0a-ric used 0or clothing 3erge is a hypony3 o0 fabric, the Dgenus6 ter3 in this de0inition, and it can -e related as a co9hypony3 to other words that ha2e fabric as their Dgenus6, such as corduroy, lace, ,el,et, (orsted and so on. 1hat you cannot 0ind out 0ro3 a con2entional dictionary is the set o0 all the co9hypony3s o0 a particular superordinate ter3 =see 7hapter *%>. I0 a dictionary is consistent, though, co9hypony3s should -e related to the sa3e genus ter3. 4ut dictionaries are not noted 0or their consistency in such 3atters. For exa3ple, ?:8+ relates for4 and spoon to the genus ter3 implement, -ut 4nife is related to instrument. ?:8+ de0ines hand(ritten as Dwritten with a pen, pencil, or other hand9held i3ple3ent6, -ut pen and pencil -oth ha2e instrument as their genus ter3. ;erony3y, the Dpart9o06 relation, is a less well recognised as well as a less per2asi2e sense relation. It is, though, used in the de0initions o0 so3e lexe3es, e.g. =0ro3 7:8*$>: algebra the part o0 3athe3atics in which K coast the part o0 the land adEoining or near the sea loin the part o0 the -ody on -oth sides o0 the spine -etween the lowest ri-s and the hip -ones $a(p the upper 0ront part o0 a -oot or shoe Again, we should not look 0or consistency in con2entional dictionaries. 1hile upper is de0ined in 7:8*$ as Dthe part o0 a -oot or shoe a-o2e the sole6, sole has a Cuite di00erent type o0 de0inition: Dthe section 0or3ing the underside o0 a piece o0 0ootwear6. ,age !! The dictionary that has 3ost consistently treated sense relations is the learners6 dictionary 7:4<IL8*, where synony3s, antony3s and superordinate ter3s are indicated in the dictionary6s Dextra colu3n6 =0urther in 7hapter **>.

9+1 hraseology
The other 3aEor co3ponent o0 3eaning that we identi0ied in 7hapter % was collocation, the regular or particular co3pany that a word keeps. 1e noted in #.% that collocation 3ay o00er a 3ethod 0or distinguishing the senses o0 a lexe3e =c0. 7lear *!!(>. 7ollocation is, in the end, a 3atter o0 statistical 0reCuency o0 co9occurrence, and lexicologists ha2e not yet collected 0ull data on the collocational -eha2iour o0 words. 1here dictionaries note collocation, it is in cases either o0 a known restriction to the range o0 a word or where a collocation appears in a particular context. The possi-le collocates or the restrictions are usually contained within -rackets -e0ore the de0inition and introduced -y Do06 or Despecially o06. Here are so3e exa3ples 0ro3 ?:8+: bijou =especially o0 a house or 0lat> s3all and elegant bi!acial #otany =o0 a lea0 > ha2ing upper and lower sur0aces that are structurally di00erent. Archaeology =o0 a 0lint or other arte0act> worked on -oth sur0aces con$oluted =especially o0 an argu3ent, story, or sentence> extre3ely co3plex and di00icult to 0ollow (eander =o0 a ri2er or road> 0ollow a winding course. =o0 a person> wander at rando3. =o0 a speaker or text> proceed ai3lessly or with little purpose tee( =o0 water, especially rain> pour downH 0all hea2ily terrigenous Geology =o0 a 3arine deposit> 3ade o0 3aterial eroded 0ro3 the land. ;ost o0 the lexe3es 0or which collocates are indicated -elong to the adEecti2e word class: the collocates speci0y the nouns or types o0 noun they typically acco3pany. Ao3e 2er-s =e.g. meander, teem> 3ay ha2e their typical Au-Eect or :-Eect noun collocates speci0ied. 7ollocation is the su-Eect o0 considera-le research currently, especially 0ollowing the de2elop3ent o0 extensi2e co3puter corpora that pro3ise to yield interesting and relia-le data on this topic. Lexicographers o0 learners6 dictionaries ha2e -egun to include so3e o0 this in0or3ation in their works, since it is an area o0 particular interest and di00iculty 0or learners o0 +nglish as a second or 0oreign language =see 7hapter **>. Another area o0 interest to learners is that o0 idio3s and other 0ixed expressions, especially where the 3eaning o0 the expression cannot -e deduced 0ro3 the 3eanings o0 its indi2idual words. Ao3e dictionaries, as we saw in #.*, list -ino3ials, and perhaps trino3ials, as headwords. 7:8!, 0or exa3ple, has so3e ,age *$$ *%$ such ite3s as headwords, e.g. bells and (histles, flotsam and ;etsam, s(eet and sour, (aifs and strays. ;ore di00icult to locate are idio3s proper, which are nor3ally entered under one o0 the D3ain6 words o0 the idio3. ;any dictionaries are not 2ery explicit a-out the rules 0or 0inding an idio3, though the rule o0 thu3- is that it will -e under the 0irst D3ain6 word. For exa3ple, a storm in a teacup will -e under storm, shoot one-s mouth off will -e under shoot, -ut ta4e a bull by the horns will -e under bull, -ecause ta4e does

not count as a D3ain6 word. Ao3eti3es the rules are 3ore co3plicatedH L8+L%, 0or exa3ple, 0ollows an older tradition: An idio3 is entered at the 0irst noun it containsH hence on the ball appears at ball and in spite o! at spite. I0 it contains no noun, it is entered at the 0irst adEecti2eH hence gi$e as good as one gets is shown at good. I0 it contains no adEecti2e, it is entered under the 0irst ad2er-H i0 no ad2er-, under the 0irst 2er-H i0 no 2er-, under the 0irst word. In any case, cross9re0erences to the entry where the idio3 appears are gi2en at the entries 0or other 3aEor words in it: hand K / see also take the LA1 into one&s own hands. The entry where the idio3 appears is shown in A;ALL 7A,ITAL letters. =p. xi2> ?ot all dictionaries are as good a-out cross9re0erencing, and locating an idio3 can turn into so3ething o0 a hunt at ti3es, especially as they are usually nested towards the end o0 an entry. Ao3e o0 the 3ore 3odern layouts do 3ake the hunt easier, e.g. in 7:8*$, which has a separate paragraph 3arked D,H AA+A6 where this is rele2ant in an entry. <nder shoot, 0or exa3ple, the 0ollowing phrases are listed: shoot the -reeGe =or the -ull>, shoot one6s cu00s, shoot onesel0 in the 0oot, shoot a line, shoot one6s 3outh o00, the whole shooting 3atch, shoot through. +ach phrase is then gi2en a de0inition, and any appropriate restricti2e la-el. Au33arising, the treat3ent o0 3eaning in dictionaries goes -eyond si3ply the de0initionH it includes the distinction o0 ho3ographs, the identi0ication o0 senses and their ordering, the contri-ution o0 the sense relations, the incorporation o0 collocational in0or3ation, and the consideration o0 idio3s and other phrasal expressions.

9+3 5urther reading

Aidney Landau deals with Dde0inition6 in 7hapter ' o0 &ictionaries: he Art and $raft of Lexicography =*!#!>, as does 4o A2ensNn in 7hapter *$ o0 his %ractical Lexicography =*!!&>. The section on de0ining styles owes so3ething to 4ar-ara Fip0er6s treat3ent in 7hapter ( o0 Wor4boo4 on Lexicography =*!#'>, where she also discusses the ordering o0 senses. ,age *$*

A 8eyond de!inition
In the pre2ious chapter we discussed the treat3ent o0 what is o0ten considered the 3ain 0unction o0 dictionaries: the description o0 word 3eaning. In this chapter, we in2estigate so3e o0 the other in0or3ation a-out words that dictionaries 3ay contain, so3e o0 the D0acts a-out words6 that we outlined in 7hapter %. 1hile we shall look at topics such as spelling, pronunciation, in0lections, word classes, and usage, we shall lea2e ety3ology until the next chapter.

A+1 .pelling
As we ha2e noted -e0ore, dictionaries cannot help -ut gi2e in0or3ation a-out spelling, since as alpha-etically organised word -ooks they are 0ounded on the written 0or3 o0 words. 7onsulting the dictionary to check the spelling o0 words we also 0ound to -e one o0 the 3aEor occasions o0 their use =7hapter ">. 1hile headwords, or nested deri2ati2es, supply in0or3ation a-out the usual spellings o0 words, there is additional in0or3ation, a-out 2ariations in spelling, that dictionaries also gi2e. The 2ariation can -e o0 2arious kinds. Ao3e words si3ply ha2e alternati2e spellings, where the choice o0 one rather than the other is purely a 3atter o0 personal pre0erence. 4oth spellings are eCually accepta-le. Here are so3e exa3ples =0ro3 7:8!>: a-sorption / a-sor-tion, -aptistery / -aptistry, caddie / caddy, di00user / di00usor, extro2ert / extra2ert, 0iligree / 0ilagree, giG3o / gis3o, horsy / horsey, Eudge3ent / Eudg3ent, 3o2a-le / 3o2ea-le, neurone / neuron, pendent / pendant, regi3e / rNgi3e, s3idgen / s3idgeon / s3idgin, tranCuillity / tranCuility, yogurt / yoghurt. A surprisingly large nu3-er o0 words ha2e alternati2e spellings, and 0ro3 this list we can o-ser2e so3e possi-le patterns: 0inal 9ie or 9y, su00ix 9er or 9or, = or s, possi-le loss o0 e a0ter dg or , plus su00ix, loss o0 accent 0ro3 2owels o0 words -orrowed 0ro3 French, and so on. ;any 4ritish dictionaries take account o0 the di00erences -etween 4ritish and A3erican spelling. 7+8', 0or exa3ple, enters the A3erican spelling o0 words like center and pediatrics at the appropriate place in the headword list, and then ,age *$% gi2es a cross9re0erence to the 4ritish spelling. For words like sa,ior and theater, which would occur close to the 4ritish spelling, the A3erican alternati2e is si3ply gi2en under the 4ritish spelling. There are two 0urther spelling 2ariations that are o0ten seen as di00erences -etween 4ritish and A3erican +nglish: the ae / e alternation in aesthetics / esthetics, and the s / = alternation in 9ise.9i=e =e.g. marginalise.9i=e>. The 9ise.9i=e alternation is no longer regarded as a 4ritish. A3erican di00erenceH 4ritish dictionaries 3erely note these as alternati2e spellings. The ae / e alternation is not yet 0ully accepted in 4ritish spelling. In 3ost dictionaries, with the exception o0 $hambers, encyclopedia is entered as the 3ain spelling, with encyclopaedia as the alternati2eH si3ilarly with medie,al and mediae,al. Howe2er, archaeology is the 3ain spelling =or sole spelling / $hambers, L&)L>H archeology is gi2en as an alternati2e in 7+8', and is 3arked as A3erican in ?:8+ and other :x0ord dictionaries. And in the case o0 aesthetics, paediatrics, etc. the alternati2e is usually 3arked as A3erican. :ne other area where dictionaries pay attention to spelling is where alterations occur as a conseCuence o0 adding an in0lectional su00ix, such as cry / cried, big / bigger. 1e will consider this in !.&, where we discuss dictionary in0or3ation a-out in0lections.

A+- ronunciation
How a word is pronounced is one o0 its idiosyncractic 0actsH it is the phonological counterpart o0 spelling =orthography>, its shape in the 3ediu3 o0 sound as against its shape in the 3ediu3 o0 writing. 1e would expect, there0ore, that dictionaries would indicate at least the sounds that constitute the pronunciation o0 the word, and 0or words o0 3ore than one sylla-le the stress pattern. There are two issues in relation to pronunciation in dictionaries: 0irst, how pronunciation is represented in the written 3ediu3 that the dictionary uses, i.e. the transcription syste3H and second, the 3odel that is used 0or pronunciation, and how 3uch 2ariation is indicated. In 3ost 3odern 4ritish dictionaries, the transcription syste3 used to represent pronunciation is the International ,honetic Alpha-et =I,A>, de2eloped in the late nineteenth century as a syste3, -ased on the o3an alpha-et, that could -e used 0or transcri-ing the speech o0 any language, and as an aid in learning the pronunciation o0 a 0oreign language. The alternati2e transcription to the I,A is a Drespelling6 syste3. 1hen Ja3es ;urray was de2ising a transcription syste3 0or the :+8 in the 3id9nineteenth century, the I,A had not yet -een in2ented, and he de2eloped a respelling syste3. Howe2er, when the second edition o0 the :+8 was put together, the only wholesale re2ision was to replace ;urray6s respellings with I,A transcriptions. :ther :x0ord dictionaries 0ollowed suit: 7:8" =*!#%> had respelling, 7:8# =*!!$> changed to the I,A. L8+L uses respellingH so does +7+8 and $hambers, -ut $hambers 01st $entury &ictionary uses I,A, as do the 7ollins dictionaries. A3erican dictionaries, howe2er, usually use a respelling syste3. 4oth transcription syste3s ha2e the ai3 o0 a one9to9one correspondence -etween sound and sy3-ol, and uniCue representation o0 each sound. In the ,age *$& able G/1

case o0 the I,A, -ecause it uses sy3-ols additional to those in the o3an alpha-et, it 3ostly uses a single sy3-ol to represent each sound. A respelling syste3, restricting itsel0 to the sy3-ols o0 the o3an alpha-et, perhaps with the addition o0 the Dschwa6 sy3-ol needs to use digraphs and e2en trigraphs in order to achie2e a uniCue one9to9one correspondence. Ta-le !.* shows so3e exa3ples o0 transcription 0ro3 a 2ariety o0 dictionaries. The argu3ent used in 0a2our o0 respelling is that it uses 3ostly 0a3iliar sy3-ols =,aikeday *!!&>, whereas the I,A e3ploys a considera-le nu3-er o0 sy3-ols that are not contained in the

o3an alpha-et. :n the other hand, a respelling syste3 either has to use diacritics, as in the $hambers 2ersion, or a large nu3-er o0 digraphs, as in the L8+L syste3 =e.g. oo, aw, uh>. Argua-ly, any transcription syste3 will constitute a learning task 0or the user who needs to consult it, or at least the a-ility to interpret the ta-le where the transcription is descri-ed and illustrated. Ao3e dictionaries pro2ide re3inders o0 the sy3-ols at the -otto3 o0 each page, e.g. 7:8!, with 2owels on one dou-le9page and consonants on the next. Ao3e 789 :; 2ersions o0 dictionaries pro2ide a recorded pronunciation o0 each transcription contained in the dictionary =e.g. 7:8!>. ,ronunciation is not in0or3ation that nati2e speakers regularly consult a dictionary 0or. I0 they do, it is likely to -e in order to check the pronunciation o0 a word that they ha2e 3et only in writing. ,erhaps in recognition o0 this, ?:8+ and su-seCuently 7:8*$ do not gi2e a transcription o0 the pronunciation o0 Dordinary, e2eryday words6, rather: In the 'e( *xford &ictionary of )nglish, the principle 0ollowed is that pronunciations are gi2en where they are likely to cause pro-le3s 0or the nati2e speaker o0 +nglish, in particular 0or 0oreign words, 0oreign na3es, scienti0ic and other specialist ter3s, rare words, words with unusual stress patterns, and words where there are alternati2e pronunciations or where there is a dispute a-out the standard pronunciation. =Introduction, p. x2ii> 1hat counts as an ordinary word 3ust -e a 3atter o0 Eudge3ent. 4y way o0 co3parison, here are lists o0 words 0ro3 one page o0 7:8*$ distinguishing those that ha2e -een pro2ided with a transcription and those that ha2e not: ,age *$' With transcription: traipse, trait, traEectory, Trakehner, Tra3iner, tra33el, tra3ontana, tra3ontane, tra3poline, trance, tranche, trans9 Without transcription: training college, training shoe, train 3ile, train oil, train shed, trainspotter, traitor, tra la, tra3, tra3lines, tra3p, tra3ple, tra3 road, tra3 silk, tra3way, trank, tranny, tranCuil, tranCuilliGe, transaction, transactional analysis. The exclusion o0 pronunciation in0or3ation 0or 3any words in ?:8+ and 7:8*$ represents a 3o2e, al-eit s3all, away 0ro3 su-ser2ience to the Drecording6 0unction o0 general9purpose dictionaries towards consideration o0 what the user 3ight or 3ight not need. The second issue concerns the 3odel o0 pronunciation that is o00ered, and the degree o0 2ariation that is recorded. 7:8! says that its I,A transcriptions are D-ased on the pronunciation associated especially with southern +ngland =so3eti3es called DD ecei2ed ,ronunciationa>6. In 7+8', the Dpronunciations o0 words K represent those that are co33on in educated speech6. In L8+L%, the pronunciation represented K is what 3ay -e called a Dstandard6 or Dneutral6 4ritish9+nglish accent: the type o0 speech characteristic o0 those people o0ten descri-ed as ha2ing Dno accent6, or, 3ore accurately, ha2ing an accent that -etrays little or nothing o0 the region to which the

speaker -elongs. ?:8+ represents Dthe standard accent o0 +nglish as spoken in the south o0 +ngland =so3eti3es called ecei2ed ,ronunciation or ,>6. Ao3e o0 these dictionaries acknowledge the existence o0 other accents, -oth in other +nglish9speaking countries and regionally within 4ritain, -ut argue that it is i3possi-le to do the3 all Eustice. $hambers, which descri-es so3e o0 the ways in which pronunciation di00ers in other national 2arieties o0 +nglish, clai3s that its respelling syste3 o0 transcription Dallows 0or 3ore than one interpretation so that each user o0 the dictionary 3ay choose a pronunciation in keeping with his speech6. Howe2er it is descri-ed, it is the Deducated6 accent o0 southern +ngland, with its .-

t. pronunciation o0 but, and .gra:s. rather than .grZs. 0or grass, that is the 3odel represented in 4ritish dictionaries. At one ti3e, it was argued that this accent was the one 3ost widely understood, the one used predo3inantly in pu-lic discourse, the one taught to 0oreign learners o0 +nglish, and so on. This is presu3a-ly the sense in which it 3ight -e considered a Dstandard accent6 =?:8+>, though ?:8+ acknowledges that it is not a static accent: The transcriptions re0lect pronunciation as it actually is in 3odern +nglish, unlike so3e longer9 esta-lished syste3s, which re0lect the standard pronunciation o0 -roadcasters and pu-lic schools in the *!&$s. =p. x2ii> ,age *$) The status o0 this accent as the prestige accent 0or 4ritish +nglish has -een constantly challenged -y phoneticians o0 +nglish, and there is a 3uch greater di2ersity o0 accents heard now in pu-lic li0e. It is perhaps -eco3ing an anachronis3 to continue to record this accent in 3odern dictionaries, -ut the de-ate on which pronunciation should -e recorded has hardly -egun. 8ictionaries do record so3e 2ariation in pronunciation. Learners6 dictionaries, which ha2e a worldwide 3arket, now routinely include A3erican pronunciation as well as 4ritish =7hapter **>. ?ati2e speaker dictionaries, on the other hand, record 2ariation within the chosen accent, 0or exa3ple the .i:k... and . bk... -eginnings to economics. Here are so3e 0urther exa3ples, drawn 0ro3 7:8!:

They show a nu3-er o0 types o0 2ariation in pronunciation, e2en in the chosen accent: o3ission o0 sounds in 3ore rapid or Dless care0ul6 enunciation =the sounds in -rackets in coastguard and sedentary>H 2ariation in stress place3ent, as in distributeH one or 3ore alternati2e sounds, as in "ebruary and oceanicH and 0or loanwords, the anglicised and the original, D0oreign6, pronunciation, as 0or ,in ros>.

A+3 <n!lection
For 3ost words that can -e in0lected in +nglish / nouns, 2er-s, adEecti2es =see 7hapter *> / the in0lection 0ollows 0ro3 the general rules o0 3orphology, is not idiosyncratic to the indi2idual lexe3e, and is there0ore not appropriate to the lexical in0or3ation contained in dictionaries. Howe2er, there are so3e exceptions to this generalisation, which dictionaries do record. A s3all nu3-er o0 adEecti2es, so3e nouns, and a larger nu3-er o0 2er-s in0lect Dirregularly6, not according to the general pattern, and these are gi2en 0or each lexe3e concerned, e.g. W ad;ecti,e -ad / worse / worst W noun 0oot / 0eet, 3ouse / 3ice, ox / oxen, sheep / sheep W ,erb -ring / -rought / -rought, 0eel / 0elt / 0elt, gi2e / ga2e / gi2en, hit / hit / hit, see / saw / seen, wear / wore / worn, etc. These -asic irregularities do not exhaust the possi-le idiosyncracies, and dictionaries tend to gi2e any in0lection that is likely to cause a di00iculty 0or writers, including predicta-le spelling 2ariations. ,age *$( For the plural in0lection o0 nouns, the 0ollowing 3ay well -e noted: W loanwords that retain their original, D0oreign6 plural, e.g. cactus 5 cacti, criterion 5 criteria, 4ibbut= 5 4ibbut=im, phylum 5 phyla, ,ertex 5 ,ertices. ;ore and 3ore o0 these plurals are -eco3ing regularised, including cactuses and ,ertexes. W nouns that end in 9o or 9i, where there is o0ten con0usion a-out whether the in0lection is 9s or 9es, e.g. curio9s, domino9es, etui9s, halo9es or 9s, piccallili9es or 9s. W nouns ending in 9y, which 3ay change the y to i and add 9es, or 3ay si3ply add 9s, e.g. abbey9 s, academy 5 academies, mon4ey 9s, mystery 5 mysteries, odyssey9s, symmetry 5 symmetries. W nouns that change either the spelling or pronunciation o0 their 0inal sound =2oicing o0 .c., .0. or .s.> when the plural su00ix is added, e.g. bath9s, hoof 5 hoo,es, house9s, mouth9s, shelf 5 shel,es, truth9s, (olf 5 (ol,es. For the in0lections o0 2er-s, the 0ollowing 3ay well -e noted: W where the 0inal consonant o0 the root is dou-led in spelling with the addition o0 a su00ix: flip 5 flipping 5 flipped, lag 5 lagging 5 lagged, prod 5 prodding 5 prodded, refer 5 referring 5 referred, sho,el 5 sho,elling 5 sho,elled, sin 5 sinning 5 sinned.

W where the 0inal consonant 3ight -e expected to dou-le, -ut does not, e.g. benefit 5 benefiting 5 benefited, galop 5 galoping 5 galoped, gossip 5 gossiping 5 gossiped, mar4et 5 mar4eting 5 mar4eted, pilgrim 5 pilgriming 5 pilgrimed. W where the 0inal consonant is 9c and a 4 is added -e0ore the in0lectional su00ix, e.g. bi,ouac 5 bi,ouac4ing 5 bi,ouac4ed, magic 5 magic4ing 5 magic4ed, picnic 5 picnic4ing 5 picnic4ed. W where the 0inal consonant is 9y, which 3ay change to i -e0ore an in0lectional su00ix, e.g. cry 5 cries 5 cried =-ut crying>, shy 5 shies 5 shied, supply 5 supplies 5 supplied, (eary 5 (earies 5 (earied. For adEecti2e in0lections, the 0ollowing usually apply: W the consonant dou-ling rule, as 0or 2er-s, e.g. big 5 bigger 5 biggest, hip 5 hipper 5 hippest, sad 5 sadder 5 saddest. W the y to i rule, as 0or 2er-s, e.g. dry 5 drier 5 driest, fluffy 5 fluffier 5 fluffiest, li,ely 5 li,elier 5 li,eliest, rosy 5 rosier 5 rosiest, (ac4y 5 (ac4ier 5 (ac4iest =-ut not sly 9er, 9est>. Additionally, two9sylla-le adEecti2es that 0or3 their co3parati2e and superlati2e -y 3eans o0 in0lectional su00ixes, rather than the periphrastic more.most construction, 3ay -e 3arked as such in the dictionary =e.g. ?:8+>, such as common 9er.9est, narro( 9er.9est, thirsty 9er.9est. Howe2er, while ?:8+ notes the ,age *$" 9er.9est su00ixes 0or narro( / and sallo( / it does not indicate the3 0or mello( or shallo(. :ne other point is worth 3entioning here, though strictly speaking it -elongs to deri2ational 3orphology rather than to in0lectional. +nglish has a nu3-er o0 nouns that sur2i2e 0ro3 :ld +nglish which ha2e a related adEecti2e that has -een -orrowed into +nglish usually 0ro3 Latin, e.g. church 5 ecclesiastical. Ao3e dictionaries use0ully indicate these connections, e.g. 7+8'. Further exa3ples are: lung 5 pneumonic, pulmonary, pulmonicH mind 5 mental, noetic, phrenicH (all 5 mural.

A+0 *ord class

It is one o0 the traditions o0 lexicography to identi0y the word class=es> or part=s> o0 speech that each lexe3e in a dictionary -elongs to. The traditional ter3s, usually a--re2iated, are: noun =n>, 2er- =2, 2->, adEecti2e =adE>, ad2er- =ad2>, pronoun =pron>, preposition =prep>, conEunction =conE>, and interEection =interE>. <nder the in0luence o0 3odern descripti2e linguistics the adEecti2e class in so3e dictionaries =e.g. 7+8, ?:8+> is di2ided into adEecti2es proper and Ddeter3iners6 =see 7hapter *>. 7+8 in addition recognises a class o0 Dsentence connectors6 =e.g. ho(e,er, therefore> and a class o0 Dsentence su-stitutes6 =e.g. no, maybe>, -oth o0 which are traditionally assigned to the ad2er- class. In 7:8*$, the interEection class is rena3ed Dexcla3ation6 =excla3> and it includes yes and no. Ao 0ar, 3ost dictionaries 0ollow the tradition. ,ractice -egins to 2ary in the in0or3ation pro2ided o2er and a-o2e the -asic word class la-el. 7:8*$ pro2ides none. Its predecessor, the 7:8!,

0ollowed another tradition in respect o0 2er-s and 3arked 2er-s or senses o0 2er-s as Dtransiti2e6 =tr> or Dintransiti2e6 =intr>, or indeed Dre0lexi2e6 =re0l>. For exa3ple, 4ic4 is 3arked Dtr6 0or the Dstrike or propel 0orci-ly with the 0oot or hoo0 etc.6 sense, Dintr6 0or the Dstrike out with the 0oot6 sense, and Dre0l6 0or the Dkick onesel06 sense. 7:8*$ perhaps excludes these ter3s in recognition o0 the 0act that they are not 0a3iliar to 3ost 3odern dictionary usersH its larger parent, ?:8+, also eschews the3, using Dwith o-E6, i.e. Do-Eect6, and Dno o-E6 instead. Indeed, ?:8+ goes 0urther than 3ost general9purpose nati2e speaker dictionaries in the ways in which it su-classi0ies words. For nouns, it indicates when a noun is used as a D3ass noun6, e.g. legislation, which cannot -e 3ade plural or -e preceded -y the inde0inite article =a.an>. It also uses the ter3 Dcount noun6 0or a sense o0 a 3ass noun that can -e 3ade plural and counta-le, e.g. obser,ance in the sense o0 Dreligious or cere3onial o-ser2ances6. :therwise nouns are assu3ed to -e counta-le. ?:8+ recognises a su-class o0 Dsentence ad2er-6, with *)! ad2er-s or senses o0 ad2er-s so 3arked, including coincidentally, fortunately, paradoxically, regrettably, than4fully. It also 3arks a su-class o0 Dsu-3odi0ier6 ad2er-s, which are used to 3odi0y adEecti2es and other ad2er-s, so3e %"" o0 the3, including altogether, decidedly, hideously, predictably, simply, utterly. The word class la-el, and any su-classi0ication, represents gra33atical in0or3ation a-out words, where they can operate in the syntax o0 sentences, what ,age *$# their co3-inatorial possi-ilities are. Ao3e dictionaries pro2ide gra33atical in0or3ation o2er and a-o2e word class la-elling, though it is di00icult to draw a clear distinction -etween word =su-9>class in0or3ation proper and other syntactic la-elling. Indeed, ?:8+ in its discussion o0 these 3atters in the DIuide to the <se o0 the 8ictionary6 3akes no such distinction.

A+1 >ther gra((atical in!or(ation

The distinction -etween D3ass6 and Dcount6 noun, 0or exa3ple, is not si3ply a word class su-di2isionH it is also an indication o0 the deter3iners that 3ay co3-ine with a noun, e.g. nu3erals with count nouns, -ut not with 3ass nouns. Ai3ilarly, the Dtransiti2e6.Dintransiti2e6 su-classi0ication o0 2er-s relates to whether, in the speci0ied sense, the 2er- takes an o-Eect or not, and additionally whether the sentence in which the 2er- occurs can -e 3ade passi2e. For nouns, ?:8+ also speci0ies when they can -e used Das 3odi0ier6, -e0ore another noun, with an adEecti2al 0unction, e.g. 4eynote as in 4eynote address or shado( as in shado( minister of K 7+8 likewise notes such uses o0 so3e nouns, -ut dictionaries 3ay di00er in their categorisations. :ne way o0 treating such uses o0 nouns would -e to recognise the deri2ation o0 an adEecti2e -y the word 0or3ation process o0 Dcon2ersion6 =see 7hapter %>: 7+8' 3arks 4ey, as in a 4ey person, as D3odi0ier6, while ?:8+ recognises an adEecti2e 4ey to co2er this usage. The other peculiarity o0 nouns that dictionaries o0ten 3ark is when there 3ay -e a 3is3atch -etween the 0or3 o0 a noun =singular or plural> and its use syntactically. For exa3ple, darts and economics ha2e a plural 0or3 -ut are usually Dtreated as sing=ular>6. :n the other hand, singular so9called Dcollecti2e6 nouns, such as go,ernment or team 3ay -e Dtreated as sing or pl=ural>6. In ?:8+ also, Din sing6 is used to 3ark =the sense o0 > a count noun that can only -e used in the singular =e.g. riot as in the garden (as a riot of colour> or the sense o0 a 3ass noun where an inde0inite

article 3ay -e used =e.g. (ealth in a (ealth of information>. For adEecti2es, ?:8+ speci0ies three possi-le syntactic positions that they 3ay -e restricted to: -e0ore the noun =Dattri-=uti2e>6>, a0ter a 2er- like be, become or seem =Dpredic=ati2e>6>, and i33ediately a0ter the noun =Dpostpositi2e6>. 7+8'6s eCui2alent ter3s are: Dpreno3inal6, Dpostpositi2e6 and Di33ediately postpositi2e6. Here are so3e exa3ples: W attri-uti2e bridal, custom, geriatric, innermost, mere, opening, teenage, =ero9sum W predicati2e aglo( =and 3any others with pre0ix a9>, catching, disinclined, legion, pri,y, tantamount, (ell =i.e. Dnot ill6> W postpositi2e aplenty, designate, enough, galore, incarnate, par excellence, as well as a nu3-er o0 adEecti2es connected with cooking and heraldry. The case o0 2er- syntax is 3ore co3plicated. I0 a dictionary is to record the peculiarities o0 each lexical ite3, then the crude transiti2e.intransiti2e distinction does not do Eustice to the syntactic operation o0 3any 2er-s. ?or does the ,age *$! three0old distinction o0 ?:8+: Dwith o-E6, Dno o-E6, and Dwith ad2er-ial6 =e.g. beha,e, clamber>. <nlike learners6 dictionaries =7hapter **>, nati2e speaker dictionaries generally do not syste3atically and co3prehensi2ely record the possi-le syntactic patterning o0 2er-s. Few go -eyond Dtransiti2e6 and Dintransiti2e6. Howe2er, co3pare the 0ollowing entries 0or argue 0ro3 7+8' and ?:8+: argue 1 =intr> to CuarrelH wrangle: they (ere al(ays arguing until I arri,ed. - =intrH o0ten 0oll. -y for or against> to present supporting or opposing reasons or cases in a disputeH reason. 3 =trH may ta4e a clause as ob;ect> to try to pro2e -y presenting reasonsH 3aintain. 0 =trH often passi,e> to de-ate or discuss: the case (as fully argued before agreement (as reached. 1 =tr> to persuade: he argued me into going. 3 =tr> to gi2e e2idence o0H suggest: her loo4s argue despair. R7+8'S argue 1 =reporting ,erb> gi2e reasons or cite e2idence in support o0 an idea, action, or theoryH typically with the ai3 o0 persuading others to share one6s 2iew: R(ith clauseS sociologists argue t!at ine:ualities in industrial societies are being reduced d R(ith direct speechS LIt stands to reason,- she argued. W R(ith ob;/S =argue so(eone intoDout o! > persuade so3eone to do or not to do =so3ething> -y gi2ing reasons: I tried to argue him out of it. - Rno ob;/S exchange or express di2erging or opposite 2iews, typically in a heated or angry way: don-t argue wit! me d figurati,e I (asn-t going to argue wit! a gun d R(ith ob;/S she (as too tired to argue t!e point. R?:8+S These two dictionaries gi2e considera-ly 3ore syntactic in0or3ation 0or 2er-s, -oth -y way o0 la-els and in exa3ples, than has -een custo3ary in general9purpose dictionaries, e2en o0 desk siGe, until recently. ?:8+ Eusti0ies this approach -oth -y pointing to the role o0 gra33ar in distinguishing the 3eanings or senses o0 lexe3es and with the 0ollowing argu3ent:

the ai3 is to present in0or3ation in such a way that it helps to explain the structure o0 the language itsel0, not Eust the 3eanings o0 the indi2idual senses. For this reason, special attention has -een paid to the gra33ar o0 each word, and gra33atical structures are gi2en explicitly. =p. xi>

A+3 ;sage
All dictionaries ha2e a set o0 la-els to 3ark words or senses o0 words that are restricted in so3e way in the contexts in which they 3ay occur. The contextual restrictions 3ay -e geographical =i.e. dialectal>, historical =e.g. archaic>, stylistic =e.g. in0or3al>, according to topic =e.g. 4otany>, and so on. In this section, we re2iew the types and range o0 usage la-els used in general9purpose dictionaries. ,age **$ ".#.1 Dialect 8ialect la-els re0er to geographical restriction, and we can take this to include -oth national 2arieties and regional dialects within a national 2ariety. ;ost 4ritish dictionaries nowadays clai3 an international perspecti2e and include words peculiar to the 2oca-ulary o0 other +nglish9 speaking countries, -ut still largely con0ined to ?orth A3erica, Australia and ?ew Mealand, and Aouth A0rica. The newer +nglishes o0, say, the Indian su-continent, or 1est A0rica, or the 7ari--ean, or Aingapore tend to recei2e lesser attention. Howe2er, 7:8*$, 0or exa3ple, contains around 0i0ty words 3arked D1. Indian6, and a rather larger nu3-er la-elled DIndian6, e.g. W 1est Indian braata, dotish, fingle, higgler, mamguy, nancy story, spraddle, tafia W Indian babu, charpoy, dur=i, ha,eli, la4h, nullah, sadhu, =amindar. ?:8+ clai3s around *',$$$ geographical la-els spread through the dictionary, -ut these are 3ainly Dregionalis3s encountered in standard contexts in the di00erent +nglish9speaking areas o0 the world6 =p. x2i>. The largest nu3-er, ine2ita-ly, -elong to the 2oca-ularies o0 +nglish spoken in ?orth A3erica, 0or which ?:8+ has three la-els: D?. A3er.6 =i.e. ?orth A3erican>, D<A6 =i.e. <nited Atates>, and D7anadian6. The last two are presu3a-ly 0or cases where the restriction is 3ore li3ited, e.g. in the case o0 blue box: 1+ chie0ly +3 an electronic de2ice used to access long9distance telephone lines illegally. -+ chie0ly $anadian a -lue plastic -ox 0or the collection o0 recycla-le household 3aterials. A si3ilar la-elling is used 0or words speci0ic to Australian and ?ew Mealand +nglishes, where the 3aEority are 3arked DAustral..?M6 =e.g. mulloc4 Dru--ish, nonsense6>, -ecause they are shared -y -oth 2arieties, and so3e are 3arked separately, rather 3ore DAustral6 =e.g. gunyah D-ush hut6> than D?M6 =e.g. 4umara, Dsweet potato6>. There is no such con0usion a-out Aouth A0rican +nglish words =e.g. 4oppie Ds3all hill6>, though so3e are shared with other 2arieties, e.g. dingus =shared with D?. A3er6> Da thing one cannot or does not wish to na3e speci0ically6, dropper =shared with DAustral..?M6> Da light 2ertical sta2e in a 0ence6. 1ords or senses that are

exclusi2e to the 4ritish +nglish 2ariety are also appropriately 3arked =o2er ',$$$ in ?:8+>, e.g. fly9past, gobstopper, 4nac4er, linctus, nearside, pec4ish, scrapyard. 1hen it co3es to dialects within 4ritain, ?:8+.7:8*$ are less speci0ic. 1hile they ha2e a la-el DAcottish6 and D?=orthern> +nglish6 =o0ten occurring together 0or a word>, all other dialect words are 3arked si3ply as Ddialect6, except that one word =scally> is noted as ?=orth> 1=est> +nglish, and a hand0ul are la-elled D-lack +nglish6. L8+L and, 3ore especially, 7+8 ha2e -oth a greater ,age *** representation o0 4ritish +nglish dialect words and a 3ore di00erentiated la-elling. 7+8' notes in its Iuide: egional dialects =3cot/ and northern )nglish dialect, Midland dialect, etc/> ha2e -een speci0ied as precisely as possi-le, e2en at the risk o0 o2errestriction, in order to gi2e the reader an indication o0 the appropriate regional 0la2our. =7+8', p. xxi> Ao, chine, in the sense o0 Da deep 0issure in the wall o0 a cli006, is la-elled DAouthern +nglish dialect6H flash 3eaning Da pond, esp. as produced as a conseCuence o0 su-sidence6 is 3arked D@orkshire and Lancashire dialect6H maungy D=esp. o0 a child> sulky, -ad9te3pered or pee2ish6 is la-elled D1est @orkshire dialect6H snic4et Da passageway -etween walls or 0ences6 has the la-el D?orthern +nglish dialect6H and tump Da s3all 3ound or clu3p6 is 3arked D1estern +nglish dialect6. ".#.2 $ormality A nu3-er o0 words or senses are 3arked as D0or3al6 or Din0or3al6, though the latter la-el usually greatly outnu3-ers the 0or3er: in 7:8*$, 0or exa3ple, the Din0or3al6 la-el occurs o2er se2en ti3es 3ore 0reCuently than the D0or3al6 la-el. These ter3s relate to the 0or3ality o0 the context in which a word is dee3ed to -e appropriate. They are de0ined in the L8+L% Iuide as 0ollows: The la-el informal is used 0or words or 3eanings characteristic o0 con2ersation and casual writing =e.g. -etween 0riends and conte3poraries> rather than o0 o00icial or 0or3al speech or writing. The la-el formal is used 0or words or 3eanings which are characteristic o0 writing rather than speech =except 0or 0or3al speech situations, such as a lecture>, and particularly o0 o00icial, acade3ic, literary, or sel09i3portant writing. In other contexts, such words 3ay see3 o2er9 ela-orate or po3pous. =L8+L%, p. x2iii> The ter3 DcolloCuial6 is so3eti3es used instead o0 Din0or3al6 =e.g. in $hambers>. ;any dictionaries identi0y Dslang6 as a point 0urther down the 0or3ality scale, -ut we shall deal with slang under !.(.&. Here are so3e exa3ples o0 words 3arked as D0or3al6 and Din0or3al6 in 7:8*$ =you 3ay need

to look the3 up, i0 they are new to you>: W 0or3al abnegate, circumambulate, emolument, gustation, ;ocose, lucubration, normati,e, pinguid, sapient, theretofore, (heresoe,er W in0or3al baby boom, beanfeast, de44o, expat, gasbag, hay(ire, ;un4ie, lashings, man4y, nitty9 gritty, once9o,er, prang, ro==er, shambolic, to(nie, ,apour(are, (annabe, yon4s, =ilch.

,age **% In0or3al ter3s, since they are the staple o0 ordinary con2ersation, ha2e a tendency to dateH and you 3ay consider that so3e o0 the ter3s listed 3ight -elong to your parents6 or grandparents6 speech, -ut not to yours. ".#.3 Status 4y Dstatus6 we 3ean the propriety o0 the use o0 a word, e2en in ordinary con2ersation. <nder Dstatus6 we would include the ter3 Dta-oo6. A ta-oo is de0ined in 7:8*$ as Da social or religious custo3 placing prohi-ition or restriction on a particular thing or person6, while 7:8! also includes as a second sense Da prohi-ition or restriction i3posed on certain -eha2iour, word usage, etc., -y social custo36. A ta-oo word, there0ore, is one that you would not use in ordinary con2ersation, unless you wanted to shock. Auch ta-oo words would include: those connected with sexual and excretory 0unctions, -lasphe3ies, and other Dswear6 words. Howe2er, there is little le0t in our society that is ta-oo, and so 3odern dictionaries no longer use the la-elH 7+8' is an exception. ?ot e2en 7:8!, which 3entions the connection with Dword usage6 in its de0inition o0 taboo uses it as a la-el, pre0erring Dcoarse slang6 instead. In ?:8+ and 7:8*$, this has -eco3e D2ulgar slang6H L8+L% and $hambers use si3ply D2ulgar6. In the :x0ord dictionaries, then, the connection is 3ade with Dslang6, the other ter3 under this heading, and glossed -y 7+8' as 0ollows: .lang This re0ers to words or senses that are racy or extre3ely in0or3al. The appropriate contexts in which slang is used are restricted, 0or exa3ple, to 3e3-ers o0 a particular social group or those engaged in a particular acti2ity. Alang words are inappropriate in0or3al speech or writing. DAlang6 is, there0ore, not Eust D2ery in0or3al6H it i3plies a restriction -eyond si3ply the 0or3ality o0 the context o0 use, to de0ined social groups, and it includes a consideration o0 appropriacy. It -elongs with Dta-oo6. +2en 3ore so than with in0or3al words, the slang status o0 words 3ay change o2er a relati2ely short period o0 ti3e and Cuickly -eco3e dated. ?ot only that, -ut people6s tolerance o0 slang 2aries considera-ly, and it is no surprise that dictionaries di00er in their la-elling o0 such words. In 0act, 7:8*$ does not use the la-el Dslang6 on its own, unlike 7:8!, -ut only in conEunction with a preceding de0ining adEecti2e, such as Dnautical6, D3ilitary6, Dtheatrical6, D-lack6, as well as D2ulgar6. A nu3-er o0 the words 3arked as Dslang6 in 7:8! ha2e -eco3e Din0or3al6 in 7:8*$, e.g. acid =e LA8>, aggro, a(esome =e excellent>, banger =e sausage, old car>, dough =e 3oney>. Howe2er, those that are 3arked Dcoarse slang6 in 7:8! generally ha2e the la-el D2ulgar slang6 in 7:8*$, e.g. arse, crap, piss, turd, not to 3ention the

3any words 0or the 3ale and 0e3ale genitalia. Incidentally, though, fart is la-elled Dcoarse slang6 in 7:8!, -ut only Din0or3al6 in 7:8*$. ,age **& ".#.4 %ffect There is a set o0 usage la-els used in dictionaries that relate to the e00ect that a word or sense is intended -y the speaker or writer to produce in the hearer or reader. Any dictionary usually 3akes a selection 0ro3 these la-els. :ne set re0lects the attitude o0 the speaker and includes: Dderogatory6 =intending to -e disrespect0ul>, DpeEorati2e6 =intending to show conte3pt>, Dappreciati2e6 =intending to show a positi2e attitude>, Dhu3orous6 or DEocular6 =con2eying a light9 hearted attitude>. 7losely related is the ter3 Do00ensi2e6, which 3ay ha2e intent on the part o0 the speaker or 3ay -e unconscious, -ut which could -e taken -y a hearer as o00ensi2e, either racially or in so3e other way. :ther kinds o0 De00ect6 la-el include: Deuphe3istic6, i.e. using an o-liCue word to re0er to an unpleasant topicH Dliterary6 and Dpoetic6, i.e. words that tend to -e con0ined to literary texts or poetry and ha2e a Dliterary6 e00ect when they are used elsewhere. Here are so3e exa3ples: W derogatory banana republic, bimbo, cronyism, fat cat, lo(bro(, ne(fangled, psychobabble, slaphead, (oodentop =0ro3 7:8*$> W Eocular argy9bargy, bounder, doughty, funniosity, industrial9strength, leaderene, osculate, purloin, s:uare9eyed, (al4ies =0ro3 7:8!> W o00ensi2e bogtrotter =e Irish person>, cripple =e disa-led person>, mongrel =e person o0 3ixed parentage>, (og =e 0oreigner, especially non9white> =0ro3 7:8*$> W euphe3istic cloa4room =0or Dtoilet6>, ethnic cleansing =0or D0orced 3ass expulsion o0 a group o0 people 0ro3 an area6>, interfere (ith =0or Dsexually 3olest6>, passing =0or Ddeath6> =0ro3 7:8!> W literary apace, bestre(, connubial, fulgent, incarnadine, ne,ermore, plenteous, slumber, ,ainglory, (onted =0ro3 7:8*$>. +2en 3ore than with 0or3ality and status la-els, we would expect e00ect la-els to 2ary -etween dictionaries, since they reCuire a greater exercise o0 Eudge3ent on the part o0 the lexicographer and are 3ore likely to -e 2ariously percei2ed. ".#.& 'istory ;ost dictionaries include la-els 0or words or senses that are either no longer in current use or whose currency is Cuestiona-le or suspect. The ter3 Do-solete6 re0ers to words or senses that ha2e de0initely ceased to -e used. It is, o0 course, an i3portant ter3 in the :+8, -ut in dictionaries that purport to contain current 2oca-ulary, it is not o0ten used. L8+L% includes it, howe2er, with the gloss: The la-el obs =o-solete> 3eans there is no e2idence o0 use o0 a word or 3eaning since *")) =the date o0 pu-lication o0 Aa3uel Johnson6s A &ictionary of the )nglish Language>. This la-el is a co33ent on the word -eing de0ined, not on the thing it designates.

=p. x2ii> ,age **' For exa3ple, fay, 3eaning D0aith6 is 3arked Do-s6 in L8+L%H in A:+8' it is 3arked as Dlong archaic, rare6. 7+8' also clai3s to use the Do-solete6 la-el and notes that Din specialist or technical 0ields the la-el o0ten i3plies that the ter3 has -een superseded6 =p. xx>H it also uses the la-el Dold 0ashioned6 =e.g. o0 the Dillegiti3ate6 sense o0 bastard>, which it does not discuss in the DIuide6. ?:8+ and 7:8*$ use the la-els Ddated6, Darchaic6, and Dhistorical6 to 3ark words or senses no longer currentH and to these we 3ight add the la-el Drare6. These la-els are de0ined as 0ollows: Ddated6: no longer used -y the 3aEority o0 +nglish speakers, -ut still encountered, especially a3ong the older generation. Darchaic6: old90ashioned language, not in ordinary use today, though so3eti3es used to gi2e a deli-erately old90ashioned e00ect and also encountered in the literature o0 the past. Dhistorical6: still used today, -ut in re0erence to so3e practice or arte0act that is no longer part o0 the 3odern world. Drare6: not in nor3al use. The Dhistorical6 la-el 3arks not words as such -ut the things that they denote as -eing no longer current. It is not clear how Drare6 3ight di00er 0ro3 Darchaic6. ,erhaps so3e exa3ples =0ro3 7:8*$> will help to distinguish the3: W dated aeronaut, cobble =e repair, e.g. shoes>, gamp =e u3-rella>, ;erry =e cha3-er pot>, nec4tie, picture palace =e cine3a>, spiffing, (ireless =e radio> W archaic asunder, chapman, fandangle, guidepost, mayhap, poltroon, there(ithal, ,i=ard W historical appro,ed school, dolly tub, footpad, ;ongleur, margra,e, poc4et borough, safety lamp, tumbril, ,elocipede W rare argute =e shrewd>, comminatory =e threatening, 2enge0ul>, lustrate =e puri0y, e.g. -y sacri0ice>, toxophilite =e archer>, ,aticinate =e 0oretell 0uture>. ".#.# (opic or field 1here a word or sense is restricted to a, usually specialised or technical, 0ield o0 study or acti2ity, dictionaries generally add an appropriate la-el. Topics 3ay range 0ro3 the sciences, technologies and 3edicine, through the pro0essions such as law or -usiness, to sports and leisure pursuits. The la-el 3arks a word or sense as -elonging to the technical 2oca-ulary o0 the topic. Here are a 0ew exa3ples to illustrate the point, taken 0ro3 ?:8+: W handsha4ing co3puting < peri,entricular anato3y and 3edicine

< :uiddity philosophy < sopranino 3usic < top edge cricket

,age **) < (eather helm nautical < (hite hole astrono3y. ".#.) Disputed usage 8ictionaries regard one o0 their 0unctions as -eing to draw attention to words whose usage is a 3atter o0 contro2ersy, and perhaps to o00er an opinion 0or the linguistically insecure. The word or sense that is the su-Eect o0 dispute 3ay -e la-elled as such, e.g. Ddisp6 in 7:8!, as 0or decimate in the sense o0 Dkill or re3o2e a large proportion o06. ;ore o0ten, a dictionary will append a Dusage note6 to explain the nature o0 the dispute and pro00er ad2ice, e.g. in ?:8+, 0or disinterested: ?owhere are the -attle lines 3ore deeply drawn in usage Cuestions than o2er the di00erence -etween disinterested and uninterested. According to traditional guidelines, disinterested should ne2er -e used to 3ean Dnot interested6 =i.e. it is not a synony3 0or uninterested> -ut only to 3ean Di3partial6, as in the ;udgements of disinterested outsiders are li4ely to be more useful. Ironically, the earliest recorded sense o0 disinterested is 0or the disputed sense. Today, the Dincorrect6 use o0 disinterested is widespread: around %$ per cent o0 citations on the 4ritish ?ational 7orpus 0or disinterested are 0or this sense. 4esides usage notes, 7+8' also has a la-el Dnot standard6 to apply to appropriate ite3s, such as ain-t or (orser. L8+L% has the la-els Dnonstandard6 and Dsu-standard6 and distinguishes the3 as 0ollows: The la-el nonstandard is used 0or words or 3eanings that are Cuite co33only used -ut considered incorrect -y 3ost educated users o0 the language: lay K ,i K 1 nonstandard LI+ The la-el substandard is used 0or words or 3eanings used -y so3e speakers -ut not generally considered to -e part o0 standard +nglish: learn K ,b K - substandard to teach. =p. x2iii> This is a-out as prescripti2e as it gets. 7+8' la-els this sense o0 learn as Dnot standard6, and it pro2ides a usage note to discuss the di00erences -etween lay and lie. 4y co3parison, we 3ight note that $hambers la-els ain-t as Dcoll=oCuial>6 and the disputed usages o0 learn and lay as Dillit=erate>6.

A+4 5urther reading

For in0or3ation on how an indi2idual dictionary or edition deals with the topics discussed in this chapter the DIuide to the 8ictionary6 is the place to start. ,age **( 8ick Hudson6s article on DThe linguistic 0oundations 0or lexical research and dictionary design6 in the International .ournal of Lexicography =*!##> sur2eys the lexical in0or3ation that dictionaries should take account o0. 4o A2ensNn6s %ractical Lexicography =*!!&> has chapters on 3ost o0 the concerns o0 this chapter. Aidney Landau has a chapter on usage =7hapter )> in &ictionaries: the Art and $raft of Lexicography =*!#!, %$$*>. Juhani ?orri has two articles in I.L on la-elling: D egional la-els in so3e 4ritish and A3erican dictionaries6 =2ol. !, *!!(>, and DLa-elling o0 derogatory words in dictionaries6 =2ol. *&, %$$$>. ,age **"

10 6ty(ology
Aince the late se2enteenth century general9purpose nati2e speaker dictionaries ha2e included in0or3ation a-out the ety3ology o0 words =see '.&>. Indeed, co33on words were included in dictionaries initially 3erely 0or the sake o0 recording their ety3ologies. The ety3ology section o0 a dictionary entry ai3s to trace the history o0 a word =see %.*> to its ulti3ate source. 1here a word has co3e into existence as the result o0 a word 0or3ation process, e.g. deri2ation or co3pounding, then it is not usually gi2en an ety3ology, unless it is unclear what the ele3ents o0 the new word are and how they ha2e -een co3-ined. In general, there0ore, it is -ase =root> 0or3s that are gi2en ety3ologies. The DIntroduction6 to ?:8+ likens the tracing o0 ety3ologies to archaeology: the e2idence is o0ten partial or not there at all, and ety3ologists 3ust 3ake in0or3ed decisions using the e2idence a2aila-le, howe2er inadeCuate it 3ay -e. Fro3 ti3e to ti3e new e2idence -eco3es a2aila-le, and the known history o0 a word 3ay need to -e reconsidered. =p. xi2> 1e now consider 3any o0 the ety3ologies proposed -y eighteenth9century dictionaries to -e rather 0anci0ul, particularly in the light o0 nineteenth9 and twentieth9century scholarship. ;ost larger dictionaries ha2e an ety3ology consultant, and the :+8 continues to add to ety3ological scholarship -y its ongoing research into the histories o0 words. It is to the :+8 that 3ost dictionaries look as the pri3ary source 0or their ety3ological in0or3ation. To understand the discussion in this chapter, it will -e use0ul to keep in 3ind the outline history o0 +nglish, as expressed in the -asic periods o0 the language =Jackson and MN A32ela %$$$:%&00.>: 2 *ld )nglish ')$ =settle3ent -y Angles, Aaxons and Jutes> to *$(( =?or3an conCuest>

ety3ological dictionary: >6": ;+. carre, a. :?F. carre:9late L. carra, a parallel 0or3 to carrus, carrum =whence It., Ap. carro, ,r. car, char, :?F. car, F. char, ;+. $2AR>, a kind o0 %9wheeled wagon 0or transporting -urdens. The L. was a. :7elt. f4arr9os, f4arr9om, whence :Ir. =also 3od.Ir. and Iael.> carr 3asc. Dwagon, chariot,6 :1elsh carr, 1elsh cMr, ;anx carr, 4ret. 4ar. =Late L. carra also ga2e 1Ier. carra fem., in :HI. charra, Ier. 4arre, ;8u. carre, 8u. 4ar 0e3., Aw. 4arra, 8a. 4arre.> =?ote: ;+ e D;iddle +nglish6, :?F e D:ld ?orthern French6, late L e Dlate Latin6, ,r e D,ro2engal6, :7elt e D:ld 7eltic6, :Ir e D:ld Irish6, 3od.Ir e D3odern Irish6, Iael e DIaelic6, 4ret e D4reton6, 1Ier e D1est Ier3anic6, :HI e D:ld High Ier3an6, ;8u e D;iddle 8utch6, Aw e DAwedish6, 8a e D8anish6.> .>6": l3e. RA?, :?Fr. carre 0. ,roto9 o3ance 2ar. o0 L carrum neut., carrus 3asc., 0. 7elt. -ase repr. -y =:>Ir. carr, 1elsh carS =?ote: L;+ e DLate ;iddle +nglish6, A? e DAnglo9?or3an6, 0. e D0ro36, 2ar. e D2ariant6, repr. e Drepresented6.> C6": 7*': 0ro3 Anglo9French carre, ulti3ately related to Latin carra, carrum two9wheeled wagon, pro-a-ly o0 7eltic originH co3pare :ld Irish carr #>"6: late ;iddle +nglish =in the general sense Dwheeled 2ehicle6>: 0ro3 :ld ?orthern French carre, -ased on Latin carrum, carrus, o0 7eltic origin .E6)': =F. / 7.> ;.+. carre. / :.?orthF. carre, a car =8ucange, s.2. Marcellum>. / Late L. carra, 0.H allied to L. carrus, a carH o0 Iaulish origin. / 4ret. 4arr, a chariotH 1. car, :.Iael. cNr, Irish carr. Allied to L. currus, a chariotH 4rug3. i. \ )*(. ,age *%( =?ote: F e DFrench6, 7 e D7eltic6, s.2. e sub ,erbo Dunder the word6 =8ucange re0ers to D8ucange Anglicus6, Vulgar ongue, *#)">, 1 e D1elsh6, 4rug3 e D4rug3ann, Grundriss der ,ergleichenden Grammati4 =:utline o0 7o3parati2e Ira33ar>, *#!".> Fro3 these exa3ples, you can see how the ety3ology 2aries according to the type o0 dictionary and its intended user group. 4y and large, the historical dictionaries are ai3ed at scholars and students o0 the language, as indeed is the specialist ety3ological dictionary =Akeat>. The assu3ption o0 the general9purpose dictionaries is that, within their co3pass, a -asic set o0 in0or3ation a-out ety3ology is o0 interest to the ordinary dictionary user. It is this assu3ption that we will now exa3ine.

10+3 *hy ety(ology,

It could -e argued that ety3ology has no place in a general9purpose dictionary, and it should -e le0t to historical or specialist dictionaries. Learners6 dictionaries =7hapter **> do not contain ety3ological in0or3ation, though its exclusion 0ro3 these dictionaries has -een challenged =+lleghrd *!"#H Ilson *!#&>. :0 the three 7ollins dictionaries we looked at in 7hapter & =&.%>, the

s3allest, the %oc4et, does not contain ety3ologies, -ut the two larger ones do. It was only hal0 a century or so a0ter the 0irst 3onolingual +nglish dictionary that ety3ologies -egan to -e included in dictionaries =see 7hapter '>H so they ha2e a long pedigree. Hudson =*!##> / see 7hapter % =%.'> / includes ety3ology a3ong the Dlexical 0acts6 a-out words that dictionaries should pay attention to. 4ut there is little e2idence =7hapter "> that users routinely resort to a dictionary 0or this in0or3ation. Ao, is there any Eusti0ication 0or the inclusion o0 ety3ological in0or3ation in general9purpose dictionaries ai3ed at the ordinary user5 1e ha2e noted -e0ore =".'> that dictionaries ha2e a dou-le 0unction: as a record o0 the 2oca-ulary o0 the language, i.e. a lexical description, and as a re0erence work to 3eet the needs o0 users 0or in0or3ation a-out words and their usage. :n neither count is the inclusion o0 ety3ology uncontro2ersially o-2ious. As a record, a dictionary descri-es the conte3porary 2oca-ularyH it o3its o-solete words and 3eanings and 3arks as Darchaic6 those whose currency is -eginning to wane. As a re0erence work, a dictionary does not ha2e the space to gi2e a 0ull account o0 the ety3ology o0 words, such as 3ight -e 0ound in an historical dictionary, as we ha2e seen in *$.). ;oreo2er, the ety3ological in0or3ation is pro-a-ly the hardest o0 all the parts o0 a dictionary entry to decode, needing as it does so3e -ackground knowledge in history, and speci0ically in the history o0 languages. :therwise, what sense can anyone 3ake o0 ter3s like D:ld High Ier3an65 Aidney Landau expresses the opinion that Do0 all the ele3ents included in 3odern dictionaries, ety3ology has the least to do with the essential purpose o0 a synchronic dictionary6 =%$$*:*%">. +ty3ology does not 3ake a contri-ution to the description o0 the conte3porary 3eaning and usage o0 wordsH it 3ay help to illu3inate how things ha2e got to where they are now, -ut it is as likely to -e ,age *%" 3isleading as help0ul =as with the Dety3ological 0allacy6>. +ty3ology o00ers no ad2ice to one who consults a dictionary on the appropriate use o0 a word in the context o0 a written text or spoken discourse. It 3erely pro2ides so3e passing insight 0or the interested dictionary -rowser with the reCuisite -ackground knowledge and interpretati2e skills. :n this perspecti2e, Landau is right: ety3ology does not ha2e the sa3e status as other ele3ents o0 lexical description in a dictionary. +ty3ology could -e said to -e part o0 dictionary in0or3ation -y historical accident. The Dhard words6 tradition ='.%>, which started 3onolingual dictionaries in +nglish, included only words that had -een -orrowed, 3ostly 0ro3 the classical languages. It was only a short step to indicate syste3atically their language o0 origin, as indeed dictionaries had done to an extent 0ro3 the -eginning. 7o3-ined with the increasing interest in cultural and linguistic history that 0lourished during the eighteenth century, ety3ology -eca3e 0ir3ly esta-lished in the tradition o0 3onolingual dictionaries. 8ictionary 3aking does ha2e its own tradition, its own set o0 principles and con2entions, which are to a large extent independent o0 those associated with other -ranches o0 linguistic scholarship. It is only recently, in the last Cuarter o0 the twentieth century, that the discipline o0 linguistics has exercised any 3aEor in0luence on the processes o0 dictionary 3aking. :n this perspecti2e, it is not surprising that ety3ology continues to -e an ele3ent o0 the in0or3ation gi2en 0or words, at least in the larger general9purpose dictionaries.

adical departures 0ro3 the expected content and 0or3at o0 dictionaries are undertaken reluctantly -y pu-lishers: purchaser expectations ha2e to -e 3et. There is, perhaps, one 0urther and sounder reason 0or the inclusion o0 ety3ological in0or3ation in 3onolingual dictionaries o0 +nglish at least. It arises 0ro3 the nature o0 the +nglish 2oca-ulary, which we ha2e co33ented on in 7hapter % and explored in the earlier part o0 the present chapter. The sources o0 +nglish words are so di2erse, with such a s3all proportion -eing Doriginal6 Anglo9Aaxon, and so 3any -eing D-orrowed6 0ro3 a range o0 other languages, that there would see3 to -e so3e Eusti0ication 0or pro2iding in0or3ation at least a-out the i33ediate origin o0 a word. In this way, the users o0 the language can see how their 2oca-ulary has -een constituted. It is a 3eans o0 cele-rating the di2ersity o0 the +nglish lexicon, and it should guard against any te3ptation to linguistic xenopho-ia or notions o0 linguistic purity.

10+4 5urther reading

The DIuide to <sing the 8ictionary6 in a dictionary6s 0ront 3atter will contain -rie0 in0or3ation on how to interpret the ety3ology in the work concerned. 8onna Lee 4erg6s A Guide to the *xford )nglish &ictionary =*!!&> contains a section =pp. %%00 > on the :+86s ety3ology. 4ar-ara Fip0er6s Wor4boo4 on Lexicography =*!#'> contains a chapter =*%> on ety3ology, as does 8a2id 7rystal6s he $ambridge )ncyclopedia of the )nglish Language =*!!)>, though 3uch o0 it is a-out place and personal na3es. Landau ,age *%# =%$$*> o00ers a perspecti2e on ety3ology in dictionaries =pp. *%"/&'>, as does A2ensNn =*!!&>, 7hapter *). A specialist ety3ological dictionary is a 0urther source 0or 0ollowing up on the topic o0 this chapter. ,age *%!

11 "ictionaries !or learners

1e introduced the 0our 3aEor 4ritish learners6 dictionaries in (.( and noted in &.% that such dictionaries ha2e -een at the 0ore0ront o0 lexicographical inno2ation in the last hal09century. In this chapter, we exa3ine this dictionary type in so3e detail and show how they ha2e -een de2eloped to 3eet the percei2ed needs o0 learners o0 +nglish as a second or 0oreign language. Auch dictionaries are ai3ed at the inter3ediate to ad2anced learner. They are -ased on the o-ser2ation that, as learners -eco3e 3ore pro0icient, they need to 3o2e 0ro3 a -ilingual dictionary as their lexical re0erence source to a 3onolingual dictionary. ;onolingual learners6 dictionaries =;L8s> ha2e there0ore atte3pted to 0ul0il this need -y pro2iding in0or3ation a-out the 3eaning and use o0 +nglish words that in 3any respects goes well -eyond that o00ered in -ilingual dictionaries.

11+1 ?ise o! the (onolingual learners& dictionaries

The genesis o0 the learner6s dictionary lies in the endea2ours, during the interwar years, o0 three teachers o0 +nglish as a 0oreign language, two o0 who3 worked in Japan =H.+. ,al3er and A.A. Horn-y> and the other in India =;ichael 1est>. ?ot only did they atte3pt to i3pro2e the standard o0 language teaching in their respecti2e areas, they also -eca3e in2ol2ed in research proEects that had a -earing on the task o0 teaching +nglish. ;ichael 1est -eca3e a leading contri-utor to the D2oca-ulary control6 3o2e3ent =;cArthur *!!#, 7h. )>, which sought to identi0y the essential 2oca-ulary that would lead to a 3ore rapid co3petence in the language =1est *!)&H 1est and +ndicott *!&)>. Harold ,al3er worked on the gra33atical patterning o0 words, especially 2er-s =,al3er *!&#>, as later did Horn-y =*!)'>. ,al3er and Horn-y also in2estigated collocations and idio3s, which 0ed into the 0irst general9purpose learner6s dictionary, the Idiomatic and 3yntactic &ictionary of )nglish =Horn-y et al/ *!'%>. The Idiomatic and 3yntactic &ictionary was pu-lished in Japan, 0ro3 where Horn-y was repatriated in *!'*. A0ter the war, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress -eca3e interested in the dictionary and they repu-lished it in *!'# with the title A Learner-s &ictionary of $urrent )nglish, changed in *!)% to he Ad,anced Learner-s &ictionary of $urrent )nglish. *xford replaced he in the title 0ro3 the third =*!"'> edition onwards, and it is now known -y the initialis3 D:AL86. <ntil ,age *&$ its third edition, the :AL8 had the ad2anced learners6 dictionary 3arket to itsel0. It sold proli0ically, the 0irst two editions alone had sales o0 " 3illion copies =He-ert *!"'>. To illustrate the ai3s o0 the :AL8, peruse the 0ollowing entries 0or the 2er- confide and the noun confidence:

con2!ide.k ns. n 1 R<S =act o0 > con0iding in or to. in strict F, expecting sth to -e kept secret: I-m telling you this in strict I. take a person into one&s F, tell hi3 one6s secrets, etc. iF (anDtrickster, one who swindles people in this way. - R7S secret which is con0ided to s-: he t(o girls sat in a corner exchanging Is about the young men they 4ne(. 3 R<S -elie0 in onesel0 or others or in what is said, reported, etc.H -elie0 that one is right or that one is a-le to do sth: to ha,eOlose I in sbH to put littleOcompleteOno I in sbO sthH &on-t put too much I in (hat the ne(spapers say/ here is a lac4 of I in the go,ernment, ,eople do not 0eel that its policies are wise. I hope he (ill ;ustify my I in himOmy I that he (ill do (ell/ he prisoner ans(ered the :uestions (ith I. @ou will notice: in0or3ation a-out gra33atical patterning, -oth in 0or3ulae =] sth.s- to s- / i.e. Dcon0ide so3ething.so3e-ody to so3e-ody6> and in coding =J, e D2er- pattern6, < e Duncounta-le6, 7 e Dcounta-le6>H extensi2e use o0 exa3ples, -oth to illustrate gra33atical patterning and to indicate typical collocation =to put little.complete.no I in K>H inclusion o0 set phrases =in strict ]>H 0airly -rie0 de0initions, -ut explanation o0 exa3ples where needed = he girl is of a confiding nature, ready to trust others K>. The exa3ples are 3ostly in2ented 0or the

recognise at least the 3ore co33on patterns, -ut the pattern nu3-ers were not suggesti2e o0 the pattern itsel0. L8:7+ introduced a coding that was uni0or3 0or 2er-s, adEecti2es and nouns, consisting o0 a letter plus a 0igure. The letter was 3ne3onic where this was possi-le: DT6 stood 0or Dtransiti2e6, DI6 0or Dintransiti2e6. The 0igure stood 0or di00erent types o0 co3ple3ent and the like: Dj6 stood 0or DGero6 =so, DIj6 indicated a genuinely intransiti2e patternH D*6 stood 0or Dnoun =phrase> or pronoun6, D(6 0or Dthat9clause6, and so on. A ta-le o0 codes was included in the inside -ack co2er 0or easy re0erence. The ai3 was to help the learner understand the coding -y 3aking it 3ore suggesti2e and accessi-le. esearch on user -eha2iour =e.g. 4NEoint *!#*> indicated, howe2er, that 0ew students 3ade use o0, or e2en understood, the coding sche3es in their dictionaries, pre0erring to glean gra33atical in0or3ation 0ro3 the exa3ples. As the second edition o0 L8:7+ was pu-lished nine years later, in *!#", a third ;L8 appeared on the 3arket, with 3any signi0icant inno2ations: $ollins $*#+IL& )nglish &ictionary. The 7:4<IL8 proEect was instigated -y John Ainclair, the ,ro0essor o0 +nglish Language at the <ni2ersity o0 4ir3ingha3, with the sponsorship o0 the Ilasgow9-ased pu-lisher 1illia3 7ollins and Aons Ltd. The ai3 was to co3pile a learners6 dictionary on the -asis o0 a co3puter corpus o0 texts / the 7ollins =7:>.4ir3ingha3 <ni2ersity =4<> International Language 8ata-ase =IL8>. The corpus a2aila-le to the lexicographers o0 the 0irst edition o0 7:4<IL8 a3ounted to ".& 3illion words o0 text, with an additional *& 3illion words in a Dreser2e6 corpus. Aince rena3ed DThe 4ank o0 +nglish6, the corpus now runs to o2er '$$ 3illion words. The use o0 a large corpus not only allowed the lexicographers to ascertain relia-le in0or3ation a-out the relati2e 0reCuency o0 occurrence o0 words and senses, -ut 3ore i3portantly to o-tain data, in the 0or3 o0 concordances, 0or deciding on the senses and 3eanings o0 words. The use o0 a corpus was not only new, it was re2olutionary: all ;L8s and 3ost ?A8s now clai3 to 3ake use o0 corpus techniCues in the co3pilation o0 their dictionaries. 7:4<IL8 was not Eust the 0irst dictionary to -e -ased on a co3puter corpusH it inno2ated in a nu3-er o0 other ways as well. First, all the de0initions are co3plete sentencesH they are intended to sound like the teacher explaining the 3eaning in the classroo3, and they gi2e so3e idea o0 typical contexts, e.g. ;oyride I0 so3eone goes on a ;oyride, they steal a car and dri2e around in it at high speed. ,age *&% ;u4ebox A ;u4ebox is a record player in a place such as a pu- or a -ar. @ou put a coin in and choose the record you want to hear. ;un4 @ou can use ;un4 to re0er to old and second9hand goods that people -uy and collect. Aecond, all the exa3ples are 0ro3 the corpus / Dreal +nglish6 / so3eti3es with 3inor adaptation or truncation. Third, the gra33atical in0or3ation is not included in the 3ain entry, -ut pro2ided in an Dextra colu3n6, to the right o0 the 3ain colu3nH this colu3n also includes in0or3ation a-out synony3s and antony3s. Fourth, there is only one entry per spelling, and senses are listed in 0reCuency orderH all in0lections are gi2en, whether regular or irregular. +ach sense -egins a new paragraph, and nearly all senses ha2e at least one exa3ple. The last ;L8 to enter the 3arket did so in *!!), the Dyear o0 the dictionaries6, in which :AL8

pu-lished its 0i0th edition, L8:7+ its third and 7:4<IL8 its second. The new dictionary was the $ambridge International &ictionary of )nglish, edited -y ,aul ,roctor, who had -een responsi-le 0or the 0irst edition o0 L8:7+. 7I8+ took the opposite decision on headwords to 7:4<IL8: each 3aEor sense has a separate entry, 0ollowed where appropriate -y a Dguide word6 to the 3eaningH 0or exa3ple ;ob has six entries: job e3ploy3ent, job piece o0 work, job duty, job pro-le3, job exa3ple, job cri3e. +2ery gra33atical pattern is illustrated -y an exa3ple, and exa3ples also show typical collocations. Indeed the dictionary pays a lot o0 attention to the phraseological potential o0 words, and it includes an extensi2e D,hrase Index6, in which phrases are entered under all o0 their constituents, each o0 which has a re0erence to the page, colu3n and line nu3-er where it is treated in the dictionary. The DInternational6 in the title is Eusti0ied on the one hand -y its treat3ent o0 A3erican and Australian, as well as 4ritish +nglish, and on the other -y its ta-les o0 D0alse 0riends6 0or so3e sixteen languages, including Japanese, Forean and Thai. The latter deri2e 0ro3 an analysis o0 the 7a3-ridge Learner 7orpus, a corpus o0 learners6 +nglishH the 3ain dictionary is -ased on the *$$ 3illion9word 7a3-ridge Language Aur2ey corpus. The +FL 3arket is a lucrati2e one 0or pu-lishers, and an ad2anced ;L8 is only one pu-lication a3ong 3any, including course -ooks, gra33ars, readers and so on, which ser2e the needs o0 learners and their teachers. The co3petition has -een an incenti2e to i3pro2e and inno2ate, and as successi2e editions ha2e appeared, a clear de2elop3ent can -e percei2ed. ;oreo2er, ;L8 lexicography has -een extensi2ely de-ated -oth -y practising lexicographers =e.g. undell *!!#> and -y acade3ics =e.g. Her-st and ,opp *!!!>, with increasing attention -eing paid to the needs o0 learners and the re0erence skills that they can -e expected to possess.

11+- Learners& decoding needs

:ne o0 the 3aEor di00erences -etween ?A8s and ;L8s is that the latter take into account users6 encoding needs =in writing and speaking> to an extent that ,age *&& ?A8s do not =see **.&>. <sers o0 ;L8s ha2e the sa3e decoding needs that ?A8 users ha2e / looking up the 3eaning o0 un0a3iliar words or senses / and 3ay experience 3ore di00iculty in locating the in0or3ation, as well as in understanding the de0initions once the appropriate one has -een 0ound. 1e will discuss solutions to these two potential pro-le3s. A dictionary look9up 0or decoding usually in2ol2es 0inding the appropriate sense o0 a word that has -een encountered in writing and that cannot -e interpreted 0ro3 its context. In this case, the user knows the spelling o0 the wordH -ut i0 a word has -een heard -ut not seen, there 3ay -e a di00iculty in relating sound to spelling and so locating the word in the dictionary. To address this particular need, L8:7+% =*!#"> included a la3inated card with a list o0 sound9spelling correspondences on one side =the other side contained a ta-le o0 the gra33ar codes>. In 3ost cases, howe2er, the user will ha2e the orthographic 0or3 0or looking up. The di00iculty that is then likely to arise relates to identi0ying the appropriate sense o0 words with 3ultiple sensesH the 3ore co33on the word, the larger the nu3-er o0 senses it 3ay ha2e. To 0acilitate the learner6s look9up in such cases, a nu3-er o0 the ;L8s ha2e atte3pted to pro2ide easier access to sense di00erentiation. 1e ha2e noted already the 7I8+ inno2ation o0 3ultiple headwords 0or a lexe3e, acco3panied -y a Dguideword6. L8:7+& and :AL8( also o00er si3ilar solutions under the one

headword, e.g. 0or the lexe3e stamp: C<"6: sta(p letter, sta(p 0oot, sta(p 3ark, sta(p Cuality. L">C63: sta(p1 n * ;AIL, % T::L, & the sta3p o0 sth, ' ,A@;+?T, ) TAQ, ( I? A AH:,, " a 3an.wo3an o0 his.her sta3pH sta(p- , * F::T, % sta3p your 0oot, & sta3p your 0eet, ' ;AF+ A ;A F, ) sta3p on s-.sth, ( AFF+7T A4.ATH, " sta3p s- as sth, # ;AIL. >)L"3 : sta(p noun :? L+TT+ .,A7FAI+ *, , I?TI?I T::L %, , I?T+8 8+AII?. 1: 8A &, , ::F :F ,A@;+?T ', 7HA A7T+ .P<ALIT@ ), (, :F F::T "H ,erb F::T *, 1ALF %, , I?T 8+AII?.1: 8A &, AH:1 F++LI?I.P<ALIT@ ', ), :? L+TT+ .,A7FAI+ (, 7<T :<T :4J+7T ". The ai3 is that the user should -e a-le to glance down the entry and Cuickly 0ind the sense rele2ant to their look9up -y relating the guideword to the context in which the word -eing looked up is situated. The other pro-le3 identi0ied in relation to decoding concerns understanding the de0inition that is encountered. 1e noted earlier that L8:7+ inno2ated with a speci0ied restricted de0ining 2oca-ulary, though it 3ust -e said that the original :AL8 co3pilers were also aware o0 the need to de0ine within the supposed 2oca-ulary o0 the users. The current editions o0 L8:7+, :AL8 and 7I8+ all ha2e a speci0ied de0ining 2oca-ulary, which is listed in an appendix to the dictionary. 7:4<IL86s solution is to de0ine using 0ull sentences, a practice that is used in so3e instances -y the other ;L8s. 7o3pare the de0initions 0or the noun 4nuc4le: ,age *&' >)L"3: any o0 the Eoints in the 0ingers, especially those connecting the 0ingers with the rest o0 the hand / picture at 4:8@ L">C63: the Eoints in your 0ingers including the ones where your 0ingers Eoin your hands C>8;<L"3: @our knuckles are the rounded pieces o0 -one that 0or3 lu3ps on your hands where your 0ingers Eoin your hands, and where your 0ingers -end. C<"6: one o0 the Eoints o0 the 0ingers, esp. -etween the hand and the 0ingers K ,I7 8ody. @ou will notice that two o0 the dictionaries re0er the user to an illustration =picture>H L8:7+ also contains pictures, though 7:4<IL8 does not. The pictures are usually line drawings dispersed throughout the text, though L8:7+& and :AL8( also contain 0ull9page colour plates. ,ictures supple3ent the 2er-al de0initions, especially 0or nouns with a concrete re0erence, and they are o0ten grouped =e.g. under D-ody6> so that the ter3s 0or a lexical 0ield are displayed together. ?ow consider the de0initions 0or the 2er- smear: >)L"3: to spread an :IL@ or so0t su-stance o2er a sur0ace in a rough or careless way L">C63: to spread a liCuid or so0t su-stance o2er a sur0ace, especially carelessly or untidily

C>8;<L"3: I0 you s(ear a sur0ace with an oily or sticky su-stance or s(ear the su-stance onto the sur0ace, you spread a layer o0 the su-stance o2er the sur0ace. C<"6: to spread =a thick liCuid or a so0t sticky su-stance> o2er a sur0ace. All the de0initions ha2e the essential co3ponents o0 Dspread6, DliCuid.so0t su-stance6 Do2er sur0ace6H :AL8( and L8:7+& also include a co3ponent o0 Dcarelessly6. ?ote the capital letters 0or oily in the :AL8( de0inition, -ecause it is not in its de0ining 2oca-ularyH 7:4<IL8 has no such restriction on using it. ?ote, too, the use o0 -rackets in the 7I8+ de0inition, in the con2entional 3anner, 0or indicating typical collocations, in this case as o-Eect o0 the 2er-. The 7:4<IL8& de0inition is rather cu3-erso3e -ecause it is also indicating the typical patterns 0or the 2er- =smear a sur0ace (ith a su-stance.smear a su-stance on a sur0ace>, which are indicated separately in the other dictionaries, either in 0or3ulae =] sth on.o2er sth d ] sth with sth / :AL8(> or in exa3ples =K smeared the (alls of their cells wit! excrement / 7I8+>. Let us now exa3ine the de0initions 0or the a-stract adEecti2e ,ersatile: >)L"3: =appro,ing> 1 =o0 a person> a-le to do 3any di00erent things. - =o0 0ood, a -uilding, etc.> ha2ing 3any di00erent uses ,age *&) L">C63: appro,ing 1 good at doing a lot o0 di00erent things and a-le to learn new skills Cuickly and easily. - ha2ing 3any di00erent uses C>8;<L"3: 1 I0 you say that a person is $ersatile, you appro2e o0 the3 -ecause they ha2e 3any di00erent skills. - A tool, 3achine, or 3aterial that is $ersatile can -e used 0or 3any di00erent purposes. C<"6: a-le to change easily 0ro3 one acti2ity to another or a-le to -e used 0or 3any di00erent purposes. All apart 0ro3 7I8+ separate out the use o0 ,ersatile to re0er to people as against things, though L8:7+ is not as explicit as :AL8 and 7:4<IL8. Howe2er, all 0our dictionaries contain exa3ples that 3ake the distinction clear, though the range o0 Dthings6 to which ,ersatile 3ay -e applied is not clearly stated: :AL8 suggests D0ood6 and D-uildings6, while 7:4<IL8 speci0ically 3entions Dtool6, D3achine6 and D3aterial6. :AL8 and L8:7+ ha2e the attitudinal la-el Dappro2ing6, which is incorporated into the de0inition in 7:4<IL8 and not 3entioned in 7I8+. This, together with the preceding sets o0 de0initions, gi2es so3e i3pression o0 how success0ul ;L8s ha2e -een in 3aking de0initions understanda-le to their learner9users.

11+3 Learners& encoding needs

For decoding a learner is as likely to consult a -ilingual dictionary, -ut 0or encoding the ;L8 will pro2e to -e a 3ore co3prehensi2e and relia-le source o0 in0or3ation. ;L8s ha2e 3ade it their -usiness to pro2ide extensi2ely 0or their users6 encoding reCuire3ents, especially in writing. There are two 3ain ways in which they ha2e done this, together with so3e 3ore 3inor additional in0or3ation.

The 0irst way has -een to pro2ide co3prehensi2e gra33atical in0or3ation =c0. 4ogaards and 2an der Floot %$$*>, so that users can construct syntactically natural sentences in +nglish. For nouns, this essentially 3eans recording the distinction -etween Dcounta-le6 and Duncounta-le6 usesH the a--re2iations D76 and D<6, used -y Horn-y et al/ in :AL8*, ha2e -eco3e co33on sy3-ols 0or this distinction. For adEecti2es, the in0lectional possi-ilities need to -e indicated =i.e. whether an adEecti2e is grada-le or not>, as well as any restrictions on the syntactic positioning o0 adEecti2es =e.g. attri-uti2e only or predicati2e only>. 7o3pare the entries 0or mere: >)L"3: Ronly -e0ore nounS =superlati,e (erest, no comparati,e> L">C63: Ronly -e0ore noun, no co3parati2eS C>8;<L"3: (erest %ere does not ha2e a co3parati2e 0or3. The superlati2e 0or3 (erest is used to e3phasiGe how s3all so3ething is, rather than in co3parisons. A8Jn C<"6: Rnot grada-leS ,age *&( 7:4<IL8 has the 3ost extensi2e and explicit explanationH DA8Jn6 =in the +xtra 7olu3n> indicates that mere is restricted to attri-uti2e position, signalled -y Donly -e0ore noun6 in :AL8 and L8:7+. 7I8+ is the least in0or3ati2eH it does, howe2er, ha2e a separate entry 0or merest, and all its exa3ples show attri-uti2e use only. The 3ost i3portant gra33atical in0or3ation 0or encoding is gi2en 0or 2er-s, since they are the pi2otal ele3ent o0 sentences and to a large extent deter3ine the syntax o0 the clause or sentence in which they occur =Jackson %$$%>. This is the area that Horn-y and his colleagues paid particular attention to 0ro3 the -eginning o0 the de2elop3ent o0 the learner6s dictionary. The crucial Cuestion is how to display this in0or3ation. The initial solution =:AL8*, :AL8%> was -y 3eans o0 coding, supported -y exa3plesH these were in turn supple3ented -y 0or3ulae =:AL8&> / co3pare the entries 0or propose 0ro3 :AL8% and :AL8&: >)L"-: v.t. * i. 1. =J, *, %, **, *"4> o00er or put 0orward 0or consideration, as a suggestion, plan, or purpose: I I an early start 7to start early, that (e should start early, starting early8/ We I lea,ing at noon/ he motion (as Id by Mr P and seconded by Mr Q. F a toast Gsb+&s healthH, ask persons to drink s-.6s health or happiness. -+ =J, *, %*> o00er 3arriage =to s-.>: &id he I 7marriage8 to you5 3+ put 0orward =s-.6s na3e> = for an o00ice, for 3e3-ership o0 a clu-, etc.>: I I Mr 3mith for chairman/ Will you please I me for your club5 >)L"3: ,t, ,i 1 RJ,(A,8,"A,!S o00er or put 0orward 0or consideration, as a suggestion, plan or purpose: I I starting earlyOan early startOto start earlyO that (e should start early/ We I lea,ing at noon/ he motion (as Id by Mr P and seconded by Mr Q. F a toastDsb&s health, ask persons to drink s-6s health or happiness. - RJ,(A,%AS F G(arriageH Gto sbH, o00er 3arriage. 3 RJ,*'S F sb G!or sthH, put 0orward =s-6s na3e> 0or an o00ice.0or 3e3-ership o0 a clu-.etc: I I Mr 3mith for chairman/ Will you please I me for your club5 The Jer- ,atterns were dropped 0ro3 :AL8 a0ter the third edition. In the latest =sixth> edition, the 0or3ulae are linked to exa3ples, so that coding and exe3pli0ication work together:

>)L"3: ,erb A<II+AT ,LA? 1 = formal> to suggest a plan, an idea, etc. 0or people to think a-out and decide on: RJ?S he go,ernment proposed changes to the ,oting system/

RJthatS 3he proposed that the boo4 be banned.

RJ?thatS +t was proposed t!at the president be

elected for a period of t(o years. RJ?toin0S +t was proposed to pay the money from public funds. H+L, This pattern is only used in the passi2e. ,age *&" I?T+?8 - to intend to do sth: RJtoin0 S What do you propose to do no(R RJBingS 2o( do you propose getting homeR ;A IAI+ 3 F GsthH Gto sbH to ask s- to 3arry you: RJS 2e (as afraid that if he proposed she might refuse. 3he proposed to meS RJ?S to propose marriage. AT F: ;AL ;++TI?I 0 RJ?S F sth| F sb G!orDas sthH to suggest sth at a 0or3al 3eeting and ask people to 2ote on it: I propose om )llis for chairman. to propose a motion =e to -e the 3ain speaker in support o0 an idea at a 0or3al de-ate> / co3pare :,,:A+, A+7:?8 A<II+AT +Q,LA?ATI:? 1 RJ?S = formal> to suggest an explanation o0 sth 0or people to consider .C# , :,:<?8: 3he proposed a possible solution to the mystery. <"% propose a toast Gto sbH | propose sb&s health to ask people to wish s- health, happiness and success -y raising their glasses and drinking: I-d li4e to propose a toast to the bride and groom. @ou can see the whole 2ariety o0 3eans in this entry -y which gra33atical and other pattern in0or3ation is -eing co33unicated: 0or3ulae =RJthatS, F sb G!orDas sthH>, exa3ples =3he proposed that the boo4 be banned>, and phrases =propose a (otion>. 7oding and exa3ples work together in an e2en 3ore integrated 3anner in 7I8+: propose =o-E> A<II+AT 2 to o00er or state =a possi-le plan or action> 0or other people to consider W I propose t!at (e (ait until the budget has been announced before committing

oursel,es to any expenditure. RL that clauseS 2e proposed dealing directly (ith the suppliers. RL 29ingS 3he proposed a boycott of the meeting. RTS W 2e proposed a (otion that the chairman resign. RTS W To propose so3eone is to suggest the3 0or a position or 0or 3e3-ership o0 an organiGation: o be nominated for union president you need one person to propose you and another to second you. RTS W I0 you propose =to a person> you ask so3eone to 3arry you: I remember the night your father proposed to me. RIS o 3he felt sure he (as going to propose. RIS The coding 0or3ulae are contained in sCuare -rackets at the end o0 the exa3ples, and the exa3ple sentences contain -old ite3s that also indicate gra33atical patterning. In 7:4<IL8, as indicated earlier, the whole9sentence de0initions contri-ute towards identi0ying the gra33atical patterns in which the word typically occurs with the sense -eing de0ined. Additionally, the +xtra 7olu3n contains 3ore explicit coding 0or the syntactic operation o0 words, e.g. 0or propose, J n.9ing, J that, J to9in0, J to n, J, J n to n. The second 3ain way in which ;L8s pro2ide encoding in0or3ation 0or learners is in respect o0 lexical patterning, speci0ically collocations, idio3s, and other types o0 phraseology. In 7:4<IL8, the de0initions again ha2e the task o0 ,age *&# indicating typical collocational patterns. 7onsider the 0ollowing de0initions 0or propose and proposition: I0 you propose a theory or explanation, you state that it is possi-ly or pro-a-ly true, -ecause it 0its in with the e2idence that you ha2e considered. I0 you descri-e so3ething such as a task or an acti2ity as, 0or exa3ple, a di00icult proposition or an attracti2e proposition, you 3ean that it is di00icult or pleasant to do. In the case o0 the propose de0inition, it indicates that the su-Eect o0 propose is a person =-y the use o0 you>, and that the o-Eect is either the words theory or explanation, or so3ething that counts as either o0 these. In the case o0 the proposition de0inition, the adEecti2es difficult and attracti,e are indicated as typical collocates 0or this sense o0 the noun. In 7I8+, collocations can -e indicated in the con2entional way -y 3eans o0 -rackets =see the entry 0or propose a-o2e>, -ut 3ore usually -y using -old type in the exa3ples, e.g. 0or malaise: They clai3 it is a sy(pto( o! a deeper and 3ore general 3alaise in society. W They spoke o0 the 0eeling o0 3oral and spiritual 3alaise, the lack o0 will to do anything. W They were discussing the roots o0 the current econo(ic 3alaise. These exa3ples show that typical adEecti2es acco3panying malaise include deep, general, spiritual and economic, and that it enters into the phrase a symptom of K malaise. :AL8( has a Dstudy page6 on collocationsH it, too, relies on the exa3ples to indicate typical collocations. For malaise it has: econo3ic.0inancial.social 3alaise, a serious 3alaise a3ong the sta00 For sample, the exa3ples are:

The inter2iews were gi2en to a rando( sa(ple o0 students. The sur2ey co2ers a representati$e sa(ple o0 schools. a sa3ple sur2ey. a -lood sa3ple. Aa3ples o0 the water contained pesticide. DI6d like to see a sa3ple o0 your work,6 said the 3anager. a !ree sa(ple o0 sha3poo. sa3ple exa3 papers. The ite3s in -old type represent Di3portant collocations6. L8:7+ shows collocations =and 0ixed phrases> in -old type within an entry, 0ollowed -y an explanation or exa3ple, or -oth. In the entry 0or door, 0or exa3ple, the 0ollowing are gi2en: open.close.shut.sla3 the door, knock on.at the door, kitchen.-athroo3. -edroo3 etc door, 0ront. -ack.side door, re2ol2ing.sliding.swing doors, ,age *&! at the door, answer the door, show.see s- to the door, two.three doors down etc, =0ro3> door to door, out o0 doors, -ehind closed doors, show s- the door, lay sth at s-6s door, -e on the door, an open door policy, open doors 0or s-, open the door to, shut.close the door on, at death6s door. ;L8s take -oth gra33atical and lexical patterning seriously and they ha2e co3e a long way in their treat3ent o0 these areas since Horn-y and his colleagues identi0ied the3 as the 3aEor encoding needs o0 learners o0 +nglish. Learners6 encoding needs are taken account o0 -y two 0urther types o0 in0or3ation pro2ided -y ;L8s. The 0irst o0 these is the explicit indication o0 sense relations =%.&.&> such as synony3y and antony3y. 7:4<IL8 has -een especially proli0ic with this kind o0 in0or3ation, though 3ore so in the 0irst edition than in the later onesH the 0irst included in0or3ation on hypony3y, not su-seCuently included. In 7:4<IL8 the in0or3ation on sense relations is gi2en in the +xtra 7olu3n -y 3eans o0 the sy3-ols De6 =0or synony3s> and Dk6 =0or antony3s>. For exa3ple, hea,y as in a hea,y meal is 3arked in 7:4<IL8& with De 0illing6, Dk light6H and as in the air is hea,y, it is 3arked with De oppressi2e6, Dk cool, 0resh6. :AL8( 3arks synony3s with .C# and antony3s with > , e.g. impute has .C# ATT I4<T+, and left9(inger has > IIHT9 1I?I+ H -ut :AL8( is 3ore sparing with this in0or3ation than 7:4<IL8. The second additional type o0 encoding in0or3ation co3es in the 0or3 o0 usage notes o0 2arious kinds. Ao3e o0 this is in the 0or3 o0 la-elling, as in ?A8s, though so3eti3es with a little 2ariation, e.g. :AL8( has the sy3-ol o0 an excla3ation 3ark in a triangle to warn users that the word or sense is slang or ta-oo. 7:4<IL8% has the ter3 , AI;ATI7A in the +xtra 7olu3n to show that usage in0or3ation is shown within the de0initionH in 7:4<IL8& the de0inition no longer contains this in0or3ation and a speci0ic la-el such as Ddisappro2al6 or Din0or3al6 has -een su-stituted 0or , AI;ATI7A in the +xtra 7olu3n. The other dictionaries ha2e Dusage notes6 =L8:7+> o0 2arious kinds, as well as 3ore extensi2e discussion on Dstudy pages6 =:AL8(> or in Dlanguage portraits6 =7I8+>. :AL8(, 0or exa3ple, has scattered through the dictionary -oxed ite3s entitled DJoca-ulary 4uilding6 =e.g. ways o0 saying approximately>, D1hich 1ord56 =e.g. as.like>, D4ritish.A3erican6 =e.g. already.Eust.yet>, DIra33ar ,oint6 =e.g. a2enge.re2enge>, D1ord Fa3ily6 =e.g. clear / clarity / clari0y>, D;ore A-out6 =e.g. o0 course>. There is a recognition that learners need a range o0 in0or3ation a-out words / gra33atical, se3antic and prag3atic / in order to -e a-le to construct accurate and appropriate sentences in the target language.

11+0 )dditional in!or(ation

Ao3e o0 the in0or3ation 3entioned in the pre2ious paragraph goes -eyond that strictly reCuired 0or encoding. It is ser2ing to enhance the learner6s knowledge and understanding o0 the 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish in a wider sense, not Eust 0or the speci0ic task that 3ay ha2e occasioned the look9up. Ao3e o0 the in0or3ation o0 ,age *'$ this kind is cultural, putting words into a context that enhances understanding o0 the3. In 7I8+, 0or exa3ple, there is a -oxed article entitled D1: F6 in the appropriate part o0 the dictionary, which discusses Dso3e co33on words and expressions we use in e2eryday con2ersation to talk a-out the work we do, lea2ing work, -eing out o0 work and looking 0or a Eo-6 =p. *(#*>, including di00erences -etween 4ritish and A3erican +nglish. Ao3e o0 the additional in0or3ation is dispersed through the dictionary, near to rele2ant words. :ther types are collected together, either in appendices or in groups o0 pages inserted at so3e point in the dictionary. :AL8( has a set o0 eight colour plates =-etween pages &"% and &"&> o0 sets o0 o-Eects =-read, cakes and dessertsH 0ruit and 2egeta-lesH clothes and 0a-ricsH the ani3al kingdo3H ga3es and toys>H a set o0 sixteen Dstudy pages6 =-etween ")( and ")">, dealing in part with gra33atical and lexical 3atters and in part with letter and 7J writingH and an eight9page set o0 colour 3aps =-etween **'$ and **'*>. Additionally, :AL8( contains appendices dealing with: irregular 2er-sH geographical na3esH nu3-ersH punctuationH the language o0 literary criticis3H an index to the usage notesH and the de0ining 2oca-ulary. The use o0 co3puter corpora has ena-led lexicographers to o-tain 0airly relia-le data on the 0reCuency o0 occurrence o0 words and senses. This in0or3ation has in0or3ed the design o0 ;L8s since 7:4<IL8*. Fro3 the -eginning, 7:4<IL8 has included this in0or3ation in the dictionary itsel0 -y 3arking words with a set o0 0i2e dia3onds. I0 all 0i2e dia3onds are -lack, this indicates that the word -elongs to the 3ost 0reCuent "$$ in the language =e.g. main, paper>H i0 0our are 0illed in, the word -elongs to the next *%$$ 3ost 0reCuent =e.g. ma4er, management>H i0 three are -lack, then it -elongs to the next *)$$ 3ost 0reCuent words =e.g. panel, panic>H i0 two are -lack, then the word -elongs to the next &%$$ 3ost 0reCuent =e.g. loyalty, lounge>H and i0 only one is -lack, then the word -elongs to the next #*$$ 3ost 0reCuent =e.g. malt, mandatory>. Ao the dia3ond 3arkings account 0or the *',"$$ 3ost 0reCuent words according to the 4ank o0 +nglish corpus. The top two -ands =*!$$ words>, it is clai3ed, Daccount 0or ")l o0 all +nglish usage6 =7:4<IL8%, p. xiii>. L8:7+& also gi2es 0reCuency in0or3ation, -ut di00erentiates -etween occurrence in spoken +nglish and in written +nglishH and it accounts 0or only the &$$$ 3ost 0reCuent words in each 3ode. The 0reCuencies are indicated -y the letters D16 =0or written> and DA6 =0or spoken>, 0ollowed -y a nu3eral -etween D*6 and D&6: D*6 indicates within the *$$$ 3ost 0reCuent, D%6 within the next *$$$ 3ost 0reCuent, and D&6 within the next *$$$ 3ost 0reCuent. For exa3ple, common is 3arked A*, 1*H commitment A%, 1%H compete A&, 1&H committee A&, 1*H comment A*, 1%H comparison A&, 1%H compensation 1& onlyH complicated A% only. This in0or3ation is o0 interest to an ad2anced learner, and o0 particular use to teachers and course designers when considering how to seCuence the introduction o0 2oca-ulary ite3s. ;L8s ha2e de2eloped 0ar -eyond their original conception in the *!&$s and *!'$s, not only in the range o0 in0or3ation that they o00er the learner, -ut also in the attention to the learner6s needs and re0erence skills. The

extensi2e index, which includes all the headwords 0or the ite3, 0ollowed -y open co3pounds containing it, 0ollowed -y headwords whose de0initions contain it. 7licking on any o0 these -rings the appropriate dictionary entry into the 7ontent 1indow. 4oth 4ritish and A3erican pronunciation can -e acti2ated. +2ery entry in 7I8+ on 789 :; is supplied with a link la-elled D elated words6. 7licking on this link acti2ates the highly inno2ati2e 0eature o0 this 789 :; dictionary, a di00erentiated and categorised lexical 0ield analysis o0 the 2oca-ulary. For exa3ple, clicking on the D elated words6 link 0or support =4+A > o00ers three lexical 0ields: D,sychology, ,sychiatry and ,sychoanalysis6, DAllowing and per3itting6, and DTolerating and enduring6. Aelecting the last o0 these acti2ates in the Aearch ,anel a list o0 other 2er-s with a si3ilar 3eaning, 0ollowed -y words 0ro3 other parts o0 speech, as well as phrases and expressions =e.g. ta4e it on the chin>. The lexical 0ield analysis can -e 2iewed in the Aearch ,anel, which allows 0or a 0ield to -e selected and all the words and expressions in the 0ield to -e listed. The 2oca-ulary is analysed at the 3ost general le2el into *" -road categories: * art and entertain3ent % -uilding and ci2il engineering & clothes, -elongings and personal care ' co33unication ) education ( 0inance and -usiness " general.a-stract # history ! li0e, death and the li2ing world *$ light and colour ** 3o2e3ent and location *% religion *& science *' society *) sports, ga3es and pasti3es

,age *'' *( thinking and understanding

*" war and the 3ilitary. +ach o0 these has 0urther su-9di2isions and su-9di2isions o0 su-9di2isions. 1ith this 0acility, 7I8+ on 789 :; not only pro2ides an aid 0or a learner6s 2oca-ulary -uilding, -ut, lexicographically, -ridges the gap -etween alpha-etical dictionary and the3atic thesaurus =see 7hapter *%>. 7I8+ on 789 :;6s Aearch ,anel allows other di00erentiated searches to -e undertaken: -y D,art o0 Apeech6, -y DLa-el6 =including geographical and register>, -y DIra33ar6, -y D7ategory6 =i.e. o0 text / Headword, Idio3, 8e0inition text, +xa3ple text, <sage notes, etc.>, and -y DFreCuency6. The DIra33ar6 search allows speci0ication o0 gra33atical 0eatures or structures indicated in the dictionaryH 0or exa3ple, DL o-Eect L that clause6 0inds all the 2er-s ='% in 7I8+> that are 0ollowed -y an :-Eect and a that9clause, DL two o-Eects6 all the ditransiti2e 2er-s =*)% in 7I8+>, Da0ter 2er-6 all the predicati2e only adEecti2es =&%% in 7I8+>, and Dnot grada-le6 all the non9grada-le adEecti2es =&%$% in 7I8+>. The DFreCuency6 search has categories 0ro3 D are6 to DJery 7o33on6, along with D8e0ining Joca-ulary6H selecting DJery 7o33on6 lists the (** words so designated, and D7o33on6 the &*#* words with this 0reCuency. In0or3ation o0 this kind is in2alua-le to the teacher and course writer, and certainly o0 interest to the ad2anced student. All the ;L8s on 789 :; ha2e in di00erent ways -egun to exploit the electronic 3ediu3 0or extending what they can o00er to users o0 learners6 dictionaries, 7I8+ 3ore so than the others. 4ut the 3ediu3 has yet to -e exploited to the 0ull =Jehle *!!!>.

11+3 5urther reading

The de2elop3ent o0 learners6 dictionaries, up to the Dthird generation6 =:AL8', L8:7+% and 7:4<IL8*>, is told in Tony 7owie6s )nglish &ictionaries for "oreign Learners: A 2istory =*!!!>. The process o0 co3piling 7:4<IL8* is reported -y so3e o0 those in2ol2ed in Loo4ing +p: An Account of the $*#+IL& %ro;ect =*!#">, edited -y John Ainclair. Articles on the *!!) generation o0 ;L8s are contained in he %erfect Learners- &ictionary7R8 =*!!!> edited -y Tho3as Her-st and Ferstin ,opp. einhard Heu-erger re2iews -oth print and 789 :; 2ersions o0 ;L8s in his doctoral thesis, pu-lished as Monolingual &ictionaries for "oreign Learners of )nglish =%$$$>. The Haus3ann et al/ =*!#!/!*> International )ncyclopedia of Lexicography contains a nu3-er o0 articles on learners6 dictionaries. A se3inal contri-ution is ;ichael undell6s =*!!#> article, D ecent Trends in +nglish ,edagogical Lexicography6, in the International .ournal of Lexicography. ,age *')

1)bandoning the alphabet

I0 you look up the word dictionary in a dictionary, you will 0ind a de0inition along the lines o0:

a -ook that consists o0 an alpha-etical list o0 words, with their 3eanings, parts o0 speech, pronunciations, ety3ologies, etc. =778'> D8ictionary order6 is synony3ous with Dalpha-etical order6. 1e expect dictionaries to use alpha-etical ordering o0 their headwords, Eust as we expect other re0erence works to do so as well, such as telephone directories, encyclopedias, and indexes o0 all kinds. 4ecause we ha2e learnt the order o0 the letters in the alpha-et, it is the 3ost con2enient syste3 0or locating an ite3 in a written list. :ur skill in using the alpha-et 0or this purpose can -e generalised to all 3anner o0 written lists. As a re0erence 3anual, there0ore, a dictionary6s headword list is ideally arranged alpha-etically, so that users can readily access the ite3 that they are seeking. And it is usually a single ite3 that is -eing looked up. Howe2er, we 3ust ask, 0irst, whether an alpha-etical ordering is -est 0or presenting a description o0 the 2oca-ulary as a whole, and second, whether there are so3e users6 needs that would -e -etter ser2ed -y an alternati2e arrange3ent o0 words in a dictionary.

1-+1 "isad$antages o! )IJ

:ne o0 the draw-acks o0 an alpha-etical listing is that so3e words that -elong together 3orphologically -eco3e separated. This applies, in particular, to two kinds o0 relation. First, words that are deri2ed -y pre0ixation =see %.%.%> are entered separately 0ro3 their root, and there is usually no indication at the entry 0or the root that it has a pre0ixed deri2ati2e. 8eri2ati2es -y su00ixation are entered either as separate headwords, -ut close to the root in the alpha-etical seCuence, or as run9ons under the rootH so that the relation -etween root and deri2ati2e is clear. For exa3ple, courage and its deri2ati2e courageous co3e in close proxi3ity in the alpha-etical list, -ut discourage and encourage are distant ,age *'( and the connection is not 3ade. The second kind o0 3orphological link relates to words / 3ostly nouns o0 :+ origin / that ha2e a 3atching word / 3ostly adEecti2es o0 Latinate origin / in another word class. For exa3ple, lung =noun> has 3atching pulmonary =adEecti2e>, church has ecclesiastical, mind has mental, earth:ua4e has seismic, horse has e:uine, and so on. 7+8 notes at the noun the D elated adE.6, -ut dictionaries do not as a rule 3ake the connection. A 3ore serious disad2antage o0 alpha-etical ordering is the perspecti2e that it presents on the 2oca-ulary as a whole. It presents an ato3istic 2iew o0 the 2oca-ulary, treating each word in isolation, the headword with its entry, and 3aking 0ew o0 the connections that exist -etween words. Just like other areas o0 language / phonology, gra33ar / the lexicon is a syste3, with paradig3atic =synony3y, antony3y, hypony3y, 3erony3y> and syntag3atic =collocation> relations =Jackson and MN A32ela %$$$, 7h. )>. In lexicology, an atte3pt is 3ade to capture so3e o0 these relations in the notion o0 Dse3antic.lexical 0ields6 =Lehrer *!"'H Jackson *!##:%*$/*(>. A lexical 0ield is a set o0 lexe3es that are used to talk a-out a de0ined area o0 experienceH Lehrer =*!"'>, 0or exa3ple, has an extensi2e discussion o0 the 0ield o0 Dcooking6 ter3s. A lexical 0ield analysis will atte3pt to esta-lish the lexe3es that are a2aila-le in the 2oca-ulary 0or talking a-out the area under in2estigation and then propose how they di00er 0ro3

each other in 3eaning and use. Auch an analysis -egins to show how the 2oca-ulary as a whole is structured, and 3ore so when indi2idual lexical 0ields are -rought into relationship with each other. There is no prescri-ed or agreed 3ethod 0or deter3ining what constitutes a lexical 0ieldH each scholar 3ust draw their own -oundaries and esta-lish their own criteria. ;uch work still needs to -e undertaken in researching this approach to 2oca-ulary. Lexical 0ield analysis is re0lected in dictionaries that take a Dtopical6 or Dthe3atic6 approach to presenting and descri-ing words. The distinction is o0ten drawn in ter3s o0 the dichoto3y -etween a Dse3asiological6 and an Dono3asiological6 approach to the description o0 2oca-ulary. The se3asiological =0ro3 Ireek semasia D3eaning6> approach proceeds 0ro3 0or3s =ter3s, words> to 3eanings or concepts, and it results in traditional, alpha-etically ordered dictionaries. The ono3asiological =0ro3 Ireek onomasia Dter36> approach =Fip0er *!#(> proceeds 0ro3 concepts to ter3s, and it results in works o0 the thesaurus type, organised -y the3e or topic. Ao3e atte3pts ha2e -een 3ade to co3-ine the two approaches, 3ost nota-ly -y dictionaries o0 French pu-lished -y 8ictionnaires Le o-ert, where extensi2e cross9re0erencing to synony3s and antony3s is 3ade within 3ost entries, e.g. <%%6#.6 adE. 1 2x Illi3itN, in0ini. - 8ont l6Ntendu, les di3ensions sont considNra-les. m grand/ illi(itK/ $aste. %erdu dans l-immense oc>an. 3 Pui est trns considNra-le en son genre =par la 0orce, l6i3portance, la CuantitN>. m colossal/ Knor(e. +ne foule immense/ +ne immense fortune. contr. <n!i(e/ (inuscule. =Le Robert $ollTge *!!"> ,age *'" The arrow points to synony3s, and the a--re2iation Dcontr.6 =contraire> introduces antony3s. A si3ilar, -ut less syste3atic atte3pt is re0lected in the synony3 essays pro2ided -y L8+L% and +7+8, e.g. synony(s Huge/ $ast/ i((ense/ enor(ous/ (a((oth/ elephantine/ giant/ gigantic/ colossal/ gargantuan/ titanic: huge is a general ter3, expressing great siGe, -ulk, or capacity `a huge manO `huge piles of (heatO. :ast stresses extent or range `,ast distancesO. <((ense and enor(ous suggest siGe or degree 0ar in excess o0 what is usual, with i((ense so3eti3es i3plying al3ost in0inite `immense ,istas of blue s4yO `enormous strengthO. %a((oth and elephantine suggest the large siGe and unwieldy nature o0 the ani3als they recall. <sed 0igurati2ely, (a((oth can 3ean Dexcessi2e6 or Dextra2agant6 `a mammoth darts tournamentO. =iant and gigantic suggest so3ething a-nor3ally largeH gigantic is pre0erred 0or 0igurati2e use `a giant dollO `a gigantic bill for repairsO. Colossal suggests so3ething o0 aweso3ely large proportions, while titanic i3plies the colossal siGe and pri3iti2e strength o0 the Titans. The hugeness o0 gargantuan is like that o0 a-elais6 hero: larger than li0e, especially with regard to 0ood and appetites. antony(s tiny, 3inute, 3inuscule. =L8+L%> 4ut that is a-out as 0ar as it goes in con2entional general9purpose dictionaries 0or nati2e speakers. Learners6 dictionaries o0ten pro2ide 3ore in0or3ation, at least a-out synony3s and

antony3s, e.g. 7:4<IL8 in its D+xtra 7olu3n6 =7hapter **>.

1-+- 'he the(atic tradition in lexicography

The alpha-etisation o0 word lists goes -ack to the Latin/+nglish glossaries co3piled -y scholar 3onks during the :ld +nglish period, -ut so does the arrange3ent o0 2oca-ulary -y topic =see '.*>. The 3ost 0a3ous o0 the latter is [l0ric6s Glossary, pu-lished as an appendix to his Grammar o0 Latin. [l0ric, who li2ed 0ro3 around !)) to *$%$, -eca3e A--ot o0 +ynsha3, near :x0ord, in *$$)H his tasks included the teaching o0 Latin to +nglish9speaking no2ices. The Glossary groups Latin words with their +nglish glosses into sets, and 1erner HTllen, in his account o0 [l0ric6s work =*!!!:(%00 >, suggests that the sets 3ight ha2e the 0ollowing titles and structure: * Iod, hea2en, earth, 3ankind %.* ,arts o0 the hu3an -ody %.% church o00ices %.& 0a3ily relationships %.' state o00ices, including cra0ts and instru3ents as well as tools %.) negati2e 0eatures o0 hu3an character %.( intellectual work

,age *'# %." diseases, a00lictions, 3erits %.# weather, uni2erse & 4irds ' Fish ) 1ild ani3als ( Her-s " Trees #.* 4uildings =churches, 3onasteries>, 3aterials and o-Eects used there #.% war, castles, ar3s, 2alua-le 3aterials #.& 2arious

#.' hu3an 2ices. [l0ric6s hope was to enco3pass the whole 2oca-ulary in his sche3e, though he recognised that he had not done so. The topical organisation certainly -etrays the concerns o0 an early 3edie2al church3an. As dictionary 3aking, -oth -ilingual and 3onolingual, de2eloped, the alpha-etical tradition do3inated, -ut, especially under the in0luence o0 the enaissance, the3atic word-ooks were also co3piled, 3ost 0a3ously that -y the ;ora2ian 7o3enius =Johann A3os Fo3ensky, *)!%/ *("$> under the title Ianua linguarum reserata = he Gate of ongues +nloc4ed>, o0 which a Latin and a Ier3an 2ersion were pu-lished in *(&*. In +nglish, the 3ost 0a3ous work o0 the ti3e is that o0 John 1ilkins, as part o0 his proposal 0or a Duni2ersal language6, with the title An )ssay o(ards a Real $haracter, And a %hilosophical Language, pu-lished in *((#. As part o0 his proposal, 1ilkins put 0orward a sche3e 0or classi0ying the 2oca-ulary o0 any languageH at its 3ost general le2el, it is descri-ed in ele2en chapters in the )ssay =HTllen *!!!:%)&>: I the transcendentals, the general notions which deter3ine all the su-seCuent principles o0 order. They include Ddiscourse6, that is Dwords6 as opposed to Dthings6 II Iod, the creator, and the creation, that is the world o-ser2ed collecti2ely III together with all the 0ollowing chapters is de2oted to the world o-ser2ed distri-uti2ely K the inani3ate ele3ents under the Dpredica3ent6, that is, the category o0 su-stance IJ the 2egetati2e species J the sensiti2e species JI the signi0icant parts o0 2egetati2e and sensiti2e species JII 2arious pheno3ena -elonging to DCuantity6, a category which is su-su3ed under the category Daccident6. Ao are the 0ollowing 0our chapters. JIII 2arious pheno3ena -elonging to DCuality6 IQ 2arious pheno3ena -elonging to Daction6 Q 2arious pheno3ena -elonging to Dpri2ate relation6 QI 2arious pheno3ena -elonging to Dpu-lic relation6. +ach o0 these -road categories is 0urther di2ided and su-di2ided, 0ollowing a logical, philosophical sche3e. ,age *'! The work -y 1ilkins was 0a3iliar to the author o0 the -est9known the3atic word-ook, ,eter ;ark oget6s hesaurus of )nglish Words and %hrases, 0irst pu-lished in *#)% and still in print in a nu3-er o0 editions, the 3ost genuine o0 which is Firkpatrick =*!!)>. oget was -y pro0ession a 3edical physician, -ut with wide9ranging interestsH he contri-uted to the )ncyclopaedia #ritannica and wrote treatises on electricity and 3agnetis3 =;cArthur

*!!%:#"*>. In *#'!, at the age o0 "$, ha2ing retired a0ter %% years as Aecretary o0 the oyal Aociety, oget returned to an undertaking that had interested hi3 0or o2er 0orty years: to create a re0erence work containing words Darranged K according to the ideas which they express6: The o-Eect ai3ed at in the present undertaking is K the idea -eing gi2en, to 0ind the word, or words, -y which that idea 3ay -e 3ost 0itly and aptly expressed. =Introduction> 1hile 3oti2ated -y considerations o0 Dpractical utility6, oget6s classi0ication sche3e reaches -ack to the notions -ehind 1ilkins6 Dphilosophical ta-les6. oget has six -road D7lasses6, which are initially su-di2ided into DAections6 =see Ta-le *%.*>. able 10/1 $lass 3ection I A4AT A7T +LATI:?A I +xistence II elation III Puantity IJ :rder J ?u3-er JI Ti3e JII 7hange JIII 7ausation II A,A7+ I Ienerally II 8i3ensions III For3 IJ ;otion III ;ATT+ I Ienerally II Inorganic III :rganic IJ I?T+LL+7T I For3ation o0 Ideas II 7o33unication o0 Ideas J J:LITI:? I Indi2idual

II Intersocial JI AFF+7TI:?A I Ienerally II ,ersonal III Ay3pathetic IJ ;oral J eligious

,age *)$ able 10/0 IV/ *R&)R *. I+?+ AL )# :rder )! 8isorder ($ Arrange3ent (* 8erange3ent %. 7:?A+7<TIJ+ (% ,recedence (& AeCuence (' ,recursor () AeCuel (( 4eginning (" +nd (# ;iddle (! 7ontinuity "$ 8iscontinuity "* Ter3 &. 7:LL+7TIJ+ "% Asse3-lage "& ?on9asse3-lage. 8ispersion "' Focus '. 8IAT I4<TIJ+ ") 7lass "( Inclusion "" +xclusion "# Ienerality "! Apeciality ). 7AT+I: I7AL #$ ule #* ;ulti0or3ity #% 7on0or3ity #& <ncon0or3ity +ach o0 the DAections6 is 0urther su-di2ided into the lowest le2el o0 sets o0 words arranged where applica-le in pairs o0 opposites, e.g. under 7lass I, Aection IJ =see Ta-le *%.%>.

The sets o0 words and phrases are listed in the 3ain -ody o0 the hesaurus, on two9colu3n pages, under word classes, with nouns 0irst, 0ollowed -y 2er-s, then adEecti2es and ad2er-s. ?o other in0or3ation is gi2en / no de0initions, pronunciation, or ety3ologyH it is intended as a Dstorehouse6 or Dtreasure6 =e Ireek thesauros> o0 words, which a writer will plunder 0or the one that is apt 0or their purpose. I0 you are 0a3iliar with Roget-s hesaurus, you will know that a-out the last third o0 the work is taken up with an alpha-etical DIndex6, and 3any users 0ind this to -e the 3ost con2enient route into the thesaurus. 8uring his li0eti3e / he died in *#(! at the age o0 !$ / ,eter ;ark oget did not include an index in any o0 the editions that he co3piled and editedH that de0eated the purpose o0 the work. It was his son, John Lewis oget, who added the IndexH he also undertook a 3aEor re2ision o0 the work in *#"! and continued to edit it until his death in *!$#. The editorship then passed to his son, Aa3uel o3illy oget, who undertook a 3aEor re2ision in *!&(, and then sold the rights to Long3an in *!)%, the year -e0ore he died =;cArthur *!!%:#"*>. Roget-s hesaurus re3ains as an institution a3ong re0erence works 0or the +nglish language and as a 3onu3ent to the the3atic tradition o0 word-ooks.

1-+3 .pecialist thesaurusesDthesauri

A nu3-er o0 co3pilers o0 3odern re0erence -ooks a-out words ha2e chosen to present their 3aterial in a the3atic, rather than alpha-etic, 0or3at. They -elie2e that it ser2es their purposes to greater e00ect and gi2es an enhanced insight into ,age *)* the set o0 2oca-ulary that they are descri-ing. 1e re2iew here 0our such re0erence works. The 0irst is A hesaurus of *ld )nglish = o-erts et al/ *!!)>, which is a presentation o0 the 2oca-ulary o0 :ld +nglish, as 0ar as it can -e gleaned 0ro3 the extant 3anuscripts o0 the period. The 2oca-ulary is arranged in *# -road classes: * the physical world % li0e and death & 3atter and 3easure3ent ' 3aterial needs ) existence ( 3ental 0aculties " opinion # e3otion ! language and co33unication *$ possession

** action and utility *% social interaction *& peace and war *' law and order *) property *( religion *" work *# leisure. +ach o0 these classes is 0urther su-di2ided. For exa3ple, D!. Language and 7o33unication6 has a general class and se2en su-classes: $! Apeech, 2ocal utterance $!.$* To speak, exercise 0aculty o0 speech $!.$% Ailence, re0raining 0ro3 speech $!.$& A language $!.$' Aense, purport, 3eaning $!.$) 7uriosity $!.$( To take 3atter 0or discourse $!.$" 8ispute, de-ate. <nder each o0 these is listed the 3odern +nglish word or paraphrase, 0ollowed -y the :+ ter3, e.g. $!.$*.$* A speech, what is said, words: =ge>sprZc, word, wordlac A dictu3, re3ark, o-ser2ation: spell A saying, words: cwide, word, wordcwide A phrase: 0oreset=ted>nes A 0or3ula: 0or3ala, hiw ,age *)% An idio3: wise A 2erse, sentence =o0 4i-le>: 0ers

A discourse: 3Zoelcwide, 3Zoelword, sprZce, tosprZc A set speech: getynges An instructi2e talk: spell A thesis, proposition: -etynung. The Thesaurus pro2ides a 3ost insight0ul analysis o0 the 2oca-ulary a2aila-le at this early period in the history o0 the +nglish language, as well as a so-er re3inder o0 the words that disappeared 0ro3 +nglish as a conseCuence o0 the ?or3an conCuest. The second exa3ple is a presentation o0 the 2oca-ulary o0 a regional 2ariety o0 the language, he 3cots hesaurus =;cLeod *!!$>. The hesaurus presents so3e %$,$$$ Acots words, with the 0ocus on rural Acotland, under 0i0teen -road categories: * -irds, wild ani3als, in2erte-rates % do3estic ani3als & water li0e ' plants ) en2iron3ent ( water, sea, ships " 0ar3ing # li0e cycle, 0a3ily ! physical states *$ 0ood and drink ** law *% war, 0ighting, 2iolence *& architecture, -uilding, trades *' religion, superstition, education, 0esti2als *) e3otions, character, social -eha2iour. +ach category is 0urther su-di2ided, e.g. *$.( gi2es words 0or D4read, :atcakes, etc.6 and *$." 0or D7akes, ,astry, 4iscuits6. 1ithin the su-di2isions, the ite3s are listed in alpha-etical orderH *$.( contains al3ost !$ lexe3es, so3e o0 which are regionally restricted / the rele2ant areas or counties o0 Acotland are indicated, e.g. W luifie a kind o0 0lat -read roll Ags Ri.e. AngusS

W nic4ie an oatcake or -un with an indented edge chf "if Ri.e. chiefly "ifeS W rumpie a s3all crusty loa0 or roll no( %er W$ Ri.e. now %erthshire West $entralS W s4air scone a kind o0 oat3eal9and90lour scone 3ade with -eaten egg and 3ilk.

,age *)& The third exa3ple is still under construction in the 8epart3ent o0 +nglish Language at the <ni2ersity o0 Ilasgow under the direction o0 ,ro0essor 7hristian Fay: the 2istorical hesaurus of )nglish. 4egun in *!(' -y Fay6s predecessor, ,ro0essor ;.L. Aa3uels, the 2istorical hesaurus is -ased on the 3aterials o0 the :+8, supple3ented -y 0urther research. It ai3s to present the 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish 0ro3 the earliest written records onwards in a se3antic and chronological arrange3ent, so that a user can see how the 2oca-ulary o0 +nglish has de2eloped in any particular area o0 3eaning. As with all the3atic dictionaries, its e00ecti2eness depends in large part on its classi0ication syste3: The classi0ication which has resulted 0ro3 exa3ination o0 the data is -ased on a 3odi0ied 0olk taxono3y. There are three 3aEor di2isions: =I> The 1orld, including the physical uni2erse, plants and ani3alsH =II> The ;ind, co2ering 3an6s 3ental acti2itiesH and =III> Aociety, which deals with social structures and arte0acts. 1ithin these 3aEor di2isions the 3aterial is arranged in nu3-ered hierarchical categories, each consisting o0 a de0ining heading 0ollowed -y chronological lists o0 all the words, with their dates o0 currency, e2er used as synony3s or near synony3s 0or the de0inition. =HT+ we-site> The data-ase o0 the HT+ will -e constructed in such a way that sophisticated searches will -e possi-le, e.g. to 0ind all the words 3eaning Dlaugh6 that ca3e into the language -etween *&$$ and *)$$, or to 0ind all the words current in enaissance +nglish 0or a particular area o0 3eaning. The hesaurus of *ld )nglish, considered earlier, is an o00shoot o0 this proEect, -ut while the :+ thesaurus presents, in lexical 0ield arrange3ent, a snapshot o0 the 2oca-ulary at a particular ti3e period, the HT+ will show how the 2oca-ulary has de2eloped 0ro3 :+ o2er ti3e, lexical 0ield -y lexical 0ield. Further in0or3ation on the HT+ proEect, together with exa3ples, can -e 2iewed on the 2istorical hesaurus of )nglish we-site =see e0erences>.The 0inal exa3ple o0 a specialist the3atic dictionary is specialist in two ways: it is restricted to a particular area o0 2oca-ulary, that o0 science, and it is directed speci0ically at learners o0 +nglish: the Longman &ictionary of 3cientific +sage =Iod3an and ,ayne *!"!>. This dictionary is ai3ed at those who are studying science through the 3ediu3 o0 +nglish and 0or who3 +nglish is not their 0irst language. The 2oca-ulary o0 science is presented under *! -road di2isions, nu3-ered DA6 to D<6 =DI6 and D:6 are not used>. 8i2ision A contains D4asic Ter3s6, and like the other di2isions it is su-di2ided into DAets6: )) Apace )8 ;atter

)C Ahape )" +xistence )6 7onstitution )5 ;o2e3ent

,age *)' )= 7hange )H Ti3e )J ,rocess )E Fnowledge )L 1ord analysis )% Atate3ent )# ;easure3ent ) elationship

)L +xperi3ent. The re3aining di2isions contain the DAcienti0ic Ter3s6H each di2ision contains sets that are se3antically related, e.g. H has the 0ollowing sets: H) Irrita-ility H8 ?er2ous Ayste3 HC Aight H" Hearing H6 Aense :rgans. 1ithin each set, the indi2idual ter3s are arranged, not alpha-etically, -ut in order to 0or3 a coherent account o0 the area o0 science, proceeding 0ro3 those ter3s that ha2e a 3ore general re0erence to those that are 3ore speci0ic. +ach ter3 is pro2ided with a word class la-el, a de0inition and explanation, occasionally an exa3ple sentence, and extensi2e cross9re0erences, -oth to earlier and later within the set and to other sets. For exa3ple, 0ro3 Aet H8 DHearing6: H"001 hearing =n.> :ne o0 the senses o0 ani3als, concerned with the sti3ulus o0 sound. Hearing is well de2eloped in tetrapod 2erte-rates, -ut poorly de2eloped in 0ishesH it is well de2eloped in insects -ut not in 3ost other in2erte-rates. / hear =,.> p A<8I4ILIT@ W

A7:L:,H: + W ATAT:7@AT W LAT+ AL LI?+ A@AT+; W A<8I4L+ W +A W ;I88L+ +A W I??+ +A W ;+;4 A?:<A LA4@ I?TH W 7:7HL+A m I ITA4ILIT@ H"001 statocyst =n.> =In so3e in2erte-rates> an organ o0 -alance, consisting o0 a 2esicle containing statoliths with sensory cells on the 2esicle walls, Hair9like processes on the sensory cells are sti3ulated -y the statoliths when the ani3al 3o2es. p :TI8I<; W :T:7@AT W ATAT:LITH q H+A I?I The downward9pointing arrow indicates a cross9re0erence to an ite3 or ite3s later in the set, an upward pointing arrow to those earlier in the set, and an arrow pointing to the right cross9re0ers to another set. The dictionary is supplied with an alpha-etical index, which gi2es the code 0or the set in which the ter3 is descri-ed, together with its nu3-er within the set. The authors en2isage that the dictionary will -e used in 0our ways: ,age *)) *. DFinding the 3eaning o0 a ter3 when reading6 / using the index in order to locate the ter3. This is a con2entional dictionary use. %. D<sing a ter3 when writing6 / again the index is used to locate the ter3, -ut the 0ocus is on what can -e gleaned 0ro3 the entry a-out using the ter3. This is a con2entional use 0or learners6 dictionaries. &. DAearching 0or an unknown ter3 when writing6 / either with the index using a known ter3, or with the contents to identi0y the set that represents the area o0 3eaning -eing written a-out. This is the genuine thesaurus use, as en2isaged -y oget 0or his hesaurus. '. D e2ising the ter3s o0 a particular topic6 / -ecause each set o0 ter3s is logically structured and internally cross9re0erenced, it gi2es a good o2er2iew o0 the topic 0or re2ision purposes. 1hat these 0our exa3ples show is that the the3atic tradition in lexicography can -e exploited i3aginati2ely to present in0or3ation a-out words 0or speci0ic purposes, where an alpha-etical arrange3ent would -e incapa-le o0 yielding the desired insights 0or the intended uses and users.

1-+0 'he(atic dictionaries !or learners

A the3atic presentation can help learners o0 +nglish as a second or 0oreign language in at least two ways. First, 3uch language teaching tends to -e -y topic, and a the3atic dictionary would, there0ore, -e an o-2ious re0erence work to acco3pany such an approach. Aecond, one o0 a learner6s di00iculties in writing, -esides ascertaining the appropriate gra33atical and collocational patterns that a word 3ay enter, is 3aking the appropriate choice o0 word in the 0irst place. This presupposes knowledge o0 the 2oca-ulary ite3s that could -e used to express the idea or concept, 0ro3 a3ong which the ite3 3ay -e chosen. ;oreo2er, learners -ene0it 0ro3 so3e 3ore explicit help in ena-ling the3 to percei2e the o0ten su-tle se3antic and prag3atic distinctions -etween words with si3ilar 3eaning. The 0irst the3atic dictionary 0or learners was To3 ;cArthur6s Longman Lexicon of $ontemporary )nglish =*!#*>, whose genesis and career he descri-es in 7hapter *' o0 ;cArthur =*!!#>. ;cArthur consciously places his work in the the3atic tradition, which he su-seCuently

re2iewed in Worlds of Reference =*!#(>: The alpha-etical dictionary has a logic, -ut it is not the logic o0 e2eryday li0e. In principle, one 0eels, words should -e de0ined in the co3pany they usually keep. Two 0a3ous 3o2es in this direction ha2e -een the .anua Linguarum Reserata in *(&*, the work o0 the 4ohe3ian educator 7o3enius, and oget6s hesaurus, 0irst pu-lished -y Long3an in *#)%. The Longman Lexicon of $ontemporary )nglish -elongs in this tradition. 7o3enius had a hundred chapters and a religious -ias, while oget used a sche3e o0 uni2ersal concepts as a 0ra3ework 0or his prodigious lists. The ,age *)( Lexicon, howe2er, has only 0ourteen Dse3antic 0ields6 o0 a prag3atic, e2eryday nature. =,re0ace, p. 2i> As ;cArthur indicates, the 2oca-ulary selection that he takes / *),$$$ words 0ro3 the Dcentral 2oca-ulary o0 the +nglish language6 / is arranged in 0ourteen -road categories, nu3-ered DA6 to D?6: A Li0e and Li2ing Things 4 The 4ody: its Functions and 1el0are 7 ,eople and the Fa3ily 8 4uildings, Houses, the Ho3e, 7lothes, 4elongings, and ,ersonal 7are + Food, 8rink, and Far3ing F Feelings, +3otions, Attitudes, and Aensations I Thought and 7o33unication, Language and Ira33ar H Au-stances, ;aterials, :-Eects, and +Cuip3ent I Arts and 7ra0ts, Acience and Technology, Industry and +ducation J ?u3-ers, ;easure3ent, ;oney, and 7o33erce F +ntertain3ent, Aports, and Ia3es L Apace and Ti3e ; ;o2e3ent, Location, Tra2el, and Transport ? Ieneral and A-stract Ter3s. +ach -road Dse3antic 0ield6 is su-di2ided, and within the su-di2isions the lexical ite3s are arranged in related sets, o0ten -elonging to the sa3e word class. +ach ite3 is pro2ided with de0initions and exa3ples. Although its co3pilation preceded it, ;cArthur had access to the

L8:7+* =*!"#> 3aterials, so that the entries in the Lexicon 3atch those in the &ictionary. The care0ul arrange3ent o0 ite3s in sets and the pro2ision o0 de0initions and exa3ples ena-le a learner to understand the di00erences -etween related words and to choose the one appropriate to the particular context o0 use. 4y way o0 illustration, here are the su-di2isions o0 Field F, 0ollowed -y the entries 0or the set F*"&: F* Feeling and 4eha2iour Ienerally F%$ Liking and ?ot Liking F)$ Iood and +2il F"$ Happiness and Aadness F*$$ Anger, Jiolence, Atress, 7al3, and Puietness F*%$ Fear and 7ourage F*'$ Ad3iration, ,ride, 7onte3pt, and A-use F*"$ Findness and <nkindness F*!$ Honesty, Loyalty, Trickery, and 8eceit F%%$ elaxation, +xcite3ent, Interest, and Aurprise F%'$ Actions o0 the Face elated to Feelings F%($ Aenses and Aensations.

,age *)" 5143 ad;ecti,es : hu(anitarian and charitable R4S hu(anitarian concerned with trying to i3pro2e li0e 0or hu3an -eings -y gi2ing the3 -etter conditions to li2e in and changing laws, esp those which punish too se2erely generous showing readiness to gi2e 3oney, help, kindness, etc: 3he-s not ,ery generous (ith the foodH she gi,es ,ery small amounts/ Qou are far too generous (ith your money. Ily Rad2S liberal generous, esp in gi2ing or -eing gi2en Cuickly and easily or in large a3ounts: 2e is ,ery liberal (ith his money/ 3he ga,e us liberal helpings of food. Illy Rad2S (agnani(ous ha2ing or showing unusually generous Cualities towards others: A country should be magnanimous to(ards its defeated enemies. Ily Rad2S charitable showing kindness and charity Rm F*")S: #e charitableH try to help them. Ibly Rad2 1a&S The codes =4, 1a&> are those 0ro3 L8:7+*. The Lexicon contains line drawings and it is

pro2ided with an alpha-etical index, where the pronunciation is indicated =in I,A transcription>. 1here an ite3 has 3ore than one sense, or -elongs to 3ore than one word class, which would assign it to di00erent se3antic 0ields or sets, this is gi2en -rie0ly in the Index, e.g. long wish , F( 3easure3ent ad; J(& distance or ti3e ad; L*&!, ?&$" The index thus ena-les a learner to Cuickly re2iew the se3antic range that a word has, as well as to locate the ite3 in the appropriate se3antic set. <nlike oget6s hesaurus, ;cArthur6s Lexicon pro2ides in the the3atic 0or3at the range o0 in0or3ation that would -e expected in a dictionary, at least 0or learners. In that sense it is a true Dthe3atic dictionary6. It is to -e regretted that it has ne2er -een updated or expanded, or, indeed, that no pu-lisher has dared to produce such a work as a co3ple3ent to a general9purpose nati2e speaker dictionary. The se3antic classi0ication o0 the words in 7I8+ on the 789 :; =see **.)> proceeds along the sa3e lines and enco3passes all the )$,$$$ headwords o0 7I8+, -ut the electronic 0or3at does not allow the o2er2iew o0 the structure o0 the 2oca-ulary that the printed Lexicon does. A0ter all, the -asic arrange3ent o0 the entries in 7I8+ on 789 :; is still the alpha-etical 0or3at o0 the print 2ersion. There is one 0urther re0erence work 0or learners that incorporates so3e o0 the insights 0ro3 the the3atic tradition: the Longman Language Acti,ator =*!!&>, which ad2ertises itsel0 as Dthe world6s 0irst production dictionary6. It addresses speci0ically the needs o0 learners in writing and speaking to -e a-le to choose the appropriate word and to use it correctly. The Acti,ator is constructed around *$)% Dconcepts6 or Dkey words6: ,age *)# These concepts express the 3eanings at the heart o0 the +nglish language. It should -e pointed out straight away, howe2er, that the Acti,ator does not address itsel0 to words 0or Dreal world6 ite3s, so3e o0 which, o0 course, also -elong to the core o0 +nglish. 1e -elie2e that concrete nouns, and content words in general, present 0ewer, less serious pro-le3s o0 correct use 0or students, so you will not 0ind di00erent types o0 transport, dogs, 3achinery or -uildings here. That is le0t to the Longman Lexicon, which deals e00ecti2ely with se3antic 0ields, including real world ite3s. The concepts K ha2e clear, direct na3es such as FA , AA8.<?HA,,@, H:,+, I?T+?8, +AA@, FA<LT.ATH 1 :?I, and 4<T. =Introduction, p. F#> The key word entry is structured in the 0ollowing way. I0 the word has 3ore than one -road 3eaning, these are identi0ied 0irst and a re0erence gi2en to the keyword under which each 3eaning is explained. For exa3ple, the key word modern has two 3eanings identi0ied: < modern places, methods, etc/ m ;:8+ ?

< using the ne(est e:uipment, technology, etc/ m A8JA?7+8. Then, under each key word, lexical ite3s are grouped together in related sets, with a su33ary o0 the sets at the -eginning o0 the entry, e.g. 0or modern: * words 0or descri-ing 3achines, syste3s, processes etc that ha2e -een de2eloped using the 3ost recent ideas and eCuip3ent % using, or willing to use, the 3ost recent ideas and ways o0 thinking & words 0or descri-ing 3odern art, literature, 3usic, etc ' to change so3ething in order to 3ake it 3odern. The ite3s in each o0 these sets are listed, together with the description =as a-o2e> at the -eginning o0 the set. For Aet % o0 modern, the ite3s are: modern, progressi,e, inno,ati,e, for(ard9loo4ing, mo,e (ith the times, go9ahead. +ach o0 the lexical ite3s is pro2ided with an entry including pronunciation, word class, de0inition and exa3ples. The key words are arranged alpha-etically in the dictionary, and the alpha-etical list contains all the lexe3es treated in the dictionary. Those that are not key words are cross9re0erenced to the key word under which they are treated. The Acti,ator has its headwords ordered alpha-etically, -ut under *$)% o0 the3 / the Dkey words6 / a the3atic approach is taken and lexical ite3s are organised into lexical sets.

1-+1 Continuing the tradition

A the3atic dictionary pro2ides an insight into the structure o0 the 2oca-ulary that an alpha-etical dictionary cannot possi-ly a00ord. ?e2ertheless, e2en with ,age *)! works like Roget-s hesaurus, 0or 3ost people the entry point to any word-ook is through an alpha-etical list. The3atic dictionaries such as Roget and the Longman Lexicon ha2e needed to pro2ide an index in order to 0acilitate their use, pro2ide an entry point, and enhance their use0ulness. This, along with the 0act that 3any words will -e entered se2eral ti3es, in di00erent places, in a the3atic dictionary, has tended to 3ake such dictionaries either li3ited in scope / the Longman Lexicon has only *),$$$ ite3s / or potentially rather unwieldy. ,erhaps it is not surprising that no pu-lisher has 2entured a general9purpose the3atic dictionary. The other potential disad2antage o0 a the3atic dictionary is that, -ecause a word with 3ultiple 3eanings 3ay -e entered partially in se2eral places, no o2erall 2iew o0 the word6s lexical description is o00ered. The electronic 3ediu3, howe2er, opens up new possi-ilities =;cArthur *!!#, 7h. *)>. Ao 0ar, 3ost, i0 not all, pu-lishers that ha2e -rought out a 789 :; 2ersion o0 their dictionaries ha2e si3ply trans0erred the alpha-etically arranged print 2ersion to the electronic 3ediu3. Any enhance3ent has, 0or the 3ost part, -een in the search 0acilities pro2ided 0or the electronic 2ersion, though learners6 dictionaries on 789 :; ha2e gone 0urther. ;ost nota-le is 7I8+ on 789 :;6s se3antic 0ield analysis =see **.) and a-o2e>, which assigns each headword.3eaning

to a set within an ela-orately structured hierarchy o0 0ields. It has, thus, -olted a the3atic 0ra3ework onto an alpha-etical one, -ut it is the alpha-etical one that is transparent, since you can -rowse.scroll through the entries in the alpha-etical list, -ut not through those in the the3atic one: you ha2e to pull each ite3 in the list indi2idually 0ro3 its place in the alpha-etical structure. I would like to suggest that this is the wrong way round. An alpha-etical lookup is always 0or a single ite3. 4ecause you type the ite3 in 0or a lookup in an electronic dictionary, it does not 3atter how the dictionary is structured. Indeed, so3e electronic dictionaries =e.g. 7:8*$> show you only one entry per screen. The entries could there0ore -e stored on 789 :; in rando3 orderH it would 3ake little di00erence to a search 0or a single ite3. Howe2er, i0 they were stored -y se3antic 0ield, and it was possi-le to scroll through the entries, a 789 :; dictionary could 0ul0il -oth purposes: the single lookup, which is the ad2antage o0 an alpha-etical organisationH and the lexical 0ield analysis, which is the -ene0it o0 a the3atic organisation. Ao3e pro2ision would also need to -e 3ade 0or co3posite entries o0 ite3s distri-uted across se3antic 0ields. 4ut the electronic 3ediu3 does not ha2e the space considerations o0 print.

1-+3 5urther reading

A 3ost lucid account o0 the de2elop3ent o0 the the3atic tradition in re0erence works, including lexicography, is 0ound in To3 ;cArthur6s Worlds of Reference =*!#(>, now, la3enta-ly, out o0 print. 7hapters *% to *' o0 his Li,ing Words =*!!#> also deal with the3atic lexicography, including an account o0 the Longman Lexicon. 1erner HTllen6s )nglish &ictionaries FDD/1CDD: he opical radition ,age *($ =*!!!> treats in so3e detail the 3aEor works during the de2elop3ent o0 the tradition. Ienuine editions o0 Roget-s hesaurus =e.g. Firkpatrick *!!)> contain oget6s original introduction in which he outlines the rationale 0or the work and its underlying conception. ,age *(*

13 Co(piling dictionaries
Any dictionary, apart perhaps 0ro3 the occasional scholarly undertaking, is a co33ercial 2enture. It reCuires considera-le in2est3ent in sta00, eCuip3ent, 3aterials, and ti3e. The in2est3ent is unlikely to -e recouped 0or a nu3-er o0 years. 8ictionary proEects run to a -udget and to a ti3eta-le. They ha2e to -e planned and 3anagedH they reCuire the in2ol2e3ent o0 people with a wide range o0 specialist knowledges and skills. Like 3arriage, co3piling a dictionary is not so3ething to -e Dconte3plated lightly6. This chapter looks at so3e o0 the issues in2ol2ed in dictionary co3pilation and considers so3e o0 the decisions that con0ront lexicographers and editors o0 dictionaries. Ao3e dictionaries ha2e had their stories told. eddick =*!!$> uses recent scholarship to recount how Aa3uel Johnson went a-out co3piling his &ictionary of the )nglish Language. +liGa-eth

;urray6s -iography o0 her grand0ather, Ja3es ;urray, entitled $aught in the Web of Words =*!"">, traces the genesis o0 the *xford )nglish &ictionary and especially Ja3es ;urray6s contri-ution as the principal editor o0 the 0irst edition. Her-ert ;orton has written an account o0 Webster-s hird and its editor, ,hilip Io2e =;orton *!!'>. And the 2olu3e entitled Loo4ing +p, edited -y John Ainclair =*!#">, gi2es insight into the de2elop3ent o0 the 7:4<IL8 learners6 dictionary.

13+1 'he plan

?o dictionary can -egin to -e co3piled without considera-le 0orethought and planning. 7o33ercial pu-lishers do not nor3ally release their plans to the pu-lic, though so3e o0 the thinking that underlies a particular dictionary or edition o0ten 0inds expression in the pre0ace or introduction. The one 0a3ous pu-lished plan is Aa3uel Johnson6s =see '.)> %lan of a &ictionary of the )nglish Language =in 1ilson *!)">, written to satis0y his -ookseller.pu-lisher sponsors and, at their instigation, to seek the patronage o0 the +arl o0 7hester0ield, unsuccess0ully as it turned out. 1hether 3ade pu-lic or not, the plan o0 a dictionary has to address a nu3-er o0 i3portant Cuestions and 3ake decisions a-out issues that will a00ect the nature o0 the 0inished product. :ne o0 the earliest decisions to -e 3ade relates to the target user group. Indeed that decision 3ay already ha2e -een taken -e0ore the planning process ,age *(% starts. 8eciding, 0or exa3ple, to produce a dictionary 0or children aged " to *$ =@ears & to ( o0 pri3ary school> will need to -e a starting point 0ro3 which other Cuestions and decisions will 0low. Ai3ilarly, i0 a learners6 dictionary is proposed, that needs to -e in 2iew 0ro3 the outset o0 the planning. Ieneral9purpose dictionaries, howe2er, e2en though ha2ing a general nati2e9 speaker target audience, 3ay ha2e a conscious -ias towards a particular su-set o0 those users. +7+8, 0or exa3ple, has Dthe needs o0 0a3ilies and students in 3ind6 =dust Eacket>. ;ost dictionaries presuppose a general user, without speci0ying any particular su-groupH 778' is D0or e2eryone whether reading, writing or studying, and K 0or all who lo2e the +nglish language6 =p. ix>, whereas $hambers atte3pts to -e all9inclusi2e in its identi0ication o0 potential users: $hambers is a dictionary o0 unri2alled 2alue to users o0 +nglish / to students, scholars, writers, Eournalists, li-rarians and pu-lishers. It is replete with words o0 technical i3portance to scientists, lawyers, accountants and people in -usiness. $hambers is the re0erence dictionary 0or the <F ?ational Acra--ler 7ha3pionshipH it is the 0a2ourite dictionary o0 crossword setters and sol2ersH it is the treasure chest 0or all word9ga3e players and word lo2ers. =dust Eacket> There is so3e -ene0it in speci0ying as wide a 3arket as possi-le 0or one6s products Al3ost as crucial as the target audience is the decision on the siGe o0 the dictionary, since this will ha2e a signi0icant e00ect on a nu3-er o0 0urther issues at the planning stage. AiGe itsel0 correlates -oth with cost and with the price at which the dictionary can -e sold. A Dconcise6 dictionary =see &.%> would pro-a-ly ha2e -etween ($,$$$ and !$,$$$ headwords and cost

-etween V*( and V%$ =at %$$* prices>H Ddesk9siGe6 dictionaries are su-stantially larger and sell at around V&$. AiGe will also ha2e an e00ect on the 0or3at o0 the printed product, -oth in ter3s o0 its o2erall di3ensions and the layout o0 its page, though other 0actors will signi0icantly a00ect the latter as well, such as how 3any colu3ns the page has. ;ost dictionaries ha2e two colu3ns o0 text to the page, -ut so3e recent dictionaries, -oth desk9siGe =?:8+> and concise =+7+8>, ha2e three colu3ns. 4oth siGe and target users will in0luence a 0urther decision in the planning stage, concerning the co2erage o0 the dictionary. A learners6 dictionary will seek to pay 3ore attention to the core 2oca-ulary o0 the language, rather than to 3ore specialist and technical words. A Dpocket6 dictionary will also ha2e less roo3 0or specialist 2oca-ulary. 4ut, in an e00ort to -e up9to9date, general9purpose dictionaries will want to include, certainly in their desk and concise editions, words 0ro3 0ields such as co3puting, 3edicine, technology, -usiness and 0inance, and the en2iron3ent. Ai3ilarly, dictionaries will want to include current colloCuial and slang words that ha2e earned their place in the record o0 the 2oca-ulary, e2en 2ulgar or ta-oo words. ;ore optional 3ay -e the inclusion o0 words 0ro3 other 2arieties o0 +nglish around the world, though it would ,age *(& -e unusual to exclude words at least 0ro3 A3erican +nglish. ;ore optional still would -e dialect words 0ro3 within the 4ritish Isles, though this could -e a 0eature o0 the dictionary =e.g. Acots words in $hambers>. Just as signi0icant an in0luence on scope and siGe would -e the decision to include encyclopedic entries, i.e. na3es o0 people and places, which can -e Cuite lengthy, e.g. in 7+8', which clai3s 3ore than *#,)$$, as against the single liners in +7+8 and only !,$$$ o0 the3. A0ter all these decisions are taken, the headword list has to -e chosen to re0lect the target user group, the agreed siGe, and the intended co2erage. As we ha2e noted -e0ore =&.'>, all dictionaries 3ake a selection 0ro3 the total 2oca-ulary. How does a dictionary achie2e its desired co2erage -ut a2oid -eco3ing un-alanced in its selection o0 words, -y, 0or exa3ple, ha2ing a disproportionate nu3-er o0 words -eginning with the letter D-6 in its headword list5 There are, 0or instance, 3any 3ore words -eginning with Dc6 in +nglish than -eginning with Dg6, in 0act -etween two and three ti3es as 3any. :ne o0 the solutions to this pro-le3 was proposed -y +dward Thorndike in the <A in the *!)$s, in preparation 0or a series o0 Thorndike/4arnhart dictionaries. He di2ided the alpha-et up into *$) D-locks6 o0 approxi3ately eCual siGe, to re0lect the distri-ution o0 +nglish words a3ong the letters o0 the alpha-et. The letter Dc6, 0or exa3ple, has ten -locks, while Dg6 has only 0our. In 0act, the 0inal -lock 0or a letter 3ay not contain as 3any words as the others, nor 3ay letters with only one -lock, or the 0inal -lock co2ering Dx6, Dy6 and DG6. A nu3-er o0 dictionaries ha2e 0ollowed Thorndike6s syste3, which is reproduced in Ta-le *&.*, taken 0ro3 Landau =*!#!:%'%, %$$*:&(*>, -ut with the nu3-er o0 words added 0or each -lock 0ound in 7:8*$ =789 :;> headword list. The total nu3-er o0 headwords gi2en 0or the 7:8*$ 789 :; is (',("!, which would gi2e a 3ean o0 (*( 0or each o0 the *$) -locks. The 7:8*$ headword list includes a--re2iations, deri2ational a00ixes and co3-ining 0or3s, which 3ay not ha2e -een taken into account -y Thorndike. Ii2en the incidence o0 so3e low nu3-ers 0or understanda-le reasons, only &') 0or

P9"', the single -lock 0or the letter DC6, 0or exa3ple, and in the 0inal -lock 0or so3e letters / e.g. &%' in F9&", the nu3-ers are 0airly consistent. <nusually high nu3-ers are pro-a-ly explica-le: F9)* =#)'> is a single letter -lock, <9!# =!)#> contains words -eginning with the negati2e pre0ix un9, whose nu3-ers are likely to -e 2aria-le in a dictionary. :2erall, Thorndike6s syste3, as tested on 7:8*$, see3s to ha2e so3e 2alidity, although, 3ore than hal0 a century later, it 3ay need adEusting to the current 2oca-ulary and to the current practices in respect o0 what are included as headwords. Indeed, the planning stage needs to decide what the 3acro9structure and the 3icro9structure =see &.&> o0 the dictionary will look like. In 3acro9structure ter3s, the tendency is towards a single alpha-etical list o0 headwords that includes co3pounds, de0ined deri2ati2es, a00ixes and co3-ining 0or3s, as well as a--re2iations, and, i0 the dictionary is to include the3, na3es o0 people and places. In 3icro9structure ter3s, the in0or3ation to -e included in an entry, as well as its 0or3at and its order, needs to -e decided. 1ill pronunciation, 0or ,age *(' able 1?/1 Thorndike6s -lock syste3 o0 distri-ution o0 dictionary entries -y initial letters #loc4 Letters 'o/ in $*&1D A9* a9adk (*( A9% adl9alh ("% A9& ali9angk ()' A9' angl9arak ()! A9) aral9ath (&% A9( ati9aG '%$ 49" -9-asd (($ 49# -ase9-en0 ($% 49! -eng9-ld ""% 49*$ -le9-ouC #)# 49** -our9-uc (!# 49*% -ud9-G ''' 79*& c9caC (%) 79*' car9cel (#( 79*) ce39chi3 "&" 79*( chin9cled "&&

79*" clee9col ((" 79*# co39con0 )'! 79*! cong9coo '&* 79%$ cop9cC ("" 79%* cra9culs ()( 79%% cult9cG &'$ 89%& d9de0d ()& 89%' de0e9deteC ))# 89%) deter9discol ("# 89%( disco39dold )(! 89%" dole9dt "*) 89%# du9dG &*' +9%! e9elk ))* +9&$ ell9en )"& +9&* eo9ex- (#! +9&% exc9eG &!& F9&& 090e3 )'* F9&' 0en90lah ()' F9&) 0lai90ord ('! F9&( 0ore90ror )!* F9&" 0ros90G &%' I9&# g9geC (&' I9&! ger9gord "$" I9'$ gore9grouo (%) I9'* group9gG &)% H9'% h9ha2 (*" H9'& haw9hh (%"

H9'' hi9horr "'$ H9') hors9hG ((& I9'( i9ina3 )'% I9'" inan9in0n '#( I9'# in0o9intn )!' I9'! into9iG '(* J9)$ E9EG (*) F9)* k9kG #)' L9)% l9ld ('$ L9)& le9lil ()( L9)' li39louh "%' L9)) loui9lG &#) ;9)( 393ar- "%$ ;9)" 3arc93ed )(* ;9)# 3ee93il #%$ ;9)! 3i393onn ($# ;9($ 3ono93G !"( ?9(* n9ni0 "&) ?9(% nig9nG "'" :9(& o9oo "$( :9(' op9ou (#% :9() o29oG &(" ,9(( p9par "%! ,9(" pas9peC (#* ,9(# per9picE ")% ,9(! pick9plea (&( ,9"$ ple-9poss (!!

,9"* post9prh (&% ,9"% pri9prot )(' ,9"& prou9pG )"' P9"' C9CG &') 9") r9recn (#& 9"( reco9renn (*) 9"" reno9rhn ))( 9"# rho9rotd ("# 9"! rote9rG &(! A9#$ s9sat ('$ A9#* sau9sd (%( A9#% sea9seo ((# A9#& sep9shio (*$ A9#' ship9sin0 (&# A9#) sing9s3d (** A9#( s3e9sors (%' A9#" sort9spln (%" A9## splo9stas )'% A9#! stat9sto2 )&* A9!$ stow9sucg ))& A9!* such9swar ))& A9!% swas9sG &*! T9!& t9tel "%! T9!' te39thC ((' T9!) thr9too ((& T9!( top9trh ((# T9!" tri9tG #)%

<9!# u9unl !)# <9!! un39uG (#( J9*$$ 292i3 ("& J9*$* 2in92G &'! 19*$% w9wess (## 19*$& west9wis ("( 19*$' wit9wG ')( Q@M9*$) x9GG '"#

,age *() exa3ple, -e gi2en 0or all headwords5 what transcription syste3 will -e used5 how will word stress -e indicated5 In ter3s o0 usage, what set o0 la-els will -e used5 and will any additional usage guidance -e o00ered5 For ety3ology, how 3uch in0or3ation will -e gi2en5 will it include so3e indication o0 when the word ca3e into the language5 As such 3atters are decided, they need to -e recorded in a 3anual so that e2eryone who works on the dictionary, or who Eoins the dictionary sta00 at a later date, knows what policies and ground rules ha2e -een deter3ined. ?ot strictly lexicographical, -ut ne2ertheless o0 crucial i3portance, are decisions a-out -udgeting, -oth o0 3oney and o0 ti3e. Ladisla2 Mgusta =*!"*:&'#> co33ents: I certainly do not know all lexicographic proEects past and presentH -ut o0 those I know not a single one was 0inished in the ti3e and 0or the 3oney originally planned. =cited in Landau %$$*:&'"> This was indeed true o0 so3e o0 the 3ore 0a3ous dictionaries / Johnson6s, scheduled 0or three years and taking nineH the :+8, with ;urray contracted -y the :x0ord 8elegacy to produce in ten years and 0our 2olu3es, taking 0i0ty years and ten =su-seCuently twel2e> 2olu3es. 4ut with the ad2ent o0 co3puter technology, Mgusta6s pessi3is3 is pro-a-ly no longer Eusti0ied: :+8% was pu-lished on ti3e in *!#!, and it is noticea-le that the ti3espan -etween editions o0 dictionaries appears to -e decreasing, e.g. 7:8"/*!#%, 7:8#/*!!$, 7:8!/*!!), 7:8*$/ *!!!, with an updated edition o0 7:8*$ in %$$*. The costs associated with co3piling a dictionary are Cuite di00erent 0ro3 those 0or other kinds o0 -ook pu-lication, as Aidney Landau o-ser2es: ;ost -ooks cost co3parati2ely little to prepare =the plant cost, in pu-lishing argot> -ut a great deal to produce =paper, printing, and -inding costs>. The opposite is true o0 dictionaries, where the cost o0 production, though hardly negligi-le, is s3all co3pared to the huge editorial de2elop3ent costs, which 3ust -e a3ortiGed o2er a 3uch longer period o0 ti3e than -ook pu-lishers are generally 0a3iliar with. 8ata93anage3ent costs =syste3s analysis, co3puter

progra33ing and processing> are also 3uch higher than they are 0or other -ooks. =Landau %$$*:&'#> The siGe o0 the -udget and its distri-ution -etween the 2arious processes o0 dictionary co3pilation 3ay ha2e a signi0icant e00ect on what the dictionary will turn out to -e like in the end. I0 ti3e, e00ort and 3oney is 0ocused on one, perhaps no2el, aspect o0 the dictionary, this 3ay ha2e a detri3ental e00ect on the Cuality o0 other aspects: usage in0or3ation 3ay -e prioritised o2er ety3ology, 0or exa3ple. ,age *((

13+- 'he data

Ha2ing decided the headword list and 3ade all the other necessary preli3inary planning decisions, the issue arises o0 where the data 0or the dictionary is going to co3e 0ro3. There are essentially three possi-le sources o0 data: pre2ious dictionaries, citations, =co3puter> corpora. Any newly pu-lished dictionary will -e either a new edition o0 an existing line o0 dictionaries or a new departure. In -oth cases, the dictionary stands in a long tradition o0 dictionary 3aking =7hapters ' to (>, and, whether consciously or not, pre2ious dictionaries exert their in0luence. Aa3uel Johnson used one o0 ?athaniel 4ailey6s dictionaries, ?oah 1e-ster used Johnson6s, F.I. and H.1. Fowler used the :+8 0or the 0irst edition o0 the 7:8. It would -e 0oolish, e2en when the -oundaries o0 lexicography are -eing extended, to ignore the achie2e3ents o0 the past, though it 3ay -e so3eti3es 3ore sensi-le to -orrow the principles rather than the content 0ro3 pre2ious dictionaries. Landau =%$$*:&'(> goes so 0ar as to assert: DAll co33ercial dictionaries are -ased to so3e extent on preexisting works.6 ,u-lishers with long9esta-lished dictionary depart3ents -uild up an extensi2e archi2e o0 citations, o0ten going -ack 3any decades. They continue to ha2e a reading progra33e, scouring recent pu-lications 0or new words or new uses o0 existing words. They 3ay ha2e readers in9 house, -ut will o0ten in2ite interested 3e3-ers o0 the pu-lic to contri-ute 3aterial as well. Long3an ran a D1ordwatch6 progra33e 0or a nu3-er o0 years during the *!#$s, which contri-uted to the Longman Register of 'e( Words =Ayto *!#!, *!!$>. :x0ord has a D1orld eading ,rogra33e6, an international network o0 so3e sixty readers, who contri-ute so3e *#,$$$ ite3s a 3onth 0or inclusion in the D:x0ord 4ank o0 ?ew 1ords6 =c0. Ayto *!!!>. The collection o0 citations has a long history, going -ack at least to Aa3uel Johnson, who extracted 3aterial 0ro3 the literature o0 the day 0or inclusion in his dictionary. The :+8 was 0ounded on the practice o0 recruiting 2oluntary readers to undertake the reading o0 speci0ic works or authors and to su-3it appropriate citations. A3ong the instructions issued -y Ja3es ;urray, when he renewed the call 0or 2oluntary readers in *#"!, were the 0ollowing: ;ake a Cuotation 0or e,ery word that strikes you as rare, o-solete, old0ashioned, new, peculiar, or used in a peculiar way. Take a special note o0 passages which show or i3ply that a word is either new and tentati2e, or needing explanation as o-solete or archaic, and which thus help to 0ix the date o0 its introduction or disuse.

;ake as many Cuotations as con,enient to you 0or ordinary words, when these are used signi0icantly, and help -y the context to explain their own 3eaning, or show their use. =;urray *!"":&'"> eaders were to write their Cuotations on slips o0 paper the siGe o0 Da hal09sheet o0 note9paper6, together with 0ull -i-liographical in0or3ationH ;urray gi2es the 0ollowing speci3en =0ro3 ;urray *!"":&)$>: ,age *(" &iplomatist, n/ 1FBD/ ./ L/ M* L)Q, <nited ?etherlands 7ed/ 1FBF8, I/ ii/ 0@/ If diplo3atic adroitness consists mainly in the po(er to decei,e, ne,er (ere more adroit diplo3atists than those of the sixteenth century/ It is esti3ated that so3e 0i2e 3illion Cuotations in this 0or3 were su-3itted -y so3e %,$$$ readers to the :+8 editors, o0 which *.# 3illion appeared in the 0irst edition o0 the dictionary =4erg *!!&>. These days, dictionary depart3ents that ha2e a reading progra33e will also deri2e data 0ro3 co3puter corpora. The reading progra33e 3ay -e only in specialised areas, as indicated -y the +ditor9in97hie0 o0 +7+8: 1here did the )ncarta $oncise )nglish &ictionary6s editors 0ind the in0or3ation on which to -ase their de0initions5 The 4loo3s-ury 7orpus o0 1orld +nglish, which now has o2er *)$ 3illion words, pro2ided the 3ain e2idence. 1e a3pli0ied this with a tailored reading progra33e in science, technology, -usiness, and other key areas in order to 0ind e2idence o0 word use in 2aried 0ields. Lastly we used the Internet as a research source. =Introduction, p. xiii> 1e noted =in 7hapter **> the 7:4<IL8 dictionary as the pioneer in the use o0 co3puter corpora 0or pro2iding the data 0ro3 which the dictionary is co3piled. The #an4 of )nglish, now a3ounting to in excess o0 '$$ 3illion words, continues to supply data 0or 7ollins dictionaries, -oth 0or nati2e speakers and 0or learners. :x0ord and Long3an consult the #ritish 'ational $orpus, and 7a3-ridge the $ambridge Language 3ur,ey corpus. A co3puter corpus consists o0 a collection o0 texts in electronic 0or3, 0or lexicographical purposes drawn 0ro3 -oth written and spoken +nglish and representati2e o0 the 2ast range o0 text9types and registers 0ound in language =see Antoinette enou06s chapter on D7orpus 8e2elop3ent6 in Ainclair *!#">. 7o3puter corpora can -e easily searched, so that all the occurrences o0 a word can -e identi0ied, rather than Eust those that happen to -e noticed -y a reader. In that sense, the data 0ro3 co3puter corpora are 3ore co3plete and 3ore relia-le than 0ro3 any other sourceH they also pro2ide in0or3ation a-out relati2e 0reCuency o0 occurrence, not only o0 words and ho3ographs, -ut also o0 senses o0 words. The usual output o0 a co3puter search is a concordance list, such as the 0ollowing 0or the word conductor =taken 0ro3 the one

3illion word Lancaster5 *sloO#ergen $orpus o0 written +nglish>: * K owskifO dtTf%HAT f$0or3er 0ire9eating RRconductorSS f'Leopold Atokowski f$is a 3ellowed 3an K % K party, to sa2e any tickets he recei2es 0ro3 the RRconductorSS, the nu3-er o0 which ends in fa".ffa t1h K & K closing curtains were co3-ined -y producer and RRconductorSS into an exCuisite theatrical unity K

,age *(# ' K u$;r. Harry To3kins> and u$;r. Ieorge Hespe their RRconductorSS. tI a3 sure e2eryone will agree that the K ) K o-ert Hughes, euphoniu3 solo, and the RRconductorSS played a tu-ular -ell solo acco3panied - K ( K and lead the others. tAs 0or -asses and altos the RRconductorSS had to teach -y singing the parts with t K " K was unhappy a-out a 0orthco3ing concert. tfaThe RRconductorSSf9so9and9sof9 he has no te3pera3ent. tIt K # K co3posers.ffa tIt is true that he was the 0irst RRconductorSS to put +lgar on the 3usical 3ap, the rea K ! K Ha3ilton Harty in *!&& as the per3anent RRconductorSS o0 the Hallef5% 7oncerts, the orchestra K *$ K stra declined in its ense3-le. tAnother per3anent RRconductorSS was needed, -ut the Hallef5% Aociety wer K ** K n ordinary theatre 3anage3ents to choose RRconductorSS, producer, designer, and so on, and then, ha2ing K *% K all responsi-le should -e expertsf9 the RRconductorSS, the orchestral players, the singers, the K *& K stage =which includes arranging that the RRconductorSS can catch the eye o0 the singer at neces K *' K -e guided. tHow o0ten does an excellent RRconductorSS wish to take a passage o0 3usic at an f6 K *) K in the circu3stances5 tThe co9operati2e RRconductorSS, like 4eecha3, will always listen and -e K

*( K tage is wrong.> t4ut I ha2e known a good RRconductorSS insist on what was argua-ly a f6correctlyff6 0ast K *" K is too clean to -e the score used -y the RRconductorSS, and it was pro-a-ly the 0air9copy prepa K *# K trans3itted to the 2olt3eter J -y a nickel RRconductorSS 8, nickel -eing resistant to corrosi2e a K *! K ed to the 2olt3eter -y an earthed nickel RRconductorSS attached to the -otto3 o0 a well + in th K %$ K coupling H which also positions the u$ L 2e nickel RRconductorSS with respect to the sodiu3 -y circlips o K %* K ectrolyte J attached to the u$ L 2e nickel RRconductorSS -y nickel circlips. tFixing and positioning o0 th K %% K ce, and with 0ar 3ore to o00er. dtThe RRconductorSS rang his -ell. dtfaIood9-ye, 8ai,ffa K %& K t1here indeed5 t;egan Tho3as spoke sharply to the RRconductorSS, de3anding an explanation. t4ut non K %' K de3anding an explanation. t4ut nonplussed, the RRconductorSS was. tA good 3an, 3indH knew his Eo-. t4 K %) K 0irst thing a-out it.ffa dtAtung, the RRconductorSS was. tf1hat you expect 3e to do5ffa he K dtAtung, the RRconductorSS was. tf1hat you expect 3e to do5ffa he K dtAtung, the RRconductorSS was. tf661hat you expect 3e to do5ffa he K dtAtung, the RRconductorSS was. tfDD1hat you expect 3e to do5ffa he K dtAtung, the RRconductorSS was. tfa1hat you expect 3e to do5ffa he K %( K proper K dtIetting dark, now. tThe RRconductorSS switched on the lights. tThe -eleaguered K

,age *(! %" K ng the sleeping 7adwallader. t8ri2er and RRconductorSS peered ahead into nothingness. t:n the - K %# K tfa7an6t go lighting -on0ires on this -us,ffa the RRconductorSS said 0ir3ly. tfa7ontrary to the 7o3pany6 K

This is pro2ided -y way o0 exe3pli0ication o0 a concordanceH it is 0ro3 a s3all corpus and does not gi2e enough data to 3ake it possi-le to draw general conclusions. 4ut it does illustrate the three 3ain senses o0 conductor: the 3usical sense =?os * to *">, its use in relation to electricity =?os *# to %*>, and the -us conductor sense =?os %* to %#>. And it shows the kind o0 3aterial that a lexicographer has to work with and interpret, in order to decide whether a 0or3 represents potentially 3ore than one ho3ograph, and to deter3ine how 3any senses should -e recognised. The ad2antage o0 a concordance is that context is pro2ided, and can -e adEusted 0or siGe, so that the gra33atical and collocational -eha2iour o0 words can -e ascertained and used as guides 0or the deter3ination o0 sense di2isions, as a3esh Frishna3urthy o-ser2es in respect o0 the 7:4<IL8 proEect =Ainclair *!#":")>: 7ollocational e2idence was o0 great use0ulness in an analysis o0 the corpus data. The concordance lines were arranged in alpha-etical order o0 the 0irst character a0ter the space 0ollowing the keyword. This 3eant that so3e 0eatures o0 the -eha2iour o0 a lexical ite3 in text -eca3e i33ediately apparent. It is no exaggeration to say that co3puter corpora ha2e re2olutionised the lexicographic process = undell and Atock *!!%>, in ter3s -oth o0 the Cuality o0 lexical data that can -e o-tained and o0 the relia-ility o0 the conclusions that can -e drawn 0ro3 that data.

13+3 'he (ethod

A co3puter corpus, with sophisticated search progra3s, 3ay produce -etter Cuality data, and an electronic data-ase 3ay ease the task o0 putting the dictionary in0or3ation together, -ut no progra3 has yet -een written, nor is it likely to -e, to auto3ate the process o0 getting 0ro3 data to 0inished dictionary. All dictionaries nowadays reCuire the input o0 a range o0 sta00 with di00erent skills and specialis3s. Long gone are the days o0 the lonely lexicographer, like Aa3uel Johnson, toiling in his garret with the help o0 a 0ew assistants, or e2en the Fowler -rothers putting together the 0irst edition o0 the 7:8 at their ho3e on the island o0 Iuernsey, with occasional 0orays to the :+8 o00ice in :x0ord. 7+8', 0or exa3ple, lists so3e twenty editorial sta00, including lexicographers and co3puting experts, as well as se2enteen DApecial 7onsultants6 on 2arieties o0 +nglish around the world and 0i0ty9eight DApecialist 7ontri-utors6 on topics ranging 0ro3 aeronautics to industrial relations to religion. A 0urther thirty D:ther 7ontri-utors6 are also listed, alongside their specialist topic, 0ro3 horology to place na3es to sports. Ao3e dictionaries ha2e esta-lished additionally an ,age *"$ ad2isory -oardH +7+8 has a 0orty9strong DAcade3ic Ad2isory 4oard on +nglish <sage6, drawn 0ro3 uni2ersities in the <F, Australia, 7anada and the <A. The input o0 all these people is reCuired 0or the 0or3ulation o0 the dictionary entries. ?ot only will external consultants contri-ute their expertise on 2arieties o0 +nglish and technical Eargons, -ut it is likely that a 3e3-er o0 editorial sta00 will specialise in one type o0 dictionary in0or3ation, e.g. pronunciation, ety3ology, gra33ar, usage. Ao3e will de2elop expertise in de0ining, or in selecting the appropriate exa3ple, or in researching and writing -iographical entries. The hardest, and 3ost i3portant, part is o0ten considered to -e that o0 de0ining. Landau =%$$*:&)'> considers the Cualities reCuired o0 a good de0iner to -e:

First and 0ore3ost, he or she 3ust -e a-le to write well and easily. They 3ust ha2e analytical 3inds that seek to chop things up into parts K 8e0iners 3ust ha2e a -road, -ut not necessarily deep, 0und o0 in0or3ation. K de0iners 3ust ha2e a 0eeling 0or the language, 3prachgefUhl, a sense o0 aptness o0 expression, an appreciation o0 nuance, style and idio3. Howe2er, dictionary editors 3ay seek to i3pose a particular uni0or3 style o0 de0ining on their lexicographers, as ,hilip Io2e did 0or 1& with his Dsingle9state3ent de0ining style6 =;orton *!!'>. 7o3pare the ra3-ling de0inition o0 arson 0ro3 the 0irst edition with the crisper single9 phrase 0ro3 1&: The 3alicious -urning o0 a dwelling house or outhouse o0 another 3an, which -y co33on law is 0elony. The de0inition o0 this cri3e is 2aried -y statutes in di00erent Eurisdictions, and generally it has -een widened to include the si3ilar -urning o0 other property, as o0 churches, 0actories, ships, or o0 one6s own house. =1*> the wil0ul and 3alicious -urning o0 or atte3pt to -urn any -uilding, structure, or property o0 another =as a house, a church, or a -oat> or o0 one6s own usu. with cri3inal or 0raudulent intent =1&> 1hen a large nu3-er o0 people are contri-uting to a single work, one o0 the 3aEor concerns is to 3aintain a consistency o0 writing and presentation. 8ictionary proEects will, there0ore, docu3ent their decisions a-out content and style in a set o0 guidelines or a 3anual, so that any contri-utor or new 3e3-er o0 sta00 can -e in0or3ed o0 the house rules 0or the particular pu-lication. The 3anual will speci0y not Eust con2entions 0or the 3acro9 and 3icro9structure o0 the dictionary, -ut also points o0 detail, such as use o0 a--re2iation and punctuation within an entry. 4esides using a co3puter corpus 0or o-taining data, dictionaries are now usually constructed using a co3puter data-ase. A nu3-er o0 co33ercial products o0 this nature are a2aila-le, -ut the larger pu-lishers ha2e their in9house syste3s. Auch a data-ase allows se2eral lexicographers or specialists to -e working on entries at the sa3e ti3e, e.g. 0or pronunciation, ety3ology and so onH ,age *"* and it allows each to see the work o0 the others. It also allows 0reelance lexicographers to work at a location re3ote 0ro3 the dictionary o00ices. It 0acilitates the editorial and checking processes, and pro2ides with relati2e ease the 2ersion 0or e2entual printing, as well as any electronic =789 :; or online> 2ersion. ?ot only that, -ut once a dictionary data-ase has -een esta-lished, it can pro2ide the 3aterial 0or dictionaries o0 other siGes =e.g. concise or pocket> and 0or other user groups =e.g. children or school students>. It also pro2ides the -asis 0or easier updating and re2ising 0or the production o0 new editions. The co3puter has changed the way dictionaries are co3piled and produced, -ut it has not done away with the need 0or skilled lexicographers to practise the art, or cra0t, o0 constructing and writing dictionary entries. Like so 3any other tasks, lexicography is co3puter9aided rather than

co3puter9auto3ated.

13+0 'he result

A0ter all the e00ort, skill and expertise de2oted to the lexicographical task, the result is a -ook, o0 a particular siGe and 0or3at, printed using a nu3-er o0 selected type0aces, o00ered to the dictionary9-uying pu-lic. How a dictionary handles, what the dictionary page looks like, how the in0or3ation is arranged, are i3portant 0actors in selling a dictionary, irrespecti2e o0 the Cuality o0 its content. The i3pression o0 accessi-ility is o0 signi0icance. The colu3n on a page 3ust in2ite scanning up and down. The headwords, alternati2e spellings, co3pounds, deri2ati2es, phrasal 2er-s and idio3s usually stand out in a -old type0ace, as do the sense nu3-ers. The headword itsel0 is o00set to the le0t. Italics are usually used 0or word class and usage la-els, 0or illustrati2e exa3ples, and 0or words cited 0ro3 other languages in the ety3ologies. 7ross9 re0erences are nor3ally in s3all capitals. 1here a word -elongs to 3ore than one word class, and they are treated in the sa3e entry, the -eginning o0 the second and su-seCuent word class is clearly 3arked, e.g. with a -old dia3ond in 7+8', with a large -old dot in 7:8*$. Ao3e in0or3ation 3ay -egin on a new line within an entry, e.g. Dderi2ati2es6 and Dorigin6 =i.e. ety3ology> in ?:8+ and 7:8*$. The care0ul use o0 layout and type0ace contri-utes to the ease with which a user is a-le to locate the exact piece o0 in0or3ation that they are seeking a-out a word. Another Dresult6 o0 the lexicographic process is a 789 :;. :ne 789 :; is 3uch like another to look at, so there is no issue here o0 how it Dhandles6. 4ut there are serious issues a-out how the in0or3ation is displayed on the screen, what search options are a2aila-le, and how intuiti2e it is 0or the =nai2e> user to operate. 789 :; dictionaries usually display two windows: a word list window and an entry window. The word list window contains the headwords in alpha-etical order, together with a -ox 0or typing a word that the user wishes to look up. Typing in the word locates its place in the headword listH it 3ay also -ring up the entry auto3atically in the other window, or a 0urther operation 3ay -e reCuired =a 3ouse click or pressing the D+nter6 key>. It is nor3ally possi-le to scroll through the headword list, and i0 this is auto3atically linked to ,age *"% the entry window, then -y this 3eans to scroll through the dictionary entries. The entry window 3ay contain a single entry, 0or the selected headwordH alternati2ely it 3ay contain that entry together with contiguous ones that will 0it onto the screen. In the latter case, it is usually possi-le to scroll the entry window, as i0 scanning a dictionary page. The entries on screen replicate as 0ar as possi-le the arrange3ent and type0aces o0 the print 2ersion, though without the dou-le or triple colu3ns. Acrolling through entries on the screen is, thus, not the sa3e experience as -rowsing a print dictionary, -ut 0or single ite3 lookups there is little di00erence. :ne respect in which 789 :; dictionaries score o2er their print counterparts is in their 0ull9 text search 0acility, though this is, perhaps, o0 3ore interest to lexicologists and other students o0 language than to the ordinary user. 789 :; dictionaries 2ary, though, in the sophistication o0 their search 0acilities, as we ha2e noted -oth 0or nati2e speaker dictionaries =(."> and 0or learners6 dictionaries =**.)>, where these 0acilities are pro-a-ly o0 greater i3portance. 1e are 3ore adept at e2aluating the 0acilities that electronic dictionaries gi2e us, than at knowing how indi2idual users exploit the3 0or their own purposes =7reswell *!!(H ?esi *!!!H Holder-au3

*!!!H Heu-erger %$$$H Jehle *!!!>. :nce a dictionary is pu-lished and it is on the 3arket, it -eco3es the o-Eect o0 scrutiny -y all kinds o0 critic, 0ro3 newspaper Eournalists to acade3ics. How the critic goes a-out their task, or ought to, is the topic o0 the 0inal chapter o0 this -ook.

13+1 5urther reading

The -est place to start is with 7hapter ", D8ictionary 3aking6, o0 &ictionaries: he Art and $raft of Lexicography =%$$*> -y Aidney Landau, hi3sel0 with experience o0 in2ol2e3ent in a nu3-er o0 dictionary proEects. His 7hapter (, DThe corpus in lexicography6, is also o0 rele2ance to the discussion in this chapter =*&.%>. 4o A2ensNn6s %ractical Lexicography: %rinciples and Methods of &ictionary Ma4ing =*!!&> and Ladisla2 Mgusta6s Manual of Lexicography =*!"*>, though a little old now, -oth re2iew so3e o0 the theoretical and practical decisions 0acing lexicographers in co3piling a dictionary. Aa3uel Johnson6s %lan and %reface are still worth reading 0or their 0orward9looking insights =-oth reproduced in 1ilson *!)">, and the original :+8 %reface and General )xplanations in Jolu3e * o0 :+8* 3erit study. Ao3e o0 the accounts o0 the 3aking o0 indi2idual dictionaries were 3entioned earlier =*&.*>: eddick =*!!$> on Johnson, ;urray =*!""> on the :+8, ;orton =*!!'> on 1&, and Ainclair =*!#"> on 7:4<IL8. ,age *"&

10 Criticising dictionaries
Acade3ic lexicography, or D3etalexicography6, as pursued in uni2ersity depart3ents o0 +nglish or Linguistics, is concerned not pri3arily with the co3piling o0 dictionaries / though acade3ics 3ay -e in2ol2ed in this, as consultants, 0or exa3ple / -ut with researching and teaching a-out the whole -usiness o0 3aking dictionaries: their history, their typology, their structures, their users, and so on =Hart3ann %$$*>. :ne aspect o0 acade3ic lexicography looks at the products o0 co33ercial lexicography and su-Eects the3 to a rigorous critiCue, usually resulting in a re2iewH though acade3ics are not the only ones who re2iew dictionaries. The process o0 critiCuing and re2iewing dictionaries is ter3ed Ddictionary criticis36. :ne o0 the crucial issues 0or dictionary criticis3 is to esta-lish a sound and rigorous -asis on which to conduct the criticis3, together with a set o0 applica-le criteria. Hart3ann =%$$*:'!> co33ents: Anyone who has e2er read =or written> a re2iew o0 a particular dictionary will know that generally agreed criteria and standards 0or the assess3ent o0 Cuality and per0or3ance are still rare, i0 they can -e said to exist at all. This chapter discusses the -usiness o0 dictionary criticis3 and proposes so3e ways in which it 3ay -e undertaken and so3e guidelines 0or assessing dictionaries.

10+1 'he business o! criticis(

In the -rie0 section on dictionary criticis3 in his chapter on lexicography in 3ol,ing Language %roblems, einhard Hart3ann =*!!(:%'*> de0ines it as the Dti3e9honoured6 acti2ity o0 De2aluating and assessing lexicographic products6. It is an acti2ity that has a long history. +2ery new edition o0 a 3aEor dictionary spawns re2iews in all kinds o0 pu-lication, 0ro3 daily and weekly newspapers to acade3ic Eournals. 4ut dictionary criticis3 is an acti2ity, as Hart3ann notes, Dwhich has -een -eset -y personal preEudice rather than noted 0or the application o0 o-Eecti2e criteria6 =*!!(:%'*>. This concern is echoed in ?oel :sselton6s article / the only one with D8ictionary 7riticis36 in its title / in the International )ncyclopedia of Lexicography =Haus3ann et al/ *!#!>. He notes Da surprising lack ,age *"' o0 interest in general principles, with incidental sniping taking the place o0 any real exploration6 =:sselton *!#!:%%!>. 8ictionary re2iews 2ary enor3ously in their approach and in their scope, e2en those appearing in the sa3e pu-lication. 8espite the 0act that it is an i3portant 3eans -y which in0or3ation a-out dictionaries is disse3inated, little attention has -een paid to the 3ethods and criteria underlying the -usiness o0 dictionary criticis3. A D?ote on 8ictionary 7riticis36 =-y F.8.> 0ro3 the 8ictionary esearch 7entre at the <ni2ersity o0 +xeter =date unknown> notes that: D:0 general dictionaries there are a lot o0 re2iews which lack 2alidity and relia-ility K what is needed is a wider discussion o0 the standards o0 assess3ent o0 dictionaries.6 The note goes on to argue 0or a 3ore o-Eecti2e e2aluation o0 dictionaries and greater clarity on what the criteria o0 assess3ent 3ight -e. It concludes: D?o de0inite theory o0 dictionary criticis3 has -een esta-lished, and it should -e 3ade 3ore sophisticated as one 0ield o0 lexicographical research. ;uch re3ains to -e done.6 Two 3ain kinds o0 contri-ution ha2e -een 3ade so 0ar to the de-ate on criteria 0or dictionary criticis3. :ne has put 0orward proposals 0or guidelines or criteria o0 re2iewing. oger Ateiner6s DIuidelines 0or e2iewers o0 4ilingual 8ictionaries6 =Ateiner *!#'> would -e a case in point, or Henri 4NEoint6s se2en criteria 0or +nglish 3onolingual learners6 dictionaries in his co3parison o0 *AL&, $*& and L&*$) =4NEoint *!"#>, or o-ert 7hap3an6s 0our proposals 0or a 3ethod o0 dictionary re2iewing =7hap3an *!"">, or Her-ert +rnst 1iegand6s rather tongue9in9cheek DTen 7o33and3ents 0or 8ictionary e2iewers6 =1iegand *!!'>. The other kind o0 contri-ution, which is 3ore recent, takes a set o0 dictionary re2iews and su-Eects the3 to analysis, with the ai3 o0 disco2ering the enduring concerns o0 dictionary re2iewers. JerGy To3asGcGyk =*!##> took *%$ re2iews o0 general9purpose -ilingual dictionaries and distilled the concerns o0 the re2iewers under the headings o0: eCui2alents, directionality, re2ersi-ility, alpha-etisation, retrie2a-ility, redundancy, co2erage, currency and relia-ility. ;artha ip0el =*!#!> exa3ined and co3pared the Eournalistic and acade3ic re2iews o0 0i2e Ier3an 3onolingual dictionaries, to identi0y the di00ering e2aluation and 0ocus o0 the two types o0 re2iew and the range o0 co33ents 3ade -y each type. ITnther Jehle =*!!$> looked at Dpopular6 and Dacade3ic6 re2iews o0 +nglish and French 3onolingual learners6 dictionaries, with a 0ocus on the nature o0 a dictionary re2iew as a text9type. He concludes his study thus =p. &$$>: DThe practice o0 re2iewing 3onolingual +nglish and French learners6 dictionaries in 3any cases un0ortunately gi2es the i3pression that the re2iewer has gi2en no prior thought to esta-lishing

that relies solely on internal criteria 3ay -e -iased too 3uch in 0a2our o0 the dictionary, unless a radically critical stance is taken to the clai3s that are 3ade. In using external criteria, a re2iewer -egins 0ro3 a di00erent standpoint. The criteria are deter3ined prior to the re2iewH they arise 0ro3 the accu3ulated insights o0 the acade3ic co33unity =e.g. Hudson *!##H Ilson *!!*>. This does ,age *"" not 3ean that they need -e o2erly Dacade3ic6, since the co33unity 3ust take account o0 the 0act that dictionaries are as 3uch re0erence works ai3ed at particular groups o0 users as they are linguistic descriptions o0 the lexical resources o0 the language. undell =*!!#:&*(> suggests two criteria 0or the e2aluation o0 i3pro2e3ents in the de2elop3ent o0 learners6 dictionaries: the description o0 a language that a dictionary pro2ides corresponds 3ore closely to relia-le e3pirical e2idence regarding the way in which that language is actually usedH the presentation o0 this description corresponds 3ore closely to what we know a-out the re0erence needs and re0erence skills o0 the target user. There is a need, there0ore, 0or two sets o0 external criteria 0or the e2aluation o0 dictionaries: one set relates to the re0erence 0unction o0 dictionaries and the user6s perspecti2e, and is largely a-out presentation and accessi-ilityH the other relates to the recording 0unction o0 dictionaries, and is largely a-out content. ,resentation and content o2erlap and interact with each other =e.g. the core sense and su-sense di2ision in ?:8+>, so this is to so3e extent a 0alse dichoto3y. Howe2er, it will pro2ide a use0ul 0ra3ework 0or esta-lishing criteria 0or dictionary re2iewing.

10+0 resentation
How a dictionary presents its 3aterial has an i3portant in0luence on the accessi-ility o0 the in0or3ation 0or its target users. In the pre0ace to the 0irst edition o0 the 7:8 =*!**>, the Fowler -rothers co33ented that they had used Dthe se2erest econo3y o0 expression / a3ounting to the adoption o0 telegraphese / that readers can -e expected to put up with6 =p. i2>. How they deter3ined readers6 tolerance le2els is not stated, -ut they are surely rather di00erent 0ro3 those o0 today6s dictionary users. Aspects o0 presentation that should -e considered -y a dictionary re2iewer include at least the 0ollowing. %age layout The siGe o0 the page 2aries with the siGe o0 the dictionary =desk, concise, pocket / see &.%>. It is usual to ha2e two colu3ns, though three 3ay -e 0ound in so3e dictionaries =e.g. ?:8+, +7+8>. A signi0icant 0eature is the a3ount o0 white space, deter3ined -y the siGe o0 the 3argins, the spacing -etween entries, the inclusion o0 other 3aterial to -reak up the text =e.g. usage notes, diagra3s, illustrations>. All these can ha2e an e00ect on the appearance o0 the dictionary page. Attracti2e page layout i3pro2es accessi-ility. Layout of the entries Traditionally dictionaries ha2e tended to pack all the in0or3ation 0or a headword within a single paragraph, to sa2e spaceH 3ore recent editions ha2e -egun

,age *"# to unpack the paragraph and to use a new line to -egin a new set o0 in0or3ation. For exa3ple, ?:8+ -egins a new line 0or: a di00erent word class, deri2ati2es, phrases, ety3ology. In so3e learners6 dictionaries =L8:7+&, 7I8+>, the layout has -een used to enhance the user6s access to speci0ic 3eanings o0 polyse3ous words. Length of entries This is deter3ined largely -y the practice o0 Dnesting6, where deri2ati2es, co3pounds, idio3s and so on are included within a single entry under a root word. $hambers uses nesting extensi2ely, as does the 7:8 up to the se2enth edition =*!#%>. The use o0 separate headwords 0or co3pounds and deri2ati2es, where these are indi2idually de0ined, creates shorter and 3ore nu3erous entries, and 3ore white space, so enhancing page layout. Likewise the inclusion o0 a--re2iations, a00ixes and co3-ining 0or3s as headwords =rather than in appendices> creates 3ore and shorter entries and aids accessi-ility. Abbre,iation The use o0 a--re2iations, like nesting, sa2es space, an i3portant consideration in dictionary 3aking. The Fowlers noted this as a 0eature o0 7:8*H their assu3ption was that the users o0 the 7:8 would understand and cope with a high degree o0 a--re2iation. That is no longer the case, and 3any recent dictionaries =e.g. 7+8, ?:8+> now include the 0ull 0or3s o0 ite3s such as word class la-els and na3es o0 languages in ety3ologies. Fewer a--re2iations 3ean greater accessi-ility. Acade3ic re2iewers tend to concentrate on the content o0 dictionaries, -ut presentation and accessi-ility should not -e ignored, -ecause they 3ake a signi0icant contri-ution to ena-ling users to -e success0ul in extracting in0or3ation 0ro3 the dictionary.

10+1 Content
Hudson6s =*!##:&*$/*%> Dchecklist o0 types o0 lexical 0act6 would pro2ide a starting point 0or criteria o0 content, or alternati2ely Ilson6s =*!!*> 3ore inducti2ely arri2ed at set o0 headings would ser2e. Auch a set o0 criteria would enco3pass at least the 0ollowing. Range of ,ocabulary ;odern dictionaries are keen to clai3 that they ha2e included the latest words 0ro3 areas where neologis3s are co33on =e.g. -usiness, in0or3ation technology, the en2iron3ent, 3edicine>, as well as co2erage o0 other national 2arieties o0 +nglish =e.g. A3erican, Australian>. A re2iewer would need to deter3ine whether, 0or its siGe and scope, the dictionary had adeCuate co2erage o0 up9 ,age *"! to9date, technical, international and, i0 appropriate, regional lexis. 1here a dictionary includes such ite3s, geographical and -iographical entries would also co3e under this heading.

Word formation :n the one hand, this relates to whether a00ixes and co3-ining 0or3s are treated as headwords or gathered in an appendix, or not gi2en any attention at all =c0. ,rvic *!!!>. :n the other hand, it relates to the treat3ent o0 deri2ed and co3pound words, what the criteria are 0or separate headword status as against nested run9on. Also rele2ant here is the treat3ent o0 noun.adEecti2e pairs that are not cognate, e.g. church 5 ecclesiastical, la( 5 legal, mind 5 mental, lung 5 pulmonary. The Eudge3ent to -e 3ade is whether the account o0 word 0or3ation ena-les a user to ascertain the 0or3al =3orphological> relations -etween words. 2omographs The usual -asis 0or 3ore than one headword 0or a single spelling is di00erent ety3ologies. In so3e dictionaries =e.g. L8+L> each word class that a lexe3e -elongs to occasions a new headword. In 7:4<IL8* there is only one headword per spelling, whereas 3ore recent 3onolingual learners6 dictionaries =L8:7+&, 7I8+> ha2e 3ultiple entries -ased on 3eaning. The criteria 0or deter3ining what is a headword ha2e i3portant conseCuences 0or lexical description as well as 0or accessi-ility. 3ense di,ision For words that ha2e 3ultiple 3eanings =senses>, dictionaries do not always 3ake clear how the senses ha2e -een esta-lished =c0. Allen =*!!!> on Dlu3pers and splitters6>, or the order in which they ha2e -een arranged. A tendency is e3erging =e.g. ?:8+, 7:8*$> to pull -ack 0ro3 the o2er9di00erentiation o0 senses that has occurred in the past =7+8, $hambers>. The issue here relates -oth to the adeCuacy o0 the lexical description and to how straight0orward it is 0or the user to 0ind the desired sense. &efining This is usually seen as the crucial task o0 the lexicographer, and there are so3e well esta-lished de0ining styles, nota-ly the analytical =Fip0er *!#':((/#>. Howe2er, these ha2e -een extended in recent years, especially in learners6 dictionaries =e.g. with whole sentence de0initions>. Ao3e dictionaries include a certain a3ount o0 encyclopedic in0or3ation in their de0initions, especially 0or words re0erring to 0lora and 0auna. ?ot only does a re2iewer need to assess the adeCuacy o0 the de0initions, -ut also whether they are stylistically appropriate 0or the intended users. ,age *#$ #eyond denotation <nder this heading is included other aspects o0 a word6s lexical -eha2iour o2er and a-o2e its denotation, such as its lexical relations =synony3y, antony3y, hypony3y / as indicated syste3atically in 7:4<IL8*>, its typical collocations, and any shared connotations. Ao3eti3es this in0or3ation is incorporated into de0initions, -ut it is rarely handled syste3atically, though the Dsynony3 essays6 in L8+L% and +7+8 constitute a rare exception. @et this in0or3ation also contri-utes to an understanding o0 a word6s 3eaning. %ronunciation

There are two issues here: the transcription syste3, which is al3ost uni2ersally I,A now in 4ritish dictionaries, and the accent to -e represented. 1hile 3any dictionaries now gi2e alternati2e A3erican pronunciations, no account is taken o0 the 0act, 0or exa3ple, that the

3aEority o0 4ritish speakers say .t. and .grZs. rather than .gra:s.. Ao3e nati2e speaker dictionaries =e.g. ?:8+> are now gi2ing pronunciations only 0or words that are pro-le3atical, -ut what 3ay -e designated a pro-le3atical pronunciation is a 3atter o0 Eudge3ent =Allen %$$$>. Grammar 8ictionaries ha2e traditionally gi2en word class =part9o09speech> la-els, and 0or 2er-s distinguished Dtransiti2e6 and Dintransiti2e6 usesH ?:8+ acknowledges that these 3ay -e opaCue ter3s 0or 3odern users and su-stitutes Dwith o-E6 and Dno o-E6. arely ha2e nati2e speaker dictionaries gi2en 3uch 3ore in0or3ation a-out gra33ar -eyond thisH 7+8, and now ?:8+, are exceptions. 4y contrast learners6 dictionaries ha2e ai3ed 0or 0ull co2erage, which raises the Cuestion a-out how gra33atical in0or3ation is represented 0or e00ecti2e access. A re2iewer needs to e2aluate how 3uch in0or3ation a-out the gra33atical operation o0 words is necessary 0or a dictionary to 0ul0il its recording 0unction, as against the need not to pro2ide too 3uch unnecessary in0or3ation 0or the intended users. +sage 8ictionaries routinely la-el words or senses o0 words with Drestricti2e6 la-els, to indicate that the word or sense 3ay -e used only in a speci0ic context. Auch la-els 3ay relate to: ti3e =o-solete, archaic>, dialect =?orth A3erican, Australian +nglish, Acottish>, 0or3ality =in0or3al, colloCuial>, e2aluation =derogatory, peEorati2e, euphe3istic>, status =slang, ta-oo>, 0ield or topic =Astrono3y, ;usic, Teleco33unications>. The extent to which dictionaries are consistent in using their range o0 usage la-els and how they apply the3 are 3atters 0or the critic to e2aluate. Ao3e dictionaries include Dusage notes6, especially to gi2e ,age *#* guidance on contro2ersial areas, e.g. the preposition to -e used a0ter different, the distinction -etween disinterested and uninterested. A critic 3ay note how Dconser2ati2e6 or Dprogressi2e6 a stance is taken -y a dictionary on such issues. )xamples All dictionaries gi2e exa3ple sentences or phrases to illustrate word 3eaning, gra33ar or usage. They are particularly nu3erous and pro3inent in learners6 dictionaries, where they are seen as playing a crucial role. A nu3-er o0 Cuestions need to -e asked -y the critic, relating to: the extent o0 the use o0 exa3ples, what role they are seen to play in exe3pli0ication, where the exa3ples co3e 0ro3 =corpus or in2ented>, and how consistently the dictionary6s policy on exa3ples is i3ple3ented.

)tymology Aince the ety3ological dictionaries o0 the eighteenth century, it has -een custo3ary to include in0or3ation a-out ety3ology in nati2e speaker dictionaries, though not in learners6 dictionaries =7hapter *$>. It 3ight -e argued that such in0or3ation has no place in a dictionary o0 the conte3porary language and should -e con0ined to Dhistorical6 dictionaries =such as :+8 and A:+8>, though Hudson =*!##> includes ety3ology in his checklist o0 lexical 0acts. The a3ount o0 ety3ological detail that general dictionaries include is 2aria-leH in so3e cases it is Eust the language o0 i33ediate origin, or the ety3ology 3ay -e traced -ack as 0ar as possi-le, and perhaps with cognates in related languages. It is a 3atter o0 critical e2aluation whether the in0or3ation in the dictionary under re2iew is appropriate to its siGe, purpose and intended users. 3pecial features A dictionary will o0ten seek to distinguish itsel0 0ro3 its ri2als -y including a special 0eature, e.g. the synony3 essays and other -oxed co33ents in L8+L%, usage and other notes in ?:8+, word 0or3ation -oxes in 7:8*$, 3isspellings in +7+8, 0reCuency in0or3ation in 7:4<IL8 and L8:7+&. Ao3eti3es these are a genuine enhance3ent o0 the in0or3ation that the dictionary gi2esH so3eti3es they are 3ore o0 a 3arketing gi33ick. :ther special 0eatures 3ay -e incorporated in the 0ront93atter or the appendices, e.g. the essay on +nglish as a world language in 7+8, or the punctuation guide in 7:8#.!. The Cuestion is whether they add to the lexical description and the co2erage and use0ulness o0 the dictionary.

10+3 erspecti$e
4esides 0ollowing an appropriate 3ethod and 3aking Eudge3ents against an explicit set o0 criteria, it is also possi-le 0or a re2iewer to conduct dictionary ,age *#% criticis3 0ro3 a nu3-er o0 di00erent perspecti2es. The discussion so 0ar has 3ore or less presupposed that dictionary criticis3 is undertaken 0ro3 the perspecti2e o0 the acade3ic linguist or 3etalexicographer, applying lexicological and lexicographical theory and insight to the task. 7ertainly, in the re2iews that ha2e appeared in the International .ournal of Lexicography, this has -een, understanda-ly, the predo3inant perspecti2e adopted. 4ut it has not always -een appropriate. For exa3ple, there was a re2iew o0 :AL8' -y 8wight 4olinger =*!!$>, which took the dictionary to task 0or not representing accurately so3e 2ery su-tle syntactic peculiarities o0 2er-s, which, had they -een so treated, would ha2e pro-a-ly -a00led 3ost users o0 the dictionary. 4olinger had, uncharacteristically, not appreciated the need 0or what undell has called Da 3ore utilitarian lexicography6 = undell *!!#:&&">, where there is a tradeo00 -etween the needs o0 the user and the 3eticulous accuracy o0 the lexical description. An alternati2e perspecti2e to that o0 the 3etalexicographer would -e that, 0or exa3ple, o0 the target user. The dictionary would -e Eudged, -y the 3ethod and on the criteria stated, 0ro3 the point o0 2iew o0 the needs, expectations, prior knowledge and re0erence skills o0 the intended group o0 users. For an exa3ple, see Jackson =*!!)> which 3akes a co3parison o0 L8:7+% and the Ier3an learners6 dictionary, Langenscheidts GroV(Wrterbuch &eutsch als "remdsprache.

A third possi-le perspecti2e would -e that o0 the language teacher / particularly in respect o0 learners6 dictionaries / who would Eudge the dictionary 0ro3 the point o0 2iew o0 its suita-ility 0or the language teacher6s task and 0or the students that they are teaching, whether in a 0irst or a second language context. Higashi et al. =*!!%> re2iew 7:8# 0ro3 this perspecti2e in the Japanese context, perhaps inappropriately, since 7:8# was not intended as a pedagogical dictionary, although the 7:8 see3s to ha2e -een used widely 0or this purpose in Japan. The re2iewer6s perspecti2e can act as a 0ocus 0or the attention to -e paid in the critiCue to di00erent aspects o0 the dictionary6s presentation and content, especially since it is di00icult to treat e2ery aspect in a single re2iew.

10+4 urpose
In conclusion, we 3ay re0lect on the purposes 0or which dictionary criticis3 is carried out. Ao3e re2iews, especially in newspapers and 3agaGines, ha2e as their 3ain purpose to in0or3 the pu-lic o0 the existence o0 a new edition o0, usually, a well9known dictionaryH the content o0 the re2iew then o0ten re0lects the pu-lisher6s press release or the dictionary6s -lur-. :ther dictionary re2iews, like any -ook re2iew, are directed at an interested pu-lic =teachers, students, crossword addicts> and ha2e as their purpose to in0or3 this audience o0 the content o0 the dictionary and its 0itness 0or their needs. e2iews o0 dictionaries that appear in acade3ic Eournals, such as the International .ournal of Lexicography, while in0or3ing the Eournal readers a-out the existence and contents o0 the dictionary, are also intended in 3any instances to 3ake a contri-ution to acade3ic lexicography. Auch re2iews are o0ten 3ore ,age *#& thorough, pursue a 3ore rigorous 3ethodology, and draw on the accu3ulated wisdo3 and expertise o0 the acade3ic co33unity o0 dictionary scholars. There is one 0urther purpose that acade3ic re2iews 3ay ha2e. Aince their critiCue is drawn 0ro3 an expert knowledge o0 dictionaries, dictionary 3aking and dictionary use, they o0ten propose ways in which dictionaries 3ay -e i3pro2ed. Ao, they are o00ering ad2ice to working lexicographers and dictionary pu-lishers, and contri-ute towards the de2elop3ent o0 -oth practical and acade3ic lexicography. I0 dictionary re2iews are to 0ul0il this 0unction, or indeed i0 they are to 3ake a serious contri-ution to the acade3ic study o0 lexicography, then it is i3portant that dictionary criticis3 is conducted on a sound -asis, with a clear 3ethodology and a set o0 explicit criteria. :ne o0 the purposes o0 this -ook, and o0 this chapter in particular, is to gi2e you, the reader, the -ackground to ena-le you to look at dictionaries, -oth historical and conte3porary, with a 3ore in0or3ed insight. :n the -asis o0 your study, you 3ight atte3pt the re2iew o0 a dictionary.

10+9 5urther reading

There is no 0ull9length treat3ent o0 dictionary criticis3. The place to start is with einhard Hart3ann6s eaching and Researching Lexicography =%$$*>, where he deals with the topic in 7hapter ', Aections '.& and '.', which also contain re0erences to other rele2ant articles and

-ooks. Fro3 there it would -e use0ul to read so3e o0 the re2iews that ha2e appeared, 0or exa3ple, in the International .ournal of Lexicography. The re2iews, 3entioned earlier, o0 7:8# -y Higashi et al/ =*!!%> and o0 L8+L% -y ;asuda et al/ =*!!'>, are particularly reco33endedH -ut 3ost nu3-ers o0 the Eournal contain dictionary re2iews o0 2arying extent and co3prehensi2eness. The other Eournal in which dictionaries are regularly re2iewed is )nglish oday. ,age *#'

?e!erences
Allen, . =*!!!> DLu3ping and splitting6, )nglish oday, *(='>, (*/&. Allen, . =%$$$> DAiGe 3atters6, re2iew o0 $ollins )nglish &ictionary, he 'e( *xford &ictionary of )nglish and )ncarta World )nglish &ictionary, )nglish oday, *(=%>, )"/(*. Atkins, 4.T.A. =ed.> =*!!#> +sing &ictionaries: 3tudies of &ictionary +se by Language Learners and ranslators, Lexicographica Aeries ;aior, no. ##, ;ax ?ie3eyer Jerlag, TT-ingen. Ayto, J. =*!#!> he Longman Register of 'e( Words, Long3an. Ayto, J. =*!!$> he Longman Register of 'e( Words, Volume (o, Long3an. Ayto, J. =*!!!> (entieth $entury Words, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. 4ailey, .1. =ed.> =*!#"> &ictionaries of )nglish: %rospects for the Record of *ur Language, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. 4NEoint, H. =*!"#> DTrois dictionnaires anglais rNcents: leCuel choisir56, Les Langues modernes, ), '()/"'. 4NEoint, H. =*!#*> DThe 0oreign student6s use o0 3onolingual +nglish dictionaries: a study o0 language needs and re0erence skills6, Applied Linguistics, %=&>, %$"/%%. 4NEoint, H. =*!!'> radition and Inno,ation in Modern )nglish &ictionaries, 7larendon ,ress, :x0ord. 4NEoint, H. =%$$$> Modern Lexicography: An Introduction, repu-lication o0 4NEoint =*!!'>, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. 4enson, ;., 4enson, +. and Ilson, . =*!#(> Lexicographic &escription of )nglish, John 4enEa3ins. 4erg, 8.L. =*!!&> A Guide to the *xford )nglish &ictionary, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. 4ogaards, ,. and 2an der Floot, 1.A. =%$$*> DThe use o0 gra33atical in0or3ation in learners6 dictionaries6, International .ournal of Lexicography, *'=%>, !"/*%*. 4olinger, 8. =*!!$> D e2iew o0 the *xford Ad,anced Learner-s &ictionary, Fourth +dition6,

International .ournal of Lexicography, &=%>, *&&/'). 4urton, T.H. and 4urton, J. =eds> =*!##> Lexicographical and Linguistic 3tudies: )ssays in 2onour of G/W/ urner, 8.A. 4rewer, 7a3-ridge.At +d3unds-ury ,ress, Au00olk. 7hap3an, .L. =*!""> D8ictionary re2iews and re2iewing: *!$$/*!")6 in J.7. ay3ond and I.1. ussell =eds> .ames #/ McMillan: )ssays in Linguistics by 2is "riends and $olleagues, <ni2ersity o0 Ala-a3a ,ress, *'&/(*. 7lear, J. =*!!(> DDDIra33ar and nonsensea: or syntax and word senses6 in J. A2art2ik =ed.>, %*&/ '*. 7owie, A.,. =*!!!> )nglish &ictionaries for "oreign Learners: a 2istory, 7larendon ,ress, :x0ord. 7reswell, T.J. =*!!(> DA3erican +nglish dictionaries on 789 :;6, .ournal of )nglish Linguistics %'='>, &)#/(#. ,age *#) 7ruse, 8.A. =*!!(> Lexical 3emantics, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. 7rystal, 8. =*!!)> he $ambridge )ncyclopedia of the )nglish Language, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. 8oleGal, F.F.;. et al. =eds> =*!!'> Lexicographica GO1GG?: WWrterbuch4riti4: &ictionary $riticism, ;ax ?ie3eyer Jerlag, TT-ingen. 8uden =%$$$> &ie deutsche Rechtschreibung, &uden #and 1, twenty9second edition, 8uden2erlag. +lleghrd, A. =*!"#> D:n dictionaries 0or language learners6, Moderna 3prX4, LQQII, %%)/''. Fernando, 7. and Fla2ell, . =*!#*> *n Idiom: $ritical Vie(s and %erspecti,es, +xeter Linguistic Atudies ), <ni2ersity o0 +xeter ,ress. Friend, J.H. =*!("> he &e,elopment of American Lexicography 1CGF/1FB@, ;outon. Iod3an, A. and ,ayne, +.;.F. =*!"!> Longman &ictionary of 3cientific +sage, Long3an. Ireen, J. =*!!(> $hasing the 3un: &ictionary Ma4ers and the &ictionaries hey Made, Jonathan 7ape. Hart3ann, . .F. =*!#!> DAociology o0 the dictionary user: hypotheses and e3pirical studies6 in F.J. Haus3ann et al/ =eds>, *$%/**. Hart3ann, . .F. =*!!(> DLexicography6 in . .F. Hart3ann =ed.> 3ol,ing Language %roblems, <ni2ersity o0 +xeter ,ress, %&$/''. Hart3ann, . .F. =%$$*> eaching and Researching Lexicography, ,earson +ducation.

Hart3ann, . .F. and Ja3es, I. =*!!#> &ictionary of Lexicography, outledge. Hatherall, I. =*!#'> DAtudying dictionary use: so3e 0indings and proposals6 in . .F. Hart3ann =ed.> L)Peter -F? %roceedings, Lexicographica Aeries ;aior, no. *, ;ax ?ie3eyer Jerlag, TT-ingen, *#&/!. Haus3ann, F.J., eich3ann, :., 1iegand, H.+. and Mgusta, L. =eds> =*!#!/!*> WWrterbUcher, &ictionaries, &ictionnaires: ein internationales 2andbuch =ur Lexi4ographie 2ols */&, 1alter de Iruyter. He-ert, H. =*!"'> DLingua 0rankly6, re2iew o0 :AL8&, he Guardian, %) ;arch *!"'. Her-st, T. and ,opp, F. =eds> =*!!!> he %erfect Learners- &ictionary7R8, Lexicographica Aeries ;aior, no. !), ;ax ?ie3eyer Jerlag, TT-ingen. Heu-erger, . =%$$$> Monolingual &ictionaries for "oreign Learners of )nglish: A $onstructi,e ),aluation of the 3tate9of9the9Art Reference Wor4s in #oo4 "orm and on $&9 R*M, Austrian Atudies in +nglish #", 4rau3Tller, Jienna. Higashi, ?. et al/ =*!!%> D e2iew o0 the $oncise *xford &ictionary of $urrent )nglish, +ighth +dition6, International .ournal of Lexicography, )=%>, *%!/($. 2istorical hesaurus of )nglish we-site `http:..ww%.arts.gla.ac.uk.A+ALL.+ngLang.thesaur.thes.ht3O. Holder-au3, A. =*!!!> Ariterien der ),aluation ele4tronischer WWrterbUcher, Annual eport on +nglish and A3erican Atudies *", 1issenscha0tlicher Jerlag, Trier. Horn-y, A.A. =*!)'> A Guide to %atterns and +sage in )nglish, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. Horn-y, A.A., Iaten-y, +.J. and 1ake0ield, H. =*!'%> Idiomatic and 3yntactic )nglish &ictionary, Faitakusha, Tokyo. Hudson, . =*!##> DThe linguistic 0oundations 0or lexical research and dictionary design6, International .ournal of Lexicography, *='>, %#"/&*%. HTllen, 1. =*!#!> DIn the -eginning was the gloss6, in I. Ja3es =ed.> *$$/*(. HTllen, 1. =*!!!> )nglish &ictionaries FDD/1CDD: he opical radition, 7larendon ,ress, :x0ord. Ilson, . =*!#&> D+ty3ological in0or3ation: can it help our students56, )L .ournal, &"=*>, "(/ #%. Ilson, .F. =*!!*> DLexicography6, in F. ;al3kEaer =ed.> he Linguistics )ncyclopedia, outledge, %!*/#. Ilson, . =%$$*> D e2iew o0 Atkins =*!!#>6, International .ournal of Lexicography, *'=*>, #$/&. ,age *#(

Jackson, H. =*!##> Words and their Meaning, Long3an. Jackson, H. =*!!)> DLearners6 dictionaries in contrast: Langenscheidt and Long3an6, "remdsprachen Lehren und Lernen, %', )#/"'. Jackson, H. =*!!#> DHow 3any words in @:< dictionary56, )nglish oday, *'=&>, %"/#. Jackson, H. =%$$%> Grammar and Vocabulary, outledge +nglish Language Introductions, outledge. Jackson, H. and MN A32ela, +. =%$$$> Words, Meaning and Vocabulary: An Introduction to Modern )nglish Lexicology, 7assell. Ja3es, I. =ed.> =*!#!> Lexicographers and heir Wor4s, <ni2ersity o0 +xeter ,ress. Jehle, I. =*!!$> &as englische und fran=Wsische Lern(Wrterbuch in der Re=ension/ heorie und %raxis der WWrterbuch4riti4, Lexicographica Aeries ;aior, no. &$, ;ax ?ie3eyer Jerlag, TT-ingen. Jehle, I. =*!!!> DLearner6s dictionaries on 789 :; / 3ere gadgetry56 in 1. Falkner and H.9J. Ach3id =eds> Words, Lexemes, $oncepts: Approaches to the Lexicon/ 3tudies in 2onour of Leonhard Lip4a, Iunter ?arr Jerlag, TT-ingen, &)&/(&. Jones, 8. =*!!"> )nglish %ronouncing &ictionary, 0i0teenth edition, =eds> ,eter oach and Ja3es Hart3ann, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. Fata3-a, F. =*!!'> )nglish Words, outledge. Fip0er, 4.A. =*!#'> Wor4boo4 on Lexicography, +xeter Linguistic Atudies #, <ni2ersity o0 +xeter ,ress. Fip0er, 4.A. =*!#(> DIn2estigating an ono3asiological approach to dictionary 3aterial6, &ictionaries, .ournal of the &3'A, #, ))/('. Firkpatrick, 4. =*!!)> he *riginal Roget-s hesaurus, Long3an. Fnowles, +. and +lliott, J. =eds> =*!!"> he *xford &ictionary of 'e( Words, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. Furath, H. and Fuhn, A.;. =*!)'> Middle )nglish &ictionary, <ni2ersity o0 ;ichigan ,ress. Landau, A.I. =*!#!> &ictionaries: he Art and $raft of Lexicography, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. Landau, A.I. =*!!!> D e2iew o0 he 'e( *xford &ictionary of )nglish6, International .ournal of Lexicography, *%=&>, %)$/". Landau, A.I. =%$$*> &ictionaries: he Art and $raft of Lexicography, second edition, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. Lehrer, A. =*!"'> 3emantic "ields and Lexical 3tructure, ?orth Holland ,u-lishing 7o.

Lyons, J. =*!""> 3emantics, 2ols * and %, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. ;cArthur, T. =*!#(> Worlds of Reference, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. ;cArthur, T. =ed.> =*!!%> he *xford $ompanion to the )nglish Language, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. ;cArthur, T. =*!!#> Li,ing Words: Language, Lexicography and the Ano(ledge Re,olution, <ni2ersity o0 +xeter ,ress. ;cLeod, I. =ed.> =*!!$> he 3cots hesaurus, A-erdeen <ni2ersity ,ress. ;c;illan, J.4. =*!'!> DFi2e 7ollege 8ictionaries6, $ollege )nglish, *$='>, %*'/%*. ;asuda, H. et al. =*!!'> D e2iew o0 the Longman &ictionary of the )nglish Language *!!* edition6, International .ournal of Lexicography, "=*>, &*/'(. ;orton, H.7. =*!!'> he 3tory of Webster-s hird: %hilip Go,e-s $ontro,ersial &ictionary and Its $ritics, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. ;ugglestone, L. =%$$$a> Dw,ioneers in the untrodden 0oresta: he 'e( )nglish &ictionary6 in L. ;ugglestone =ed.>, */%*. ;ugglestone, L. =ed.> =%$$$-> Lexicography and the *)&: %ioneers in the +ntrodden "orest, :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. ;urray, F.;.+. =*!""> $aught in the Web of Words: .ames Murray and the *xford )nglish &ictionary, @ale <ni2ersity ,ress. ,age *#" ?esi, H. =*!!!> DA user6s guide to electronic dictionaries 0or language learners6, International .ournal of Lexicography, *%=*>, ))/((. ?orri, J. =*!!(> D egional la-els in so3e 4ritish and A3erican dictionaries6, International .ournal of Lexicography, !=*>, */%!. ?orri, J. =%$$$> DLa-elling o0 derogatory words in so3e 4ritish and A3erican dictionaries6, International .ournal of Lexicography, *&=%>, "*/*$(. ?uccorini, A. =*!!%> D;onitoring dictionary use6 in H. To33ola et al. =eds> )uralex -G0 %roceedings, <ni2ersity o0 Ta3pere, Finland, #!/*$%. :sselton, ?. =*!#!> DThe history o0 acade3ic dictionary criticis3 with re0erence to 3aEor dictionaries6, article %" in F.J. Haus3ann et al/, %%)/&$. ,al3er, H.+. =*!&#> A Grammar of )nglish Words, Long3ans Ireen. ,earce, 8.1. =*!!%> Macmillan &ictionary of Modern )conomics, 0ourth edition, +L4A. ;ac3illan.

,aikeday, T.;. =*!!&> D1ho needs I,A56, )nglish oday, !=*>, &#/'%. ,rvic, T. =*!!!> DThe treat3ent o0 a00ixes in the w-ig 0oura +FL dictionaries6, International .ournal of Lexicography *%='>, %(&/"!. ,ru2ost, J. =%$$$> D8es dictionnaires papier aux dictionnaires NlectroniCues6, International .ournal of Lexicography *&=&>, *#"/!&. eddick, A. =*!!$> he Ma4ing of .ohnson-s &ictionary 1C@B/1CC?, 7a3-ridge <ni2ersity ,ress. ip0el, ;. =*!#!> WWrterbuch4riti4/ eine empirische Analyse ,on WWrterbuchre=ensionen, Lexicographica Aeries ;aior, no. %!, ;ax ?ie3eyer Jerlag, TT-ingen. Le Robert $ollTge =*!!"> ;.9H. 8ri2aud =ed.> 8ictionnaires Le o-ert, ,aris. o-erts, J., Fay, 7. and Irundy, L. =*!!)> A hesaurus of *ld )nglish, Fing6s 7ollege London. undell, ;. =*!!#> D ecent trends in +nglish pedagogical lexicography6, International .ournal of Lexicography, **='>, &*)/'%. undell, ;. and Atock, ,. =*!!%> DThe corpus re2olution6, )nglish oday, #=%>, !/*'H #=&>, %*/ &*H #='>, ')/)*. Achol0ield, ,. =*!!!> D8ictionary use in reception6, International .ournal of Lexicography, *%=*>, *&/&'. Ai3pson, J.A. =*!#!> D?athaniel 4ailey and the search 0or a lexicographical style6 in I. Ja3es =ed.>, *#*/!*. Ainclair, J.;. =ed.> =*!#"> Loo4ing +p: An Account of the $*#+IL& %ro;ect in Lexical $omputing, 7ollins +LT. Akeat, 1.1. =*!(*> A $oncise )tymological &ictionary of the )nglish Language, 7larendon ,ress, :x0ord. Aledd, J. and +--itt, 1. . =eds> =*!(%> &ictionaries and 2A &ictionary, Acott, Fores3an and 7o3pany. Atarnes, 8e1.T. and ?oyes, I.+. =*!!*> he )nglish &ictionary from $a(drey to .ohnson 1BD@/1CYY, new edition, I. Atein =ed.>, John 4enEa3ins. Atein, I. =*!#)> he )nglish &ictionary before $a(drey, Lexicographica Aeries ;aior, no. !, ;ax ?ie3eyer Jerlag, TT-ingen. Ateiner, .J. =*!#'> DIuidelines 0or re2iewers o0 -ilingual dictionaries6, &ictionaries, Journal o0 the 8ictionary Aociety o0 ?orth A3erica, **='>, &*)/'%. A2art2ik, J. =ed.> =*!!(> Words: %roceedings of an International 3ymposium, Lund, 0Y/0B August 1GGY, Fungl. Jitterhets Historie och Antik2itets Akade3ien, Aonferenser ?B, Atockhol3.

A2ensNn, 4. =*!!&> %ractical Lexicography: %rinciples and Methods of &ictionary9Ma4ing, translation o0 Awedish original pu-lished in *!#", :x0ord <ni2ersity ,ress. To3asGcGyk, J. =*!##> DThe -ilingual dictionary under re2iew6 in ;. Anell9Horn-y =ed.> EUriL)P -FB %roceedings, Francke Jerlag, %#!/!". 1eekley, +. =*!("> An )tymological &ictionary of Modern )nglish, 8o2er, ?ew @ork. ,age *## 1ells, J.7. =%$$$> Longman %ronunciation &ictionary, second edition, re2ised, Long3an. 1est, ;.,. =*!)&> A General 3er,ice List of )nglish Words, Long3ans Ireen. 1est, ;.,. =*!('> A &ictionary of 3pelling: #ritish and American, Long3an. 1est, ;.,. and +ndicott, J.I. =*!&)> he 'e( Method )nglish &ictionary, Long3ans Ireen. 1iegand, H.+. =*!!'> D1xrter-uchkritik. Mur +in0Thrung6 in F.F.;. 8oleGal et al/ =eds>, */". 1ilson, ;. =ed.> =*!)"> .ohnson: %rose and %oetry, Hart98a2is. 1inchester, A. =*!!!> he 3urgeon of $ro(thorne, ,enguin. Mgusta, L. =*!"*> Manual of Lexicography, Acade3ia, ,rague.;outon, The Hague. ,age *#!

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