Brown University Physics Department FLUID FLOW THROUGH A TUBE

Physics 0050/0070

In this experiment we will determine how well a physical relationship (also called law), namely Poiseulles equation, applies. In the supplementary reading material this equation was derived as pa 4 Q= 8l where Q is the flow rate in units of volume per second; p is the pressure difference between the ends of the tube; a, the tube radius; l , the length of the tube, and the viscosity of the fluid. We will measure in the experiment Q, as a function of these parameters mentioned above. One parameter will be varied while the others are kept constant, and Q, as a result of variation in this parameter, plotted on log-log paper. The reason for choosing log- log paper is that it brings out a power law dependence, such as Q a 4 and Q l 1 much better than linear graphs. Convince yourself that on log-log paper the exponent (4 or -1 here) just determines the slope of a straight line, while on linear paper, curved graphs with a continuously changing slope would result. If we write the dependence of Q, on the various parameters mentioned in terms of an exponential power, we expect that Q gets larger when, everything else remaining the same, the pressure increases or the radius increases; Q gets smaller when the tube length increases or the liquid gets more viscous. One would not expect a significant effect from the material the tube wall is made from, unless it were very rough and prevented a smooth laminar flow to take place. Temperature could enter indirectly through the dependence of the viscosity on temperature. Collecting all these terms results in a formula of the kind:

Kp a Q= l
where K is a proportionality constant. We can determine the coefficients , , and by collecting the fluid coming out of the tube during a given amount of time as a function of that particular parameter. For example, to find , one would measure the amount of water flowing through various tubes of different diameters, everything else (length, pressure difference) remaining the same. One then writes the equation:

Kp log Q = log l

+ log a

This is a straight line of the form: logQ = B + log a , with a as slope in a logQ versus loga plot. In a similar way one can test for the other parameters and thus check the equation. It should be kept in mind that Poiseuilles equation holds only for laminar flow. If the fluid moves too fast, smooth shear drag between layers disappears and turbulence sets in. The transition is determined by Reynolds number, Re. As mentioned in the supplement,

Brown University Physics Department

Physics 0050/0070

pa 2 a3 p2 = v , Re = . 8l 4 2 l This transition occurs when Re equals 2000.

Re = or if one substitutes PROCEDURE We will use the apparatus shown in the figure. The reservoir has small openings in its side closed by corks. By removing a cork, the water level is set at the height, h, of the resulting opening above the horizontal pipe. The pressure difference between the two ends of the pipe, p, is the height of the water column, thus given by p = gh . There is a supply of pipes of various radii and lengths. The only liquid to be used here is water so that the viscosity , will not be varied. Attach the desired pipe to the reservoir; set the water level to such a height that the Reynolds number is less than 2000. Adjust the water flow from the faucet, so that the water level in the reservoir remains stable at the desired height. Put the graduated beaker under the opening of the tube and measure the time it takes to collect 500 ml. This will give you the flow rate Q. Measure the flow rate for 4 different radii tubes (keeping the length l and pressure p constant). Repeat the procedure for 2 different lengths and 3 different pressures. One could plot log Q, versus the log of the radius a, the length l and the height h. The slope of these lines would give you the various exponents. Instead of calculating the log each time, it is much easier to plot the value directly, but on log-log graph paper. Now choose your parameters such that Re >>2000. Measure the flow rate in this turbulent case and observe the deviation from the lines found earlier. There is a short second experiment designed to test Bernoullis equation in a simple case. The apparatus is as shown in the figure. We use the same reservoir as was used earlier. As water flows through the horizontal tube, the water level in the vertical tubes will rise proportionately to the water pressure. Applying Bernoullis equation to points l and 2 gives:
1 2 1 2 v1 = p 2 + v 2 2 2 p1 = p 0 + gh1 , p 2 = p 0 + gh2 Thus; 1 1 2 gh1 + v12 = gh2 + v 2 2 2 p1 +

2v a

where h1 and h2 refer to the height of the

Brown University Physics Department

Physics 0050/0070

water level in the vertical tubes above the center of the main tube. To obtain the velocities we note that the flow rate is given by Q = Av , where A is the cross-section of the tube. Bernoullis equation gives;
1Q 1Q gh1 + = gh2 + 2 A1 2 A2 Set the water level in the reservoir to about 12-cm. Measure h1, h2 and the flow rate Q. With these values calculate the left and right hand side of the above equation. How closely are they equal? Bernoullis equation is not applicable for turbulent flow. To see this qualitatively, use a tube with an abrupt transition between narrow and wide diameter tubes. This discontinuity introduces turbulence. Calculate now both sides of the equation and see how close to equal they are.
2 2

Questions: 1) What is the most likely cause for differences between Poiseuilles theoretical formula and your experiments? 2) What is the most likely cause in your experiment for deviations from Bernoullis equation? FLUID MECHANICS SUPPLEMENT In Chapter 14 of the book by Bueche, you find various equations of hydrodynamics, notably the equation of continuity and Bernoullis equation. We want here to discuss the flow of water through a cylindrical tube, which is not discussed in the book. Along the walls of the cylinder the fluid does not flow: it is stationary. There is a gradual increase of the fluid velocity, from zero at the wall to maximum at the center. The friction dv force, F, that resists the velocity, is given by F = A where = viscosity, A, the dy dv contact area and the velocity gradient, that is, the change of the velocity in going from dy the wall (v = 0) towards the center (vmax) . The center fluid drags the next layer, which slips somewhat behind etc., until the fluid layer at the wall, which does not move at all. This type of fluid flow is called laminar flow.

This friction is the cause of a pressure drop along a cylindrical tube. Poiseuille derived a formula that relates the quantity of liquid, Q, (the volume ) flowing per second through a

Brown University Physics Department

Physics 0050/0070

cylindrical tube of radius a and length l, with the pressure difference, p, between both ends. This formula is: pa 4 Q= (1) 8l The constant is the viscosity defined earlier. We will derive this equation. Let us consider a cylinder with radius r, where r < a. At the entrance surface is a force +r2p1, and at the exit surface r2p2. The force at the cylindrical surface, the friction force, is dv given by 2rl according to the definition for . Since the liquid does not dr experience acceleration but flows with constant velocity, the sum of these three forces dv must equal zero. Since is negative if we define r in the usual way as the distance from dr the center, we obtain: dv (2) r 2 p1 r 2 p 2 + 2rl =0 dr p p2 This yields dv = 1 rdr and after integration: 2l

v=

p(r 2 + c) 4l

(3)

1 where c represents the integration coefficient stemming from rdr = r 2 + c . We know 2 that v = 0 at the wall, that is, when r = a. p1p2 has been written as p, for short. Application of the boundary condition gives us c and results in: p(a 2 r 2 ) v= (4) 4l This velocity profile is sketched in the figure. The total volume of liquid, Q, flowing through a cross section per second can be obtained from: a p (a 2 r 2 )2rdr Q= (5) 4l 0 This is namely the sum of the fluid flowing through rings bounded by radius r and r + dr. One obtains, using: a a 1 2 1 4 pa 4 3 rdr a r dr a Q = = = and ; 8l 2 4 0 0 We will now discuss a few applications of this formula. The average velocity of the liquid, v can be obtained from: Q pa 2 v = = 8l a 2 Reynold made a study of the applicability of Poiseuilles equation and concluded that above a certain v laminar flow breaks up and turbulence sets in. This happens when: 2v r = Reynolds number Re is > 2000.

Brown University Physics Department

Physics 0050/0070

In turbulent flow there vortex formation, the flow is irregular and noisy. Blood flow through the narrow capillaries is laminar as one verifies easily. However, through the aorta, with v = 0.6m/sec, r = 0.012 m, = 0.003 kg/m sec and a density =1 gram/cm3 = 1000kg/m3, one calculates Re = 4800. So blood flow through the aorta is turbulent. There are several other important medical implications of equation 1. If one requires rapid blood transfusion, increasing the height of the bottle with blood by a factor of two increases the flow by that same factor, but increasing the diameter of the tube by two increases the flow by a factor of sixteen. In the case of a shock victim, the persons body temperature often drops. This results in a significant increase of the viscosity and thus a decrease in blood flow. To keep the body temperature up, covering of the victim with a blanket and if appropriate giving warm drinks helps. Finally, it should be remarked that our simple model could only approximate blood flow. Veins are not solid tubes, but are elastic, expanding somewhat with increased pressure. Also blood is not as simple as water in its viscosity. For example, in narrow capillaries the blood cells line up, reducing the viscosity.