Neoliberal Governmentality in the European Union: Education, Training and Technologies of Citizenship by Katharyne itchelli Forthcoming: Environment and

Planning D: Society and Space

!ntroduction As a political philosophy of governance neoliberalism is an ongoing formation with different moments and sites in its evolutionary trajectory. Although articulated and implemented in different ways depending on context most scholarsacross disciplinesconcur that it is a philosophy premised on a mantra of market rationality and the active encouragement of laissez faire economic systems worldwide. !see e.g. "teger# $%%&' (ickell and )eck# $%%*' +omaroff and +omaroff# $%%,' -iroux# $%%&' -ill# $%%*.. /uch of the scholarship on neoliberalism can be broken down into three distinct analytical categories: as policy framework# as ideology# or as viewed through the lens of governmentality !0arner# $%%%..ii 1ith respect to the provision of empirical data

it is neoliberalism as seen through the lens of governmentality that is most commonly under researched. -overnmentality can be understood as a way of explaining the establishment and exercise of political power# one in which the concept of government is broader than management by the state' it also involves the regulation of populations through multiple institutions and technologies in society. 2n Foucault3s conceptualization#

governmentality refers to 4the conduct of conduct5 and ranges from the governing of others in all aspects of life to the governing of the self !Foucault# ,66,.. (hese processes#

moreover# are mutually constitutive# indicating 4how the modern sovereign state and the modern autonomous individual co determine each other3s emergence5 !0emke# $%%,: ,6$.. -overnmentality also takes many forms in society# from the guidance of families to the ethics of care and the management of the soul !see# e.g. the work of 7onzelot# ,686, 9loch et al# $%%*' +ruikshank# ,666' :ose# ,66%.. +ritics of this literature point out that despite the theoretical call for detailed# in depth analyses of the circulation of power in multiple empirical sites and despite the intellectual heritage of Foucault# most studies of governmentality are generally abstracted from actually existing subjects and spaces !see 0arner# $%%%' ;3/alley# ,66<' Frankel# ,668.. 9ecause of this the work often seems top heavy and seamless# with an inexorable and inescapable =uality to the situations and transformations depicted by governmentality scholars' it does not ade=uately engage with how and in what ways people are constituted and ruled as neoliberal subjects through the many >technologies3 and >assemblages3 of state power so brilliantly outlined by the theorists. 1e need to encourage more excavations of the extension of neoliberal governmentality in multiple# evolving forms and sites and from both >top down3 perspectivesi.e. the formations of

political rationalities: new state technologies and policy initiatives# the definitions of new discursive fields# ideologies of self control# etc.' and from so called >bottom up3 realmsthe processes and forms of subjectivity formation of the enterprising individual over time: the general and particular responses to new technologies and rationalities of state institutions and actors# the evasions# resistances# enablements# exclusions and?or motivations for individual behavior which occur alongside and in relation to new forms of contemporary 4government.5 (his is obviously a daunting task and thus my caveat is that these projectssuch as the one 2 outline hereshould be considered experiments in putting together several pieces of an ultimately incomplete puzzle. :ather than splitting them apart# 2 believe we must theorize ideological coercion and direct dominance alongside and in conjunction with various forms of consent# persuasion and technologies of the self# thus interrogating how these processes function conjointly in the extension of neoliberalism worldwide !cf. "parke# $%%&.. 2

attempt to do this here through an investigation of recent shifts in the philosophy# practice and experience of educational reforms promoted for high schools students by the @uropean Anion !@A. over the past decade. @ducation is a critical site in which to do this kind of analysis' not only is the link between the formation of schools and the formation of society a vital one in terms of understanding the shifting technologies of citizenship and state

society relations through time !see# e.g. Ball# ,6C,.# but also students !i.e. children. are particularly impressionable >subjects3 whose formation in schools and families has historically been of great interest to hegemonic powers worldwide !9loch et al# $%%*' Franklin et al# $%%&.. (he @A is an important contemporary venue in this regard as well# as it is now undergoing a number of critical changes. (he increase in /ember "tates from ,D to $D in /ay# $%%& has already had numerous ramifications for neoliberal economic policy !see# e.g. "mith# $%%$.. 9ut perhaps more importantly# new methods of

governance such as the ;/+ !;pen /ethod of +oordination. reflect the extension of neoliberal governmentality in all spheres of social and civic life !1alters and Baahr# $%%D' "avio and )alola# $%%&.. ;verall these changes have great implications for

education and training# employment and social inclusion# and the constitution of young 4@uropean5 subjects. "pecifically in this paper 2 argue that increasingly neoliberal forms of governmentality are evident in the @ducation and +ulture directorate of the @uropean +ommission !@+..iii (his is especially the case vis E vis the institutional philosophy of how immigrants and second generation 4minorities5 should be best integrated !through education. into @uropean society. 9oth the policies and the programs associated with education and training are becoming more oriented towards the formation of mobile# flexible and self governing @uropean laborers and less oriented towards an institutionalized affirmation of civic awareness or

the importance of respect for and valuation of individual and group difference. (his represents a fairly substantive philosophical and practical transformation over the past five to ten years. 2n educational affairs the @+3s explicit role is to encourage cooperation between /ember "tates and to develop a 4@uropean5 dimension in the realm of education.iv (he inculcation

of a @uropean dimension was initially formulated# at least in part# as involving the incorporation of minorities !mainly immigrants. who had not been effectively integrated within their national societies. For example# @dith +resson# the education commissioner from ,66D ,666# wrote in ,66C:

Across the community# the proportion of denizens living in the /ember "tates is bound to rise in the decades to come as a conse=uence of mobility between /ember "tates as well as inflows into the +ommunity from the outside# and the assertion of the right to difference by minority groupsindigenous or otherwiseis now a well established feature of @uropean social and political life. (his means that learning to live positively with difference and diversity is becoming a core dimension of the practice of citizenship in @urope.v (his type of minority incorporation was projected to be beneficial for the overall aim of increasing @uropean social cohesion# and documents such as the above encouraged educational programs and exchanges for the express purpose of promoting the cultural awareness of difference as positive for @urope. (he

@+3s effort to create a democratic citizen of @urope was a clear educational considerationat least in terms of a narrative of effective governance. (he early concept of lifelong learning#

for example# which was initially promulgated in the ,68%s by non governmental organizations such as AF@"+;# concerned the holistic formation of a well rounded# civically aware# personally fulfilled and critically minded citizen.vi for a time in @+ documents as well.vii ;ver the last several years however# one can discern a shift to a different kind of emphasis particularly with respect to the constitution and training of @uropean laborers. (he new program priorities focus on individual pragmatism and on the skills and mobility needed for economic success rather than on the formation of a democratic person operating within the framework of 4ethical liberalism5.viii (he most fre=uent (his emphasis lingered

references in contemporary education related documents and programs are to global competitiveness# a shifting labor market# and the necessity to constantly adapt to a changing knowledge based economy. )erpetual mobilization and constant movement are

presented as the answers to the >inescapable3 ramifications of globalization# as well as to the changing terms of employment and the national >problems3 of integration for immigrants. (his current rhetoric is accompanied by multiple @A treaties which promote the standardization# homogenization and international certification of educational skills# allowing and encouraging a greater mobility across international borders. And instead of a concept emphasizing democratic tools# personal development and critical thinking# lifelong learning has transmogrified into a concept primarily affirming the constant

formation and reformation of work skills !see 9agnall# $%%%' /atheson and /atheson# ,66<' for Forth America see )opkewitz# $%%*.. (hrough lifelong learning the individual immigrant now becomes accountable for his or her own citizenship >training3 with respect to a successful adaptation to the nation and the labor market of a fast changing global economy. (his# 2 would argue# is part of a broader devolution of responsibility to the individual immigrant for assimilating effectively into the labor market# the host nation and @uropean society at large !cf. /itchell# $%%&b' 9ack et al# $%%$.. 2n recent pronouncements# practices# funding and implementation of education and training related programs by the @uropean +ommission# one can observe a steady movement away from the spirit of multiculturalism vis E vis the formation of a democratic @uropean citizen and towards an individualist discourse of responsibility for lifelong learning and the constant mobilization of work skills. 2n terms of the

encouragement to individualized and self regulating entrepreneurial behavior this shift dovetails well with the discourse and practices of neoliberal governmentality in general !see e.g. :ose# ,666' :ose and /iller# ,66$' 0emke# $%%,' 7ean and Bindess# ,66C. as well as with the retreat from state sponsored multiculturalism currently evident in a growing number of @uropean nations !see# e.g. Goppke and /orawska# $%%*' 9rubaker# $%%*' @tzinger# $%%*' "oininen# ,666..

A social democratic impulse remains and is actively struggled over within the internal framework of the @+# but as 2 discuss further in the following section of the paper# the general trend is now towards a stronger neoliberal structure of governance !-ough# $%%&' Agnew# $%%,' "tanding# ,668.. Bowever# recognizing the institutional policy apparatuses through which neoliberalism is advanced is =uite different from suggesting that social disciplining or the >production of the neoliberal self3 is ever completely secured. For example# in several central city /arseille high schools @+ education and training programs for school age children !such as +omenius.# have not reached a single teenager# a majority of whom are the children of Forth African immigrants.ix 2n one sense then these students have been effectively excluded from the democratic possibilities of @A citizenship as it is envisioned and implemented through current educational programs. 9ut at the same time# many have been able to create a relatively secure space of local# multicultural >citizenship3 at the scale of the city. (hey have also been able to engage in multiple types of

international exchange networks with the countries of their parents3 origin !often former French colonies.. Although

fre=uently marginalized and excluded from French national and @uropean opportunities they are at the same time relatively cocooned from the accelerated rhythms and frenetic pace of the market oriented# @uropean >knowledge community.3 (hus# in the

case of these students# contemporary techni=ues of self

production and regulation which encourage market disciplinesuch as the @+ education and training programsremain largely ineffective technologies of citizenship.x

"ocial #emocracy and Neoliberalism in the EU 2n the past two decades there has been an extension and entrenchment of neoliberal reform policies# ideology and technologies of production and control worldwide. (he ways that this entrenchment is playing out# however# varies considerably as a result of individual geographies of urban# regional and national development# historical formations of liberalism and social democracy and class relations# among other variables !)eck and (ickell# $%%$' /itchell# $%%&a.. As both state policy and discourse neoliberalism often coexists with other accumulation regimes in contradictory ways and its extension is fre=uently contested by multiple actors. As a result its entrenchment is always geographically and politically uneven and incomplete !0arner# $%%%' -ough# $%%$.. Although neoliberalism has become the dominant paradigm in the @A over the past decade it exists in an often uneasy tension with other accumulation regimes# most notably the social democratic project of the Heynesian era.xi 7espite their contrasting logics# for the last two decades these accumulation regimes have existed in tandem# with internal divisions and ongoing struggles particularly evident in the realms of social policy and the politics of @uropean social cohesion !:osamond#

$%%$..

2n the sphere of educational policy# for example# the

battle over both philosophical mandates and practical issues such as funding priorities is incessant.xii As projects of capital both the social democratic project and the neoliberal project are primarily concerned with establishing stable frameworks in which capital accumulation can continue. 9ut the means through which capital labor relations are managed and the production reproduction nexus maintained are =uite different between the two regimes. ;ne primary consideration in the ways these differences play out occurs as a result of class struggle. As -ough !$%%&: ,6*. astutely

observes# both the neoliberal and social democratic regimes are projects which 4reproduce relations of exploitation5 and are 4premised on labor as an active agent.5 +learly the historical and geographical formation of classes and their mutually constitutive relations affects the manner in which neoliberalism becomes extended# entrenched and?or resisted in different contexts. (his said# it is imperative to note that the 4active agency5 of labor is also premised on social relations other than class alone. 2mmigrant laborers# /uslim laborers and female

laborers# for example# are often defined and?or self designate through multiple# cross cutting affiliations# all of which are affected by existing power relations in society. (he management of >labor3 then# as a contrasting logic within social democratic and neoliberal regimes# must be analysed not just as a project of

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class relations# but also as a project of gender relations# race relations# and the like# depending on the site of study. @A# with its gargantuan and inexorable !and many would say impossible. task of providing and projecting social cohesion amongst its members# the constitution and management of laborers along multiple axes of identity has long been a primary consideration. 1ith respect to the contrasting logics of For the

neoliberalism and social democracy a kind of perpetual tension is evident in many areas of the @uropean +ommission over the appropriate methods for the social control of labor. (his is particularly the case with respect to the management of >difference#3 and especially# in the latter decade# the differences associated with /uslim immigrants and their second generation children !for general overviews on the integration of /uslims in @urope# see Al"ayyad and +astells# $%%$' Iertovec and :ogers# ,66C' Favell# $%%,' Asad# $%%*.. 2n order to recognize the entrenchment and struggle over neoliberalism in the @A contextually and in terms of class# gender and race relations !rather than as purely a class relationship or even more commonly# as a top down policy reform phenomenon.# we need to look at the broad nexus of state society relations and the formation of political subjects via the contested institutions of civil society !cf. "wyngedouw# ,66<.. 1e also need to remain critically attuned to the different phases through which neoliberalism moves# recognizing that it is a formation or >rationality3 that is in constant motion# always

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reflecting the varying agents and institutions involved in its production !)eck and (ickell# $%%$.. +learly the >project3 of neoliberalism remains highly contested in the @A and should be recognized as one that is hybrid and contextual# often cohabiting and?or overlapping with other regimes. Further# as characteristic of the general

features of neoliberalism it moves through different phases and involves a specific assemblage of technologies and strategies associated with each phase !0arner# $%%*.. +urrently a social

democratic project in the @A remains and is given expression at the regional scale through geographical redistribution programs and social funds such as the @:7F !@uropean :egional 7evelopment Fund. and the @"F !@uropean "ocial Fund.. 2t also has a significant presence in specific sites and countries where traditions of active labor politics and local democratic governance have strong historical roots. As -ough !$%%&: ,6&. notes# these types of redistributive policies and programs are actively solicited and protected through the agency of workers# who have effectively 4impeded austerity offensives5 in certain sectors and geographical sites. ;verall however# a broad based social democratic project is losing ground to a neoliberal one involving a complex mix of 4third way5 type claims to fairness# social justice# social cohesion and 4open5 government# accompanied by a sharp institutional transition to a more market driven logic$ (he third way rhetoric seems to promote a gentler# fairer government

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through partnerships and various methods of decentralized decision making# but in effect these changes act to increase both individual and regional competition# devolve responsibility to specific >agents3 and to further undermine welfarist principles of redistribution and responsibility !1alters and Baahr# $%%D.. (he most obvious subversion of the overarching principal of regional evenness and social e=uity has occurred with the incorporation of new countries with economic levels of growth and standards of living well below the existing standards for the @A !(hese include -reece# )ortugal and "pain in the ,66%s and ten central and eastern @uropean countries as of /ay ,# $%%&.. As numerous scholars have demonstrated# this vast augmentation of regional unevenness increases the opportunities for both the exploitation of labor and the disciplining of /ember "tates vis E vis the flows of capital through foreign direct investment !Agnew# $%%,' 7unford# ,66&' -ough# $%%&' Baynes# $%%,.. 2t effectively depresses wages and eventually will place huge and increasingly impossible demands on the already strained welfare systems of existing /ember "tates in areas as diverse as health# housing and education. 1ith a concerted effort at targeted social and economic development the admission of the new countries need not necessarily entrench a neoliberal project. 9ut the move to a single market# combined with the adaptation of the @uro in $%%$ !under the auspices of the @+9 the @uropean +entral 9ank.

institutionalizes a type of abstract monetary policy based on

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price stability and an anti inflationary mandate rather than on growth and development. (his makes state sponsored development targeted at the eradication of specific internal ine=ualities or the protection of particular sectors in society increasingly difficult. Fiscal monitoring by the +ommission through the

"tability and -rowth )act !"-).# for example# limits the capacities of /ember "tates to protect welfare benefits through deficit spending# thus retarding the ability of individual countries to set their own development course !"torey# $%%&.. +ontinual surveillance of /ember "tates both before and after admission into the Anion acts further to keep potentially wayward !insufficiently neoliberal. impulses in check. 1ith

respect to the recent enlargement process# for example# "mith !$%%$. shows the instrumental role played by the @A in the reconstruction of +entral and @ast @uropean economies along laissez faire market lines. (hrough a process of geoeconomic

monitoring and with the aid of the @uropean 9ank for :econstruction and 7evelopment# these entering nations were disciplined to accept as both natural and necessary their wholesale transformation from post communist regimes to market based neoliberal societies. 1hen considered alongside recent

international agreements between the @A and the 1(; binding /ember "tates into a globally liberal trade regime# the extent of the @A marketization agenda becomes even clearer !see also 9onefeld# $%%$..

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:ather than an >upward harmonization3 into a socially democratic welfare regime# integration into the @A ends up instead in institutionalizing 4disciplinary neoliberalism5 !-ill# $%%,.. "torey !$%%&. documents# in particular# the multiple

attacks on the state provision of goods and services through the @A3s activist competition policy and through the limits it places on state aid to publicly controlled >businesses3 such as banks and airports. 9oth 9renner !,666. and "wyngedouw !,668. likewise# have demonstrated the key role played by the @A in restructuring space in a matter beneficial for capital. (his# combined with a declining interest in social reproduction# manifested particularly harshly in the recent tightening of asylum laws# indicates a new direction for the @A as an interventionist actor and partner with a distinctly neoliberal reform agenda. Alongside these ideological and policy reforms there are additional changes in the @A relating to the general decline of democratic accountability. (he @+9# for example# functions outside of and away from the messy sphere of individual state politics. (hus popular democratic pressure !e.g. to protect

state subsidies or welfare policies. has no effect on monetary policy or on the developmental aspirations of cities and nations. @ventually this disjuncture leads to political apathy# as witnessed in recent years in declining voter turnout at both national and @A parliamentary elections.xiii 2n the @A over the last decade there has thus been a strong trend towards an increasing monetarism and a growing

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liberalization of the market.

2n terms of laissez faire economic

reform a neoliberal project is clearly on the rise. 9ut what is the evidence of neoliberal gains in other arenas# for example those of civil society and the formation of subjectsJ 1hat is

the evidence of neoliberal advancement as seen through the lens of governmentalityJ At this point 2 would like to turn to the

educational spherea key contemporary forum in the constitution of both market rational and state oriented subjects. 2 begin by

looking at the recent @+ policy agenda in education and then investigate some of its effects vis E vis the production of mobile# entrepreneurial workers and self governing 4@uropean5 immigrant laborers.

Education and Training in the EU: Formation Permanente (he shift in the @A3s educational emphasis over the past several years is most evident in the policy orientation of the (reaty of Amsterdam !,666. and the (reaty of Fice !$%%,. as well as the educational proclamations disseminated from @uropean +ouncil meetings at 0isbon !$%%%.# and +openhagen !$%%$.. also evident in the new education and training programs and international agreements that have arisen as a result of these meetings. 1hile there remains a social democratic logic premised on the notion of state intervention in various realms# including creating cohesive communities out of difference# this is rapidly losing ground to a more economistic emphasis.xiv /ost of the contemporary international agreements and @A programs now focus 2t is

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on strategies of skills based training designed to forge all students !both native born and immigrant. into @uropean citizenship via an increasingly cross border intra @A labor market. 2 will examine just three of these recent policy initiatives and programs as they extend across time and space.

A: The Amsterdam Treaty: Lifelong Learning (he concept of lifelong learning was given its first major boost in the @A in ,66<# which was designated the 4@uropean Kear of 0ifelong 0earning.5 Following this# it became part of an

integrated strategy encompassing a wide range of high level @uropean institutions# including the 7irectorate -eneral for @mployment and "ocial Affairs. 2n the Amsterdam (reaty# which

was first formulated in ,668 !ratified in ,666.# lifelong learning was a prominent feature in the so called 4employment chapter5 of the treaty. (he employment chapter called on /ember

"tates to coordinate their employment policy with respect to four common pillars: employability# entrepreneurship# adaptability and e=ual opportunities. According to one @A labor historian these policy >action3 areas of the employment chapter 4represent a major shift in social policy5 away from universal labor mandates and standards and towards a vision of employment as the key to maintaining the @uropean social model !see Addison# $%%$: *%C.. (he employment that is envisioned in this new scheme is flexible employment# and the laborers who are to provide the workforce

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must be 4adaptable5 and 4entrepreneurial5 if they expect to be 4employable.5 0ifelong learning features prominently in the employment chapter of the (reaty and is explicitly linked with the promotion of a skilled and adaptable labor force for the new# so called 4@urope of knowledge.5 2n @+ policy documents of this time the necessity for constant personal mobilization or 4updating5 is a fre=uent refrain with reference to lifelong learning and is inevitably linked with the employment re=uirements of a rapidly changing world. Further# successful employment is implicitly

associated with successful citizenship. (he following =uote# for example# is taken from the ,668 @uropean +ommission document# 4(owards a @urope of Hnowledge.5 (his was one of the first full

length discussions of the new strategies for education and training in general and lifelong learning in particular# that was envisioned for the +ommission3s policy agenda of $%%% $%%<:

:eal wealth creation will henceforth be linked to the production and dissemination of knowledge and will depend first and foremost on our efforts in the field of research# education and training and on our capacity to promote innovation. (his is why we must fashion a veritable L@urope of knowledgeL. (his process is directly linked to the aim of developing lifelong learning which the Anion has set itself and which has been incorporated into the Amsterdam (reaty# expressing the determination of the Anion to promote the highest level of knowledge for its people through broad access to education and its permanent updating... (hree dimensions of the @uropean educational area should be emphasized: the citizens of @urope will be able to develop their fund of knowledge# and this area will facilitate an enhancement of citizenship and the development of employability through the ac=uisition of competencies made necessary through changes in work and its organisation.xv

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(his extremely utilitarian vision of lifelong learning as linked with wealth creation and employability was advanced even further by @ducation +ommissioner Iiviane :eding in several speeches from $%%% and $%%,.xvi 2n the speeches and policy agenda

of this period there was a clear effort to tie together the commission directorate of @ducation and +ulture# with the directorate of @mployment and "ocial Affairs. (he skills based# vocational focus of this cooperative strategy was made explicit in related documents and speeches. For example# Anna

7iamantopoulou# the +ommissioner for @mployment and "ocial Affairs# said:

"kill and competence enhancement in the new economy in @urope re=uires that the policy emphasis is shifted towards increasing investment in human capital and in raising participation in education and training throughout working life. (o keep pace with developments in technology# globalisation# population ageing and new business practices# particular attention should be given to workplace training an important dimension of our strategy for 0ifelong 0earning...xvii 2n /arch $%%%# lifelong learning was confirmed by the 0isbon @uropean +ouncil as a foundational component of the @uropean social model. @mployment was a key agenda item of the 0isbon meeting# as was the objective of 4shaping a new @urope5 and becoming 4the most competitive and dynamic knowledge based economy in the world.5xviii Following the 0isbon recommendations

lifelong learning was allocated significant funding for the

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period $%%% $%%< from the @uropean "ocial Fund !@"F. and was confirmed as a 4basic component of the @uropean "ocial /odel.5xix 2n the speeches and documents associated with the 0isbon +ouncil formation permanente or perpetual mobilization was projected as constant# inevitable and ultimately beneficial for society. (he goal of 4shaping a new @urope5 focused on the importance of the transition to the knowledge economy and the role of education and training in constituting a new dynamic and competitive @uropean labor force !:odrigues# $%%$' :obertson and 7ale# $%%*.. 2n this vision the challenge of re formation and

re training is devolved from the responsibility of the state to the agency of individuals# who must carefully choose personally effective learning strategies. For example# the first =uote below is from the pamphlet# 4A @uropean Area of 0ifelong 0earning#5 !@uropean +ommission# 0uxembourg# ;ffice for ;fficial )ublications of the @uropean +ommunities# $%%$: ,%.. (he second is from the @uropean +ommission3s web page. !2talics mine..xx

(raditional systems must be transformed to become much more open and flexible# so the learners can have individual learning pathways. /oreover# as the blackboard gives way to the keyboard and the concept of lifelong learning becomes a reality# ac=uiring skills and knowledge is increasingly a matter of individual responsibility. 1ith the rhetoric of globalization# competition and lifelong learning there is a strong underlying message of the necessity for constant personal mobilization and entrepreneurial

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behavior on the part of individuals while at the same time the emphasis on structural and institutional constraints to these goals is generally downplayed. Further# the inexorable emphasis

on the individual and on his or her learning choices interpellates rational# atomized agents responsible for their own life paths in lieu of groups or classes experiencing collective dislocation as the result of widespread socio economic restructuring under laissez faire capitalism. (his accompanies a

more general abdication of welfarist responsibilities in providing truly viable economic opportunities for workers !/edel AMonuevo et al# $%%,' -riffin# ,666.. Further# the original personal and social development emphasis of lifelong learning as found in the earlier ideology of the ,68%s and of eras past has been relegated to a minor rhetorical key. +ommunity funds for lifelong learning go primarily into workplace re training programs rather than into curricula emphasizing social or civic education such as the study of culture# comparative democracy or systems of government. (hus it seems that with the transformation of lifelong learning over the past several years @uropean social cohesion is now advanced primarily through the formation of a flexible and mobile cross border labor force rather than through the notion of personal development and the constitution of democratic participants in society. (his is similar in many ways to the evolution of lifelong learning in the Anited "tates# where an early emphasis on lifelong learning as creating a well socialized#

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>cosmopolitan3 child invested in national narratives of collective belonging# has morphed into the strategic global cosmopolitan interested first and foremost in entrepreneurial success. )opkewitz !$%%*:&8. writes of this new American

lifelong learner: 1hereas the cosmopolitanism of the child of the turn of the twentieth century was to live as a sociali ed individual who embodied the national exceptionalism# today there is little talk of socialization. (he cosmopolitan child lives in networks of communicative norms that order the classroom and family through a problem solving# active# flexible# and self managed lifelong learner !italics in original.. !: The Bologna Process: "onvergence (he 9ologna 7eclaration was a pledge signed by twenty nine @uropean countries 4to reform the structures of their higher education systems in a convergent way.5 (he declaration initiated a process !the 9ologna )rocess. of policy coordination with the goal of standardizing higher learning across @urope. (he

objectives included the adoption of a 4common framework of readable and comparable5 degrees at the university level# the introduction of undergraduate and postgraduate levels in all countries# 4with first degrees no shorter than * years and relevant to the labour market#5 the introduction of the @+(" !@uropean +redit (ransfer "ystem.# an effort to make course creditsincluding lifelong learningcomparable and compatible across @urope' and the 4elimination of remaining obstacles to the free mobility of students.5xxi

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As with the lifelong learning mandate# the 9ologna process manifests a strong policy push towards obtaining a @uropean competitive advantage in the global knowledge economy game !cf. Hwiek and /ickiewicz# $%%&.. As noted above# among the many desired transformations promoted by the declaration are the transferability of course and degree credits under the new @+(" program. (his is part of a more general strategy to increase the

flexibility of students with the ultimate goal of strengthening their cross border employability. According to the 7eclaration:

A clearly defined common goal is to create a @uropean space for higher education in order to enhance the employability and mobility of citizens and to increase the international competitiveness of @uropean higher education.xxii Although the declaration functioned simply as a pledge towards convergence# the process overall has already had a strong impact on the education policies of many /ember "tates. 2n

France for example# it has influenced a push towards harmonizing the time re=uired for postgraduate diplomas. ;ne proposed reform

called 40/75 !licence# mast#re# doctorat. establishes a set number of years !post 9accalaureate. for each degree# e.g. bacN*# bacND and bacNC. (his form of standardization# along with many other recently proposed reforms# was protested by numerous students in the fall of $%%*. (he students explicitly linked the

French university reforms to the increasing 4nOolibOralisation5 and 4marchandisation5 !commodification. of education resulting

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from the 9ologna process and other @uropean pressures to conform to a single higher education system.xxiii (he 9ologna )rocess also influenced the creation of @+ programs such as @rasmus mundus in $%%*. @rasmus mundus is an offshoot of @rasmus# the university level exchange program positioned under the broad aegis of "ocrates.xxiv 1hile the

original 4@rasmus5 facilitated exchanges between /ember "tate university students# the new program incorporates non @uropean or 4third country5 states in an explicitly global agenda. (he

program seeks to improve @urope3s competitive advantage in the provision of higher education. Following the intent of the

9ologna )rocess to ensure the worldwide attractiveness of the @uropean higher education system# @rasmus mundus emphasizes international competitiveness# global preparedness and individual mobility. (he following description of the program is from the

@uropean +ommission:

@rasmus /undus is a new global scheme# providing a distinctly 4@uropean5 offer in higher education. 2t seeks# primarily# to enhance the =uality and attractiveness of @uropean higher education world wide. "econdly# @rasmus /undus /asters +ourses and scholarships will provide a framework to promote valuable exchange and dialogue between cultures. 9y supporting the international mobility of scholars and students# @rasmus /undus intends to prepare its @uropean and non @uropean participants for life in a global# knowledge based society.xxv

(he 9ologna )rocess has continued over the last four years with meetings in )rague and 9erlin and with the agreement of all

24

$D @A /ember "tates to create a @uropean Bigher @ducation Area !@B@A. by $%,%. 2n each of these meetings the @+ has promoted convergence and comparable =ualifications in higher education. (he overarching goal of these reforms is the creation of a standardized cross border plan with compatible systems for both education and assessment. (his is intended to facilitate and

encourage a new level of international mobility and global competitiveness for students as well as to provide the tools necessary for the kinds of educational surveillance and accountability envisioned by the @A for the future. For example# in February $%%*# the +ommission presented a set of proposed 4benchmarks5 in education and training to the +ouncil of /inisters and five were adopted by the +ouncil on D /ay.xxvi (he term >benchmarking3 is fre=uently used in neoliberal discourse and indicates a method of establishing standards of accountability in a constantly evolving competitive context. !see e.g. 7ean and Bindess# ,66C' 0arner and 0e Beron# $%%*: 1alters and Baahr# $%%D..

": The Copenhagen Declaration: Transparency 2n the +openhagen 7eclaration it is possible to see how a strategic approach to lifelong learning combined with the strong push towards convergence leads to a new technology of control: Europass. @uropass is the most recent +ommission initiative in

the realm of vocational training. 2t follows from the +openhagen 7eclaration of $%%$ which called for action to 4increase

25

transparency in vocational education and training through the implementation and rationalisation of information tools and networks# including the integration of existing instruments into one single framework.5xxvii @uropass incorporates five existing documents into a primary one that covers individual workers3 skills and =ualifications in a 4lifelong learning perspective.5 (hese documents include a 4@uropean +I5 outlining personal and vocational skills !including language skills.# the 4/obili)ass#5 which indicates previous transnational mobility# and the 4+ertificate5 and 47iploma "upplements#5 which show vocational =ualifications and higher education diplomas.xxviii @uropass is essentially a compact document that vocational laborers carry with them and which indicates at a glance their work history and =ualifications. (he pass is a kind of universal

>passport of skills3 which enables them to cross @A borders easily for work related affairs. For state officials and

employers in different /ember "tates @uropass encapsulates an individual worker3s history in an easily digestible format and reduces the time needed to evaluate the prospective employee and?or intra @A migrant. 2n the perception of @uropean commissioners it improves transparency and hence increases mobility for workers# who are thus liberated to rationally distribute themselves according to the dictates of market logic. 1ith @uropass the individual laborer bears the responsibility for locating >efficient3 maximum employment# now

26

extended across ,D !and soon to be $D. countries. 9ut more than this# the pass is part of a larger set of political rationalities in which the concept of person is ultimately underpinned by the category of laborer. 2t creates a cognitive shorthand e=uivalent

to the business slogan 4you are the office#5 now constituted across employment categories as well as across @uropean nations !cf. /itchell# /arston and Hatz# $%%&.. Fot only is work thus e=uated with personhood# but through its links to lifelong learning# work related skills must constantly evolve in a >rational3 manner in order to ensure the development of the optimal enterprising individual. Further# the new transparency associated with @uropass ensures that this evolution can be monitored and regulated through various instruments of cross border control. (he following =uote is from the +ommission web page announcing the new @uropass proposal:

(he @uropean +ommission has just adopted a proposal for a decision of the @uropean )arliament and of the +ouncil on a single framework for the transparency of =ualifications and competences !@uropass.. +onceived with an eye to lifelong learning# the proposal integrates various transparency promoting instruments into a coherent framework# identified by the single label 4@uropass5# which will be accessible on the 2nternet and to which other instruments may also be added in the future. +oordination# rationalisation and computerisation are the key concepts of the proposal...xxix

)rior conceptions of lifelong learning as primarily concerned with personal development and the ongoing constitution of ethical personhood and critical thinking have metamorphized

27

into a measurable series of =ualifications attained with respect to lifelong employability. (ransparency in this regard refers to

the ability of the neoliberal state to survey and monitor these self improving moments. -reater or lesser status# i.e. faster or

slower levels of speed# mobility and employability can then be indicated on the @uropass. As the worker3s >history3 of

transnational mobility is manifested on the !soon to be electronic. pass# his or her relative ac=uiescence and success in the project of perpetual mobilization and self improvement will remain as a permanent mark. 2n the A9+3s of the previous three examples 23ve indicated some of the multiple sites and spaces of neoliberal ideology and policy in the educational pronouncements and programs of the @uropean +ommission. @xamining these types of sites is critical in conceptualizing the various technologies of power through which new political rationalities are formed and legitimized !see e.g. Foucault# ,66,' 0emke# $%%,.. Bowever# this type of

analysis does not lend much insight into the particular responses to these techni=ues of power and to the general recoding of social life and personhood under conditions of neoliberal governmentality. 2n the next section 2 give one small example of the ways in which the neoliberal project in @uropean education fails in producing neoliberal @uropean subjectsprimarily as a result of geography# history and the generally sticky intransigence of existing structures and practices.

28

%utside the Neoliberal &ro'ect(

The

arseille Citizen

1hile the examples above give some indication of the extent of recent policy reforms in the +ommission3s education and training sector# it is also instructive to consider some of the effects of these reforms on the ground. For example in

/arseille# the second largest city in France but one that is geographically and culturally removed from the )arisian >center3 of the country# remarkably little information about +omenius and other @uropean high school exchange programs is disseminated to inner city students or teachers. 2n the six /arseille high schools 2 visited in $%%* $%%& not a single student had participated in an @A sponsored high school exchange program. (he five high school principals 2 interviewed had all heard of +omenius and 0eonardo# the primary @A education and training programs for high school students# but not one had heard of @uropass or @rasmus mundus# nor did they have a strong sense of either the objectives of lifelong learning or exactly how to achieve or implement them scholastically. 1hen asked about the lack of participation in @A programs they responded by stressing the difficulties that poor students have in finding the supplemental or >matching3 funds necessary for many of the programs# the problems of communicating with immigrant parents about student opportunities and the difficulties for those same parents of not always being able to reciprocate vis E vis providing food and lodging for their child3s international counterpart. (his was added to the more general exigencies

29

associated with deviation from an inflexible and highly centralized French educational system. ;ne principal said in a Ganuary# $%%& interview in /arseille:

(hese programs P0eonardo and +omeniusQ are utilized very little# unfortunately. (he reasons are very very complicated. (hey are not adapted to the rigidities of our system... (he framework of +omenius is narrow and demands a lot of involvement and a long time frame and we have difficulties constructing programs over several years. Also the re=uirements and exams here are such that it becomes very difficult to manage.xxx A second principal noted however# that despite the lack of participation in @A sponsored exchanges a number of students had traveled on school trips# especially to African countries. showed me one informational pamphlet describing an exchange program with 0omO in (ogo that was funded under the auspices of the regional center for vocational and technical training for the /aritime region in France !+:@( F).. (hese types of shorter Be

trips were planned by the school and nationally funded. Fre=uently the sites of these exchanges were based on old colonial ties rather than the newer economic links with @uropean partners. According to a principal at a lycOe professionnel !vocational high school.# the establishment of exchanges such as this often relied on personal connections and on the voluntary time and labor of the high school3s teachers and administrators. 9ecause his zone was designated a R@) ! one d$%ducation prioritaire or priority zone. and an at risk school !a special

30

designation given for schools in zones of 4experimental violence5.# he was given more staff# supplemental national funds and greater autonomy in spending the funds and was thus able to reward dedicated teachers with extra salary. (hese state funds were directed towards national goals of minority integration and the alleviation of poverty in at risk schools and areas of the country. (he forms of mobility and skills development that were made possible by these funds were almost always constituted and extended through previous networks and alliances and focused on cultural and historical ties as well as economic connections. 1hen 2 asked students if they had traveled much in @urope or had any personal sense of identity as 4@uropean5 or as @uropean citizens the overwhelming response was one of uninterested ambivalence# the e=uivalent of a verbal shrug. "ome

had traveled in @urope# but the majority of these travels were in southern @urope around the /editerranean region# mainly in southern "pain and 2taly. As mentioned earlier# none had

participated in a high school @A education or training program. 2n response to similar =uestions about French identity and citizenship there was more of a slightly =uizzical affirmative# but without much warmth. Bowever# when 2 asked more generally

about identity and citizenship# framing it as a =uestion of allegiance# pride# security and feelings of connection# students responded with fierce pride that they were first and foremost citizens of /arseille' they were 4/arseillais.5 2n a group

interview at a lycOe in central /arseille# for example# one

31

student responded to a =uestion about French identity with the following remark: 4Kes 2 am French# but above all !surtout. of /arseille.5 1hen 2 asked if /arseille was >really3 French# all the students laughed and said boisterously and with some satisfaction# 4&on'5 For these students a sense of personhood and social citizenship and belonging was un=uestionably associated with the city of /arseille rather than with either France or @urope and was based on cultural allegiances and historical ties rather than with economic motivations or ambitions. (hey felt secure in

/arseille# a city full of immigrants like themselves# but were afraid of experiencing discrimination and hatred in other regions of France and in other countries of @urope. 2f they traveled at

all it was usually in southern 2taly or "pain or to the countries of their parents3 origin# located primarily in Forth Africa or (urkey. (hey had little or no plans to travel for work or pleasure in the rest of @urope. For high school students in inner city /arseille thus the neoliberal @+ educational policy reforms had little or no effect vis E vis the recent instigations towards permanent mobilization as laborers and the importance of cross border @uropean mobility or sense of allegiance. 2n one sense then they are clearly being

left out of the increasingly fast paced @uropean knowledge economy and corresponding entitlements to @uropean >citizenship.3 9ut in another sense they have formed strong emotional and cultural ties to /arseille and feel secure as social citizens at

32

a different scale.

Further# they have established or maintained

global linkages in others networksthose associated primarily with the former French colonies.

Conclusion Feoliberal and social democratic policy regimes are both operative in the @A and are currently contested in many sectors. 2n these struggles it is important to watch for shifting practices within the institutional apparatuses of civil society# especially in arenas like education. 2 believe that we are

currently in a transitional moment from a more social democratic emphasis to a stronger regime of neoliberal governmentality in the @A and that this is reflected in the contemporary education and training policy and practices of the @uropean +ommission. For example# there is a clear movement towards shaping @urope as the premier 4knowledge economy5 in the world. (he

techni=ues of the self that are brought to bear in this process include lifelong learning# mobility and adaptability' in a mutually constitutive fashion these are juxtaposed with state discourses of homogenization# convergence and transparency. 2n

the @A programs and discourses of the past several years one can see the production of a fast paced# mobile and interchangeable laborer and the simultaneous exclusion of those considered slow# particularist and?or otherwise >different#3 who cannot or will not keep up with the recent changes. @arlier concerns of social

liberalism# including the multicultural emphasis on achieving

33

diversity as beneficial for civic life and for the development of ethical personhood have been replaced with a market logic which underpins all educational policies and ideals. (he @+3s stress on the necessity for constant mobilization and self empowerment through lifelong learning leads to the growing exclusion of the poorer members in society# especially immigrant minorities. :ather than encouraging the types of social and educational integration that are practical and attainable for these groups there is an increasingly cynical narrative which e=uates greater @uropean movement with greater @uropean social belonging. (his kind of 4third way5 neoliberalism employs soft

cultural rhetoric alongside hard economic policies# whereby 4inclusion is understood as another means of enhancing international competitiveness5 !0arner and +raig# $%%D.. (hird way rhetoric such as the 4;pen /ethod of +oordination#5 4partnering#5 or 4social inclusion#5 obfuscates the ultimate neoliberal goal of extending >common sense3 market rationality throughout the @A. Further it is paralleled by the decline of

both @A and /ember "tate interest in or financial support for the philosophical ideals of state sponsored multicultural integration. (he movement away from a state led valuation of difference as >positive3 for @urope is already having direct conse=uences for immigrants of color. 2t has become the individual3s

responsibility to integrate effectively and if he or she does not# it is projected as a =uestion of individual choice rather

34

than the failure of liberalism3s universalist and egalitarian claims.xxxi (hese transformations are broadly linked with macro

economic shifts relating to the promotion of flexible accumulation as a new regime of capital accumulation. (he

economic changes moreover# occur alongside the discourse of competition and individual entrepreneurialism connected with the rise of neoliberalism as a political philosophy of governance. 2t remains important to acknowledge however# that neoliberalism is a broad set of often contradictory programs# techni=ues and practices and never completely secured. (he

extension of neoliberal reform policies in @A education and training has un=uestionably had an exclusionary effect on high school students in /arseille# who as a result of history# geography and economic circumstances are unable to access @uropean citizenship through the new initiatives and programs. 9ut neoliberalism as a project of disciplining and the abstract organization of subjects at a distance remains partial and fragmentary. For example when viewed with an eye towards the

constitution of neoliberal subjects it is evident that the current policies have been unsuccessful in producing and regulating the young >/arseille3 citizens. (he evasion of various technologies of control manifests the multiple systemic disjunctures and possibilities for a wider politics of counter hegemony. 2t is always important to recognize the many ways that the seemingly seamless assemblages of neoliberal state power fails to actually connect. Bowever it is

35

also politically responsible to note the often unconscious and fragile nature of these disconnections. 2n the case of the young students from /arseille# these practices are still very much 4weapons of the weak.5 At this time they do not form the basis of a viable political formation and whether and to what extent they may do so in the future remains an open =uestion.

36

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-iroux B# $%%& The Terror of &eoli)eralism: Authoritarianism and the Eclipse of Democracy !9oulder# +o.: )aradigm )ublishers.

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-ough G# $%%$# 4Feoliberalism and socialisation in the contemporary city: opposites# complements and instabilities5 Antipode *&!*. &%D &$<

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Goppke +# /orawska @ !9asingstoke: )algrave /acmillan. pp , *<

Hwiek /# /ickiewicz A# $%%&# 4(he emergent @uropean educational policies under scrutiny. (he 9ologna )rocess from a +entral

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0arner 1# $%%%# 4Feo liberalism: policy# ideology# governmentality5 Studies in Political Economy <* D $<

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+ited with

0arner 1# 0eBeron :# $%%*# 4(he spaces and subjects of a globalising economy: a situated exploration of method5 Society and Space $%!<. 8D* 88&

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/anzer : ,66& Pu)lic Schools and Political .deas: "anadian Educational Policy in 8istorical Perspective !(oronto: Aniversity of (oronto )ress.

/atheson 7# /atheson +# ,66<# 40ifelong learning and lifelong education: a criti=ue5 *esearch in Post-"ompulsory Education ,!$.

/edel AMonuevo +# ;hsako (# /auch 1# $%%, *evisiting Lifelong Learning for the 9:st "entury !AF@"+; 2nstitute for @ducation# Bamburg.

/itchell H# $%%&a "rossing the &eoli)eral Line: Pacific *im ,igration and the ,etropolis Aniversity )ress. !)hiladelphia: (emple

42

/itchell H# $%%&b# 4-eographies of identity: multiculturalism unplugged5 Progress in 8uman /eography $C!D. <&, <D,

/itchell H# /arston "# Hatz +# $%%&# 42ntroduction: 0ife3s work5 in Life$s 2or5: /eographies of Social *eproduction @ds. /itchell H# /arston "# Hatz + !0ondon: 9lackwell. pp , $8

/itchell H# $%%*# 4@ducating the national citizen in neoliberal times: from the multicultural self to the strategic cosmopolitan5 Transactions of the .nstitute of !ritish /eographers $C!&. *C8 &%*

;3/alley )# ,66<# 42ndigenous governance5 Economy and Society $< *,% *$<

)eck G# (ickell# A $%%$# 4Feoliberalizing space5 Antipode *& !*. *C% &%&

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:obertson "# 7ale :# $%%*# 4+hanging geographies of power in education: the politics of rescaling and its contradictions5 !#)*+T ,--.. published by the @A funded -@F2@ the -lobalisation and @uropeanisation Fetwork in @ducation !http:??www.genie tn.net.

:odrigues /# $%%$# @d. The &ew ;nowledge Economy in Europe: A Strategy for .nternational "ompetitiveness and Social "ohesion !+heltenham# AH: @dward @lgar.

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:ose F# ,666 Powers of 0reedom: *eframing Political Thought !+ambridge: +ambridge Aniversity )ress.

:ose F# ,66% /overning the Soul: The Shaping of the Private Self !0ondon: :outledge.

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44

presented at @")Anet Annual +onference# ;xford 6 ,,# "eptember

"mith A# $%%$# 42magining geographies of the >new @urope3: geo economic power and the new @uropean architecture of integration5 Political /eography $, <&8 <8%

"oininen /# ,666# 4(he >"wedish model3 as an institutional framework for immigrant membership rights5 (ournal of Ethnic and ,igration Studies $D <CD 8%$

"parke /# $%%&# 4)olitical geography: political geographies of globalization !,. 7ominance5 Progress in 8uman /eography $<!<..

"teger# /anfred $%%$ /lo)alism: The &ew ,ar5et .deology !0anham# /d.: :owman and 0ittlefield )ublishers.

"torey A# $%%&# 4(he @uropean )roject: 7ismantling social democracy# globalising neoliberalism5 The 0oundation for the Economics of Sta)ility !F@A"(A.. (his article can be found at the following web site: http:??www.feasta.org?documents?democracy?storey.htm. !accessed Gune# %&# $%%&.. author. +ited with permission of the

45

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46

1alters 1# Baahr G B# $%%D

/overning Europe: Discourse,

/overnmentality and European .ntegration !0ondon: :outledge..

47

(he research for this article was made possible by the support of a grant

for :esearch and 1riting from the Gohn 7. and +atherine (. /acArthur Foundation. /any thanks also go to 1alter )arker and three anonymous

reviewers who offered helpful comments on an earlier draft of the paper.

ii

2n the first category neoliberalism is conceptualized as a policy reform

program 4initiated and rationalized through a relatively coherent theoretical and ideological framework5 !0arner# $%%%: 8.. 2n the second#

neoliberalism is seen as part of a struggle for dominance over the ideas !and minds. of the social formation. 2n the third category# neoliberalism

is perceived as discourse# a 4system of meaning that constitutes institutions# practices and identities in contradictory and self identified ways5 !0arner# $%%%: ,$.. 2n this latter formulation neoliberalism leads

to the emergence of institutions and practices !technologies of governance. that facilitate and encourage individual and group conformity to market norms.
iii

1hen discussing policy proposals and reforms 2 will refer to the @uropean

+ommission rather than the @uropean Anion.

iv

(his 4@uropean5 dimension was promoted initially through university and (he first educational exchange

secondary school exchange programs.

programs under @+ auspices were launched in ,6CD with @rasmus for university students and +ommett for vocational training. +ommett operated

until ,66& and was then replaced by the 0eonardo da Iinci vocational program. @rasmus continues to operate.
v

@dith +resson# Foreword: 40earning for active citizenship#5 @uropean

+ommission# @uropa: @ducation and (raining ,66C 7-TT22 publication of the @A. (his document can be found at:

http:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?archive?citizen?citizUen.html !accessed Ganuary $6# $%%&..

vi

;ne of the first formulations of lifelong learning appeared with the ,68$

Faure :eport 40earning to be.5 (his report led to further AF@"+; 2nstitute for @ducation !A2@. research in the area of lifelong learning. 2n ,68< :.B. 7ave wrote 4Foundations of lifelong education#5 a report which emphasized lifelong learning in terms of the 4continuous improvement of the =uality of personal and collective life5 !cited in /edel AMonuevo et al.# $%%,..
vii

"ee# for example# the initial @+ formulations of lifelong learning in the

1hite )aper of ,66D entitled# 4(eaching and learning: (owards the learning society.5 (he last two sentences of this document indicate a clear social

democratic interest in the links between the >personal development3 component of lifelong learning and the goal of @uropean social cohesion' even so# the aims of social cohesion are firmly yoked to the ongoing neoliberal mantra of global competition: 40astly# the 1hite )aper can help to show that if it is to secure its place and future in the world# @urope has to place at least as much emphasis on the personal fulfilment of its citizens# men and women alike# as it has up to now placed on economic and monetary issues. (hat is how @urope will prove that it is not merely a free trade area# but a coherent political whole capable of coming successfully to terms with internationalisation instead of being dominated by it.5 (his document can be found at http:??www.ise.ee?docs?whitepaper.htm !accessed Gune $,# $%%&..
viii

2 am writing in terms of general trends here. 2t is of course still

possible to find numerous references to the formation of a democratic citizen in @+ documents. 2 would argue# however# that these references have been effectively gutted of meaning in recent years. (hey generally appear

now as part of a long laundry list of policy reform >positives3 of which the most privileged and numerous are those relating to skills# adaptability and mobility. For a longer discussion of the terminology related to 4ethical liberalism5 and its associated meanings see /itchell# $%%*: *6*' /anzer# ,66&.
ix

@mpirical data on inner city high schools !lyc%es= in /arseille was

derived from interviews with five principals and with approximately $%% students !interviewed in class size groups ranging from 8 to $%.. Fieldwork was conducted in /arseille in $%%* $%%&.
x

7ean and Bindess !,66C. defined technologies of citizenship as those

improving self esteem and empowering people to further their own ends# but always within the context of the market economy.
xi

(he typologies for differing accumulation regimes varies between Bere 2 refer to

disciplinary literatures and can often become confusing.

the first as a social democratic political formation in concert with a Heynesian welfare state economic project. (his is fre=uently labelled a 4Fordist5 regime. (he second is a neoliberal political formation in concert with a flexible or laissez faire economic project# labelled variously as 4postfordism#5 4disorganized capitalism#5 4flexible accumulation#5 and 4network capitalism.5 A neo mercantilist regime was also promoted early on

in the @A as a 4fortress @urope5 protectionist strategy favoring @uropean business interests. (his regime was to be aided and entrenched via the /any saw a united

single market and the @/A !@uropean /onetary Anion..

@urope as an 4opportunity to protect the >@uropean model of society#35 including its social democratic traditions from the 4potentially destructive forces of globalisation and neo liberalism5 !van Apeldoorn# $%%,: 8<.. 9ut this alternative model of regionalism was undermined in the

,6C%s by a strong lobby of international businesses including the @:( !@uropean :oundtable of 2ndustrialists.# who favored a neoliberal version of the single market !"ee "torey# $%%&..
xii

Author3s interview with a member of the @ducation and +ulture directorate

of the @uropean +ommission# 9russels# /arch# $%%&.

xiii

(he recent @A parliamentary elections of Gune ,*# $%%& are a good example

of declining voter turnout across the spectrum of old and new /ember "tates. "ee# e.g. (homas Fuller and Hatrin 9ennhold# 4After voters revolt#

doubt on @A charter#5 .nternational 8erald Tri)une# Gune ,D# $%%&# p. ,.

xiv

For example the former @ducation +ommissioner @dith +resson wrote

enthusiastically about democratic participation and the constitution of a pluralist @urope. As a national politician she was a member of the socialist party and a political appointee of FranVois /itterand. replaced in ,666 by the current commissioner# Iiviane :eding# a conservative +hristian 7emocrat from 0uxembourg. As one of her first major policy actions :eding pushed an economistic conception of lifelong learning to the forefront of the @+ educational agenda. (he biographies of these two +ommissioners manifest some of the continuing internal tensions between the social democratic and neoliberal projects within the @A administration.
xv

"he was

@uropean +ommission# @uropa @ducation and (raining# 4(owards a @urope of (his document can be found at:

knowledge5# published ,668.

http:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?doc?other?orient?orieUen.html !accessed Ganuary $6# $%%&..

xvi

"ee for example# Iiviane :eding# 4A @uropean area of lifelong learning:

empowering @uropeans in the knowledge based economy and society.5 "peech given Fovember $,# $%%,. 7F: 2)?%,?,<$%. (his speech can be located at: http:??europa.eu.int?rapid?start?cgi?guestfr.kshJ

pUaction.gettxtWgtXdocW2)?%,?,<$%Y%Y:A)27XlgW@FXdisplayW !accessed Gune $&# $%%&..

xvii

+ited in 2bid. @uropean +ommission )olicy Areas# 4@uropean +ooperation in education and

xviii

training#5 (his document can be found at: http:??europa.eu.int?scadplus?leg?en?cig?g&%%e.htmZel !accessed Guly 8# $%%&..
xix

2bid. "ee: http:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?policies?introductionUen.html

xx

!accessed Guly D# $%%&..

xxi

(he 9ologna 7eclaration on the @uropean "pace for Bigher @ducation: An (he declaration can be found at:

@xplanation.

http:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?policies?educ?bologna?bologna.pdf !accessed Gune# $%%&..

xxii

2bid. "ee for example 4[uelle alternative E l3Ocole nOolibOraleJ5 Le ,onde de

xxiii

l$%ducation Fo. *,6# Fovembre# $%%*# pp. ,< ,8' 4[ui craint la modernisation de l3AniversitOJ5 Le 0igaro# , 7Ocembre# $%%*# p. ,$' 4@tudiants: nouvelle journOe d3action#5 0rance Actualit% & 7Ocembre# $%%*# p. *6' 4-rogne Otudiante sur les campus#5 Le ,onde de l$%ducation Fo. *$%# 7Ocembre# $%%*# p ,%.
xxiv

(he two principal education and training programs in the @+ are "ocrates "ocrates comprises educational exchange programs

and 0eonardo da Iinci.

such as @rasmus and +omenius# and other programs such as -rundtvig# /inerva and 0ingua. !@rasmus covers university level exchanges whereas +omenius is the program for high school students.. 0eonardo promotes international

exchanges in vocational training. +ombined @A annual funding for the two programs is approximately @uro &%% million.
xxv

http:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?programmes?mundus?indexUen.html

!accessed Guly 8# $%%&..

xxvi

"ee: http:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?policies?introductionUen.html

!accessed Guly 8# $%%&..

xxvii

4@uropass: a new instrument for better recognition of =ualifications and

skills in the enlarged @urope.5 9russels# Ganuary 8#$%%&. (his document can be found at: http:??europa.eu.int?rapid?start?cgi?guestfr.kshJ pUaction.gettxtWgtXdocW2)?%&?,&Y%Y:A)27XlgW@FXdisplayW !accessed Ganuary $8# $%%&..
xxviii

2bid. 2bid. (ranslated from the French by the author. 2 would argue that the recent legislation in France prohibiting the

xxix

xxx

xxxi

/uslim headscarf and other >ostensible3 religious symbols in schools is an example of a type of educational reform that ultimately places the responsibility for assimilation on the individual immigrant or minority student. 2f a /uslim girl 4chooses5 to wear a scarf regardless of the law she can !must. be excluded from the educational system because of her unwillingness to assimilate to French secular norms. discussion see -okariksel and /itchell# forthcoming. For further