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Drilling

by
Lyall Workman
Calder & Workman Inc.
2501 Twin City Dr. Suite 2
Mandan, ND
58554
Tel. (701) 667-5785 Fax (701) 667-5784
e-mail: lworkman@tic.bisman.com
ROTARY
DRI LLI NG

Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapt er 1.0 Rot ar y Dr i l l i ng.............................................. 1
1.1: Gener al Di sc ussi on........................................... 1
1.2: Rot ar y Dr i l l Pent r at i on Rat e............................. 6
1.3: Rot ar y Hor sepow er ........................................... 19
1.4: Rot ar y Dr i l l Ai r Requi r ement ............................ 27
1.5: Rot ar y Dr i l l Bi t s................................................ 41
1.5.1: Gener al Di sc ussi on................................ 41
1.5.2: St eel Toot h Bi t s..................................... 42
1.5.3: Tungst en Car bi de I nser t Bi t s................. 43
1.5.4: Rot ar y Bi t Bear i ngs............................... 49
Rol l er Bear i ng........................................ 49
Bal l Bear i ng........................................... 49
Nose Bear i ng.......................................... 51
1.6: Ai r J et s.............................................................. 51
1.7: Rot ar y Tr i c one Bi t Oper at i ng
Par amet er s........................................................ 53
1.8: Ot her Consi der at i ons.......................................... 59
1.8.1: Dr i l l St ems.............................................. 59
1.8.2: Rot ar y Dr i l l St abi l i zer s
(Col l ar s).................................................. 62
1.8.3: Shoc k Subs............................................. 62
The Dr i l c o Sw i vel Mount ed Shoc k Sub.... 63
The Hughes Sof t -Dr i l l ............................... 63
1.8.4: Oper at i ng Pr oc edur es............................ 65
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1.9: Tr ends i n Rot ar y Dr i l l i ng................................... 66
1.9.1: Si ngl e Pass Dr i l l i ng................................. 66
1.9.2: Rot ar y Dr i l l Aut omat i on.......................... 69
1.9.3: Dr i l l Per f or manc e Moni t or i ng.................. 71
1.9.4: Rot ar y Dr i l l desi gn Oper at i on
and Pr oduc t i on........................................ 79
1.9.5: Dr i l l i ng Cost Consi der at i ons................... 83

Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
CHAPTER 1.0: ROTARY DRI LLI NG
1.1 Gener al Di sc ussi on
The first of the unit operations conducted during the exploitation
phase of mining is most often production drilling. Some poorly
consolidated formations, including some shales, phosphates, salts and
coals do not require drilling and blasting. These may be mined directly
using:
rippers
scrapers
bucket wheel excavators
draglines, etc.
The bulk of surface and underground mines do require breakage of
the ore and waste by explosives, and to accomplish this, it is necessary to
drill a cavity into the rock. This section will primarily discuss rotary drilling
which is the principal method used in open pit mining today.
However, down-the-hole hammer drilling is important for some
mines, and for quarries. The common application in mining is in gold
mines, where smaller diameters (6 to 9 inch; 165 to 228 mm) are often
employed. In quarries 6 (228 mm) has become a quite common
blasthole diameter, and DTH drilling is often the more economical choice
at this diameter.
In rotary drilling, the drill bit attacks the rock with energy supplied to
it by a rotating drill stem. The drill stem is rotated while a thrust is applied
to it by a pulldown mechanism. Up to approximately 65% the weight of
the machine may be utilized for this purpose thereby forcing the bit into
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ploughing-scraping action in soft rock, or by a crushing-chipping action in
the rock. The drill bit breaks and removes the rock by either ahard rock,
or by a combination of the two.
The fact that rock is broken by different mechanisms in different
formations leads to the use of different bit designs. Penetration rate, a
prime measure of drill performance, is also affected and, as we shall see,
this is non linear with rock strength.
Compressed air is supplied to the bit via the drill stem. It both cools
the bit and provides a medium for flushing the cuttings from the hole.
Water may be used in addition to the compressed air to suppress the
effects of dust; however, this is often found to have a detrimental effect on
bit wear. There are essentially four manufacturers of rotary drills,
including Bucyrus-Erie, Harnishfeger, Ingersol Rand and Drillteck. These
companies manufacture competitive rotary drills which drill holes in the 6
to 17 inch (152 to 444 mm) range.
Figure 1.1 is an example of a rotary drill. Typical practice has been
to drill the blastholes vertically. However, the advent of cast blasting has
led to more desire to drill angle holes in order to reduce front row toe
distances or to conform to an angle presplit design. Also, mines and
quarries experiencing structural geology conditions that lead to a shallow
bench face angle may employ angle drilling to reduce the toe distance on
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Fi gur e 1.1: A Lar ge Rot ar y Dr i l l w i t h Hydr aul i c
Top Dr i ve.
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the front row. Therefore, there has been a trend to produce large drills
capable of being easily rigged for angle hole drilling. The typical range of
angles is from vertical (90) to 65.
There are drills manufactured that will drill horizontal holes such as
the Robbins Single or Twin Mast Horizontal Rotary Drill. (See Figure 1.2)
The horizontal drilling mode is used in overburden stripping and where
hard bands of material are located low in the highwall face, thus
eliminating wasteful vertical drill footage through soft materials.
The techniques and principles of rotary drilling were to a large
degree developed by the Petroleum Industry for the purpose of drilling oil
wells to depths in excess of 20,000 feet. Prior to World War II, rotary
drilling was in existence but confined primarily to soft drilling such as coal,
porphyry copper and soft natural iron ore. The War did much to deplete
the soft, high grade iron ore of the Mesabi Range in the United States and
the iron ore industry was forced to start mining and beneficiating the hard
low grade iron ores such as taconite. The only drills capable of
penetrating this material at that time were the small diameter percussion
drills, which were not adequate or economical for the large volume iron
ore industry. Consequently a great technical thrust was directed towards
the development of drilling large diameter boreholes in hard rock. The
result of this research and development work was the evolution of the the
rotary drill with tricone bits and compressed air and also the evolution of
Jet Piercer.
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The introduction of bulk, low cost explosives and the increasing
demand for unit productivity did much to create a demand for larger
boreholes. To drill larger blastholes, especially in hard rock, required
bigger, heavier drills to supply adequate pulldown pressure. These
machines are predominantly top drive. The rotary drive has typically been
electronically powered. However, more recently numerous models using
a hydraulic top drive have been introduced and may transfer power to the
drill string more efficiently. Larger compressors delivering a greater
quantity of air were also required as the blasthole diameters increased.
Figure 1.3 is an example of a rotary head and pulldown mechanism and
figure 1.4 shows a machine house layout for a large rotary drill.
1.2 Rot ar y Dr i l l Penet r at i on Rat e
The penetration rate of a rotary drill is the prime descriptor of its
performance. The production capacity of a drill is governed by this
parameter. The machine portion of the total cost per foot (meter) varies
inversely with penetration rate. Therefore, it is important to be able to
predict the penetration rate of a rotary drill and also to be able to measure
actual performance.
Comprehensive studies were performed in iron ore for the purpose
of relating rotary drill performance to rock strength (Bauer and Calder,
1966). Such a correlation was possible provided sufficient measurements
of the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock were obtained to provide
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Fi gur e 1.3: Rot ar y Head and Pul l Dow n
Mec hani sm on a Lar ge Rot ar y
Dr i l l .
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Fi gur e 1.4: Typi c al Mac hi ne House Layout f or a
Lar ge Rot ar y Dr i l l .
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a meaningful rock strength.
Field tests, in which drills were instrumented to collect data
demonstrated that penetration rate also correlated in a linearly manner to
the pulldown weight and the rotary speed. The results of this study were
expressed in the following empirical formula:
P = (61-28 log S
c
%
W
v
%
RPM
300
where P = penetration rate, ft/hr
S
c
= uniaxial compressive strength expressed
in thousands of pounds/sq.in.
W = pulldown weight per inch of bit diameter
expressed in thousands of lbs./in v
RPM = revolutions of the drill pipe per minute
The uniaxial compressive strength is entered in thousands of psi.
This means that if a rock has an S
c
of 20,000 psi the number 20 is
entered. Similarly, if the pulldown weight were 5000 lbs/inch of bit
diameter, the number 5.0 is entered.
This equation has worked quite well over the years to predict
penetration rate. However, it was based on studies in hard iron and it is
found that as the rock strength decreases the equation predicts
penetration rates that are conservative in relation to those actually
experienced. The deviation becomes quite marked when the uniaxial
compressive strength falls below 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
The reason for the deviation is thought to be the changing nature of
two techniques.
Since the original work was done in hard rock where drillinghe rock
breakage under the indentors as the rock strength decreases.
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This action varies from a crushing-chipping action in hard rocks to
a ploughing-scraping action in soft formations. Medium strength rocks are
likely failed under the bit by a combination of these occurred due to
compressive type failure under the indentor, it can be seen that deviations
in calculated and actual penetration rates might certainly occur as the
formations become weaker and penetration proceeds by more of a
shearing action.
The deviation between predicted and actual values leads one to
conclude that either penetration rate no longer varies linearly with
pulldown and RPM in soft rocks (like coal overburden), or that the factor
relating penetration to rock strength varies with the strength of the
formation. It is our view that the penetration rate does remain linear with
pulldown and rpm. A paper by Schively (1994) appears to support this as
he indicates that penetration rate is linear with pulldown and, for a given
pulldown, the rate is also a linear function of RPM.
Schivley makes the distinction that the penetration rate is linear with
pulldown only to the point where the penetration per revolution equals the
height of the cutting elements. This is quite reasonable because if the
penetration per revolution exceeds this, one is essentially attempting to
push the cone structure itself into the bottom of the hole. This will change
the whole nature of the drilling action and penetration will decrease. In
addition, the effect on bit life will be dramatic.
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Consequently, we must assume that the deviation relates to the
relationship between penetration rate and rock strength. To adjust for the
rock strength it them becomes necessary to vary the empirical factor,
rather than assuming the value 61 for all cases. Based on the drill
production levels we have seen in the field in a variety of rock formations
Table 1.1 provides recommended values of the empirical factor for
different rock strengths.
Tabl e 1.1: Typi c al Val ues of Roc k Fac t or f or Di f f er ent
Roc k St r engt hs.
300.00 <7 <1,000 Extremely Weak
200.00 7-34 1,000-5,000 Very soft
135.00 34-69 5,000-10,000 Soft
100.00 69-103 10,000-15,000 Moderate
80.00 103-207 15,000-30,000 Hard
61.00 >207 >30,000 Very hard
Roc k
Penet r at i on
Fac t or , RF
Uni ax i al
Compr essi ve
St r engt h, MPa
Uni ax i al
Compr essi ve
St r engt h, psi
Roc k
Desc r i pt i on
These values provide reasonable predictions for the rock strengths
listed.However, one should recognize that variations may occur in specific
geologies. For example, a very hard formation that contains many closely
spaced fractures may have a higher penetration rate than expected as it
becomes somewhat easier to break chips off the bottom of the hole.
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Similarly, RPM may vary from what is expected due to geology. A
lower than expected RPM could occur in a soft rock that is highly
fractured.
In this case the limiting factor is vibration of the drill. Excessive
vibration will lead to reduced maintenance availability and increased repair
cost.
Therefore, we can rewrite the penetration rate equation as follows:
P = (RF - 28 log S
c
) x x
W
v
RPM
300
where P = penetration rate, ft/hr
RF = rock factor
Example: A drill is operating in a limestone formation. The uniaxial
compressive strength has been measured at 12,500 psi (86.2 MPa). The
borehole diameter is 7-7/8 inch (200 mm). The pulldown is 31,500
pounds (14,318 kg). Typical RPM is 85. What is the expected
penetration rate?
Answer: From Table 1.1 RF = 100
The pulldown weight per inch is 31,500 = 4000 lbs/in (71.6 kg/mm)
7.875

P = (RF - 28 log S
c
x
w
v
%
RPM
300

= (100 - 28 log 12.5) x 4.0 x
85
300
P = 78.5 ft/hr
Table 1.2 lists penetration rate calculations for different rock
strengths in boreholes ranging from 7-7/8 to 15 inch (200 to 381 mm).
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The empirical factor, which we could call RF, is varied according to Table
1.1. The RPM and pulldown weight are varied in a manner typical of field
practice. Obviously some variation between actual RPM and pulldown,
and the first approximation numbers given in the table can occur due to
operator differences and differences in geologic structure associated with
the rock. The penetration rates are the rates when actually drilling and
are expressed in feet or meters per hour.
The table also provides shift production figures. These are based
on a scheduled 8 hour shift and typical maintenance and operating
delays. Maintenance availability is obtained by subtracting the downtime
from the scheduled time and dividing by the scheduled time.
The scheduled time minus the downtime is the operating time.
Operating availability is found by subtracting operating delays, including
lunch break and shift change, from the operating time and dividing by the
operating time.
The overall availability is then the product of the maintenance
availability times the operating availability. It is the percentage of time that
the bit is actually rotated on the bottom of the borehole. In the example of
Table 1.2, this is 65 percent of the scheduled time, or 5.2 hours.
Figure 1.5 plots the rock factor RF, versus the uniaxial compressive
strength. The rock factor, RF, is not a linear function of the uniaxial
compressive strength, but increases rapidly in weak rock. This is
consistent with field observation of penetration rate.
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Figure 1.6 plots the penetration rate associated with various bit diameters
as a function of rock strength. On a semi-log plot these lines are
approximately linear. In bit diameters of 11 inches (279 mm) or greater
the penetration rate does not change in rock of compressive strength <
3000 psi (20.7 MPa). This occurs because the RPM are close to a
practical maximum at 115 and the pulldown is low and unlikely to differ
much between bit diameters.
In very weak rock the difference in penetration rate from the
smallest to largest bit considered is about 7.7 meters per hour (25 ft/hr).
In the hardest formation the variation is 5.8 meters per hour (19 ft/hr).
While these absolute differences do not vary by much the impact is very
much greater in the hard rock. The increase in penetration in going from
7-7/8 to 15 inch (200 to 381 mm) holes in a hard formation is 102 percent.
In soft rock, the increase in penetration over the same diameter range is
only 10 percent.
Although the increase in penetration rate in weak rock with
increases in bit diameter is small, the overall cost per ton for drilling and
blasting can be less at the larger diameters. The reason is the substantial
increase in drilling yield that occurs for increasing diameter. Figure 1.7
illustrates the effect by plotting the tons broken per hole versus the hole
diameter. The drilling yield increases about 300 percent over the range of
diameters plotted, due to increasing burden and spacing. The plot is for
ANFO on 14 meter (45 ft) benches. The rock formation is moderately
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jointed with a uniaxial compressive strength of 12,500 psi (86.2 MPa).
In the penetration rate equation the strength of the rock formation
clearly is beyond the control of the operator. The RPM and the pulldown
weight, however, are controllable machine parameters. It is essential,
therefore, that the operator be attentive to the drilling process at all times
and make adjustments to these parameters as required to maximize
penetration.
In the modern era equipment for measuring drill parameters reliably
and accurately are increasingly available. Three principle manufacturers
of drill performance indicators are Modular Mining Systems, Aquila and
Thunderbird Pacific. With this equipment the penetration rate pulldown,
RPM, vibration, airflow, etc. can be measured as the hole is drilled.
Therefore, if the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock has been
measured for the rock formations experienced at the mine or quarry, the
rock factor can be back calculated for each formation. Therefore,
increasingly accurate predictions of performance can be made and this
allows better drill scheduling and selection to be accomplished. Thus,
performance monitoring equipment is becoming increasingly important for
mine operators wanting to achieve maximum efficiency.
1.3 Rot ar y Hor sepow er
The rotary drive turns the drill string and the bit at the bottom of the
hole. As the bit is rotated successive rows of indentors are brought onto
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the bottom of the hole. Therefore, increased rotary speed means more
indentors contact the bottom of the borehole per unit of time and, for the
same pulldown, the penetration rate will increase. A primary limit to rotary
speed is excessive drill vibration. When this occurs the figure operator
will generally reduce pulldown first and then RPM if required. Rotary
speed is also limited by hot bearings in the bit or because the heel row
indentors are being stripped from the bit.
The rotary horsepower requirement can be estimated from the
following equation:
HP = K x RPM x D x W
1.5
where K = constant that varies with rock type.
K is greater in softer rock because greater tooth penetration is possible.
Values of the constant range from 14x10
-5
for soft rock to 4x10
-5
in very
hard materials.
D = Bit diameter in inches
W = Total pulldown weight on the bit in thousands of
pounds.
Example: A drill is operating in rock where S
c
= 20,000 psi (137.9
MPa). For this rock K is estimated to be 6x10
-5
. The 12 inch bit (311
mm) is turned at 80 RPM. The pulldown weight per inch is 6200 lbs/ins
(111.0 kg/mm). What is the required horsepower?
Answer: The horsepower equation requires the total pulldown
weight, which is entered in thousands of pounds. In this case:
W = 6200x12.25 = 75,950 lbs.
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HP = 6x10
-5
x 80 x 12.25 x (75.95)
HP = 39 horsepower.
Note: This calculation does not account for the torque resistance
generated by the stabilizer located between the bit and the drill steel. This
resistance increases the horsepower requirement by at least 25%.
Therefore, total horsepower needed in this case is at least
HP = 39 x 1.25 = 49 horsepower
In actual field operation the horsepower will likely remain fairly
constant, even in boreholes encountering rock formations of different
strength. The reason is that the RPM and pulldown weight also change.
If these factors remain constant the horsepower requirement would rise as
softer strata are encountered. However, because the pulldown is typically
decreasing while the RPM increases as we trend to softer strata the
horsepower doesn't change by much.
Table 1.3 tabulates the horsepower requirement with 12 inch bits
(311 mm) in rocks of different strength. The RPM and pulldown values
are typical for this diameter. The table lists the horsepower requirement

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Tabl e 1.3: Rot ar y Hor sepow er r equi r ement i n
Di f f er ent St r at a f or Typi c al
Oper at i ng Par amet er s.
36 39 39 38 36 33
Rotary
Horse-
power
7500 6200 5000 4000 3000 2500
Pulldown
Weight/
inch.,
lbs/in.
311 311 311 311 311 311
Bit
Diameter,
mm
12.25 12.25 12.25 12.25 12.25 12.25
Bit
Diameter,
ins
75 80 95 100 110 115
RPM,
revolutions
/minute
4.50E-05 6.00E-05 7.00E-05 9.00E-04 1.20E-04 1.40E-04
Constant,
K
35000 20000 12500 7500 3000 1000
Roc k
Compr es
-si ve
St r engt h
, psi
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for the different cases. One can see that the values are similar.
The above calculation does not take into account the method of
stabilization. The stabilizer between the bit and drill steel will rub on the
sidewall of the hole and requires torque. At least 25 percent should be
added to the horsepower to allow for stabilizer.
When selecting a drill you will want to be sure that there is
adequate horsepower to cater for peak conditions. Therefore, in drilling in
very soft rock one might take the case where the RPM are 175 and the
pulldown is 4500 lbs/in (80.6 kg/mm) rather than the values show in Table
1.3. Then 123 hp are required, or at least 155 hp minimum to account for
stabilization.
Similarly, in the very hard formation we may wish to assume peak
conditions of 120 RPM and 8000 lbs/inch (143.2 kg/mm) of pulldown.
Then 100 hp are required, or at least 125 hp stabilization is accounted for.
Referring to the horsepower equation above we see that there is a
linear relationship between horsepower and RPM. There is also a linear
relationship between RPM and penetration rate if the pulldown remains
the same and cuttings can be efficiently bailed from the hole. Therefore,
for productive drilling it is very important that the drill have adequate
horsepower to turn the bit as rapidly as possible on the bottom of the
blasthole.
To illustrate this Figure 1.8 is a plot of the horsepower requirement
as a function of the RPM. The graph is for a rock of moderate strength
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(12,500 psi; 86 MPa) with a K factor of 7x10
-5
. The bit is 12 inch
diameter (311 mm) and it is assumed that 5800 lbs/in (103.8 kg/mm) of
force is applied to the bit. One observes that in the range of 70 to 120
RPM the horsepower requirement almost doubles.
Figure 1.9 is a graph of the horsepower requirement versus the
pulldown applied to the 12 inch (311 mm) bit for the same rock. A
constant RPM of 95 is assumed. In this case an increase in total
pulldown from 36,750 pounds (16,705 kg) to 98,000 pounds (44,545 kg)
increases the horsepower requirement by a factor of almost 5 times. A
170 percent increase in penetration rate is associated with the increase in
pulldown force.
These graphs illustrate the importance of insuring that the drill
selected has adequate horsepower to turn the bit under expected
conditions of pulldown and RPM. For existing machines, if the rotary
horsepower is marginal, there may be advantage to decreasing pulldown
and increasing RPM, because pulldown affects horsepower to a greater
extent.
The equation above demonstrates that the horsepower is related to
the total pulldown weight. The total pulldown weight applied generally
increases directly with bit diameter. This is true even if the weight per
inch of bit diameter does not vary. Therefore, drills used for larger
diameter drilling need to be equipped with more rotary horsepower. This
may also be an important consideration if it is desired to put larger bits on
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an existing drill. Horsepower may become marginal. To alleviate this
problem some operators have eliminated the stabilizer when equipping an
existing machine for larger diameter drilling.
1.4 Rot ar y Dr i l l Ai r Requi r ement
Air is used to remove the drill cuttings from the hole and to cool the
bit bearings. About 20 percent of the air is passed through the roller
cones for cooling purposes. The split of air between the hole bottom and
the cones is regulated by the size of the bit nozzles.
To bail the hole it is important that there be sufficient air velocity to
move the chips rapidly up the hole. If the velocity is inadequate the
cuttings will not be moved away from the bottom of the hole within one bit
revolution. Therefore, they will be reground and very fine cuttings are
ejected. Thus one indication of inadequate air supply is cuttings piles
made up of fine, powdery chips. Because the cuttings cannot be moved
away from the bottom of the hole rapidly enough, the penetration rate will
decrease from what it would be for the same rock strength, pulldown and
RPM if adequate air were supplied.
Insufficient air capacity can also affect bit life. Larger bit sizes,
incorporating larger bearings, etc. can be expected to give greater bit life.
However, this has not always occurred. Consider what was experienced
at an iron ore mine drilling ore averaging 30,000 psi (206.8 MPa)
compressive strength and in waste of somewhat lesser strength.
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Tabl e 1.4: Bi t Li f e Ver sus Bi t Di amet er at One I r on
Or e Pr oper t y.
366 1200 366 1200 432 17
473 1550 427 1400 381 15
549 1800 442 1450 311 12
658 2160 549 1800 251 9 7/8
Met er s Feet Met er s Feet Mi l l i met er s I nc hes
Wast e Or e
Bi t Li f e Dr i l l Bi t Di amet er
The bits in use were the highest grade TC insert bits intended for
drilling hard abrasive formations. However, as the hole diameter
increased it was not possible to maintain failing air velocity. The result
was a loss of bit life.
The airborne movement of the chips in the annular area between
the drill pipe and the borehole wall is a complex process that likely cannot
be modeled exactly. However, there are guidelines that can insure
adequate compressor capacity for the given application.
Experimentally it has been found that the balancing air velocity can
be expressed as follows (Bauer & Crosby, 1990):
U
m
= 264

q
where U
m
= balancing air velocity in ft/min.
For inch (13 mm) diameter platelets of density 2.7 gm/cc (168
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lbs/ft
3
) the velocity is 2420 fpm (738 mpm)

= density of the chip, lbs/ft
3
q
d = diameter of the chip, inches
When metric units are used the following form of the equation is
used:
U
m
= 126.2

q
where U
m
= balancing air velocity in meters/minute
= specific gravity of the chips, eg 2.7 q
d = diameter of the chips in millimeters
U
m
is the air velocity at which the chips are just balanced in the air
stream. For higher velocities the chips will begin to move up the hole. On
average, the chip velocity will be about one-half of the excess air velocity
above the balancing value.
Experience has indicated that 6000 fpm (1830 mpm) bailing velocity
is usually adequate to bail -inch (13 mm) diameter platelets. However,
larger chips will require more air velocity.
This is of special importance when drilling soft material, such as
many strata found in coal overburden. Chips in soft material are often
inconsistent in size and shape and they tend to stick and plug the space
between the hole and drill pipe. Therefore, a larger annular area may be
needed in soft drilling which leads to the need for a larger compressor
(Bucyrus-Erie, undated).
The need for a larger compressor with increasing annular area
follows from the basic equations of airflow which state that:
Q = V x A
Q = quantity of air, cfm or cm/m
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V = velocity of the airflow, ft/min or m/min
A = cross sectional area, ft
2
or m
2
From which it follows that:

V = Q/A
Figure 1.10 illustrates what happens as the hole size increases, but
the outside diameter of the drill steel remains the same. Therefore, as the
annular area increases the quantity of air provided must increase to
maintain the same bailing air velocity.
In addition, cuttings may cake together (especially if there is clay
content) leading to a larger average chip size and a greater bailing air
requirement. For example, if some chips average 1-inch in diameter the
balancing air velocity will be 2,900 ft/min (884 mpm) for chips of density
2.25 gm/cc (140 lbs/ft
3
). This is an increase of 700 fpm (213 mpm) over
-inch chips of the same density.
Figure 1.11 plots the balancing air velocity as a function of density
for -inch (13 mm) platelets. Figure 1.12 is a graph of balancing air
velocity for chips of different size that have a density of 2.7 gm/cc.
30
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
31
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Fi gur e 1.10: Bai l i ng Vel oc i t y Rel at i onshi ps.
32
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Figure 1.12 shows that the size of chips produced has a marked effect on
33
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
the balancing air velocity. If the bailing velocity is marginal large chips will
be reground to smaller sizes before being carried away from the bottom of
the hole. Penetration rate and bit life will suffer. Therefore, it is very
important to properly size the compressor to insure that the largest
possible drill chips can be removed promptly and efficiently.
Table 1.5 tabulates bailing velocities for different combinations of drill
pipe, bit diameter and compressor capacity. Both the older vane
compressors and the modern screw compressors (that almost all
modern drills are equipped with). One can see the effect of different
annular areas.
Figure 1.13 is an air requirement chart. It is useful for quickly
determining bailing velocities, compressor sizing or drill bit and steel
diameter combinations. This chart is for near sea level altitude.
Compressors must be increased in size with altitude to account for
decreasing air density. This is discussed below.
Air velocities in excess of 10,000 fpm (3049 mpm) tend to cause
rapid erosion of metal and sand blasting of the bit, stabilizer and drill pipe,
unless the material is very non-abrasive. In harder rock where distinct
individual chips of smaller size are formed, velocities of 6000 to 6500
ft/min (1829-1982 mpm) typically work well. In softer rock with larger chip
size velocities of 7000 to 8000 fpm (2134-2439 mpm) are generally
34
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Tabl e 1.5: Bai l i ng Vel oc i t i es f or Di f f er ent Dr i l l Pi pe
and Bi t Di amet er s.
3,730 3,055 4,060 3,210 4,512 5,380 4,547 3,408 2,682 41.49 10 5/8
5,260 4,305 5,725 4,525 6,363 7,586 6,412 4,806 3,783 29.42 9 7/8
9,410 7,705 10,240 8,100 11,380 13,568 11,467 8,596 6,767 16.45 9.00 7
4,380 3,585 4,770 3,770 5,302 6,321 5,342 4,005 3,152 35.31 9 7/8
6,930 5,670 7,540 5,960 8,380 9,991 8,444 6,330 4,983 22.34 9.00 7
4,060 3,325 4,420 3,495 4,912 5,957 4,950 3,710 2,920 38.11 9 7/8
6,160 5,040 6,700 5,295 7,446 8,878 7,504 5,624 4,427 25.14 9.00
8,475 6,940 9,225 7,295 10,252 12,223 10,330 7,744 6,096 18.26 8 7
5,560 4,550 6,050 4,785 6,724 8,017 6,775 5,079 3,998 27.84 9.00
7,380 6,040 8,035 6,350 8,927 10,643 8,996 6,743 5,308 20.97 8
11,970 9,800 13,030 10,300 14,478 17,262 14,589 10,936 8,608 12.93 7 7/8 6
8,585 7,025 3,595 9,345 7,385 10,383 12,379 10,462 7,843 6,173 18.03 7 7/8
12,855 10,525 5,380 13,990 11,060 15,548 18,538 15,667 11,744 9,245 12.04 7 3/8 6
6,205 5,080 2,600 6,750 5,340 7,503 8,945 7,560 5,668 4,461 24.95 7 7/8
8,165 6,680 3,420 8,885 7,025 9,873 9,949 7,458 5,870 18.95 7 3/8
12,865 10,535 5,385 14,000 11,072 15,680 11,754 9,252 12.03 6 5
9,585 7,845 4,015 11,680 8,755 16.15 6
14,010 11,465 5,865 11.05 6
17,915 14,665 7,500 8.64 6.00 5
4,385 14.78 6
5,240 12.37 6.00
7,240 8.95 5 5/8 4
100
p.s.i .
100
p.s.i ,
125
p.s.i .
50
p.s.i .
50
p.s.i .
100
p.s.i .
40
p.s.i .
40
p.s.i .
40
p.s.i .
40
p.s.i .
Sq. I n. I nc hes I nc hes
1075
c .f .m.
880
c .f .m.
450
c .f .m.
1170
c .f .m.
925
c .f .m.
1300
c .f .m.
1550
c .f .m.
1310
c .f .m.
982
c .f .m.
773
c .f .m.
WFO WFN 100-S-
DS
1200
Sc r ew
900
Sc r ew
Sc r ew 19-S 17-L 12-L 11-L
Gar dner -
Denver
Le-
Roi
Gar dner -
Denver
Sul l -
i van Al l i s-Chal mer s
Bai l i ng Vel oc i t i es
Ann-
ul ar
Ar ea
Bi t
Di a.
Dr i l l
Pi pe
Di a.
35
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Tabl e 1.5: Bai l i ng Vel oc i t i es f or Di f f er ent Dr i l l Pi pe
and Bi t Di amet er s. (c ont .)
1,800 1,475 1,960 1,550 2,178 2,596 2,195 85.95 15
5,715 4,775 6,215 4,915 6,908 8,236 6,960 5,218 4,107 27.10 12 10
3,055 2,500 3,325 2,630 3,695 4,406 3,624 2,791 2,197 50.66 12
7,215 5,905 7,850 6,205 8,723 10,400 8,790 6,589 5,187 21.46 10 5/8 9
2,605 2,130 2,835 2,240 3,150 3,756 3,174 2,379 1,873 59.43 12
5,120 4,190 5,575 4,010 6,193 7,383 6,240 4,678 3,682 30.23 10 5/8
8,525 6,975 9,275 7,335 10,308 12,291 10,388 7,787 6,130 18.16 9 7/8 8 5/8
100
p.s.i .
100
p.s.i .
125
p.s.i .
50
p.s.i .
50
p.s.i .
100
p.s.i .
40
p.s.i .
40
p.s.i .
40
p.s.i .
40
p.s.i .
sq.
i n. i n. i n.
1075
c .f .m.
880
c .f .m.
450
c .f .m.
1170
c .f .m
925
c .f .m.
1300
c .f .m.
1550
c .f .m.
1310
c .f .m.
982
c .f .m.
773
c .f .m
WFO WFN 100-
S-DS
1200
Sc r ew
900
Sc r ew
Sc r ew
19-S 17-L 12-L 11-L
Gar dner -
Denver
Le-
Roi
Gar dner -
Denver
Sul l -
i van

Al l i s-Chal mer s
Bai l i ng Vel oc i t i es
Ann-
ul ar
Ar ea
Bi t
Di a.
Dr i l l
Pi pe
Di a.
36
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Fi gur e 1.13: Ai r Requi r ement s Char t .
37
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
preferred.
Another factor affecting bailing velocity is altitude. If a drill working
at 10,000 feet (3049 meters) elevation has the same compressor as one
working near sea level it will have a substantially lower bailing velocity. In
general the air capacity of the compressor must be increased by 3
percent for each 1000 feet (305 meters) of elevation increase. Therefore,
if a drill requires 1,400 cfm (40 cubic meters/minute) at sea level it will
need 1,890 cfm (51.6 cm/m) at 10,000 feet elevation.
Table 1.6 lists more exact multipliers versus altitude as published
by H. VanOrmer (1987).
Other factors to consider at high altitudes are motor horsepower
loss, air cooler efficiency (it is less) and, because higher air volumes are
used, pipes and hoses will have to be correctly sized.
Modern drill almost exclusively use rotary screw compressors.
Previously the rotary vane type compressor was in wide use. This latter
compressor has more moving parts and vane wear is a problem.
Consequently maintenance downtime and cost were higher. Advantages
of the rotary screw compressor include:
Fewer moving parts and simple maintenance.
No drop off in air delivered due to wear.
Design better allows for high capacity compressors of
more than 1000 cfm (760 cubic meter/min).
Delivers cool, pulsation free discharge air to prolong
the life of air tools.
38
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Tabl e 1.6: Compr essor Capac i t y Mul t i pl i er s f or
Di f f er ent Al t i t udes.
1.213 1.174 1.136 1.100

1.065 1.000
Multiplier
for CFM
or Cubic
Meters/
Minutes
1,831 1,526 1,220 915 610 305
Meters
above
sea level
6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000
Feet
above
sea level
1.665 1.520 1.391 1.343 1.298 1.255
Multiplier
for CFM
or Cubic
Meters/
Minutes
4,577 3,660 3,050 2,746 2,441 2,136
Meters
above
sea level
15,000 12,000 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000
Feet
above
sea level
39
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Other factors to consider at high altitudes are motor horsepower
loss, air cooler efficiency (it is less) and, because higher air volumes are
used, pipes and hoses will have to be correctly sized.
When rotary screw compressors were first introduced some
operators experienced a loss of bit life. Investigation revealed that
whereas an oil mist is injected into the rotary vane compressor, this does
not occur for rotary screw units. Some of the oil was carried down the
hole with the compressed air and provided lubrication to the bit.
Consequently, some designs using rotary screw compressors have
provided for small amounts of lubricant to be injected into the air stream.
Supplying a rotary drill with adequate air is very important. While
bailing velocity is not a term in the penetration rate equation, there is no
question that inadequate air supply will decrease penetration in a given
material when other variables remain the same. The advantages of
adequate air velocity can be summarized as follows:
Yields better chip bailing velocities.
Larger chips can be bailed efficiently.
Bit life is increased as the cuttings are moved away
from the bottom of the hole more rapidly. This also
requires adequate pressure drop across the bit.
A higher air velocity insures chips will be moved
efficiently through hole cavities, etc. where the
annular area is greater.
Accounts for drill stem wear over time.
Reduces the volume of cuttings in the hole for a given
penetration rate.
Sufficient air velocity yields increased penetration rate
and a lower cost per foot drilled.
40
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
The advantages of larger compressors and increased air velocities
must be weighed against bit, stabilizer and steel wear, and against the
possibility of damaging the borehole wall when drilling very soft
formations.
1.5 Rot ar y Dr i l l Bi t s
1.5.1 General Discussion 1.5.1 General Discussion
The commonly used rotary drill bits today are the tricone units.
These evolved from the drag bits and two cone bits. These latter types
are still used by some, when drilling very weak formations (Powder River
Basin overburden, for example). Also, in weak formations there are
operators who use rebuilt bits. Performance and bit life on these is quite
variable, but they are economical in weak, non-abrasive formations.
The commonly used rotary drill bit is the tricone roller bit. These
bits may be of the tungsten carbide inset or steel tooth type. Currently
the tungsten carbide bit is the most frequently used, but steel tooth bits,
which have a lower investment cost, can be economical in quite weak and
non-abrasive formations.
These bits are made of three major subassemblies which are the:
q Core
q Bearing Assembly
q Arm.
For strength the arm journal is an integral part of the bit body.
41
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
A cone shell fits over each arm journal and the fit is controlled to
very close tolerances. The geometry of the cones is designed to create a
well balanced bit with an even distribution of shock and weight. The
design varies for different rock formations to give the most productive
result. In general this means that bits for use in soft formations will create
a greater ploughing/scraping action, while those used in hard formations
are designed to provide an action that is mostly crushing and chipping in
nature. More ploughing and scraping occurs when there is a greater
depth of interfit between teeth or inserts on the cones and by offsetting
the cones. Cone offsetting is accomplished by locating the cones in order
that their center lines do not meet at a common point on the bit axis.
1.5.2 Steel Tooth Bits 1.5.2 Steel Tooth Bits
In steel tooth bits the tooth design relates to the width of the tooth
at its crest, the included angle and its length. The crest length should be
short to give good tooth penetration; however, it needs to be long enough
to give adequate strength, so there is a design trade-off in this regard.
The teeth are designed to have sufficient included angle to give a
wide enough base to provide strength to the tooth. Still, the included
angle should not be overly large because tooth wear will result in a
configuration that is too blunt to properly penetrate the formation.
Steel tooth bits for soft formations incorporate teeth that are widely
spaced and long to allow large chips to be sheared off the bottom of the
42
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
hole and readily cleared away from the bottom of the hole. Bit loading is
at a minimum and rotation is generally high.
As the formation becomes harder there are more teeth and these are
shorter. The action is increasingly one of crushing and chipping. The bit
loading increases and the rpm is usually less. These bits have less interfit
which reduces the scraping action.
1.5.3 Tungsten Carbide Insert Bits 1.5.3 Tungsten Carbide Insert Bits
For many operators the rock formations encountered are hard
enough that carbide insert roller cone bits provide the most economical
service. These are most costly for the same bit size but they have
considerably longer life and achieve higher penetration in hard rock. The
cutoff may be at about medium limestone. However, the relative
economics are quite site specific due to differences in abrasiveness,
structural geology, etc. Therefore, the best way to determine the most
economic bit choice is by field testing.
Tungsten carbide insert bits were originally developed with hard iron
formations in mind. Extensive testing was performed by the bit
companies at locations such as the Labrador City operations of its Iron
Ore Company of Canada, where most drilling was being done by jet
pierces. Eventually a reliable bit with a life of about 1500 feet (450
meters) was produced. This contrasted with a 50 foot (15 meter) life for
steel tooth bits. Thus, rotary drilling became more economical than jet
43
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
piercing and the jet piercers were gradually replaced both in Labrador and
on the Mesabi Range in the U.S.
Subsequent to the introduction of tungsten carbide, insert bits in
the hardest formations, bits of this type were developed for use in medium
and soft formations. Tungsten carbide materials were developed which
were stronger and less brittle, and which had a greater resistance to
breaking.
These improvements in carbide technology meant that inserts with
a longer extension could be used. Therefore, bits were produced with the
carbide protruding further out of the cone. These inserts were shaped to
resemble the teeth of a steel tooth bit.
Figure 1.14 is an example of a bit for use in soft but abrasive
formations. The carbide inserts protrude well out of the matrix of the
cones. These are fewer, widely spaced inserts. This bit would usually be
operated at lower pulldown, but at higher RPM. It will cut large chips, if
there is sufficient bailing velocity to clear these from the bottom of the
borehole.
By contrast, Figure 1.15 is a carbide insert bit for use in very hard
and abrasive formations. It has considerably more carbides which are
closely spaced. There is less interfit and therefore much less ploughing
and scraping. The bit, which is run at higher weight per inch and less
RPM, breaks rock off the bottom of the hole by crushing and chipping.
44
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Fi gur e 1.14: A TC Tr i c one Bi t f or Sof t For mat i ons.
45
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Fi gur e 1.15: A TC Tr i c one Bi t f or Ver y Har d
For mat i ons.
46
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Smaller chips are produced.
Several years ago the Hughes Tool Company (now Baker-Hughes)
published a chart that shows the relative design criteria graphically for
different classes of insert bits. This chart is useful for gaining a general
perspective of the design requirements for these bits. It is reproduced
here as Figure 1.16.
The following criteria are followed for carbide insert design. These
criteria are basically the same as used for steel tooth bits.
q The insert metallurgy varies by rock type. Soft
formation carbide inserts project further out of the
cone and have a tooth-like shape. Hard formation
carbide inserts are hemispherical and do not protrude
very far out of the cone.
q As the abrasiveness and hardness of the formation
increases more rows of inserts and/or more total
inserts are used.
q The spacing between inserts on a row is wider for soft
formation bits as shown in Figure 1.14. The spacing
decreases between inserts as the formation becomes
harder and more abrasive.
q The depth of the groove and the amount of intermesh
is decreased as the formation becomes harder. This
allows the bit to function primarily by a crushing and
chipping action rather than by a ploughing and
scraping motion.
It is not unusual for the tungsten carbide bit to have a life 4 to 10
times greater than that of a hard formation steel tooth bit. Therefore,
these bits have tended to displace the steel tooth bit in all but the
weakest, least abrasive formations. However, rebuilt TC insert bits may
47
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
48
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
be an intermediate option for some operators.
The TC insert bit frequently has a higher penetration rate than the
steel tooth variety when both are new. The penetration rate of TC insert
bits tends to be fairly constant throughout most of their useful life. Steel
tooth bits typically experience a loss of penetration rate as they
accumulate footage. The reason is that the worn teeth become blunter
and do not penetrate the formation as well.
1.5.4 Rotary Bit Bearings 1.5.4 Rotary Bit Bearings
Figure 1.17 is a cutaway view of a tricone rotary bit. The roller, ball
and nose bearing can be seen. These bearings must last as long as the
cutters and cones, and do so under quite severe conditions. The bearings
allow for the mounting of the cones on the journal arm which is an integral
part of the bit body.
The roller bearing design, as shown in the figure, has been the
standard design for most bits of this type. The bearings act in the
following manner to absorb the loads applied to the bit.
Roller Bearings: These bearings are the principle
radial load carrying units. In larger bits a second set
of roller bearings may be located near the front of the
pin. These bearings are assisted by the pin bushing
or plain bearing.
Ball Bearings: These retain the cones on the arm
journal and absorb the thrust loads that act
longitudinally along the bearing pin. These bearings
are inserted through the ball plug hole once the roller
bearings are in place and the cone is mounted on the
arm journal. After these are inserted the ball retention
plug is welded into place as seen on the diagram.
49
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Fi gur e 1.17: Cut aw ay vi ew of a Tr i c one Rot ar y
Dr i l l Bi t (Smi t h Mi ni ng).
50
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Nose Bearing: This is usually a friction bearing made
of some wear resistant material. This bearing assists the
roller bearings in carrying the radial loads. It also helps
the ball bearings resist outward loads.
As the bit becomes larger in diameter there is room for larger
bearings. For bits of the same class this usually means that the larger bit
can accept more pulldown weight per inch of bit diameter,
Some roller cone bits replace the roller bearing design with a journal
bearing (sometimes called a plain bearing). This is more prevalent in
large bits (>12 inch; >311 mm). The roller bearing is replaced with a
special alloy metal inlaid in the arm journal. A bearing material with a high
heat conductivity is inlaid on the making surface of the cone. heat is
therefore dissipated through the cone to the circulation air. The cone
must be precision fit, using extremely close tolerances, to journal to avoid
point loading. The journal bearing approach still uses the ball bearing and
nose bearing configurations.
1.6 Ai r J et s
Most bits used with modern rotary drills use the jet nozzle design to
deliver air to the bottom of the borehole. The cut-away view of Figure
1.17 shows a jet nozzle arrangement. In addition to the jet nozzle
arrangement, where 3 nozzles are located around the bit body at 120
from each other, there is the standard configuration. In this design the air
is passed through the center only. These bits are not commonly used in
mine and quarry drilling.
51
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
The jet nozzles direct air flow onto the bottom of the hole for
cleaning the cuttings away from the bit. They also govern the amount of
air passing to the bearings for cooling and cleaning. A typical split of air
would be 80% to the bottom of the borehole and 20% to the bearings. It
is worthwhile to perform experiments using nozzles with different inside
diameters. The purpose is to determine the split of air that gives the best
trade-off between penetration rate and bit life. A minimum of 25 to 35 psi
pressure differential across the bearings has generally been considered
adequate for bearing cooling and cleaning.
The pressure drop across the bit must be less than the air pressure
at which the air is delivered by the compressor. The corrected air
pressure is usually found by subtracting 10 psi (68.95 KPa) from the
gauge pressure, to allow for pressure loss through the surface piping and
drill steel. From tables provided by the bit manufacturer one then selects
the smallest nozzle size that gives a pressure drop, for the given bit size,
that does not exceed the corrected air pressure.
Higher operating pressures will therefore allow the use of smaller
nozzles with a higher pressure drop across the bit. There may be some
advantage to this because the smaller nozzles will have less total annular
area. Therefore, the air will be forced into the bottom of the hole at a
higher initial velocity, and will facilitate the initial movement of chips away
from the borehole bottom. This may enhance penetration rate.
52
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Operating pressure also needs to take into account the conditions in
the borehole. For example a water filled hole exerts a hydrostatic head
that must be overcome. In the case of clean water the head increases by
0.45 psi per foot of water (10.2 KPa per meter). Since the water in a
borehole will likely contain some solids it is prudent to use 0.50 psi per
foot (11.3 KPa per meter).
Therefore, if we are drilling holes 55 feet deep (16.8 meters) and
take the worst case that these are water filled we find that:
Hydrostatic Head = 0.50 x 55
= 27.5 psi
= 189.6 KPa
The air will need to be delivered at a pressure that will overcome this
head.
1.7 Rot ar y Tr i c one Bi t Oper at i ng Par amet er s
The bit manufacturers design rotary bits to operate within certain
ranges of pulldown and rotation speed. Within a given class of bit
pulldown can usually be increased as the bit diameter increases. The
recommended weight per inch also increases through the bit class from
soft formation to hard formation bits.
The rotation speed depends on the bearings and the rock formation.
The rock formation governs drill vibration. If excessive vibration is
encountered rpm will have to be reduced. The allowable rpm will usually
be greater in weaker rock provided it is not heavily fractured.
53
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Figure 1.18 is a chart of recommended pulldown weight versus bit
diameter from one manufacturer. It is for hard formation, carbide insert
bits. The chart is provided as an example only, but it does show that
larger bits with bigger bearings can often tolerate more weight per inch of
pulldown. Therefore, larger hole drilling usually requires bigger heavier
drills with more available pulldown.
Table 1.7 tabulates bit operating parameters versus rock formation
type from two manufacturers.
The life of a rotary drill bit can be substantially affected by the
pulldown weight applied. Figure 1.19 is a plot of the life of a hard
formation tungsten carbide bit versus pulldown weight. For this rotary bit
normal pulldown would be 6,000-6,500 lbs/in (1,074-1,163 kg/cm). As the
pulldown weight is increased the bit life drops rapidly. A 37% increase in
pulldown leads to a 45% decrease in bit life.
Therefore, there generally is no advantage to using pulldown
weights greater than recommended. In hard formations the reduced bit
life cost will likely exceed machine cost savings due to increased
penetration rate. In soft formations one is also likely to bury the bit
leading to reduced penetration rate. Both bit and machine cost per foot
may rise.
54
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
55
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Tabl e 1.7: Bi t Spec i f i c at i ons Ver sus Roc k Type.
40-80 5,000-8,000 BH80
iron ores,
taconite, hard
igneous
formation
Hard, abrasive
formations
50-90 3,000-6,000 BH70
hard copper
ores, hard
sandstones,
medium-hard
iron ores,
schists, greiss
and other
medium-hard
igneous
formations
Abrasive
Medium-Hard
formations
50-120 2,000-5,000 BH60
sulfide & oxide
copper, some
soft iron ores,
medium hard
sandstone,
limestone &
dolomites
Medium
formation
50-150 1,000-4,000 BH50
shales,
settlestones,
soft limestone,
alleuial
Soft formation
Tungst en Car bi de I nser t

60-80 4,000-7,000 H Series
hard shale,
dolomite,
limestone &
sandstone
Hard shale
formations
60-100 1,000-5,000 M Series
limestone,
sandstone,
dolomite
Medium
formation
70-120 1,000-3,000 S Series
clays, shales,
soft sandstone,
soft limestone
Soft formation
l bs/i n St eel Toot h Bi t s
RPM Pul l dow n Type
Bak er -Hughes Ex ampl es Roc k Type
56
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Tabl e 1.7: Bi t Spec i f i c at i ons Ver sus Roc k Type
(c ont .)
65-90
65-90
4,000-7,000
5,000-8,000
Q7J
Q9J
iron ores,
taconite, hard
igneous
formation
Hard, abrasive
formations
65-90
65-90
3,000-6,000
4,000-7,000
Q5J
Q6J
Hard copper
ores, hard
sandstones,
medium-hard
iron ores,
schists, greiss
and other
medium-hard
igneous
formations
Abrasive
Medium-hard
formations
65-90 2,000-5,000 Q45
sulfide & oxide
copper, some
soft iron ores,
medium hard
sandstone,
limestone &
dolomites
Medium
formation
65-120
65-90
1,000-3,000
2,000-3,000
Q2J
Q3J
shales,
settlestones,
soft limestone,
alleuial
Soft formation
Tungst en Car bi de I nser t
110-40 4,000-7,000 QHJ
hard shale,
dolomite,
limestone &
sandstone
Hard shale
formations
110-50 1,000-5,000 QMJ
limestone,
sandstone,
dolomite
Medium
formation
110-60 1,000-3,000 QSSJ QSJ
clays, shales,
soft sandstone,
soft limestone
Soft formation
l bs/i n St eel Toot h Bi t s
RPM Pul l dow n Type
Smi t h Mi ni ng Ex ampl es Roc k Type
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Fi gur e 1.19: Bi t Li f e Ver sus Pul l -dow n Wei ght f or
9 7/8" Di amet er Tungst en Car bi de
Rot ar y Bi t s i n a Har d For mat i on.
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Figure 1.20 plots bit life against bit diameter for tungsten carbide
insert bits used in different formations from 10,000 psi to 45,000 psi (69
MPa to 310.3 MPa). The trends are for greater bit life in weaker
formations and for longer life at larger diameter within a given formation.
Figure 1.21 shows the same trends for steel tooth bits at three rock
strengths. Both these graphs show general trends only. A bit used in a
formation with low figure compressive strength but high abrasiveness may
give substantial less bit life than the charts predict. Bits used in harder but
very non-abrasive rock might yield considerably bit life than indicated.
1.8 Ot her Consi der at i ons
1.8.1 Dr i l l St ems
Other factors involved when selecting drill stems (apart from the
bailing velocity consideration) include:
(a) fabricated or integral drill steel
(b) thread size and type
(c) wall thickness - a thicker wall gives less potential for
bending and is useful when drilling highly abrasive
formations
(d) types of connection
high wear occurs behind the bit
turbulent air
this section of rod is in the hole the longest
once wear begins it will be accentuated
thus use two box ends on rods to allow up
ending
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1.8.2 Rot ar y Dr i l l St abi l i zer s (Col l ar s)
There are two main types of stabilizers on the market: the blade
and roller.
Blades:
(a) generally cheaper
(b) require rebuilding for each bit
(c) in hard ground give very little stabilization after
the first couple holes.
(d) relatively high rotary torque requirement
(e can use replaceable wear bars for fast rebuild
(f) can use replaceable sleeve
Roller Type:
(a) throw away or replaceable rollers
(b) give better stabilization
(c) lower torque requirement than blade
(d) throw away type have larger rollers (no rebuild
pin assembly etc.) and generally give more
economical life
Experimental Types:
(a) roller stabilizer with non-rotating outer casing
(b) Chamber reamer
(c) hole reamer stabilizer using a smaller pilot bit.
For larger drill bit sizes, 12" and up, some operations dispense
with stabilization thus eliminating the loss of rotary horsepower.
1.8.3 Shoc k Subs
These units were developed to reduce drill vibration, cut
maintenance cost and increase bit life and availability. The shock sub is a
large shock absorber which is placed between the rotary top head drive
and the drill string. There are several manufacturers of these units. The
Baker Hughes.
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The vibration that develops in the drill string during operation is
damped by these units. Therefore, the vibration transmitted to the rotary
head and the mast is reduced. As masts become longer, to
accommodate single pass drilling, this can be an important advantage.
There are a couple of design types used for shock subs. One is a
segmented approach using rubber and the other is a gas spring principle.
The former have been produced by Drilco for example, while the latter
was made by Baker Hughes.
(a) The Drilco swivel mounted shock sub.
This consists of an adapter mounted element
incorporating eighteen segments, each consisting of
two heat treated alloy steel drive lugs molded
together with rubber. These segments are retained
by end plates to which the adapters fasten.
(b) The Hughes soft-dril.
This works on a gas spring principle using nitrogen
under pressure to achieve a soft spring.
Some studies have shown substantial advantage in the use of these
units. Table 1.8 documents penetration and bit life improvements at three
mines.
It has been reported by some operators that machine maintenance
costs have been reduced up to 18%. Drill availability increases of as
much as 7% have also been reported. In addition, noise levels are
reduced. One mine saw the noise drop from 120 dB to 84 dB. This type
of reduction can be quite helpful in complying with mandated noise
exposure levels.
Tabl e 1.8: Shoc k -Sub Benef i t s
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52.9% 24.2 37.0
Penetration rate
ft/hr
-18.3% 54.30 44.40
Average hours/bit
25.2% 1,315 1,646
Average
footage/bit
---------- 22,352 27,985
Total feet drilled
---------- 17 17
Number of bits
used
Canadian Iron Ore
Mine
(3)
13.7% 80.1 91.1
Penetration rate
ft/hr
25.3% 28.00 35.10
Average hours/bit
42.4% 2,245.2 3,198.2
Average
footage/bit
---------- 51,639 102,341
Total feet drilled
--------- 23.00 32.00
Number of bits
used
Arizona Copper
Property No. 2
(2)
4.2%
.
49.3 51.6
Penetration rate
ft/hr
54.0% 34.80 53.60
Average hours/bit
60.64% 1,715 2,755
Average
footage/bit
--------- 17,153 27,550
Total feet drilled
-------- 10 10
Number of bits
used
Arizona Copper
Property No. 1
(1)
% I nc r ease
Wi t hout
Sc hoc k Sub
Wi t h
Sc hoc k Sub
(1) Milled tooth bits (2) BE 60R drill, 9 7/8" milled tooth bit, 65 RPM
(3) 60 R drill, Milled tooth bits--higher rpm used with shock sub due to
reduced vibration.
Therefore, the use of shock subs should be considered by most
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operations. While not all who have installed the units have had success
the potential benefits are worth exploring by field testing.
1.8.4 Oper at i ng Pr oc edur es
The following ideas will help to prolong bit life and increase rotary
drill productivity.
q Insur there is adequate air supply. Bailing velocities
in the range of 6,000 to 8,000 ft/min (1830 to 2,440
meter/min) are usually sufficient. Inadequate air
cause the bit to regrind cuttings. Shirttail, cone and
body wear will increase. Penetration will decrease.
Too much air will lead to excessive sandblasting of
the bit. Be sure there is enough air pressure.
q Be sure there is adequate rotary horsepower to turn
the bit at the proper RPM and pulldown in the given
rock formation.
q Always establish air circulation before rotating the bit.
Always keep the air on while the bit is rotating, and
until it is raised well off the bottom of the hole. This
helps prevent siphoning cuttings and water into the
bearings. Single pass drilling is helpful in this regard.
q Always lubricate the pin when making and breaking
steels.
q Inspect the bit after each hole for any apparent
damage. Touch the cones to check for heat build up.
A hot cone that spins freely and shows no evidence
of damage may have a plugged air passage.
q Do not drop the bit into the bottom of the hole. This
can damage bearings and the bit structure.
q Do not use bent steel. Bent steels lead to uneven bit
wear and early bit failure. Keep the machine level at
all times when drilling.
q Insure that bull hose and piping are in good condition
in order to deliver the correct amount of air to the bit
efficiently.
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q Avoid excessive vibration of the drill. This requires
finding the right combination of pulldown and RPM for
the formation. Shock sub use may also be helpful.
q Do not use excessive pulldown for the formation.
Forcing the bit into the rock beyond the length of the
indentors will bury the bit and lead to premature bit
failure. In this circumstance cuttings may force their
way into the bit and lock the bearings. This problem
can occur when drilling weak, poorly consolidated
rock formations.
q Broken teeth or carbide can result when the formation
is too hard for the bit. Try using a harder formation
bit. Also check that operators are not using pulldown
weight or RPM that is beyond the specifications of the
bit in use. If these latter problems are corrected and
breakage still persists, the best alternative is a bit for
harder formations.
q Keep rod racks cleaned out and pulldown chains
adjusted so they do not foul rod racks, etc.
q When making moderate to long moves it is best to
lower the mast. This is especially true for single pass
drills with high masts.
1.9 Tr ends i n Rot ar y Dr i l l i ng
1.9.1 Si ngl e Pass Dr i l l i ng
The trend to single pass drilling has been continuing for about 2
decades. Thus it is not a new trend. However, one still observes
situations where a steel is being added to drill the last 5 or 10 feet (1.5 to
3 meters) of the blastholes. In general this is an inefficient process.
Currently drills are available that can single pass up to 65 feet (19.8
meters) using masts that are more than 90 feet (27.5 meters) high.
There are a number of advantages to single pass drilling. These
are:
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(a) eliminates adding stems
(b) reduces associated thread damage
(c) reduces machine downtime for rod changing
equipment and tool racks
(d) facilitates the cleaning of boreholes
(e) permits a continuous air flow through the bit at all
times. This is especially important in wet holes as it
eliminates the possibility of siphoning water and drill
cuttings up into the bit.
There are also a few disadvantages which are listed below:
(a) high masts make the drill more unstable (especially
for the predominantly rotary head drive machines)
- back braces become almost mandatory
(b) extra care needs to be taken when moving the drill
over medium or long moves
(c) pulldown chains become long and may require
special attention as regards fouling rod racks, etc.
Some operators have reduced bench heights in order to single
pass drill. There can be advantages to this provided the height reduction
does not need to be too great. Some advantages are:
(a) multi row blasts become easier to blast
(b) drill cuttings volume is reduced (especially important
for the larger holes)
(c) ramp volume is reduced (when fill ramps are used)
(d) contour areas are easier to drill and blast
(e) ore grading is easier
A disadvantage to this approach is that poor control of the shovel
grade is accentuated because there will be more benches and the
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variation is a greater percentage of the height. Another disadvantage is
that less broken rock will be produced for the same blast area.
Finally, for a given drill pattern and subgrade depth the subgrade
explosives and drilling are prorated over a larger tonnage when the higher
bench is used. Therefore, the subgrade cost per ton is less at the greater
bench height. Since the subgrade is often more a function of pattern
dimensions and blasthole diameter this may be an important
consideration if the bench height reduction is substantial.
For example, consider bench heights of 40 and 60 feet (12 and
18.3 meters). A 25' x 25' (7.6 x 7.6 meter) pattern is drilled with 5 feet (1.5
meters) of subgrade.
Drilling Yield = Burden x Spacing x Bench Height
Hole depth x Bulk Density
Bulk density = 10 cubic feet/ton
For the 40 foot bench:
Drilling Yield = 25 x 25 x 40
45 x 10
= 55.7 tons/ft (166 tonne/meter)
For the 60 foot bench:
Drilling Yield = 25 x 25 x 60
65 x 10
= 57.7 tons/ft (172 tonne/meter)
This is about a 4% increase in drilling yield. If applied to 1,000,000
feet (305,000 meters) of drilling the increase in yield would result in about
200,000 additional tons of production.
For the case above assume the drilling cost is $6.00 per foot
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($19.68 per meter) and the explosive cost is $8.00 per foot ($26.24 per
meter).
Then: Subgrade Cost = 6 ($6 + $8)
= 70 per hole
For 40 foot bench:
Subgrade Cost per ton = 70.00 = $0.0279/ton
55.7x45 = $0.031/ton
For 60 foot bench:
Subgrade cost per ton = 70.00 = $0.0187/ton
57.7x65 = 0.0205/ton
This amounts to about $10,000 per 1,000,000 tons of rock blasted.
In general mines have found that the advantages of single pass
drilling outweigh the disadvantages. Even when bench heights must be
reduced this is often still the case, unless the reduction required would be
too great.
1.9.2 Rot ar y Dr i l l Aut omat i on
Drill automation has been pursued for 20 to 25 years with limited
success. Original attempts focused on having one operator at a central
control booth oversee three or four drills operating in automatic mode.
This approach was unsuccessful as it proved to be too many control
functions for one operator to handle.
Subsequent effort has been directed toward reliable systems that
would automate the operations performed by one drill from collaring the
hole to reaching the designed hole depth. These methods use
electronically controlled systems that sense and respond to changing drill
parameters to optimize the drilling parameters. The idea is to eliminate a
variety of human errors in the drilling cycle and to reduce the response
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time to changing conditions. On the other hand some of the creative
response and judgment exercised by a human operator is lost.
These systems monitor down pressure, bailing velocity, rotary
torque, rotary speed since these are the most vital factors in obtaining
optimum rotary bit utilization, and maximum penetration rates.
Other parameters considered which also affect both overall drill rig
wear, and bit life, include horizontal and vertical vibration, collaring
speeds, water controls and rate of penetration.
The significance of these other parameters depends to a large
extent on the ground conditions.
The automated systems have generally not lived up to their
potential. One problem has been reliability. The best results have
occurred in massive rock with little structural geology. In this case the
electronic equipment can obtain the feedback and set drilling parameters
accordingly. Since few changes occur during the drilling of the hole a
productive, steady state situation occurs.
When the drill encounters layers of rock with different characteristics
results have been more problematic. Since the automation package is
receiving frequent changes in the measured parameters it is cycling and
resetting pulldown and rotation often. The drill never settles to a
productive, steady state situation. The result is poorer drilling
performance than the drill operator can achieve.
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Recently electronic development suggests that automatic drilling
systems that are reliable and highly productive should become quite
feasible in the near future. In our opinion, systems that allow for operator
interaction will be most beneficial. This combines the rapid response of
electronic systems with the intuitive intelligence of a human operator, and
should be the most effective approach.
1.9.3 Dr i l l Per f or manc e Moni t or i ng
The use of electronic devices for drill performance monitoring is a
relatively new trend with great promise. The advent of this technique has
depended on the miniaturization and ruggedizing of electronic
components.
There are two aspects to the trend. These are
Maintenance Monitoring
Production Monitoring
Maintenance monitoring has been available longer and is probably
more developed at this time. It involves the use of PLC's to monitor things
like vibration and heat build-up in critical components. The availability of
this data leads not only to preventative maintenance, but also to predictive
maintenance, whereby problems can be identified at an earlier and less
costly stage. Most equipment manufacturers include a maintenance
monitoring package on new machines. Existing machines can be
retrofitted to provide similar information.
Production monitoring is becoming more popular. Not only can the
machine productivity be monitored by information can be passed to the
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blasting crew to aid in the informed loading of blastholes with explosives.
In addition, information can be used to fine-tune the prediction of drill
production and better drill scheduling.
There are three principle production monitoring systems currently
available. These systems are manufactured by Aquila, Modular Mining
and Thunderbird Pacific. These systems typically allow parameters such
as penetration rate, pulldown, rpm, torque, hole depth, bailing air pressure
and vibration to be measured.
Use of the systems will allow drill productivity to be monitored
continuously. In addition, the data gathered can be used to calculate the
site specific rock factor, and therefore will allow the penetration rate
equation to be used to more accurately predict drill production. This will
better allow a mine or quarry to schedule drills to insure broken rock is
always available for the excavators.
Systems, like the Aquila package, that monitor vibration can provide
useful information about why the drill is being operated in a certain
manner. For example, if the RPM are less than expected in a given
formation, is this operator practice or a function of jointing and fracturing?
Aquila has found that vibration is high in heavily fractured rock and of a
low, uniform type in competent formations. Also bailing air pressure is
affected by the degree and openness of jointing. The vibration is also
higher in harder rock. The vibration pattern is repeatable in a given
formation and structural geology.
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The penetration rate can be used to determine different formations
encountered while drilling the hole. Hole loading can then be keyed to the
performance monitoring results. Some contour the blast by using the data
to assign a hardness number to each hole. In some cases the operators
are asked to also assign a number based on their experience in drilling
the hole. This is used to filter out erroneous information from the
monitoring equipment. The data so obtained can be used to decide
whether to use a toe load, adjust the stemming height, determine any
deck loading needs to avoid clay seams and decide if the entire hole
should be loaded with a more energetic explosive.
In practice, however, penetration rate is affected not only by the rock
type and structural geology, but also by the operator. Therefore, changes
in penetration rate do not always signal changes in the rock type. There
is the possibility of making erroneous loading decisions in some cases
when the penetration rate is keyed upon.
A better possibility may be to calculate the term (RF-28 log S
c
) from
the penetration rate equation. Since the penetration rate, RPM and
pulldown weight are recorded this can be done. We might then call the
term the Rock Index.
i.e.: RI = (RF - 28 log S
c
)
where RI = rock index
RF = rock factor
S
c
= uniaxial compressive strength, in
thousands of psi
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Then RI = (RF-28 log (S
c
) x
300xP
RPM
v
W
where P = penetration rate in ft/hr
= bit diameter in inches v
W = total pulldown weight in thousands
of pounds
RPM = revolutions per minute
Table 1.9 is a hypothetical example of the drilling performance
record for one blasthole. It includes the drilling parameters, calculated RI,
the footage record and an area plot of the rock index versus depth.
The results indicate that the hardest rock is in the bottom 9 feet of
the blasthole. Also, the rock at the top 10 feet of the hole is indicated to
be a harder formation. From 28 to 31 feet is a very weak seam. The
remaining formation is a moderately hard material.
In this example one may wish to consider a toe load of more
energetic explosive. Also, the stemming height should reflect a relatively

Tabl e 1.9: Roc k I ndex Cal c ul at i on f or a Bor ehol e.
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5 58 53 25.05 38 6500 70
4 53 49 30.77 50 6500 75
4 49 45 85.71 80 4000 70
6 45 39 112.50 120 3200 100
8 39 31 112.50 150 4000 100
3 31 28 195.45 215 3000 110
5 28 23 89.44 120 3500 115
5 23 18 83.33 100 4000 90
8 18 10 42.50 85 6000 100
8 10 2 44.44 80 6000 90
Fi ni sh St ar t
THI CK-
NESS
DEPTH ROCK
I NDEX
PENETRA-
TI ON PULLDOWN

RPM
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hard formation. It may be advisable to consider deck loading through the
very weak seam.
There are other things to be observed in this table. For example, the
formation between 23 & 28 feet shows a penetration rate of 20 feet per
hour more than that between 18 & 23 feet. However, the RI indicates the
formations are the same or similar. Is this an operator factor or is the
geology different? Review of the drill vibration and bailing air pressure
records would help one decide which is the case.
By contrast the formations between 2 & 10 feet and 45 & 49 feet
have the same penetration rate, but the rock index indicates that the rock
between 45 & 49 feet is similar to that from 18 to 28 feet. Once again the
vibration and air pressure records could help distinguish between
structural geology and the operator as the cause.
One can see from the foregoing that if only the penetration rate is
examined inappropriate decisions might be made about blasthole loading.
By more detailed examination and use of the proposed rock index,
however, those situations where structural geology is the reason for the
difference can be incorporated into the blasthole loading design. When
the result is operator influenced additional feedback and training for the
drillers can be provided.
Drill performance monitoring can be extended to include drill
positioning. Global positioning is then used to position the drill correctly on
the designed blasthole locations. Aquila is an example of this technology.
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The blast design is loaded into the on board system. As the drill moves
toward the next borehole a moving display is shown.
For this system a GPS antenna is located directly above the drill
steel. A radio is located on the drill to receive and send signals.
To obtain better than 10 meter (33 foot) accuracy a base station is
required. This is necessary because the military introduces a systematic
error into global positioning results in order than potential adversaries
cannot use commercial systems to accurately locate strategic targets.
The bast station is at an accurately surveyed static position. It can
compare its actual location to where the satellite signal locates it and
determine the required adjustment. The adjustment is sent to the drill
which then corrects its position to the true location. The result is that the
drills can position on boreholes to an accuracy of 1 foot (0.3 meters). This
is normally satisfactory, even in the hardest rock. Figure 1.22 is a
schematic of a drill operating under global positioning techniques.
The GPS approach eliminates the problem of lost hole stakes. Also,
the actual hole locations are automatically obtained and can be compared
to the design. This is very useful in identifying problems like poor blast
site preparation. It can also identify redrills and may be helpful to the
blasting engineer in deciding the best tie-in for the blast.
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Fi gur e 1.22: GPS Set up f or Dr i l l Posi t i oni ng.
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1.9.4 Rot ar y Dr i l l Desi gn, Oper at i on and Pr oduc t i on
The trend in rotary drills has been to larger sturdier machines to
yield higher mechanical availabilities and operating performance. The
increased availability has been achieved by improvement of crawler track
frames, masts, propel chains, pulldown mechanisms, rotary head drives,
etc. Automatic lubrication and greasing has also played a role on many
models. Drill pipe feed rates have been increased so that pulldown
weight can also be applied in very soft formations which fail easily and the
penetration rates increased in such applications. Increased rotary drive
horsepower and improved mast designs have permitted higher rotational
speeds which has frequently resulted in higher penetration rates and
drilling by reducing vibration on the drill.
In prior years the commonly used rotary top drive was almost always
electrically powered. A more recent innovation has been the hydraulic top
drive. Ingersol-Rand and Drilltech have provided machines with this
design for example. There may be some advantage to this technique in
efficiency when compared to the electrical drive which must account for
the efficiency of the electric motor and of the gearing system. Certainly
drills so equipped have proven to be highly productive.
Improvements have also been attempted with regard to the weight
distribution on the drills so that a higher percentage of the gross machine
weight can be usefully for generating pulldown; the improved mast design
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Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
on some of the models also helps to serve this purpose by putting more
weight over the drilling tools.
The trend over a number of years has been to larger and larger
drills with increased pulldown weight capability. In very hard rock drilling
the larger machines are being used at a hole size that is well within their
capability and, therefore, the machine is not taxed. This results in less
breakdown and increased performance.
The trend to the largest machines, however, has not been seen as
much in open pit gold mining, which has been a particularly active
segment of the open pit industry for the past 10 years. The reason is
short benches and drill patterns that are restricted in size because of the
need for one sampling to provide input for the geostatistical determination
of gold grades. Therefore, typical hole sizes are 6 to 9 inch (171 to 229
mm) and the largest drills are not required for this. Some, however, drill
larger holes on higher benches when in a zone that is exclusively waste.
The smaller hole sizes have also led to the use of more
down-the-hole hammers in gold mining. Usually these are used in the
harder formations. In hole sizes up to 9 inches (229 mm) hammers are
quite competitive with rotary drills on penetration and cost.
Since the penetration rate is proportional to the RPM and the
weight/inch of bit diameter, then bit technology has been to improve
bearings, cone structure and carbide quality for hard rock drilling.
Therefore, as and RPM have been increased to increase performance,
w
v
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Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
bit life has not decreased, or if it has, not to an extent that the gains due to
the penetration rate increase have been wiped out. For example, in North
America in hard drilling, bit costs can represent up to 60-65% of the total
operating cost on the drill. If increases in penetration rates are
accompanied by decreases in bit life, it is not necessary for the bit life to
decrease too far before any gains due to productivity increase are wiped
out. In such operations considerable attention is paid to such items in
order to produce the minimum cost/foot of hole.
In iron ore mining drill bit diameter has increased over the years from
9-7/8 to 12-1/4 inch and 15 inch. The percentage of 15 inch (381 mm)
holes has increased steadily with time. Some 17 to 17 inch holes (432
to 446 mm) holes have also been drilled in iron with good results. Drilling
at 12 inch (311 mm) and 15 inch (381 mm) has been common in coal
overburden for quite some time. The introduction, at an early stage, into
these operations was related to drilling in softer rock with high production
requirements where ore grading was not an issue.
Productivity has also been increased significantly at most operations
with such hole size increase. As the size of the blasthole has increased
so has the penetration rate. With the larger size of blasthole, the blast
pattern size has also increased so that drilling yield is larger even if
penetration does not increase. Larger bits have larger bearings and can
accept higher loadings and still give satisfactory life. In going from 6-3/4"
to 9-7/8" (171 to 251 mm) bit sizes, the operating weights/inch of bit
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Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
diameter increase from 4000 to 6500 lbs for hard formation drilling. With
similar rotary speeds, this produces a penetration rate increase of about
30%.
When used in hard formations the larger bit sizes (>11 inch; >279
mm) are often run at 6,000 to 6,500 lbs/in (107.4 to 116.3 kg/mm), even
though more pulldown can be applied to these bits. The purpose is to
protect the bit life which is a substantial percentage of the cost in hard
formations, such as taconite and hard igneous rock. The result is a
relatively constant penetration rate. However, the drill patterns increase
by the 2/3 power of the ratio of hole diameters, so the tonnage increase
per hole represents a significant productivity increase.
In softer formations or those where the fragmentation is performed,
patterns have often increased in proportion to the diameter of the
borehole. Thus, a diameter increase from 12 inch to 15 inch (311 to 381
mm) can lead to a 40% increase in productivity with a corresponding
decrease in cost per ton.
Figure 1.23 represents the drill penetration rate versus hole size in
a hard massive low grade iron ore, and Figure 1.24 shows the actual
productivity obtained at one Canadian mine in going from 9-7/8" to 12-1/4"
to 15' diameter blastholes on the same size of drill. This represents a
productivity increase of 73%. Figure 1.23 also contains the equivalent
blast patterns for excellent fragmentation using Hydromex M-210, a 10%
Aluminized TNT slurry, and T-3, a TNT slurry, and based on 70 million
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Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
tons mined at the larger hole sizings. Pit floor digging of the large hole
blasts is eased significantly due to the higher concentration of energy in
the toe of the blast, and this results in higher shovel productivity. Figure
1.25 shows the total direct drilling and blasting costs which were reduced
from 32 to 27.5/ton. Machine capital cost savings also accrue due to
the productivity increase.
1.9.5 Dr i l l i ng Cost Consi der at i ons
Figure 1.26 illustrates drilling costs per foot for rotary drills producing
holes of different sizes at some different mining properties. Figure 1.27
illustrates some typical drilling costs per ton for different ores.
In order to properly determine how best to run a rotary drill in a given
rock formation the component parts of the drilling cost per foot must be
determined. There are essentially two components. These are:
1. Drill cost per hour (excluding bits)
2. The bit cost per foot (or meter)
To determine the drill cost per foot it is necessary to know the drilling
rate. If an operating hour excludes all maintenance and operating delays
the drilling rate is the penetration rate. Therefore, it is essential that the
penetration rate records be accurately kept. The introduction of drill
performance monitoring equipment discussed above makes it much
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Fi gur e 1.25: Tot al Dr i l l i ng and Bl ast i ng Cost s f or
same Fr agment at i on usi ng Hol es of
Di f f er ent Di amet er i n t he smae Har d
I r on Or e.
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Fi gur e 1.26: Dr i l l i ng Cost /Ft f or Rot ar y Dr i l l s
Dr i l l i ng Hol es of Di f f er ent Si ze.
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Fi gur e 1.27: Dr i l l i ng Cost /Ton Ver sus Hol e Si ze i n
Di f f er ent Roc k s.
Dashed Li ne Pr edi c t ed Based on ver y Li mi t ed Dat a.
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Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
easier to capture this data.
Consider the following example. A large drill employing 12 inch
bits has a drill cost of $160 per hour. The bits cost $4500 and, in the hard
rock, a life of 1500 feet (549 meters). The drill produces 40 feet per hour.
The drilling cost is computed as follows:

Drilling Cost/ft = Machine cost/ft + bit cost/ft
= 160 + 4500
240 1500
= $4.00 + $3.00
Drilling Cost/ft = $7.00/ft ($22.96/meter)
One may question why we don't lump all the costs together to arrive
at the total figure. The reason is that the relationship between the
machine cost and the bit cost is not a constant. In fact, it varies with the
formation.
Consider two mines: one that operates in a hard formation and the
second which experiences much softer rock. The representative costs
are shown in Table 1.10.
Clearly, the factors affecting the economics of these two cases are
different. Now let us examine what happens when the drilling rate is
increased. We will assume that the penetration rate increases by 25%
and this is accompanied by a 25% decrease in bit life. Table 1.11
tabulates the results.
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Tabl e 1.10: Dr i l l i ng Cost s i n a Har d & a Sof t
For mat i on
18% 43.00 % Bit cost of total
82% 57.00 % Machine cost of total
$2.18 $7.00 Total cost/ft
$0.40 $3.00 Drill bit cost/ft
$1.78 $4.00 Machine cost/ft
8,000 feet 1,500 feet Bit life
$3200 $4500 Bit cost
$160/hr $160/hr Drill cost
90 ft/hr 40 ft/hr Drilling rate
Sof t For mat i on Har d For mat i on I t em
Tabl e 1.11: The ef f ec t of I nc r easi ng Dr i l l i ng Rat e
and Dec r easi ng Bi t Li f e
on Dr i l l i ng Ec onomi c s i n Di f f er ent
For mat i ons
-10% +3% % Change
$1.95 $7.20 Total cost/ft
$0.53 (+24%) $4.00 (+25%) Drill bit cost/ft
$1.42 (-20%) $3.20 (-20%) Machine cost/ft
Sof t For mat i on Har d For mat i on I t em
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In the hard formation the cost per foot has increased. However, in
the soft material the total cost per foot has decreased 10%. This occurs
because the machine cost is such a large percentage of the total.
Therefore, in the soft formation obtaining increased penetration rate is of
primary interest. In fact, if drill performance monitoring shows that drilling
rate is decreasing due to a dulling bit it will likely pay to replace the bit.
Note that the 25% loss of bit life used here represents 2000 feet (610
meters) and yet total cost has fallen.
Of course, the values used here are by way of example but they
represent reasonable numbers. A given mine or quarry would need to
perform a study, as outlined above, to determine proper operating points.
However, it seems clear that drill operation philosophy will not be the
same in hard and soft rock.
Most mines have variable geology. The waste may be a soft
formation while the ore is hard. In these cases different drill operating
procedures may be needed in the different materials to achieve the most
economic operation.
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CHAPTER 2
HAMMER DRI LLI NG


Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapt er 2.0 Hammer Dr i l l i ng......................................... 1
2.1 Top Hammer s........................................................... 1
2.1.1 Dr i l l i ng Pr i nc i pl es........................................... 1
2.1.2 Appl i c at i on..................................................... 5
2.2 Dow n t he Hol e Hammer Dr i l l s................................. 7
2.2.1 Pr i nc i pl es....................................................... 7
2.2.2 Appl i c at i on..................................................... 11
2.3 Dr i l l Sel ec t i on Fac t or s............................................. 13
3.4 Hammer Dr i l l i ng Cost s............................................. 13
2.4.1 Top Hammer s................................................. 13
2.4.2 Dow n t he Hol e Hammer s............................... 15
2.5 Cont r ac t Dr i l l i ng....................................................... 20
Ref er enc es....................................................................... 23


Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Chapt er 2.0 Hammer Dr i l l i ng
Hammer drilling methods can be categorized as churn or hurled
mass drilling, down the hole and top hammer drilling. The top hammer
produces the blows at the top of the drill string with the energy being
transmitted through the string to the bit. The down hole hammer locates
the tool directly above the bit. This arrangement provides efficient service,
especially in long holes and those of greater diameter.
2.1 Top Hammer s
2. 1. 1 Dr i l l i ng Pr i nc i pl es
Top hammers, or drifters, where the tool is located at the top of the
drill string, have been used for many years. They enjoy very extensive use
underground. On surface, these units are commonly used in civil
construction. They have also been extensively used in quarries and are
employed in some mines using small diameters and small blast patterns.
The three fundamental areas of interest when examining hammer
drilling are stress wave generation, stress wave transmission and stress
wave energy transfer into the rock. The stress wave shape and its energy
content are functions of the string geometry and the impact velocity. The
stress wave will displace the bit into the rock and as a function of
displacement, a force develops at the bit-rock interface. The amount of
energy transferred to the rock is simply the integral of the
force-displacement function. Transferred energy crushes and chips the

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rock. This process is repeated several thousand times per minute, thus
making a hole in the rock. The rate of bit advancement is normally
referred to as penetration rate. The amount of energy consumed to the
volume of rock removed defines the specific energy. The penetration rate
for percussive rock drilling is proportional to the power input into the rock
and inversely proportional to the specific energy and the area of the bore
hole. The specific energy is unique to each drilling situation, and is a
function of the force-penetration characteristics of the bit-rock
combination, the amount of available energy in the stress pulse, and the
indexing function of the bit. The specific energy in any rock crushing
application is proportional to the created surface area of the cuttings, or
inversely proportional to the mean particle size of the cuttings.
4
The best use for top hammers is in smaller diameter drilling (<127
mm). They are also better used for drilling shorter holes. Although the
initial penetration rate for these rigs may be better than for the down hole
hammer the penetration drops off for each steel added, whereas
penetration remains relatively constant for DTH units. Also, hole deviation
becomes a greater problem in longer holes.
The penetration rate of a hammer drill can be calculated from the
following formula:
5,6
12xE
B
xfxT
r
P.R. = - A
H
xE
V
where P.R. = penetration rate
E
B
= blow energy
f = blows per minute
2
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T
r
= coefficient of energy transfer from drill bit to
rock
E
V
= specific energy of rock breakage - S
C
A
H
= cross section area of the drill
T
r
is often assumed to be 0.8. If penetration rate is measured in
the field, the value T
r
can be back calculated.
This equation shows that the penetration rate is directly
proportional to both the blow energy and the blow frequency. It is also
inversely proportional to the rock strength. The formula is analogous to
that for rotary drill penetration which decreases as the rock strength
increases and is linear with pulldown and RPM.
In field practice there will be a combination of blow energy and blow
frequency that maximizes penetration in a given rock formation. In some
rocks a higher blow energy and lower frequency will give the best result. In
others a lower blow energy and higher frequency will lead to better
performance.
Modern drills use independent rotation for indexing the bit. The rate
of rotation is dependent on the rock formation and the bit diameter. Higher
RPM are used in softer rock that fails more rapidly under the indentor, and
in smaller diameters to move the bit adequately between blows. The RPM
decreases in harder rock and when the bit diameter is greater.
For example at 2000 blows per minute using a 64 mm bit RPM of
100 to 120 would be typical in softer rock and this can decrease to 75-100
rpm in hard formations. At 127 mm diameter the rpm in the softer
formation may be in the 50 to 60 revolution per minute range and
decrease to 40 to 50 rpm in hard rock.

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The introduction of hydraulic percussion drills has had several
benefits. These include:
Reduced power input and fuel consumption-air needed only
for flushing the hole. Power consumption may be reduced by
as much as 2/3.
Smaller diameter, longer hammers give better energy
transmission.
The absence of exhaust air results in lower noise levels and
reduced freezing problems.
Possibly reduced machine and bit wear.
No fog from oil and compressed air.
For hydraulic machines, the number of blows per minute have
varied from 1000 to 12,000. The corresponding blow energy has been in
the range of 35 to 70 kg-meters.
7
The Hydra-trac line of hydraulic top
hammers supplies about 87,000 Kg-meters per minute of energy.
Drilling costs are generally lower when hydraulic rigs are used. The
reduction typically appears to be in the range of 10 to 25 percent.
Therefore, there is advantage to the use of hydraulic drills, both for
technical and cost reasons. Figure 9 illustrates a modern hydraulic
percussive drill. Productive low cost operation of these units does require
operators and maintenance staff that are well trained in the use of
hydraulics.
2.1.2 Appl i c at i on
The primary use of the top hammer will be in hard formations
where the hole diameters are < 127 mm. Also, due to hole wander they
are best used for shorter holes in the range of 15 to 20 meters depth.
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Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
They are, therefore, well suited for many quarries which often have
relatively low annual production requirements in hard rock formations.
Quarries often need to use smaller hole diameters to control blast
vibration as well, since these operations are typically in close proximity to
built up areas. Properly designed small holes can lead to less air blast.
Also, the fragmentation may improve due to tighter patterns. This can lead
to increased crusher throughout.
Many quarries are seasonal in operation. The reduced
capitalization associated with a top hammer unit can therefore be
appealing. Other companies have multiple properties in the same area. A
top hammer can be moved between sites fairly easily due to its size and
weight, so the utilization of the equipment can be increased.
The size of the loading and hauling equipment used in quarries
often dictates 9 to 10 meter benches. These shorter benches contribute to
high productivity with the top hammer because the number of steels
needed is not large. This too contributes to the utilization of these
machines in the quarry industry.
The top hammer is less used in open pits because typical hole
diameters are greater than 178 mm. However, some operations, where
the production levels are not great and the bench heights are low, can
employ these machines to advantage.
For gold mines using 6 meter benches it is increasingly difficult to
distribute the explosive load to best advantage in the holes. A smaller

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Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
diameter hole improves on this. Overseas, some use top hammers on 12
to 18 meter benches. However, for those gold mines that operate at very
high volumes, holes of less than 127 mm will generally lead to too much
drilling and the requirement for a very large number of drills.
Another use in open pits is for presplitting. There is often an
advantage to using small diameter holes in presplitting for technical and
cost reasons.
8
Since angle presplit holes drilled flush to the wall are often
desired, a top hammer drill than Gan drill back under the machine is
preferred. Therefore, holes less than 127 mm diameter are frequently
most suitable, and leave cleaner slopes that remain in good condition over
a longer time.
2.2 Dow n t he Hol e Hammer Dr i l l s
2.2. 1 Pr i nc i pl es
Another approach to hammer drilling is to place the tool in the hole
directly above the bit. With this method, straighter holes can be drilled
over long distances than is usually the case with top hammers. This is
important to efficient blasting. Also, the penetration rate is relatively
constant with depth, whereas the penetration rate of top hammers tends
to decrease as steels are added.
As hole diameters increase, the top hammer approach becomes
more difficult to design. Therefore, in larger quarries and in mines DTH
drills have been more common than t hammers.
Underground, DTH equipment has found good application drilling
6
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
long holes in block and sublevel caving operations, because long holes
can be more accurately drilled with this equipment. However, designers of
top hammer equipment have worked to design drills that will drill straighter
holes with some success. In recent years this has caused engineers
designing DTH drills to look for ways to increase the penetration rate of
these machines to increase their utility. Designs that deliver air more
effectively over a longer portion of the stroke have, therefore, been
developed to increase the individual blow energy.
Down the hole hammers may be used in diameter ranges similar to
top hammers in underground applications. On surface, this equipment
is used when diameters greater than those used for top hammers are
employed. Typical hammer drill diameters in bench work are 165 to 228
millimeters. The drilling is generally in hard rock formations and is quite
productive in this diameter range.
Figure 2.1 illustrates a modern I.R. hammer. The unit uses a

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Fi gur e 2.1: Oper at i on Sequenc e of a Moder n
I . R. Hammer (QL4/QL6)
patented design that delivers high pressure air to the unit for a greater
8
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
portion of the down stroke. The result is more effective use of the air and
more energy delivered to the bit. A 20% improvement in penetration is
claimed in Barrie Granite.
The operation of the DTH unit begins with high pressure air entering the
unit and filling the return chamber. This forces the piston up. Near the top
of the stroke, air to the return chamber is closed off and high pressure air
enters the drive chamber. The piston is driven downward to impact the bit
with the largest possible force. In the case of the I.R. hammer (QL4 and
QI-6) the open poppet valve allows high pressure air to accelerate the
piston down for a greater length of time. This concept is intended to
achieve greater blow energy and, therefore, more efficient drilling at a
given air pressure.
The following empirical equation (Pfleider, 1968) expresses the
energy output of the DTH equipment.
E
out
= P
3/2
A
3/2
S
l/2
W
1/2
Where: P = hammer operating pressure
A = area of piston face
S = length of piston stroke
W = weight of the piston

A major thrust to increasing the productivity of percussive drills has
been to increase the operating pressure. The equation above shows why.
This approach is generally preferred over increasing the piston area,
partly due to the ready availability of larger high pressure compressors.
Therefore, while pressures of 690 KPa were typical in the past,

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Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
down the hole hammer drills now can provide pressures in the range of
1.7 to 2.4 MPa. Nevertheless the gain in penetration rate is somewhat
expensive in terms of power consumption. An increase in pressure from
1.7 MPa to 2.4 MPa about doubles the required air volume.
Another approach to increasing penetration is to increase the blow
frequency, thereby increasing the total energy per unit of time. This
assumes, however, that adequate air pressure, etc. is maintained. Blow
frequency will have little effect if the individual blow energy is insufficient.
Increasing the blow frequency may, however, increase hammer
maintenance and decrease longevity. Therefore, operating pressure has
been the preferred approach to productivity gains. In general, there will be
a combination of blow energy and blow frequency most suited to the
formation, just as there is a combination of pulldown and RPM most
suited for rotary drilling in a specific rock formation.
Penetration rate gains are substantial as the operating pressure is
increased. For example, in Barrie granite (193 MPa compressive strength)
penetration rate increased from 27.5 M/hr at 1.72 MPa to 45.7 M/hr at
2.41 MPa. Typical down the hole drills, such as the SK series produced by
Reedrill will operate in the 1.72 to 2.41 MPa range.
2.2.2 Appl i c at i on
A recent trend in down the hole hammers has been their
introduction into many surface gold operations. A major reason for this
10
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
has been the need for tight patterns and short benches in these mines for
ore grade control. This has led to smaller bit sizes (171-228 mm) than are
common in other mines excavating similar quantities of ore and waste. In
addition, some of the formations encountered are quite hard. Small
diameter rotary bits cannot tolerate adequate pulldown for efficient
operation in these formations due to the small journals and bearings they
incorporate. Thus, the DTH machines are more productive. However, in
medium to soft formations rotary drilling is often preferred because the
drilling action is more conducive to the effective penetration of these
rocks.
Large gold operations in Nevada, such as those operated by
Barrick Goldstrike, Newmont Gold and Santa Fe Pacific are examples
where down hole hammers have been used effectively. A consistent
approach of these, and other operators, appears to be that the DTH
method is used in the harder formations. Benches are typically 6 to 7.5
meters high. For this reason, and because tight drill patterns are used for
ore grade sampling the hole diameters are quite typically 171 mm.
However, in some cases diameters as large as 228 mm are used. This
combination of rock formation hardness and hole diameter favors the use
of the down hole hammer.
Some Nevada gold mines use higher benches in waste and a
greater hole diameter. The waste is often a soft rock. Therefore, where
these conditions prevail the drills are usually set up for rotary drilling. Also,
11


Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
rotary techniques may well be used on the shorter benches in those cases
where the rock is quite weak.
Manufacturers, provide drilling equipment that can be used either
as DTH machines or for rotary drilling. This introduces considerable
flexibility for the operator as the type of drilling can be matched to the
formation encountered.
Quarries are also important users of DTH drills. Many quarries in
North America are drilling holes in the 165 mm range. These diameters
are popular because of the production levels involved (700,000 to
2,000,000 tonne), and blast vibration concerns make the use of larger
diameters problematic. The rock formations are often hard granites and
other igneous rocks. The combination of a smaller diameter and hard
formations make the DTH option attractive for many quarry operations.
The units can be track mounted drills or, for greater mobility, truck
mounted.
Truck mounted units have the advantage for some in that they are
mobile and can be moved from quarry to quarry as needed. This is
important to quarry operators with multiple pits in the same area. It is also
important for contract drillers that service several quarry operations.
The primary use for down the hole hammers then is in hard rock
when diameter of 152 to 229 mm are in use. In these diameters the
tricone rotary bit bearings are too small to carry large pulldown loads. The
result is less penetration rate and increased cost if rotary bits are
12
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
employed.
2.3 DRI LL SELECTI ON FACTORS
There are a variety of factors that affect which type of drill to select
for the job at hand. The discussion above has indicated that two very
important considerations are the rock strength and the bit diameter. The
depth of holes to be drilled also plays a role.
It is not possible to establish rules that automatically determine the
type of drill to be used in every case. There is overlap to the areas in
which each drill can be best used. Table 2, however, provides factors that
influence the selection of drill type.
2.4 HAMMER DRI LLI NG COSTS
2.4.1 Top Hammer s
The cost per meter associated with top hammers is variable
depending on the rock type. Typical costs appear to be in the range of
$2.25 to $11.50 per meter for holes in the range of 64 to 127 mm, and
rock ranging from 69 to 206 MPa of compressive strength.
13


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Tabl e I I : Sel ec t i on Fac t or s f or t he
Di f f er ent Dr i l l Types
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
I t em Rot ar y Top Dow n Hol e
Dr i l l i ng Hammer Hammer
__________________________________________________________
Borehole 165 to 229 in 38 to 127 152 to 229 in
Diameter, mm soft to medium medium to hard
formations. formations.
250-432 in all Smaller diameters
formations in long holes.
including very
hard.
__________________________________________________________
Rock Type Formations Medium to Medium to hard
ranging from hard
soft to very
hard.
__________________________________________________________
Hole Depth, To greater than Less than 20 To greater than
meters 60 meters. meters 60 meters
__________________________________________________________
Air Substantial Air for cleaning Drill exhaust
Requirements volumes needed hole is in provides part of
to effectively bail addition to hole cleaning air.
cuttings. drilling air. Increased air
Cannot use as pressure
high drilling increases the
pressures as penetration rate,
DTH. Hydraulic but also the air
machines requirement and,
greatly reduce therefore, the
air power.
requirements.
__________________________________________________________
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Table 3 provides the results of a comparison between pneumatic and
hydraulic drills in a dense Hornfels with compressive strength greater than
206 Wa. This table indicates that there can be a cost advantage of more
than 20 percent when the hydraulic units are used.
2.4.2 Dow n t he Hol e Hammer s
The cost of drilling with down hole hammers will also vary
according to the diameter and the rock type. In quarries that drill 165 mm
holes in rock having compressive strength in the range of 82 to 138 MPa
costs in the range of $4.75 to $8.20 per meter have been observed. In
gold operations using DTH equipment to drill holes of 171 to 228 mm,
similar costs appear to be typical.
Figure 2.2 plots the cost of 178 mm and 228 mm DTH drills in
rocks of different strength. For comparison the cost of 251 mm rotary
drilling is also plotted. It can be observed that the cost of drilling increases
with rock strength. The cost also increases with increasing bit diameter.
However, the drilling yield is also greater at the larges diameters so the
cost per ton can be expected to be less.
Figure 2.3 compares the cost of 228 mm diameter drilling in
various rock formations by both rotary and down the hole hammer
techniques. Rotary drilling enjoys a clear cost advantage in soft to
medium formations. In hard and very hard formations the DTH technique
is the least cost alternative at this diameter.
15

Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
Tabl e I I I : Oper at i ng Cost f or Hydr aul i c
ver sus Pneumat i c Dr i l l s i n Har d Roc k
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
I t em Pneumat i c , Hydr aul i c ,
$/met er $/met er
_______________________________________________________
Hole size, mm 114 114
__________________________________________________________
Wages 0.613 0.453
__________________________________________________________
Depreciation 1.315 1.220
__________________________________________________________
Replacement/
Maintenance 0.613 0.613
__________________________________________________________
Steels 0.459 0.394
__________________________________________________________
Bits 0.571 0.571
__________________________________________________________
Reginds 0.128 0.128
__________________________________________________________
Compressed air/
grease 0.836 0.059
__________________________________________________________
Hydraulics 0.00 0.118
__________________________________________________________
Totals $4.535 $3.556
__________________________________________________________

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Fi gur e 2.2.a: Penet r at i on Rat e Ver sus
Roc k Compr essi ve St r engt h f or
50 R and Hammer s
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Fi gur e 2.2.b: Compar i son of Hammer Dr i l l and
50 R Cost s/Ft . of Hol e
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19


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The data in this graph are based on operating variables and costs
that are typical for normal drilling conditions at I this diameter. In smaller
diameters the economic advantage of the DTH method for hard
formations will be greater. When diameters greater than 228 mm are used
rotary drilling becomes increasingly competitive resulting in lower cost per
foot than the DTH method.
2.5 CONTRACT DRI LLI NG
There has been a trend for mines to contract the drilling to a
company that specializes in blasthole drilling. One advantage is that a
group well experienced in drilling performs the work, the maintenance and
attendant functions. The mine is relieved of the need for extensive training
of its own personnel. In some cases the contract calls for the contractor to
do both the drilling and the blasting.
Mines in copper and in gold are examples of those that have
contracted out the drilling requirement. It is common practice in quarries
because the operation often does not mine stone year round. It is easier
and less costly to employ contract drilling for the months the quarry
operates than to lay off and call back company employees each year.
Contracting appears to have good potential for mines with short
lives. It is not uncommon for gold properties, for example, to have a life of
10 years or less. Under these circumstances the ability to reduce front
end capital by contracting can have a positive effect on the economics of
the property. Also, it is often less costly to sever a contract than to
20
Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
terminate mine employees at the end of the mine life. For a property with
large reserves and a long projected life there may not be as much
economic advantage to contracting out drilling.
Like many other corporations mines are seeking to downsize and
become flatter organizations. There seems to be an attitude that the
mining company should do the things that it does best, like exploration,
engineering, processing, etc. and contract out other functions. Both drilling
and blasting lend themselves to being contracted. These could be
contracted to separate organizations, or one contractor might do both.
There is some advantage to the latter approach. If one company is
performing both functions, there is more incentive for the drilling to be
done accurately and with high quality. Since the quality of the drilling
affects the blast fragmentation, the contractor will be judged in large part
on the quality of the end result. If two contractors are involved there may
be less incentive for the driller to achieve the greatest accuracy in hole
placement and depth.
There can also be structural differences in costs that weigh in favor
of the use of contract drilling. A group dedicated to the drilling and blasting
functions only may be able to introduce labor and other productivity
factors that are harder for a large mining concern to achieve. Other factors
such as labor unions, wage scales and benefits can also play a role.
It should be noted that large productivity gains can often be made
internally as well. A company that focuses energy and commitment to the
21


Cal der & Wor k man, I nc .
process of improvement can find that gains of 50 percent or more can be
made.
9
The greatest disadvantage to contracting is the potential for the
mine or quarry to lose some control of the process. It will be necessary for
the mine operator to establish procedures for confirming the quality of the
work. This may include such activities as surveying the drill hole locations,
measuring hole depths, etc. There will be advantage to having drill
performance monitors on board the drill and using GPS techniques to
spot the drill as these will record much of the data the mine or quarry
needs to confirm quality.
Another possible disadvantage is safety. The company will have to
insure that the contractor provides proper safety training and uses proper
procedures on the job. Company safety personnel must monitor
contractor operations, just as they do the internal operations of the mining
company. Failure to insure that the contractor is working safely may result
in costly problems with safety regulators.
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REFERENCES
1. Bauer, Alan and Calder, Peter N.; Drilling in Open Pit Iron Mines;
American Mining Congress; Sept., 1966
2. Schively, George, Jr.; Predicting Rotary Drill Performance; Proc.
Twentieth Ann. Conf. on Explosives and Blasting Technique; ISEE;
Austin, Texas; Jan., 1994; pp 181-191
3. Bauer, Alan and Crosby, William A.; Drilling Application; Surface
Mining, 2
nd
Edition; Soc. For Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc.;
Littleton, CO; 1990; p 532
4. Edlund, Hans; Focus on Percussive Drilling; Rock Products, Sept.
1980; pp 78-81
5. Cook, N. G. W., Toughlin, N. C. and Weibols, G. A.; Rock Cutting and
its Potentialities as a New Method of Mining; J. S. Afr. Inst. Mining and
Metallurgy; 1968; pp 435-454.
6. Hustrulid, W. A.; Theoretical and Experimental Study of Percussive
Drilling of Rock, Doctoral Dissertation, Univ. of Minnesota, MN; 1968
7. Clark, George B.; Principles of Rock Fragmentation; John Wiley &
Sons, New York; 1987; p 137
8. Workman, J. Lyall and Calder, Peter N.; Considerations in Pre-split
Blasting For Mines and Quarries; Proc. Nineteenth Ann. Conf. on
Explosives and Blasting Technique; ISEE; San Diego, CA; Jan., 1993;
pp 358-370
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