.

Choosing and developing qualitative research designs

Handout for the Qualitative Research Module Prepared by Anna Voce, November 2 !

1. What is a research design?

A research desi"n refers to the overall strate"y or approach of your study# $he study desi"n is selected accordin" to the type of %uestions you have formulated and the nature of &no'led"e you 'ant the study to "enerate# $he study desi"n that you select 'ill in turn lead you to the selection of the samplin" and data collection methods you 'ill use in your study# ($he research strate"y is determined by the nature of the research %uestion# Research strate"ies are merely tools) it is the researcher*s responsibility to understand the variety available and the different purposes of each strate"y, to appreciate in advance the ramifications of selectin" one method over another, and to become astute in the selection of one method over another# + $he lin& bet'een the %uestion and the method chosen 'ill determine the types of results obtained and ultimately the usefulness of the results#, -Morse .//! p# 2201

2. What influences your choice of research design?

$he research paradi"m 2hether you choose to adhere to a positivist, interpretive or critical paradi"m 'ill determine your choice in desi"n for your %ualitative research investi"ation# A positivist research paradi"m 'ill re%uire the early identification and development of research %uestions -overall and specific1, a choice of a research site, establishment of samplin" strate"ies, as 'ell as data collection and analysis methods# $he research proposal 'ill lay out the sta"es and phases of the study) plannin", entry, data collection, 'ithdra'al, analysis and 'rite3up# Positivist %ualitative research desi"ns provide 'ell3defined road maps for the researcher# 4nterpretive and critical research desi"ns are more iterative in nature# $he desi"n is less structured and not predetermined# $he researcher follo's a path of discovery, 'here ne' research %uestions arise as data is collected# 5ata is analysed concurrently to collection) as ne' %uestions arise throu"h the analysis, so they are incorporated into further data collection# 6indin"s are shared 'ith sta&eholders7informants and discussed, and their insi"hts may 'ell lead to further investi"ation# $he purpose of the study, the nature of the research %uestions and the s&ills and resources available to the researcher# 8#"# (4f the research %uestion concerns the meaning of a phenomenon, then the method that 'ould ans'er the %uestion is phenomenolo"y# 4f the %uestion concerns the nature of the phenomenon, then the ans'er is best obtained usin" ethno"raphy# 4f the %uestion concerns an e9perience and the phenomenon in %uestion is a process, the method of choice for addressin" the %uestion is "rounded theory#, -Morse .//! p#2201 2ho and 'hat 'ill be studied $he study may 'ant to study cases, phenomena, or social processes# 4n addition studies may have a sin"le or multi3focus# 6or e9ample) o A sin"le case or phenomenon may be studied in detail -e#"# :laser and ;trauss -./<=1 conducted a study into the process of death and dyin" as "iven in the case of one sin"le dyin" patient# A sin"le case may also be

2 defined as a sin"le classroom or home# A case study desi"n 'ould be used in this type of investi"ation# $he researcher may focus on a number of cases, 'hich are then analysed in terms of their specific and "eneric properties# 8#"# ;everal A45; patients 'ho are on HAAR$ to determine the uni%ue and common factors that enable the process of adherence to treatment# $he "rounded theory desi"n may be used in this study# $he researcher may 'ant to uncover the nature of circumcision rites, in order to establish 'hat 'ould be suitable harmless or beneficial practices that could substitute for harmful practices# An ethno"raphic7participant observation desi"n may be best suited to this investi"ation# A researcher may be part of a team 'ho 'ould li&e to improve the %uality of care provided in their district# $hey >ointly identify problems hinderin" the %uality of care, desi"n solutions and reflect on 'hat is effective7not effective and institute chan"es as re%uired# $his investi"ation 'ould be best suited to a participatory desi"n#

References for this section: 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; -.//!1 ;trate"ies of 4n%uiry# Part 444 In) 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A# Available on QR D5# Morse EM -.//!1 5esi"nin" 6unded %ualitative research# Dhapter .0 In) 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A# Available on QR D5#

3. Types of qualitative research design

$he follo'in" are briefly presented) $he case study 8thno"raphy :rounded theory Phenomenolo"y Participatory research 8valuation research

4. The case study

(;ome case studies are %ualitative studies, some are not + Dase study is not a methodolo"ical choice, but a choice of ob>ect to be studied# 2e choose to study the case# 2e could study it in many 'ays# $he physician studies the child because the child is ill# $he child*s symptoms are both %ualitative and %uantitative# $he physician*s record is more %uantitative than %ualitative# $he social 'or&er studies the child because the child is ne"lected# $he symptoms of ne"lect are both %ualitative and %uantitative# $he formal record the social 'or&er &eeps is more %ualitative than %uantitative# 4n many professional and practical fields, cases are studied and recorded# As a form of research, case study is defined by interest in individual cases, not by methods of in%uiry used + $he name case study is emphasised + because it dra's attention to the %uestion of 'hat specifically can be learned from the sin"le case + -51esi"nin" the study FmustG optimise understandin" of the case rather than "eneralisation beyond#, -;ta&e .//! p#20<1

4.1.

Definition of a case

(A case may be simple or comple9# 4t may be a child or a classroom of children + 4n any "iven study 'e 'ill concentrate on the one# $he time 'e may spend concentratin" our in%uiry on the one may be lon" or short, but 'hile 'e so concentrate, 'e are en"a"ed in case study + $he reasons for child ne"lect or the policies of dealin" 'ith ne"lectful parents 'ould seldom be considered a case# $hose topic are "eneralities rather than specificities# $he case is a specific# 8ven more, the case is a functionin" specific + a (bounded system, + it has 'or&in" parts, it probably is purposive, even havin" a self# 4t is an inte"rated system# $he parts do not need to be 'or&in" 'ell, the purposes may be irrational, but it is a system# 4ts behaviour is patterned Donsistency and se%uentialness are prominent# 4t is common to reco"nise that certain features are 'ithin the system, 'ithin the boundary of the case, and other features outside# ;ome are si"nificant as conte9t#, -Ibid# pp#20<320=1

4.2.

Types of case study

4ntrinsic case study the case in itself is of interest 4nstrumental case study a particular case is studied to provide insi"ht into an issue or to refine a theory Dollective case study a number of cases are studied >ointly in order to investi"ate a phenomenon or population# 4t is not a study of a collective, but an instrumental study e9tended to several cases# Dases selected may be similar or dissimilar, each studied because it is perceived that understandin" these cases 'ill lead to better understandin" in, and theory buildin" about, the issue7phenomenon of interest#

4.3.

Selection of a case (sampling)

4n intrinsic case3'or& the cases are not chosen they present themselves in the course of one*s 'or&, and they become a focus of interest before the formal research process be"ins# 4n instrumental and collective case 'or& cases are chosen# $he choice of ("ood, cases 'ill lead to a deepened understandin" of the phenomenon of interest# ($he cases selected 'ill represent some population of cases# $he phenomenon of

! interest observable in the case represents the phenomenon "enerally + the cases are opportunities to study the phenomena + $he researcher + -selects1 a case of some typicality, but leanin" to'ard those cases that seem to offer opportunity to learn + to ta&e the case from 'hich 'e feel 'e can learn the most# $hat may mean ta&in" the one that 'e can spend the most time 'ith# Potential for learnin" is a different and sometimes superior criterion to representativeness# Hften it is better to learn a lot from an atypical case than a little from a ma"nificently typical case#, -;ta&e .//! p#2!01

4.4.

Study methods

$he methods of %ualitative research pertain to %ualitative case study# Aar"ely thou"h, the data collection methods used in a case study involve observation and reflection# (Qualitative case study is characterised by the main researcher spendin" substantial time, on site, personally in contact 'ith activities and operations of the case, reflectin", revisin" meanin"s of 'hat is "oin" on# + Dase'or&ers see& to see 'hat is natural in happenin"s, in settin"s, in e9pressions of value# 2hat the researchers are unable to see for themselves is obtained by intervie'in" people 'ho did see or by findin" documents recordin" it#, -Ibid. p#2!21 5ata is continuously interpreted, a"ain and a"ain# Records and tabulations are analysed not only for classification and pattern reco"nition, but for on"oin" reflection to uncover underlyin" connections#

4.5.

Studying a case

2hen conductin" a case study, researchers loo& for both 'hat is common and 'hat is uni%ue about the case, but usually the end result presents 'hat is uni%ue# $here is li&ely to be somethin" uni%ue about) ($he nature of the case 4ts historical bac&"round $he physical settin" Hther conte9ts, includin" economic, political, le"al and aesthetic Hther cases throu"h 'hich this case is reco"nised $hose informants throu"h 'hom the case may be &no'n

$o study the case, many researchers 'ill "ather data on all of the above# $he case study researcher faces a strate"ic choice in decidin" ho' much and ho' lon" the comple9ities of the case should be studied# Not everythin" about the case can be understood ho' much needs to beI 8ach researcher 'ill ma&e up his or her o'n mind#, -;ta&e .//! p# 20<1

4.6.

P esenting a case study epo t

(8ven thou"h committed to empathy and multiple realities, it is the researcher 'ho decides 'hat is the case*s o'n story, or at least 'hat of the case*s o'n story he or she 'ill report# More 'ill be pursued than 'as volunteered# Aess 'ill be reported than 'as learned# 8ven thou"h the competent researcher 'ill be "uided by 'hat the case may indicate is most important, even thou"h patrons and other researchers 'ill advise, 'hat is necessary for an understandin" of the case 'ill be decided by the researcher# 4t may

M be the case*s o'n story, but it is the researcher*s dressin" of the case*s o'n story# $his is not to dismiss the aim of findin" the story that bests represents the case, but to remind that the criteria of representation ultimately are decided by the researcher# Many a researcher 'ould li&e to tell the 'hole story but of course cannot# $he 'hole story e9ceeds anyone*s &no'in", anyone*s tellin"# + A continuum runs from tellin" lots to tellin" nothin"# + Driteria for selectin" content are many# + ;ome are set by fundin" a"encies, prospective readers, rhetorical convention, the researcher*s career pattern, the prospect of publication# ;ome criteria are set b notions of 'hat represents the case most fully + $hese are sub>ective choices not unli&e those all researchers ma&e in choosin" 'hat to study# ;ome are made 'hile desi"nin" the case study, but some continue to be made throu"h the final hours# + Ho'ever moved to share ideas, ho'ever clever and elaborate their 'ritin"s, case researchers, as others, pass alon" to readers some of their personal meanin"s of events and relationships and fail to pass alon" others# $hey &no' that the reader too 'ill add and subtract, invent and shape reconstructin" the &no'led"e in 'ays that leave it differently connected and more li&ely to be personally useful# + Donceptually for the reader, the ne' case cannot be but some combination of cases already &no'n# A ne' case 'ithout commonality cannot be understood# Bet a ne' case 'ithout distinction 'ill not be noticed# -Researchers1 see& 'ays to protect and validate the transfer of &no'led"e#, -;ta&e .//! p#2! 32!.1

4.!.

"nsu ing t ust#o thiness in a case study

$rian"ulation the "atherin" of data from multiple sources is used to "enerate multiple perceptions in order to clarify meanin", and verify the repeatability of an observation or interpretation# ($o reduce the li&elihood of misinterpretation, 'e employ various procedures, includin" redundancy of data "atherin" and procedural challen"es to e9planations + called trian"ulation# + Jut, ac&no'led"in" that no observations or interpretations are perfectly repeatable, trian"ulations serves also to clarify meanin" by identifyin" different 'ays the phenomenon is bein" seen#, -;ta&e .//! p# 2!.1

4.$.

"%amples of case studies

@elly PE -.//K1 A framework to examine womens successes in a substance abuse treatment program. FAbstractG 5octoral 5issertation# Health ;ciences Dentre Cniversity of 4llinois, Dhica"o# Available on QR D5# McDoy HV Messiah ;8 Lhao 2 -2 21 4mprovin" access to primary health care for chronic dru" users) an innovative systemic intervention for providers# FAbstractG ournal of !ehavioural Health "ervices and Research. Vol# 2/ -!1 pp#!!M3!M=# Available on QR D5#

#.$. Reference for this section: ;ta&e R8 -.//!1 Dase studies# Dhapter .! In) 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A#

5. Ethnography
8thno"raphy -also called participant observation or naturalistic in%uiry1 has its roots in anthropolo"ical cultural research# (Ethno is :ree& for people or fol&, and graphy refers to describin" somethin", -Neuman .//= p# 0!<1# 8thno"raphy refers to forms of

< research 'here the researcher immerses him7herself in a situation, "ets close to people, ma&es them feel comfortable about his7her presence, and ma&es observations about the phenomenon of interest in the natural environment -Jernhard .//M1# 8thno"raphy usually refers to forms of research that have a substantial number of the follo'in" features) (A stron" emphasis on e9plorin" the nature of particular social phenomena, rather than settin" out to test hypotheses about them A tendency to 'or& primarily 'ith (unstructured, data, that is, data that have not been coded at the point of data collection in terms of a closed set of analytic cate"ories 4nvesti"ation of a small number of cases, perhaps >ust one case, in detail Analysis of data that involves e9plicit interpretation of the meanin"s and functions of human actions, the product of 'hich mainly ta&es the form of verbal descriptions and e9planations, -At&inson and Hammersley .//! p# 2!K1

5.1.

&ole of the o'se (e

A variety of roles may be adopted by observers# Eun&er ./< -in Neuman .//= p#0M=1 describes the follo'in") Domplete observer the researcher is behind a None3'ay mirror* i#e# has an invisible role -e#"# as a >anitor1 that permits undetected and unnoticed observation Hbserver as participant $he researcher is a &no'n, overt observer from the be"innin", 'ho has more limited or formal contact 'ith members# Participant as observer $he researcher and embers are a'are of the research role, but the researcher is an intimate friend 'ho is a pseudo3member# Domplete participant $he researcher acts as a member and shares the secret information of insiders because the researcher*s identity is not &no'n to members :ans ./K2 -in Neuman .//= p#0M=1 describes the follo'in" roles) $otal researcher the researcher has little personal involvement and is a passive observer, (on the sidelines,, 'ho does not influence events in the field# Researcher participant $he researcher participates but is only partially involved or committed to a member*s perspective# $otal participant $he researcher is completely emotionally involved 'hile in the filed, and becomes a detached observer only after leavin"# Adler and Adler ./K= -in Neuman .//= p#0M=1 describe the roles as follo's) Peripheral membership $he researcher maintains a distance bet'een self and the membersO membership is limited by the researcher*s beliefs, ascriptive characteristics, or discomfort 'ith member activities# Active membership the researcher assumes a membership role and "oes throu"h the same induction as other membersO participation in core activities produces hi"h levels of trust and acceptance, but researchers retain a researcher identity and can periodically 'ithdra' from the field# Domplete membership $he researcher converts and ("oes native, but later becomes and e93member researcher# Jy (surrenderin", to membership and becomin" an e%ual, fully committed member, the researcher e9periences the same

= emotions as others# He or she needs to leave the field and under"o reorientation to return to bein" a researcher# 4n determinin" the role of the observer, the follo'in" dimensions need to be evaluated -At&inson and Hammersley .//! p# 2!/1) 2hether the researcher is &no'n to be a researcher by all those bein" studied, or only by some, or by none# Ho' much, and 'hat, is &no'n about the research, by 'hom 2hat sorts of activities are and are not en"a"ed in by the researcher in the filed, and ho' this locates her or him in relation to the various conceptions of cate"ory and "roup membership used by participants 2hat the orientation of the researcher isO ho' completely he or she consciously adopts the orientation of insider or outsider#

5.2.

Selection of a study site)sampling

Selecting a site
An ethno"raphic researcher selects a site, then identifies cases to e9amine 'ithin it# ;electin" a field site is an important decision, and it is important that researchers document the site selection processes# $hree factors are relevant 'hen choosin" a site -Neuman .//= p#0M.1 Richness of data some sites are more li&ely than others to provide rich data# ;ites that present a 'eb of social relations, a variety of activities, and diverse events over time provide richer more interestin" data# Cnfamiliarity researchers ne' to ethno"raphic research should choose a site that is not familiar to them# 4t is easier to observe cultural events and social relations in a ne'7unfamiliar situation to avoid ta&in" thin"s for "ranted# ;uitability in relation to the researcher*s time and s&ills, possible conflicts amon"st people in the site, researcher*s personal characteristics and feelin"s, and access to parts of a site# A researcher*s ascriptive characteristics -a"e, "ender, race1 can limit access e#"# a Jlac& researcher cannot study the Afri&aanse 2eerstand Je'e"in" -A2J1, althou"h some researchers have successfully crossed some ascriptive lines# Physical access to a site can be an issue# ;ites are on a continuum, 'ith open and public areas at one end -e#"# ta9i ran&s1 and closed private settin"s at the other end -e#"# hospitals, homes1# A researcher may find that there are le"al and political barriers to access# Aa's and re"ulations in institutions restrict access# 4n addition there may be ethical barriers#

Focusing
Hnce in a site, the ethno"raphic researcher first "ets a "eneral picture, then focuses on a fe' specific issues or problems and develops the research %uestions only after bein" in the filed and e9periencin" first3hand# At first everythin" seems relevantO later ho'ever, selective attention focuses on specific %uestions and themes# ;ee 6i"ure . belo'#

(ot relevant

Researchers %ocus of Attention

All details in the field

(ot +mportant

Amount of time in the field site %igure &: %ocusing in field research 'Adapted from (euman &$$)*

Sampling
8thno"raphic researchers use theoretical sampling i#e# samplin" that is "uided by the researcher*s developin" theory# $hey may sample times -i#e# observin" a settin" at different times1O locations -i#e# observe people of interest in different locations to observe different behaviours1O people -i#e# different types of people may have similar or opposin" outloo&s on an issue and it is important to elicit and analyse these similarities and differences1O events -i#e# routine, special and unanticipated events1# 4n selectin" "ood informants "ive consideration to the follo'in") o ;omeone 'ho is totally familiar 'ith the settin", preferably lives on site, en"a"es in routine activities and is in a position to 'itness si"nificant events as they arise# o ;omeone 'ho is currently involved in the field ma&es a "ood informant the lon"er someone has been a'ay, the more li&ely it is they have reconstructed their recollections# o ;omeone 'ho can spend time 'ith the researcher ma&es a "ood informant intervie'in" may ta&e many hours, and some people are not available for e9tensive intervie'in" o Non3analytic people ma&e better informants# An analytic person pre3 analyses the settin" and may respond based on their analysis, as opposed to >ust describin" ho' a situation is# -Neuman .//= pp#0= 30=!1

5.3.

*ollecting data in ethnog aphic esea ch

Hbservation once on site, researchers spend a "reat deal of time payin" attention, 'atchin", and listenin" carefully# $hey use all their senses, noticin" 'hat is seen, heard, smelled, tasted or touched# $hey observe people and their actions and social communication and interaction# $he researcher becomes and instrument that absorbs all sources of information# Hbservations are often tediously detailed because "ood ethno"raphic researchers are deeply curious about the details, and are intri"ued about 'hat the details reveal that is of si"nificance# $hese observations are recorded in detailed field notes#

4ntervie' the intervie's in ethno"raphic research are usually unstructured, non3 directive, open3ended and in3depth# $he intervie' often involves a mutual sharin" of e9periences in order to build trust and encoura"e the informant to open up but does not force ans'ers or use leadin" %uestions# $he researcher encoura"es a process of mutual discovery# 4nformants are encoura"ed to e9press themselves in the 'ay they normally 'ould spea& and the researcher records 'hat 'as said in its ori"inal format, 'ithout repac&a"in" in Nbetter* lan"ua"e# 4ntervie's may occur in a series over time, rather than >ust on one occasion, 'hich allo's for deeper probin" and clarification of issues# $he researcher N&eeps an ear out* for mar&ers i#e# a passin" reference made by the informant to an important feelin" or event#

5.4.

+nalysing data in ethnog aphic esea ch

$hematic identify emer"in" themes and sub3themes

5.5.

"%amples of ethnog aphic esea ch

@aler A -2 !1 A45;3tal& in everyday life) the presence of H4V7A45; in men*s informal conversation in ;outhern Mala'i# "ocial "ciences and ,edicine. Vol#M/ pp#2KM32/=# Available on QR D5# Dastaneda P :arcia D Aan"er A -.//<1 8thno"raphy of fertility and menstruation in rural Me9ico# FAbstractG "ocial "cience and ,edicine. Vol# !2 -.1 PP# .003.! # Available on QR D5# Jolton P -2 .1 Aocal perceptions of the mental health effects of the R'andan "enocide# ournal of nervous and mental diseases. Vol# .K/ -!1 pp# 2!032!K# Available on QR D5# Palacios 8 et al. -2 01 $he role of the nurse in the community3based treatment of multidru"3resistant tuberculosis -M5R3$J1# FAbstractG +nternational ournal of -uberculosis and .ung /isease. Vol# = -!1 pp#0!030!<# Available on QR D5# Eohnson et al. -2 !1 Htherin" and bein" othered in the conte9t of health care services# Health Communication. Vol# .< -21 pp# 2M032=2# Available on QR D5#

5.4.

&efe ences fo this section

Neuman 2A -.//=1 6ield Research# Dhapter .! In: Neuman 2A -.//=1 "ocial Research ,ethods: 0ualitative and quantitative approaches. 0rd 8dition# Allyn and Jacon# C;A# At&inson P and Hammersley M -.//!1 8thno"raphy and participant observation# Dhapter .M In: 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A# Jernhard HR -.//M1 Participant Hbservation# Dhapter = In: Research ,ethods in Anthropolog1. Alta Mira Press# C;A

6.

rounded theory

A %uantitative researcher "athers data after s7he theorises, develops hypotheses, and creates measures of variables# Jy contrast, in "rounded %ualitative research, the

. researcher be"ins 'ith a research %uestion and little else# :rounded theory is a "eneral methodolo"y for developin" theory that is "rounded in data systematically collected and analysed# $his more inductive method means that theory evolves durin" the actual research, throu"h a constant interplay bet'een analysis and data collection# A central feature of "rounded theory is constant comparative analysis as you collect data, you compare it 'ith each other to be"in to develop the theoryO as the theory be"ins to emer"e, you compare additional data to the theory and elaborate it or modify it, as the data su""ests# ($he purpose of "rounded theory is to build a theory that is faithful to the evidence# 4t is a method for discoverin" ne' theory# 4n it the researcher compares unli&e phenomena 'ith a vie' to'ards learnin" similarities# He or she sees micro3level events as the foundation for a more macro3level e9planation# :rounded theory shares several "oals 'ith a more positivist3oriented theory# 4t see&s theory that is comparable 'ith the evidence, that is precise and ri"orous, that is capable of replication and that is "eneralisable# A "rounded theory approach pursues "eneralisations by ma&in" comparisons across social situations#, -Neuman, .//= p# 00!1

6.1.

,ey featu es of g ounded theo y esea ch

:rounded theory emphasises the development and verification of theory -i#e# emergent theory1# 4t does not test a hypothesis# 4t sets out to discover the theory implicit in the data Verification of theory proceeds throu"hout of the course of the research pro>ect, rather than assumin" that verification is possible only throu"h follo'3up %uantitative research# $hrou"h "rounded theory procedures you are able to develop theories that are conceptually dense i#e# have many conceptual relationships# $he researcher proposes concepts, or sets of concepts, and describes the relationships bet'een concepts# (:rounded theory researchers are interested in patterns of action and interaction bet'een and amon" various types of social units -i#e# actors1# ;o they are not especially interested in creatin" theory about individual actors as such ###, -;trauss and Dorbin .//! p# 2=K1

6.2.

Simila ities and diffe ences #ith othe -ualitati(e esea ch designs

Similarities
;imilar sources of data intervie's, focus "roup discussions, observations, document revie's -includin" diaries, letters, autobio"raphies, historical accounts, ne'spapers and other media1 4nterpretations include the perspective and voices of the people 'ho are studied Researchers conductin" "rounded theory research, as do other %ualitative researchers, ta&e responsibility for their o'n interpretive role

Differences
:rounded theory emphasises the development of theory, particularly substantive theory -i#e# $heories that can in varyin" de"rees be tested and can be supported, or not, by the data, but can never be conclusively proven1

.. Verification of theory proceeds throu"hout of the course of the research pro>ect, rather than assumin" that verification is possible only throu"h follo'3up %uantitative research# $hrou"h "rounded theory procedures are able to develop theories that are conceptually dense i#e# have many conceptual relationships# $he researcher proposes concepts, or sets of concepts, and describes the relationships bet'een concepts# (:rounded theory researchers are interested in patterns of action and interaction bet'een and amon" various types of social units -i#e# actors1# ;o they are not especially interested in creatin" theory about individual actors as such ###, -;trauss and Dorbin .//! p# 2=K1# $hey are also concerned about describin" processes i#e# ho' patterns are affected by internal and e9ternal conditions#

6.3.

Data analysis in g ounded theo y

;ystematically identify meanin" units, 'hich are then assi"ned to cate"ories and sub3cate"ories this is called codin" As you code, certain theoretical propositions 'ill occur to you# $hese may be about lin&s bet'een cate"ories, or about a core cate"ory -a cate"ory that appears to be central to the study1# As the cate"ories and properties emer"e, they and their lin&s to the core cate"ory provide the theory# As the data collection and codin" proceed, more codes and more propositions may be made# Add to the sample by theoretical samplin" purposive samplin" 'hich increases the diversity of your sample, searchin" for different properties to the theory that is bein" developed# Bou 'ill reach a point 'here your sample saturates i#e# you can no lon"er add to the cate"ories and their properties# $hen you move to sortin"# Bou "roup the propositions li&e 'ith li&e, and se%uence them in 'hatever order 'ill ma&e the theory clearest# Relevant literature is accessed as it becomes necessary, and is compared to the emer"ent theory in the same 'ay that data is compared to the emer"ent theory#

6.4.

"%amples of g ounded theo y studies

;?reter ; and 2oolcoc& M -2 !1 Health by associationI ;ocial capital, social theory, and the political economy of public health# FAbstractG +nternational ournal of 2pidemiolog1 Vol# 00-!1 pp#<M 3<<=# Available on QR D5# Pot"ieter D and Andre's : -2 !1 ;outh African nurses* account for choosin" to be termination of pre"nancy providers# FAbstractG Health "A 3esondheid Vol# /-21 pp#2 30 # Available on QR D5# :alvin R -2 !1 Dhallen"in" the need for "ratitude) Domparisons bet'een paid and unpaid care for disabled people# FAbstractG ournal of "ociolog1 Vol# ! -21 pp#.0=3.M<# Available on QR D5# Au"inaah 4 and 5a&ubo D -2 01 Donsumption and impacts of local bre'ed alcohol -a&peteshie1 in the Cpper 2est Re"ion of :hana) a public health tra"edy# FAbstractG "ocial "cience and ,edicine Vol# M= -/1 pp#.=!=3.=<.# Available on QR D5#

.2

6.5.

&efe ences fo this section

;trauss A and Dorbin E -.//!1 :rounded theory methodolo"y) An overvie'# Dhpater .= In) 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A# Neuman 2A -.//=1 Qualitative Research 5esi"ns# Dhapter .0 In: Neuman 2A -.//=1 "ocial Research ,ethods: 0ualitative and quantitative approaches. 0rd 8dition# Allyn and Jacon# C;A# 5ic& J :rounded theory) a thumbnail s&etch# Available on http)77'''#scu#edu#au7schools7"cm7ar7arp7"rounded#html Accessed 2M7..72 !

!. "heno#enology
$he phenomenolo"ical approach to %ualitative research e9amines (ho' human bein"s construct and "ive meanin" to their actions in concrete social situations + Many researchers in this tradition use participant observation and intervie'in" as 'ays of studyin" the interpretive practices persons use in their daily lives + All &no'led"e is al'ays local, situated in a local culture and embedded in or"anisational sites# $his local culture embodies cultural stereotypes and ideolo"ies, includin" understandin"s about race, class, and "ender, and is part of 'hat 5orothy ;mith -.//01 calls the rulin" apparatuses and relations of rulin" society#, -5en?in and Aincoln .//! p# 2 !1# 6undamental to phenomenolo"y are the follo'in" beliefs) @no'led"e cannot be separated from lived e9perience Perception is not a passive process, but is as a result of an active construction of reality 8ach individual*s sub>ective reality is different and the researcher*s tas& is to establish ho' each individual uses and applies ima"es, theories, ideas, values and attitudes to e9periences, in order to ma&e them meanin"ful# 4#e# each individual has a stoc& of &no'led"e 'ith 'hich to interpret e9perience, "rasp the intentions and motivations of others, achieve understandin", and co3ordinate actions# $hese stoc&s of &no'led"e produce a familiar 'orld# $he myriad phenomena of everyday life are or"anised into a more limited number of constructs and cate"ories, "eneral and fle9ible "uidelines for understandin" and interpretin" e9perience# $hese typifications ma&e it possible to account for e9perience, renderin" thin"s and occurrences reco"nisable as part of a particular type of e9perience# At the same time typifications are indeterminate, adaptable and modifiable# ;toc&s of &no'led"e are al'ays essentially incomplete, open3ended# Meanin" re%uires the interpretive application of cate"ory to the concrete particulars of a situation# Aan"ua"e is the fundamental medium for transmittin" typifications and thereby meanin"# $his "uides the methods of phenomenolo"y lan"ua"e can be contrasted 'ith e9periences# $he ma>ority of one*s e9periences confirm and reinforce the notion that that individuals 'ho interact 'ith one another do so in a 'orld that is e9perienced in fundamentally the same 'ay by all parties, even thou"h mista&es may be made in apprehension# 2e assume that others basically e9perience the 'orld as 'e do, and that therefore 'e can understand one another in our dealin"s and in the 'orld# 2e ta&e our sub>ectivity for "ranted, presumin" that 'e inter3sub>ectively share the

.0 same reality# 4nter3sub>ectivity is an on"oin" accomplishment, a set of understandin"s sustained from moment to moment by participants in interaction# Phenomenolo"y helps to e9plain human thou"ht and action throu"h descriptions of the foundational structures the lived reality in the natural settin"# $he sub>ective lived e9perience is the topic for investi"ation

!.1.

"%amples of phenomenological studies

Partis M -2 01 Hope in homeless people) a phenomenolo"ical study# 4rimar1 Health Care Research and /evelopment Vol#!-.1 pp#/32 Pifer 5A -2 1 :ettin" in $rouble) $he meanin" of school for problem children# -he 0ualitative Report Vol#M -.Q21# FAvailable online) http)77'''#nova#edu7ssss7QRM3.7pifer#htmlG Accessed on) /th November 2 !

!.2.

&efe ences fo this section

5en?in and Aincoln -.//!1 ;trate"ies of en%uiry# In) 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A# Holstein EA and :ubrium E6 Phenomenolo"y, ethnomethodolo"y and interpretive practice# Dhapter .< In) 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A# Ma""s3Rapport 6 -2 .1 (Jest research practice*) in pursuit of methodolo"ical ri"our# ournal of Advanced (ursing Vol#0M-01 pp# 0=030K0 Van Manen M -2 21 Phenomenolo"ical 4n%uiry FAvailable online) http)77'''#phenomenolo"yonline#com7in%uiry7.#htmlG Accessed) 2/ November 2 !

$. "articipatory research
Participatory research methods have their basis in (an emer"in" 'orldvie', more holistic, pluralist, and e"alitarian, that is essentially participative + $his 'orld vie' sees human bein"s as co3creatin" their reality throu"h participation) throu"h their e9perience, their ima"ination and intuition, their thin&in" and action#, -Reason .//! p# 02!1 (Participatory research is distin"uished by t'o characteristics) the relationship bet'een the people involved in the research, and the use of research as a tool for action ### $hus, the conventional roles of researcher -e9pert1 and sub>ects -naRve ob>ects una'are of the research hypothesis1 are chan"ed# Participatory research encoura"es the active participation of people 'ho the research is intended to assist# 4n this 'ay, it empo'ers the people to be involved in all aspects of a pro>ect, includin" the plannin" and implementation of the research and any solutions that emer"e from the research + $o"ether and as e%ual players, the participants investi"ate ythe problem and its underlyin" causes -includin" socio3economic, political and cultural factors1 and then ta&e collective action in order to brin" about lon"3term solutions to the problems#, -Jless and Hi"son3;mith .//M p# MM1

.!

$.1.

+pp oaches to pa ticipato y esea ch

Reason -.//!1 distin"uishes bet'een three approaches to participatory research, 'hich emphasise different aspects of the participatory research process# Do3operative in%uiry -participatory research1 Participatory action research -PAR1 Action in%uiry -or action3research1

$.2.

*o.ope ati(e in-ui y (pa ticipato y esea ch)

Do3operative in%uiry has its roots in humanistic psycholo"y and re"ards research sub>ects as self3determinin" persons -authors of their o'n actions1, 'ho are able to be included in the research process, and need to be informed by the &no'led"e that the research "enerates# (;o in co3operative in%uiry all those involved in the research are both co3researchers, 'hose thin&in" and decision ma&in" contribute to "eneratin" ideas, desi"nin" and mana"in" the pro>ect, and dra'in" conclusions from e9perience, and also co3sub>ects, participatin" in the activity bein" researched# 4deally there is full reciprocity + his does not necessarily mean that all those involved in the in%uiry enterprise contribute in identical 'ays + people 'ill ta&e on different roles, and there 'ill be differences in both the %uality and %uantity of members* contributions# 4n particular, one or more members may have initiated the in%uiry as part of their or"anisational role, or more informallyO these members or others may act as facilitators of the in%uiry process# Ho' the "roup mana"es these potential differences in po'er 'ill affect the %uality of its 'or& + 4deally full consensus 'ill be reached on all decisions, FbutG this is rarely practicalO at minimum, everyone involved needs to be initiated into the in%uiry process and needs to "ive free and informed assent to all decisions about process and outcome#, -Reason .//! p# 02<1

Phases of co-operative inquiry

Reason -.//! p# 02<302=1 identifies four phases of action3reflection) Phase . Do3researchers a"ree on an area for in%uiry and identify some initial research propositions# $hey may choose to e9plore some aspect of their e9perience, a"ree to try out in practice some particular s&ills, or see& to chan"e some aspect of their 'orld# $hey also a"ree to some set of procedures by 'hich they 'ill observe and record their o'n and each other*s e9perience# $his phase involves propositional &no'led"e#.

Propositional &no'led"e is &no'led"e about somethin" and is e9pressed in statements and theories Practical &no'led"e refers to ho' to do somethin" 89periential &no'led"e is "ained throu"h direct encounter face3to3face 'ith persons, place or thin"s

.M Phase 2 $he "roup then applies these ideas and procedures in their everyday life and 'or&) they initiate the a"reed actions and observe and record the outcomes of their o'n and each other*s behaviour# $his phase involves practical &no'led"e# Phase 0 $he co3researchers 'ill in all probability become fully immersed in this activity and e9perience + they may sometimes for"et that they are involved in an in%uiry process + or they may stumble on une9pected and unpredictable e9periences and develop creative ne' insi"hts# $his sta"e of full immersion is fundamental to the 'hole process + $his phase mainly involves e9periential &no'led"e# Phase ! After an appropriate period en"a"ed in Phases 2 and 0, the co3 researchers return to consider the ori"inal research propositions and hypotheses, in the li"ht of e9perience, modifyin", reformulatin", and re>ectin" them, adoptin" ne' hypotheses, and so on# $hey may also amend and develop their research procedures more fully to record their e9perience# $hus this phase involves a critical return to propositional &no'in"#

Validity in co-operative inquiry

Validity in co3operative in%uiry is dependant on (critical sub>ectivity, - IbidI.1 i#e# hi"h %uality, critical, self3a'are, discriminatin", and informed >ud"ements of the co3 researchers# Dritical sub>ectivity means that 'e do not suppress our primary sub>ective e9perience, that 'e accept our &no'in" is from a perspectiveO it also means that 'e are a'are of that perspective and of its bias, and 'e articulate it in our communications# (Dritical sub>ectivity involves a self3refle9ive attention to the "round on 'hich one is standin"#, -Ibid. p# 02=1 Validity of co3operative in%uiry is threatened by Nuna'are pro>ection* 'here 'e deceive ourselves because in%uirin" carefully and critically into those thin"s 'e care about is an an9iety3provo&in" business that stirs up out psycholo"ical defences# Validity is also threatened by Nconsensus collusion* 'here co3researchers may band to"ether as a "roup in defence of their an9ieties, so that areas of their e9perience that challen"e their 'orld vie' are i"nored or not properly e9plored#

$.3.

Pa ticipato y action esea ch (P+&)

(Participatory action research -PAR1 is probably the most 'idely practiced participatory research approachO it is important because it emphasises the political aspects of &no'led"e production#, -Reason .//!, p# 02=702K1 PAR may be placed 'ithin the tradition of liberationist movements# (4t starts 'ith concerns about po'er and po'erlessness, and aims to confront the 'ay in 'hich the established and po'er3holdin" elements of society 'orld'ide are favoured because they hold a monopoly on the definition and employment of &no'led"e# Doncerns for epistemolo"y and methodolo"y appear secondary to this primary concern# A second important startin" point is the lived e9perience of people, and the idea that throu"h the actual e9perience of somethin" 'e may (intuitively apprehend its essenceO 'e feel,

Presentational &no'led"e is the process by 'hich 'e first order our tacit e9periential &no'led"e into patterns -ima"es, dreams, stories, creative ima"ination1# 4t is often a brid"e bet'een e9periential &no'led"e and propositional &no'led"e

.< en>oy and understand its reality, + $hus in PAR the &no'led"e and e9perience of people often oppressed "roups is directly honoured and valued# ;o the PAR strate"y has a double ob>ective# Hne aim is to produce &no'led"e and action directly useful to a "roup of people throu"h research, adult education, and socio3political action# $he second aim is to empo'er people at a second and deeper level throu"h the process of constructin" and usin" their o'n &no'led"e) $he (see throu"h, the 'ays in 'hich the establishment monopolises the production and use of &no'led"e for the benefit of its members# $his is the meanin" of consciousness raisin" or conscientisation, a term popularised by Paulo 6reire -./= 1 for a (process of self3 a'areness throu"h collective self3in%uiry and reflection#, A third important startin" point for PAR is authentic commitment# PAR values the processes of "enuine collaboration, 'hich it sees as (rooted in cultural traditions of the common people + 'hich are resplendent 'ith feelin"s and attitudes of an altruistic, cooperative and communal nature and 'hich are "enuinely democratic, + $hose a"ents of chan"e 'ho initiate PAR processes amon" oppressed people must embrace a "enuine commitment to 'or& 'ith these democratic values and honour the 'isdom of the people# A &ey notion + is dialo"ue, because it is throu"h dialo"ue that the sub>ect3ob>ect relationship of traditional science "ives 'ay to a sub>ect3sub>ect one, in 'hich the academic &no'led"e of formally educated people 'or&s in dialectical tension 'ith the popular &no'led"e of the people to produce a more profound understandin" of the situation#, -Reason .//!, p#02K1

Methods in PAR
(PAR is a methodology for an alternate system of &no'led"e production based on the people*s role in settin" the a"endas, participatin" in the data "atherin" and analysis, and controllin" the use of the outcomes# $he PAR methodolo"y may use diverse methods, both %uantitative and %ualitative, to further these ends, many of 'hich 'ill derive from vernacular -often oral1 traditions of communication and dissemination of &no'led"e + 6urther, in &eepin" 'ith the emphasis on PAR in%uiry as empo'erment, the actual methodolo"ies that in orthodo9 research 'ould be called research desi"n, data "atherin", data analysis, and so on ta&e second place to the emer"ent processes of collaboration and dialo"ue that empo'er, motivate, increase self3esteem and develop community solidarity + Dommunity meetin"s and events of various &inds are an important part of PAR, servin" to identify issues, to reclaim a sense of community and emphasise the potential for liberation, to ma&e sense of information collected, to reflect on the pro"ress of the pro>ect, and to develop the ability of the community to continue the PAR and developmental process# $hese meetin"s en"a"e in a variety of activities that are in &eepin" 'ith the culture of the community + $hus storytellin", socio3drama, plays and s&its, puppets, son"s, dra'in" and paintin", and other en"a"in" activities encoura"e a social validation of (ob>ective* data, that cannot be obtained throu"h the orthodo9 processes of survey and field'or&# 4t is important for an oppressed "roup, 'hich may be part of a culture of silence based on centuries of oppression, to find 'ays to tell their and thus reclaim their o'n story + PAR may also use methodolo"y that loo&s more (orthodo9,) $he systematic "atherin" of information, for e9ample, throu"h survey techni%ues, and then ma&in" sense of it from

.= the perspective of the community is often an important source of people*s &no'led"e and empo'erment#, -Reason .//!, p# 02/1

$.4.

+ction in-ui y (o action. esea ch)

(Participatory research is not al'ays action3research, althou"h action3research is al'ays participatory#, -Jless and Hi"son3;mith .//M1 5en?in and Aincoln -.//!1 place action research 'ithin the Nfifth moment*2 of the history of %ualitative research 'here %ualitative research is embracin" more action3oriented, small3scale theories fitted for specific problems 'ithin specific situations# $he focus in action3research is on the activity# 4t is a form of study into practice# Accordin" to $orbet -./K., in Reason, .//!1 action3research is not (a reflective science about action, + -but1 an action science, -p00 1 concerned 'ith the development of "enuinely 'ell3informed action# $hus the main aim of action3research is the development of effective action, the improvement of practice, and the implementation of effective chan"e as measured by specific outcomes# -;aranta&os, .//0O Reason, .//!O Hamilton, .//!O Jaum, .//MO 2aterman, .//KO 5ic&, .///O Hampshire, 2 1 Action3research proceeds in a self3reflective cyclical 'ay, alternatin" bet'een action and reflection# Reason -.//!1 describes ! phases in the cycle of action3reflection# 4n Phase . co3researchers identify an area for research and ma&e some initial propositions about ho' the research 'ill proceed# 4n Phase 2 these ideas are applied in everyday life and 'or&# $he a"reed actions are initiated and the outcomes observed and recorded# 4n Phase 0 co3researchers become fully immersed in the activity# $hey may continue to maintain their interest and enthusiasm, or not# $hey may continue to record, or not# $hey may (stumble on une9pected and unpredicted e9periences and develop creative ne' insi"hts,# -p02<1 After a period of bein" in Phase 2 and Phase 0, co3researchers consider their ori"inal propositions in the li"ht of their ne' e9perience# $hey may amend, or may develop ne' research procedures so that they can more fully record their e9periences# $he phases in action3research described by Reason are similar to the phases proposed by 8lliott -.//., in ;mith, .//!1, 'hich have been used by teachers as they en"a"e in a self3reflective action3research process# $his cycle involves) proposin", plannin", implementin", observin", recordin", reflectin", 'ritin" up and re3enterin" the cycle# $his research process has often been accompanied by a bio"raphical method of data collection -;mith, .//!1#

$he traditional period is re"arded as the first moment, characterised by a positivisit paradi"m and classical ethno"raphy# $he second moment is the modernist phase, influenced by a post3 positivist paradi"m, interpretive and constructionist theories, and includes an emphasis on ri"orous analysis that 'ould lead to the formulation of "rounded theory# $he third moment is characterised by blurred "enres, 'here %ualitative researchers employed a full complement, paradi"ms, methods and strate"ies in their research# Applied research "ained reco"nition# 4n the fourth moment occurs the crisis of representation, 'here research became more refle9ive and the influence of the "ender, race and class of the researcher 'ere identified and analysed# $he fifth moment includes more action and activist3oriented research, 'hich includes social criticism and criti%ue, a replacement of "rand narratives 'ith local, small scale theories fitted to specific problems and situations# -5en?in and Aincoln, .//!1

.K 4n the co3operative nature of action3research, the research process involves a "roup of people# Jut there are variants in ho' these action3research "roups interact and ho' they en"a"e in the action3research process# 6irstly, a "roup of practitioners may come to"ether -either facilitated or self3directed1 in the tradition of action3learnin" -Revans, ./K01 or reflective practice -Ar"yris and ;chon, ./=!O ;chon, ./K0O ;chon, ./K=1 for the e9plicit purpose of improvin" their practice# $heir concern is to find solutions to problems that confront them in their daily 'or&# $hese problems occur in comple9 situations, characterised by uncertainty, instability, uni%ueness and value conflict, and have no perceived solution# Althou"h individuals meet in a "roup, the process is primarily aimed at each individual developin" a more effective practice# $hese individuals brin" to the "roup the problems they are faced 'ith, usin" an intuitive creativity in conceptualisin" them and in proposin" solutions# $hey also brin" their reflections on their actions# ;chon -./K0, ./K=1 identified t'o types of reflection# $he first is 'hat he calls reflection3in3action, a &ind of intuitive, tacit &no'led"e, Nthin&in" about 'hat you are doin" 'hile you are doin" it* that an individual employs in the midst of a situation# $he second is reflection3on3action, the process of ma&in" sense of an action after it has occurred, in order to learn from the e9perience, throu"h the assistance of members of the in%uiry "roup# $his reflection is a conscious process 'here practitioners thin& about 'hat underlyin" thou"hts and assumptions "uided their behaviour, and critically analyse the thou"ht processes# Alternatively, an operational team may come to"ether as an action3research team, for the purpose of findin" solutions to operational problems that hinder the effectiveness of the service they provide# Hperational, action3research processes often be"in 'ith a re%uest for assistance, follo'ed by a ne"otiation phase, in 'hich the "oals and broad frame'or& for the study are developed -Jless and Hi"son3 ;mith, .//M1# 2hen initiated in this 'ay the research process is usually facilitated# $he e9tent of facilitator involvement may vary, alon" the continuum bet'een technical7e9perimental approaches, 'here the facilitator7researcher plays the ma>or role, and emancipatory7empo'erin" approaches, 'here the focus is on practitioner control -Hampshire, 2 1# $he research is conducted throu"h a cyclical process that alternates bet'een action and reflection, a constant iterative process of collectin" data, feedin" it bac&, actin" on the information, reflectin" on the action, evaluatin" it and modifyin" action 'here necessary# Action3research conducted in this 'ay has been used successfully to brin" about or"anisational chan"e, and improve service provision in industry, education and health -Hampshire, 2 1#

$.5.

"%amples of pa ticipato y esea ch

Mathe's D et al. -.//M1 Aearnin" to listen) 6ormative research in the development of A45; education for secondary school students# FAbstractG "ocial "cience and ,edicine Vol# !.-.21 pp#.=.M3.=2! Aee P$ and @rause N -2 21 $he impact of a 'or&er health study on 'or&in" conditions# FAbstractG ournal of 4ublic Health 4olic1 Vol# 20-01 pp#2<K32KM Jraa E and Hedber" D -2 21 $he stru""le for 5istrict3based Health 4nformation ;ystems in ;outh Africa# FAbstractG +nformation "ociet1 Vol# .KK-21 pp#..03.2K Mason RA -2 01 Action research) a hospital responds to domestic violence# FAbstractG Healthcare ,anagement %orum Vol# .< -01 pp# .K322

./ Moris&y 58 An" A Doly A $i"lao $V -2 !1 A model H4V7A45; reduction pro"ramme in the Philippines) a comprehensive community3based approach throu"h participatory action research# FAbstractG Health promotion international Vol# ./ -.1 pp#</3=< Aehmann C et al. -2 !1 Dapacity development throu"h reflective practice and collaborative research amon" clinic supervisors in rural ;outh Africa a case study# FAbstractG 2ducation for Health Vol# .= -.1 pp#M03<2 2an" D et al. -2 !1 6lint photovoice) Dommunity Juildin" amon" youths, adults and policyma&ers# FAbstractG American ournal of 4ublic Health Vol# /!-<1 pp# /..3/.! Ailford R et al. -2 01 Action3research) a 'ay of researchin" of a 'ay of mana"in"I ournal of health services Research and 4olic1 Vol#K-21 pp#. 3. M

$.6.

&efe ences fo this section

Ar"yris D and ;chon 5A -./=!1 -heor1 in 4ractice: +ncreasing professional effectiveness Eossey3Jass, ;an 6rancisco Jless D and Hi"son3;mith D -.//M1 %undamentals of "ocial Research ,ethods: An African 4erspective. 2nd 8dition# Euta and Do, Atd# Jaum -.//M1 Researchin" public health) Jehind the %ualitative3%uantitative methodolo"ical debate# "ocial "cience and ,edicine Vol# ! -!1 pp#!M/3!<K 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; -.//!1 4ntroduction) 8nterin" the field of %ualitative research# 4n 5en?in Norman @# and Aincol Bvonna ;# -.//!1 Editors Handbook of 0ualitative Research. ;a"e Publications# 5ic& J -.///1 2hat is action researchI Hnline at http)77'''#scu#edu#au7schools7"cm7ar7'hatisar#html 8lliott E -.//.1 Action5Research for 2ducational Change. Milton @eynes, C@ Hpen Cniversity press# In ;mith AM -.//!1 Jio"raphical method# In 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; -.//!1 Editors Handbook of 0ualitative Research ;a"e Publications Hamilton 5 -.//!1 $raditions, preferences and postures in applied %ualitative research# 4n 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; -.//!1 Editors Handbook of 0ualitative Research ;a"e Publications Hampshire AE -2 1 2hat is action3research and can it promote chan"e in primary careI ournal of 2valuation in Clinical 4ractice Vol# <-!1 pp# 00=30!0 Reason P -.//!1 $hree approaches to participatory in%uiry# Dhapter 2 In: 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; 8ditors -.//!1 Handbook of qualitative research. ;a"e# C;A# Available on QR D5# Revans R -./K01 -he A!C of Action .earning Dhart'ell3Jratt Atd# @ent, 8n"land ;aranta&os ; -.//01 "ocial Research MacMillan 8ducation Australia Pty Atd ;chon 5A -./K01 -he reflective practitioner Jasic Joo&s, Ne' Bor& ;chon 5A -./K=1 2ducating the reflective practitioner: -oward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. Eossey3Jass Hi"her 8ducation series# Eossey3Jass 4nc# ;an 6rancisco ;mith AM -.//!1 Jio"raphical method# 4n 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; -.//!1 Editors Handbook of 0ualitative Research. ;a"e Publications# $orbet 2R -./K.1 $eachin" action in%uiry# Collaborative +nquir1 6 In Reason P -.//!1 $hree approaches to participatory in%uiry# 4n 5en?in N@ and Aincoln B; -.//!1 Editors Handbook of 0ualitative Research ;a"e Publications 2aterman H -.//K1 8mbracin" ambi"uities and valuin" ourselves) issues of validity in action research# ournal of Advanced (ursing. Vol# 2K -.1 pp#. .3. M

%. Evaluation research
/.1. Definition of e(aluation
$o evaluate means to assess the value of somethin"# (8valuation is li&e loo&in" to see 'here and ho' fast you are "oin", and then estimatin" 'hen you are li&ely to reach your destination, -6euerstein ./K< p#01 $he purposes for conductin" evaluations include -6euerstein ./K< p#2301) Assessin" achievement -seein" 'hat has been achieved1 Measurin" pro"ress -in accordance 'ith the ob>ectives of the pro"ramme1 4mprovin" monitorin" -for better mana"ement1 4dentifyin" stren"ths and 'ea&nesses -to stren"then the pro"ramme1 ;eein" if the effort 'as effective -'hat difference has the pro"ramme made1 Dost benefit -'ere the costs reasonable1 Dollectin" information -to plan and mana"e pro"ramme activities better1 ;harin" e9periences -to prevent others ma&in" the same mista&es or to encoura"e them to use similar methods1 4mprovin" effectiveness -to have more impact1 Allo'in" for better plannin" -more in line 'ith the needs of the people, especially at community level1

/.2.

Types of e(aluation
Quantitative vs# %ualitative evaluation) 8very evaluation deals 'ith thin"s that can be counted and7or measured# $hese are the %uantitative aspects of evaluation# $here are many factors that influence pro"ramme success or failure 'hich relate to the %uality of 'hat of 'hat is bein" evaluated -people*s behaviour, abilities, attitudes, values and motivations, and ho' people relate to one another and to the pro"ramme1 these areSthe %ualitative aspects of evaluation# -6euerstein ./K<1 ;ummative -outcomes1 vs# formative -process1 evaluation) (Pro"ramme evaluation traces its modern be"innin"s to the educational testin" 'or& of $horndi&e and collea"ues in the early ./ s# Pro"ramme evaluation 'as ori"inally focused on measurin" attainment of "oals and ob>ectives, that is, findin" out if a pro"ramme ('or&s,, that is, if it*s effective# $his came to be called summative evaluation, 'hich ori"inally relied heavily on e9perimental desi"ns and %uantitative measurements of outcomes# 4n recent years, pro"ramme improvement -formative1 evaluation has become at least as important and pervasive as summative evaluation, -Patton 2 2 p#.!=1# ;ummative -outcomes1 evaluation is about demonstratin" responsible use of resources to achieve the desired results# $here may be both %uantitative and %ualitative dimensions to summative -outcomes1 evaluation the %uantitative aspects include the numerical indicators of outcomesO the %ualitative aspects provide a conte9t for, and illuminate the findin"s of the %uantitative dimension i#e# help to establish ho' somethin" happens, and 'hy somethin" 'or&ed or did not 'or& -Patton 2 21#

2. 4nternal vs# e9ternal evaluations) an internal evaluator is someone 'ho is inside the pro"ramme, or 'ho &no's the pro"ramme very 'ell# An internal evaluator may be too sub>ective# An e9ternal evaluator is someone 'ho is not personally involved in the pro"ramme and has nothin" to "ain or lose from evaluatin" the pro"ramme s7he is less li&ely to be sub>ective and more li&ely to be able to produce an ob>ective7unbiased evaluation#

/.3.

"(aluation models
:oal3free evaluation the "oals of the pro"ramme are not &no'n to the evaluator# 6ield3'or& is conducted and data "athered on a broad array of actual effects and outcomes of a pro"ramme, and comparin" these observed effects and outcomes 'ith the actual needs of pro"ramme participants# $he evaluator ma&es a deliberate attempt to avoid all rhetoric related to pro"ramme "oalsO no discussion about "oals is held 'ith staffO no pro"ramme proposals or brochures are readO only the pro"rammes* observable outcomes and documentable effects are studied in relation to participant needs# $ransaction models) responsive and illuminative evaluation includes the follo'in" &ey elements) -.1 identification of issues and concerns based on direct, face3to3face contact 'ith people in and around the pro"rammeO -21 Cse of pro"ramme documents to further identify important issuesO -01 direct, personal observations of pro"ramme activities before formally desi"nin" the evaluation to increase the evaluator*s understandin" of 'hat is important in the pro"ramme, and 'hat can and should be evaluatedO -!1 desi"nin" the evaluation based on issues that emer"ed on the three precedin" steps, 'ith the desi"n to include continuin" direct %ualitative observations in the naturalistic pro"ramme settin"O -M1 Reportin" information, in direct personal contact throu"h themes and portrayals that are easily understandable and rich in descriptionO -<1 matchin" information reports and reportin" formats to specific audiences 'ith different reports and different formats for different audiences# Donnoisseurship studies these place the evaluator*s perceptions and e9pertise at the centre of the evaluation process# $he evaluator uses %ualitative methods to study a pro"ramme but does so from a particular perspective dra'in" heavily of his7her e9pert >ud"ements about 'hat constitutes e9cellence# $he evaluator ma&es hi"hly interpretive, value3>ud"ements about 'hat has been described an interpreted, usin" criteria that are appropriate to the situation, and based on the e9pertise of the evaluator and the a"reements arrived at 'ith those that commissioned the evaluation# Ctilisation focused evaluation this offers an evaluation process, strate"y and frame'or& for ma&in" decisions about the content, focus, and methods of an evaluation# $he utilisation3focused evaluation be"ins 'ith identification and or"anisation of specific, relevant decision3ma&ers and information users -not va"ue passive audiences1 'ho 'ill use the information from the evaluation process# $he evaluation 'or&s 'ith the intended users to focus relevant evaluation %uestions, 'hich 'ill "ive rise to appropriate research methods and data analysis techni%ues# $he underlyin" %uestions are) 'hat difference 'ill this study ma&eI A 'ide variety of sta&eholders may be identified as the users of information) pro"ramme staff, clients, funders, board members# Participatory evaluations pro"ramme participants ta&e part in decidin" 'hen and ho' to evaluateO help to collect and analyse data, prepare the reports, and in

22 decidin" ho' the results 'ill be used# $hus the capacity of participants is built to re"ularly carry out periodic -monitorin"1 evaluations# Appreciative in%uiry a developmental approach that emphasises buildin" an or"anisation*s assets rather than focusin" on problems and problem solvin"# 4t is based on the premise that or"anisations are affirmative systems created by human&ind as solutions to problems# 4t is an approach to analysis that leads to or"anisational learnin" and creativity#

/.4.

&efe ences fo this section

Patton MQ -2 21 Particularly appropriate %ualitative applications# Part . Dhapter ! In: Patton MQ -2 21 0ualitative research and evaluation methods. 0rd 8dition# ;a"e Publications# C;A# 6euerstein M$ -./K<1 4artners in evaluation. Macmillan Publishers# Aondon#