English Dialects

ENGLISH DIALECTS
Dialect, Pidgin and Creole
CONTENTS
MAPS.7 PHONETIC SYMBOLS ...7 P E!ACE ... " DIALECT IN SO#TH A! ICA...................................................................................................$$ Introd%ction ...............................................................................................................................$$ A&ri'aan( Engli() .....................................................................................................................$$ Hi(tor* ......................................................................................................................................$" Pron%nciation ............................................................................................................................"+ ,ra--ar ..................................................................................................................................."+ .oca/%lar* ................................................................................................................................"0 DIALECT IN SO#TH A! ICA...................................................................................................$$ Introd%ction ...............................................................................................................................$$ A&ri'aan( Engli() .....................................................................................................................$$ Hi(tor* ......................................................................................................................................$" Pron%nciation ............................................................................................................................"+ ,ra--ar ..................................................................................................................................."+ .oca/%lar* ................................................................................................................................"0 DIALECT IN SO#TH A! ICA...................................................................................................$$ Introd%ction ...............................................................................................................................$$ A&ri'aan( Engli() .....................................................................................................................$$ Hi(tor* ......................................................................................................................................$" Pron%nciation ............................................................................................................................"+ ,ra--ar ..................................................................................................................................."+ .oca/%lar* ................................................................................................................................"0 DIALECT IN SO#TH A! ICA...................................................................................................$$ Introd%ction ...............................................................................................................................$$ A&ri'aan( Engli() .....................................................................................................................$$ Hi(tor* ......................................................................................................................................$" Pron%nciation ............................................................................................................................"+ ,ra--ar ..................................................................................................................................."+ .oca/%lar* ................................................................................................................................"0 DIALECT IN SO#TH A! ICA...................................................................................................$$ Introd%ction ...............................................................................................................................$$ A&ri'aan( Engli() .....................................................................................................................$$ Hi(tor* ......................................................................................................................................$" Pron%nciation ............................................................................................................................"+ ,ra--ar ..................................................................................................................................."+ .oca/%lar* ................................................................................................................................"0 DIALECT IN SO#TH A! ICA...................................................................................................$$ Introd%ction ...............................................................................................................................$$ A&ri'aan( Engli() .....................................................................................................................$$ Hi(tor* ......................................................................................................................................$" Pron%nciation ............................................................................................................................"+ ,ra--ar ..................................................................................................................................."+ .oca/%lar* ................................................................................................................................"0
Phonetic symbols 10
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Symbol 123 1/3 1t3 1d3 1'3 1g3 1&3 143 163 173 1(3 183 1)3 1d3 1t:3 1-3 1n3 1;3 1l3 1r3 1=3 193 1i?3 1i3 1e3 1@3 1A3 13 1?3 1%3 1%?3 1?3 1a%3 1ai3 1oi3
Key words Phonetic description Consonants 2et, (2ot, c%2 4oicele(( /ila/ial 2lo(i4e /it, ro//er, r%/ 4oiced /ila/ial 2lo(i4e to2, (toc', 2it 4oicele(( a2ico5al4eolar di-, (%dden, (od 4oiced a2ico5al4eolar c%2, (co%t, /oo' 4oicele(( dor(o54elar g%-, /%gger, /og 4oiced dor(o54elar &or, o&ten, c%&& 4oicele(( la/iodental &ricati4e 4ia, o4ert, -o4e 4oiced la/iodental &ricati4e t)in', et)ereal, toot) 4oicele(( interdental &ricati4e t)ere, ot)er, loat)e 4oiced interdental &ricati4e (oon, &a(t, 'i(( 4oicele(( al4eolar 8e/ra, &%88*, /%88 4oiced al4eolar )eat, /e)ind 4oicele(( glottal &ricati4e 9%dge, 2igeon, cage 4oiced 2alato5al4eolar c)%rc), -ac)o 4oicele(( 2alato5al4eolar -%-, (%--er /ila/ial na(al nine, (ooner al4eolar na(al (inger, /ang 4elar na(al l%ll, colo%r al4eolar lateral ra4en, &%r*, &%r retro&le< or r)otic =i&e, >%arr* la/io4elar glide *eo-an, 4ie=ed 2alatal glide Vowels /ea-, /eet )ig) &ront ten(e 2ic', trill )ig) &ront la< 2ec', /et -id &ront la< /at, ra2 -id central ten(e ado/e, /ird, &at)er (c)=a, -id central c%t, /%t -id central la< rat)er, &art)er lo= central /oo', loo' ()ort )ig) /ac' (ooner, t%ner long )ig) /ac' oral, /o%g)t /ac' lo= ten(e Lo%t, /o= lo= central /ac'ing /*e, &ig)t lo= central &ronting /%o*, to* lo= /ac' &ronting
11
ENGLISH DIALECTS
DIALECT
Definition T)e =ord BdialectC a22eared &ir(t in t)e 0Dt) cent%r*. In !renc) it i( dialecte, in Latin dialectus, in ,ree' dilektos, and it -ean( B(2eec)C, Bde/ateC, B=a* o& local lang%ageC, B(t*leC. It i( 'no=n a( a general and tec)nical ter- &or a &or- o& a lang%age, &or e<a-2le a southern French dialect; the Yorkshire dialect; the dialects of the nited States! Alt)o%g) t)e ter- %(%all* re&er( to regional (2eec) &ro- a geogra2)ical 2er(2ecti4e, it can /e e<tended to co4er di&&erence( according to cla(( and occ%2ationE (%c) ter-( a( re"ional dialect# social dialect# class dialect# occu$ational dialect# ur%an dialect, and rural dialect are all %(ed /* ling%i(t(. In addition, t)e e<tracted ele-ent lect )a( /eco-e a ter- &or an* 'ind o& di(tinct lang%age (2o'en /* an indi4id%al or gro%2, =it) (%c) deri4ati4e( a( acrolect Fa )ig) or 2re(tigio%( 4ariet*G, %asilect Fa lo= or (ociall* (tig-ati8ed 4ariet*G, &esolect Fa lect in a (ociall* inter-ediate 2o(ition /et=een t)e(e t=oG. Dialect, language, and standard Mo(t lang%age( )a4e dialect(, eac) =it) a di(tincti4e accent, gra--ar, 4oca/%lar*, and idio-. Traditionall*, )o=e4er, dialect( )a4e /een regarded a( (ociall* lo=er t)an a H2ro2erH &oro& t)e lang%age Fo&ten re2re(ented a( t)e lang%age it(el&G, (%c) a( the 'in"(s or )ueen(s En"lish in Britain, and le %on fran*ais in !rance, or in general ter-( the standard lan"ua"e! S%c) a 4ariet* li'e (tandard lang%age al(o )a( regional root(, /%t /eca%(e it de4elo2ed into t)e o&&icial and ed%cated %(age o& a ca2ital li'e London or Pari(, it tend( to /e (een a( non5regional, o&ten a( (%2ra5regional, and t)ere&ore not a dialect 2ro2er. Certain 2roce((e( create a (ocial and ling%i(tic di&&erence /et=een t)i( 4ariet* and t)e dialect( o& a lang%age? 5 5 5 degree( o& (tandardi8ation in accent, gra--ar, ort)ogra2)*, and t*2ogra2)*E it( (2ecial de4elo2-ent t)ro%g) literat%re and %(e a( t)e -edi%- o& ed%cation and literac*E (ocial e-2o=er-ent t)ro%g) it( %(e /* t)e go4erning c%lt%ral and (c)olarl* elite. Man* %(er( o& a (tandard 4ariet* )a4e tended to de(2i(e dialect (2ea'er( a( -ore or le(( HilliterateH and teac)er( )a4e o&ten (o%g)t to i-2o(e t)e (tandard t)ro%g)o%t a co%ntr* and eli-inate or greatl* red%ce all ot)er Hde4iantH, Hlo=H, or H4%lgarH &or-(, =it) t)e occa(ional 12
ENGLISH DIALECTS
e<ce2tion o& (o-e li-ited HgoodH dialect. S%c) dialect i( %(%all* r%ral, (een a( 2art o& a ro-antic &ol' tradition or t)e in(tr%-ent o& a &a-o%( /%t %ncon4entional =riter F%(%all* a 2oet, (%c) a( o/ert B%rn( in Scotland or t)e 2ro(e =riter Ion CreangI in standard, and lan"ua"e. A dialect continuum D%ring t)e 0"t) and t)e J+t) cent%rie( t)ere =a( con(idera/le (t%d* o& dialect( 2ro2er and in relation to t)e (tandard 4ariet* o& a lang%age. A( a re(%lt o& t)i( (t%d*, 2)ilologi(t( and dia5 lectologi(t( generall* regard a dialect a( a )i(torical (%/t*2e o& a lang%age and a lang%age a( t)e (%--ati4e &or- o& t)e &eat%re( o& it( dialect(. Kit)in a lang%age, t)ere i( %(%all* a dialect continuu&? (2ea'er( o& Dialect A can %nder(tand and /e %nder(tood /* (2ea'er( o& Dialect B, and C /* B, and (o on, /%t at t)e e<tre-e( o& t)e contin%%- (2ea'er( o& A and L -a* /e -%t%all* %nintelligi/le. T)e A and L co--%nitie( -a* t)ere&ore /e rig)t t)in'ing or arg%ing t)at A and L are di&&erent lang%age(. I& 2olitic( inter4ene( and t)e (2ea'er( o& A and L co-e to /e citi8en( o& di&&erent co%ntrie( Fa( =it) S2ani() and Port%g%e(e, or S=edi() and Dani(), or all =it) t)eir o=n dialect( and (tandard 4ariet*G. De(2ite t)eir di&&erence(, dialect( )a4e -ore ()ared t)an di&&ering &eat%re(, and t)o(e in =)ic) t)e* agree F2)onological, (*ntactic, le<ical, idio-atic, etc,G (er4e a( t)e de&ining core o& a lang%age, =)ile t)e cl%(ter( o& di&&erence( (er4e a( t)e de&ining core( o& t)e 4ario%( dialect(. T)%(, a lang%age M t)at )a( dialect( A, B, C, D, E, -a* )a4e 0N &eat%re(, 0+ o& =)ic) are ()ared /* A, B, C, " /* B, C, D, 00 /* B, D, E, and (o on. Per)a2( onl* $ &eat%re( are co--on to all &i4e. I& t)e* are, t)e* &or- t)e core or co--on &eat%re( o& M, to =)ic) -a* /e added additional &eat%re( ac>%ired t)ro%g) t)e con4ention( nece((ar* &or a (tandard lang%age. The evolution of dialects I& =e con(ider lang%age a( a li4ing /od*, dialect( can /e de(cri/ed a( a 'ind o& (2ecie( e4ol%tion. T)e tendenc* o& all lang%age( i( to c)ange in one detail or anot)er and (o de4elo2ing o& dialect( i( controlled onl* /* t)e need o& co--%nication /et=een (2ea'er(, 2re(er4ing a co--on core. Alt)o%g) =ritten &or-(, acco-2anied /* t)e teac)ing o& a (tandard, (lo= t)e 2roce(( o& c)ange, t)e* cannot 2re4ent it. In &act, dialect( are o&ten le(( c)angea/le t)an t)e (tandardE t)eir (2ea'er( tend to li4e in (ta/le co--%nitie( and to 2re(er4e &or-( o& t)e lang%age =)ic) are HolderH in ter-( o& t)e de4elo2-ent o& t)e (tandard. S%c) a (tandard, )o=e4er, i( in 13 o-ance lang%age( )a4ing a( t)eir co--on ance(tor LatinG, t)e dialect( -a* =ell /e (ociall* re54al%ed a( Hlang%age(H Fin d%e co%r(e o-aniaG. A( a re(%lt o& (%c) &actor(, t)ere i( a long5la(ting di(agree-ent concerning t)e de&inition( o& (%c) =ord( a( dialect#
ENGLISH DIALECTS
origin al(o a dialect and, in t)e 4ie= o& (o-e ling%i(t(, can and ()o%ld /e called t)e (tandard dialect Falt)o%g) &or -an* t)i( 2)ra(e i( a contradiction in ter-(G. Dialect( are (tronger regionall* =)ile t)e (tandard i( t)e %(age o& t)e nation at large, or at lea(t o& it( -o(t 2ro-inent and do-inant re2re(entati4e(. A( a con(e>%ence, -an* nati4e (2ea'er( o& a dialect -a* learn t)e (tandard a( a (econdar* 4ariet* o& t)eir o=n lang%age. The distribution of dialects Geogra2)icall*, dialect( are t)e re(%lt o& 2eo2leC( (ettle-ent t)ro%g)o%t )i(tor*. A( 2o2%lation( increa(e and (2read o%t, t)e* generall* &ollo= t)e nat%ral &eat%re( o& t)e land. T)e (ea and ri4er( (er4e a( /ot) /o%ndarie( and road=a*(. Peo2le (ettle &ir(t in lo=land( and gro%2( o& (ettler( -a* /e (e2arated /* -o%ntain(. Dialect de4elo2-ent can /e %nder(tood to (o-e e<tent in relation to to2ogra2)*? =)ere 2o2%lation( can co--%nicate ea(il*, dialectal di&&erence( de4elo2 -ore (lo=l* t)an =)ere t)e* lo(e i--ediate For allG contact. An e&&ecti4e -et)od o& (t%d*ing (%c) -atter( i( t)e (cience o& lin"uistic "eo"ra$h+. Indi4id%al &eat%re( F(o%nd(, =ord(, gra--atical &or-(, etc.G can /e di(2la*ed on -a2( ()o=ing =)ere one or anot)er &eat%re 2re4ail( in %(e and =)ere co-2eting &or-( are &o%nd. Line( on a dialect &a$ o%tline t)e area =it)in =)ic) an* &or- i( reg%larl* %(ed. Alternati4el*, t)e di&&ering &eat%re( -a* /e ()o=n on -a2( =it) dot( or ot)er (*-/ol(, gi4ing a 4i(%al di-en(ion to t)e data. Certain &eat%re( o& dialect can al(o /e (een in relation to (ocial &actor( not nece((aril* connected =it) geogra2)*. T)e t*2e o& lang%age one (2ea'( Fa social dialect or sociolectG de2end( on co--%nit*, &a-il* /ac'gro%nd, occ%2ation, degree o& ed%cation, and t)e li'e. K)ere a (tandard &or- )a( /eco-e e(ta/li()ed, t)e tendenc* i( to con(ider it Hrig)tH and to denigrate ot)er 4arietie(, =)o(e onl* &a%lt -a* /e t)at t)e* are o%t o& (t*le in t)e -ain(trea- o& a lang%age. Di(tincti4e dialect( are -o(t &%ll* 2re(er4ed in i(olated area( Fe.g. along (ea coa(t(, on i(land(, in -o%ntain area(G =)ere t)e* are little in&l%enced /* o%t(ider( and t)e 2o2%lation i( relati4el* (el&5(%(taining. T)e dialect( o& large citie(, )o=e4er, incl%de t)e (ocial =ide range o& t)e lang%age, =it) o%t(ide &eat%re( /eing /ro%g)t in and ne= &eat%re( /eing created -ore or le(( contin%o%(l*. Dialect myths and reality W)at do t)e 2o2%lar %(e( o& t)e terdialect (a* a/o%t t)e general 2%/licH( 2erce2tion o& dialect, a( it 4arie( &ro- t)e ne%tral tec)nical de&inition 2re(ented initiall*O T)ere i( a 2o2%lar -*t)olog* a/o%t dialect di&&erence( de4elo2ed /* t)e (ociet* =)ic) i( at 4ariance =it) t)e ling%i(tic &act( a/o%t dialect(. !ollo=ing are (o-e o& t)e(e -*t)(, a( t)e* contra(t =it) ling%i(tic realit*? 14
ENGLISH DIALECTS
MYTH? A dialect i( (o-et)ing t)at (o-eone el(e (2ea'(. EALITY? E4er*one =)o (2ea'( a lang%age (2ea'( (o-e dialect o& t)e lang%ageE it i( not 2o((i/le to (2ea' a lang%age =it)o%t (2ea'ing a dialect o& t)e lang%age. MYTH? Dialect( al=a*( )a4e )ig)l* noticea/le &eat%re( t)at (et t)e- a2art. EALITY? So-e dialect( get -%c) -ore attention t)an ot)er(E t)e (tat%( o& (2ea'ing a dialect, )o=e4er, i( %nrelated to 2%/lic co--entar* a/o%t it( (2ecial c)aracteri(tic(. MYTH? Onl* 4arietie( o& a lang%age (2o'en /* (ociall* di(&a4o%red gro%2( are dialect(. EALITY? T)e notion o& dialect e<i(t( a2art &ro- t)e (ocial (tat%( o& t)e lang%age 4ariet*E t)ere are (ociall* &a4o%red a( =ell a( (ociall* di(&a4o%red dialect(. MYTH? Dialect( re(%lt &ro- %n(%cce((&%l atte-2t( to (2ea' t)e PcorrectP &or- o& a lang%age. EALITY? Dialect (2ea'er( learn t)eir lang%age /* -i-ic'ing -e-/er( o& t)eir (2eec) co--%nit* =)o (2ea' t)e (a-e 4ariet*, not /* &ailing in t)eir atte-2t( to -i-ic (2ea'er( o& t)e (tandard 4ariet*. MYTH? Dialect( in)erentl* carr* negati4e (ocial connotation(. EALITY? Dialect( are not nece((aril* 2o(iti4el* or negati4el* 4al%edE t)eir (ocial 4al%e( are deri4ed (trictl* &ro- t)e (ocial 2o(ition o& t)eir co--%nit* o& (2ea'er(. FKol&ra- 0""0? N5QG
ID!IN Definition U(ed &ir(t in t)e 0$7+( a( a ling%i(tic ter-, it i( =idel* con(idered to /e &ro- t)e C)ine(e 2ron%nciation o& %usiness, al(o rendered a( $i"eon, a( in that(s not &+ $i"eon FBt)atH( not -* /%(ine(( or concernCG. Ot)er ling%i(t( (%gge(ted (o%rce( (%c) a( Port%g%e(e ocu$a*ao B/%(ine((C, and $e,ueno B(-allC F(%gge(ting /a/* tal'G, and He/re= $id-o& B/arterC. It i( a ter- %(ed in a general and a tec)nical (en(e &or a contact lang%age =)ic) dra=( on ele-ent( &ro- t=o or -ore lang%age(? $id"in .ortu"uese; a S$anish $id"in. The general sense A( generall* %nder(tood, a 2idgin i( a )*/rid H-a'e()i&tRi-2ro4i(ed lang%ageH %(ed /* and a-ong trader(, 2lantation( Fe(2eciall* =it) and a-ong (la4e( o& 4ario%( /ac'gro%nd(G, and /et=een E%ro2ean( and t)e indigeno%( 2eo2le( o& A(ia, A&rica, and t)e A-erica(, e(2eciall* d%ring t)e )e*da* o& E%ro2ean e<2an(ion F07 t) 5J+t) cent%rie(G. Beca%(e t)e =ord )a( o&ten /een %(ed and di(c%((ed 2e9orati4el*, it carrie( (%c) connotation a( Hc)ildi()H, Hcorr%2tH, Hla8*H, Hin&eriorC, Ho4er(i-2li&iedH, and H(i-2le5-indedC. T)e ter- )a( /een e<tended =it) (%c) a negati4e (en(e into =ider %(e, t)at =e can &ind it in e<2re((ion( (%c) a( H=riting 2idgin LatinH and 15
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Hnot (ati(&ied =it) 2idgin Mar<i(-H. T)i( 4ie= o& 2idgin lang%age( )a( o&ten a22eared in =or'( o& re&erence, a( in /re0er(s Dictionar+( of .hrase and Fa%le 0"DQ? .id"in1En"lish. T)e (e-i5Engli() ling%a &ranca %(ed in C)ina and t)e !ar Ea(t, con(i(ting 2rinci2all* o& -i(2rono%nced Engli() =ord( =it) certain nati4e gra--atical con(tr%ction(. !or in(tance, t)e C)ine(e cannot 2rono%nce r# (o re2lace it =it) l1te1lee &or Ht)reeH, soll+ &or H(orr*H, etc. Al(o, in C)ine(e, /et=een a n%-eral and it( no%n t)ere i( al=a*( in(erted a =ord Fcalled t)e Hcla((i&ierHG and t)i(, in Pidgin5Engli(), i( re2laced /* 2iece 5 e.g. one1$iece knifee# t0o $iece hin"kichi F)and'erc)ie&(G. .id"in i( a corr%2tion o& %usiness. Pidgin Engli() i( a %tilitarian &or- o& /a(ic Engli() and i( =idel* %(ed in 4ar*ing &or-( /* -an* nati4e 2eo2le( =it) =)o- t)e Engli() )a4e co-e in contact. Fre4i(ed /* E4an( 0""S? $SJG Et*-ologicall*, t)ere a22ear( to )a4e /een onl* one 2idgin? .id"in En"lish, al(o 'no=n a( /usiness En"lish, .id"in1En"lish# $id"in1En"lish# .i"eon En"lish# .i"eon1 En"lish# %i"eon# $id"eon# $id-in# $id-un. T)i( =a( a trade 9argon %(ed &ro- t)e 07 t) cent%r* on=ard /et=een t)e Briti() and C)ine(e in (%c) 2ort( a( Canton. In 0$JD, B. Hall =rote? HI a&ter=ard( learned t)at T2igeonP, in t)e (trange 9argon (2o'en at Canton /* =a* o& Engli(), -ean( C/%(ine((H. In 0$NQ, U. . Peter( noted? HPidgeon i( t)e co--on C)ine(e 2ron%nciation o& /%(ine((HE and in 0$7J, A. D. Carli(le o/(er4ed? HT)e dialect c%rrent /et=een Engli()-en and C)ina-en ... goe( /* t)e na-e o& Pigeon5Engli()H F 23ford En"lish Dictionar+G. It ()o%ld /e noted, )o=e4er, t)at Chinese FCoastalG .id"in En"lish or China Coast .id"in i( no= a tec)nical terre&erring to a contact lang%age %(ed /et=een (2ea'er( o& Engli() and C)ine(e &ro- t)e &ir(t )al& o& t)e 0$ t) cent%r* %ntil t)e earl* 0"7+(. FMcArt)%r 0""D? D"$5""G The technical sense Socioling%i(t( %(e t)e ter- to de(cri/e a 2)eno-enon =)o(e (t%d* )a( greatl* increa(ed (ince t)e Second Korld Kar. !or t)e-, a 2idgin i( a -arginal lang%age =)ic) ari(e( to &%l&il certain re(tricted co--%nicati4e &%nction( a-ong gro%2( =it) no co--on lang%age. T)i( -ore (cienti&ic a22roac) no= tend( to 2redo-inate in =or'( o& re&erence, a( in t)e Concise Colu&%ia Enc+clo$edia F0""N? D$"G? .id"in, a ling%a &ranca t)at i( not t)e -ot)er tong%e o& an*one %(ing it and t)at )a( a (i-5 2li&ied gra--ar and re(tricted, o&ten 2ol*glot, 4oca/%lar*. An e<a-2le i( t)e 2idgin 16
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Engli() %(ed in Ea(tern A(ian 2ort(, 2rinci2all* &or trading /et=een t)e Engli() and C)ine(e. T)e -a9orit* o& t)e 4oca/%lar* and gra--ar are o& Engli() origin, /%t t)ere are al(o Mala*, C)ine(e, and Port%g%e(e ele-ent(. Pidgin( are i-2ortant national lang%age( in Pa2%a Ne= ,%inea and (o-e Paci&ic i(land co%ntrie(. In (ocioling%i(tic ter-(, t)ere )a4e /een -an* 2idgin( and t)e 2roce(( 'no=n a( $id"ini4ation i( li'el* to occ%r an*=)ere %nder a22ro2riate condition(. T)i( 2roce(( o& (i-2li&ication and )*/ridi8ation in4ol4e( red%ction o& ling%i(tic re(o%rce( and re(triction o& %(e to (%c) li-ited &%nction( a( trade. T)e ter- i( (o-eti-e( e<tended to re&er to t)e earl* (tage( o& an* in(tance o& (econd lang%age ac>%i(ition, =)en learner( ac>%ire a -ini-al &or- o& t)e target lang%age o&ten in&l%enced /* t)eir o=n 2ri-ar* lang%age. T)ere i(, )o=e4er, (o-e di(agree-ent a-ong (c)olar( o4er t)e n%-/er o& lang%age( in (%&&icient contact to 2rod%ce a 2idgin. So-e in4e(tigator( clai- t)at an* t=o lang%age( in contact -a* re(%lt in a degree o& ling%i(tic i-2ro4i(ation and co-2ro-i(e, and (o lead to 2idgini8ation. S%c) a 4ie=2oint incl%de( in t)e categor* o& 2idgin forei"ner talk and ot)er cla((e( o& -a'e()i&t and o&ten tran(itor* co--%nication. Ot)er in4e(tigator( arg%e t)at onl* in ca(e( =)ere -ore t)an t=o lang%age( are in contact are tr%e 2idgin( /orn. In (it%ation( =)ere (2ea'er( o& -ore t)an t=o lang%age( -%(t co--%nicate in a -edi%- nati4e to none o& t)e-, t)e 'ind( o& re(tr%ct%ring are -ore radical t)an in ot)er ca(e( and li'el* to /e -ore d%ra/le. T)e na-e( gi4en to 2idgin lang%age( /* ling%i(t( re&er to t)eir location and t)eir 2rinci2al le3ifier or %ase lan"ua"e? t)at i(, t)e lang%age &ro- =)ic) t)e* dra= -o(t o& t)eir 4oca/%lar*. .a$uan .id"in En"lish t)ere&ore re&er( to t)e 2idgin t)at i( (2o'en in =)at =a( &or-erl* t)e Territor* o& Pa2%a, and t)at dra=( -o(t o& it( 4oca/%lar* &ro- Engli() and i( t)ere&ore an Engli()5/a(ed 2idginE Ha0aii .id"in En"lish i( t)e 2idgin Engli() (2o'en in Ha=aii. In addition and o&ten 2rior to (%c) acade-ic na-e(, 2idgin( -a* or -a* not /e identi&ied a( (%c) and o&ten )a4e (2eci&ic na-e( retained /* ling%i(t( =)en di(c%((ing t)e-, (%c) a( /a4aar Hindustani5Hindi# 'orean /a&%oo En"lish# fran*ais $etit1n6"re . E4en a&ter a 2idgin de4elo2( into a creole, t)e na-e -a* contin%e to /e %(ed, (%c) a( 7o$er .id"in, al(o 'no=n a( 7o$er 7i8er Creole. A lang%age -a* al(o )a4e /ot) 2idgin and creole 4arietie(, a( =it) To' Pi(in in Pa2%a Ne= ,%inea. Characteristics A 2idgin i( c)aracteri8ed /* a (-all 4oca/%lar* Fa &e= )%ndred or t)o%(and =ord(G dra=n largel* &ro- t)e (%2er(trate lang%age Ft)at i(, t)e lang%age o& t)e (ociall* do-inant gro%2G, toget)er =it) a red%ction o& -an* gra--atical &eat%re(, (%c) a( in&lectional -or2)olog*, a( in 17
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To' Pi(in =)ere &i ka& can -ean HI co-eH, HI a- co-ingH, HI ca-eH, and 0an$ela haus -ean( H)o%(eH =)ile tu$ela haus -ean( Ht=o )o%(e(H. One (o%rce o& gra--ar i( t)e (ociall* (%/ordinate (%/(trate lang%ageF(G. O&ten, t)o%g) not al=a*(, =)ere 2idgin( de4elo2, one gro%2 i( (ociall* (%2erior and it( &%ll lang%age i( -ore or le(( inacce((i/le to t)e ot)er gro%2F(G, (o t)at t)ere i( little -oti4ation or o22ort%nit* to i-2ro4e 2er&or-ance. K)ere t)e need( o& co--%nication are -ini-al and re(tricted to a &e= /a(ic do-ain( (%c) a( =or' and trade, a ca(%al and de&icient 4er(ion o& lang%age can /e eno%g), a( )a( /een t)e ca(e =it) 'isettla F(ettler(H lang%ageG, t)e 2idgin S=a)ili %(ed /et=een t)e Briti() and A&rican( in Ven*a. Man* 2idgin lang%age( aro(e in t)e conte<t o& contact /et=een E%ro2ean coloni8er( =)o en(la4ed or e-2lo*ed a coloni8ed or tran(2orted 2o2%lation on 2lantation(, in 2ort(, in t)eir )o-e(, etc. An i-2ortant &eat%re o& 2idgin( i( t)e lac' o& gra--atical co-2le<it*E &or t)i( rea(on, t)e* are o&ten re&erred to at /e(t a( (i-2le or (i-2li&ied lang%age(, at =or(t a( /a(tardi8ed or /ro'en &or-( o& anot)er lang%age. Si-2licit* i( attri/%ted /* -an* 2eo2le to lac' o& gra--ar, /%t lin5 g%i(t( agree t)at 2idgin( )a4e a di(tincti4e gra--atical (tr%ct%re. T)e gra--ar o& a 2idgin lang%age i( con(tr%cted according to a 2rinci2le =)ic) (tate( t)at t)ere ()o%ld /e a clo(e relation /et=een &or- and -eaning. T)ere i( a tendenc* &or eac) -or2)e-e For =ord ele-entG to occ%r onl* once in an %tterance, and &or it to )a4e onl* one &or-. Non52idgin lang%age( generall* )a4e /%ilt5in red%ndanc* and re>%ire t)e e<2re((ion o& t)e (a-e -eaning in (e4eral 2lace( in an %tterance? &or e<a-2le, in t)e Engli() (entence( 2ne &an co&es and Si3 &en co&e, (ing%lar and 2l%ral are -ar'ed in /ot) no%n and -odi&ier, and concord i( ()o=n in /ot) no%n and 4er/. Ho=e4er, t)e e>%i4alent( in To' Pi(in FPa2%a Ne= ,%inea Pidgin Engli()G ()o= no 4ariation in t)e 4er/ &or- or t)e no%n? 9an$ela &an i ka& and Siks$ela &an i ka&. Beca%(e t)e* lac' red%ndanc*, 2idgin( de2end )ea4il* on conte<t &or t)eir inter2retation. Mo(t 2idgin( )a4e little or no in&lectional -or2)olog*. K)ere Engli() -ar'( 2o((e((ion /* adding Hs Fa( in :ohn(s houseG, To' Pi(in )a( haus %ilon" :ohn. Here, %ilon" )a( /een ta'en &roEngli(), /%t )a( ()i&ted it( &%nction &ro- 4er/ to 2re2o(ition, and can /e 2ara2)ra(ed a( H/elonging toH. Pidgin lang%age( tend to )a4e onl* a (-all n%-/er o& 2re2o(ition( and t)e* %(e t)e- to -ar' a 4ariet* o& gra--atical relation( =)ic) in ot)er lang%age( =o%ld /e e<2re((ed /* a -%c) greater n%-/er o& 2re2o(ition(. Pidgin( are )ig)l* reg%lar and )a4e &e=er e<ce2tion( t)an -an* ot)er lang%age(, =)ic) -a'e( t)e- ea(ier to learn. Anot)er 2ro2ert* i( -%lti&%nctionalit*? t)e (a-e =ord can &%nction in -an* =a*(. In Engli(), t)e =ord ill &%nction( a( an ad9ecti4e Fin He is ill, an ill 0indG. T)e corre(2onding no%n 18
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i( illness, deri4ed /* a reg%lar 2roce(( o& =ord5&or-ation. In To' Pi(in, )o=e4er, t)e =ord sik can &%nction a( /ot) no%n and ad9ecti4e? ;i sik BI a- illCE E& i "at sik &alaria BHe )a( -alariaC. Pidgin( -a* co-2en(ate &or lac' o& 4oca/%lar* /* circ%-loc%tion? in To' Pi(in, Sin"sin" tai& &aus i $as Bto (ing =it) t)e -o%t) clo(edC FW to )%-G. K)ere Engli() )a( %ranch, To' Pi(in )a( han %ilon" di0ai B)and o& a treeC. In anal*(ing t)e (*ntactic ele-ent( o& 2idgin(, it i( o&ten i-2o((i/le to (e2arate t)e in&l%ence o& (%/(trate &ro- (%2er(trate lang%age? a( in t)e ca(e o& To' Pi(in, t)e in&l%ence o& local lang%age( &ro- t)at o& Engli(). In To' Pi(in, t)e 2article i i( a (o5called $redicate &arker, occ%rring in (%c) (entence( a( 2l &an i kisi& %i"$ela su$ia FT)e -en X 2redicate -ar'er X got /ig (2ear(G. T)i( -ar'er can /e deri4ed &ro- t)e %(e o& 2er(onal 2rono%n( in non5(tandard Engli(), (%c) a( he a( in :ohn# he "ot a ne0 car, a( =ell a( &ro- (i-ilar (*ntactic 2attern( in A%(trone(ian lang%age(. S%c) a %(e o& 2rono%n( a( 2redicate -ar'er( i( =ide(2read acro(( 2idgin(, occ%rring in (o-e o& t)e !renc)5/a(ed Indian Ocean creole( a( =ell a( in C)inoo' Uargon. Classification Pidgin( can /e cla((i&ied into &o%r t*2e( according to t)eir de4elo2-ent? 5 5 5 5 9argon, (ta/le 2idgin, e<tended or e<2anded 2idgin, and creole, eac) c)aracteri8ed /* a grad%al increa(e in co-2le<it*.
F0G :ar"on. In t)i( (tage, t)ere i( great indi4id%al 4ariation, a 4er* (i-2le (o%nd (*(te-, one5 or t=o5=ord %tterance(, and a 4er* (-all le<icon. Uargon( are %(ed &or co--%nicating in li-ited (it%ation(? trade 9argon( generall*, and Chinook :ar"on, a trade lang%age (2o'en along t)e nort)5=e(t Paci&ic coa(t o& Nort) A-erica &ro- t)e 0$t) cent%r*. FJG Sta%le $id"in. T)i( i( -ore reg%lar and -ore co-2le< and t)ere are (ocial nor-( regarding it( %(e, a( =it) 7ussenorsk, a trade 2idgin %(ed in nort)ern Nor=a* /* %((ian -erc)ant( and Nor=egian &i()er-en o4er (o-e 0S+ *ear( F07$Q50"07G. Beca%(e t)e lang%age =a( %(ed &or (ea(onal trade, it did not e<2and -%c) (tr%ct%rall* and )ad a core 4oca/%lar* o& a/o%t 0Q+5J++ =ord(. FSG E3tended or e3$anded $id"in. Ot)er 2idgin(, (%c) a( To' Pi(in, not onl* (ta/ili8ed /%t e<2anded to /eco-e -ore gra--aticall* co-2le<, and to (er4e a( =ell5e(ta/li()ed ling%a &ranca(, (o-eti-e( =it) o&&icial or ot)er (tat%(. FNG Creole. At t)i( (tage, t)e 2idgin i( creoli8ed? t)at i(, it i( ac>%ired a( a &ir(t lang%age /* c)ildren, 2artic%larl* in %r/an area(. T)i( i( t)e (tage o&, &or e<a-2le, To' Pi(in in Pa2%a Ne= ,%inea and Vriol Fal(o 'no=n a( o2er i4er CreoleG in t)e Nort)ern Territorie( o& A%(tralia. It 19
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i( generall* i-2o((i/le to identi&* (tr%ct%ral &eat%re( =)ic) di(ting%i() e<2anded 2idgin( &roe-erging creole(, (ince /ot) e<)i/it increa(ed (tr%ct%ral co-2le<it* and ()are -an* &eat%re(. T)e di&&erence lie( -ore in (ocial %(e t)an in &or-. Theories of origin Vario%( t)eorie( )a4e /een 2ro2o(ed to acco%nt &or t)e origin o& 2idgin lang%age(, and &all into t)ree /road t*2e(? &ono"enetic# $ol+"enetic# and uni8ersalist. ;ono"enesis. T)i( t)eor* a((ert( a co--on origin &or all E%ro2ean5/a(ed 2idgin(. So-e -onogenetic t)eori(t( clai- t)at t)e* all de(cend &ro- a na%tical 9argon %(ed &or co--%nication a-ong (ailor( &ro- di&&erent /ac'gro%nd(. Ot)er( )a4e arg%ed t)at t)e* de(cend &ro- a 0Q t) cent%r* Port%g%e(e 2idgin =)ic) co%ld in it( t%rn )a4e /een a relic o& Sa%ir, t)e ling%a &ranca o& t)e Cr%(ader( and a Mediterranean trading lang%age. It i( clai-ed t)at t)i( lang%age =a( rele<i&ied Ft)at i(, rene=ed =it) 4oca/%lar* &ro- di&&erent (o%rce(G a( it ca-e into contact =it) (%c) ot)er E%ro2ean lang%age( a( Engli() and D%tc). Bot) t)e na%tical59argon and Sa/ir t)eorie( ta'e a( (%22orting e4idence t)e &act t)at -an* 2idgin( ()are co--on =ord( li'e sa8e Fto 'no=? co-2are Engli() sa88+ W t)e a/ilit* to %nder(tand and 9%dge 2eo2le and (it%ation( =ellG and $ikinini Fc)ild? co-2are Engli() $ickaninn+ W a /lac' c)ild. T)i( =ord i( (o-eti-e( %(ed /* older =)ite 2eo2le /%t /lac' 2eo2le con(ider it o&&en(i4eG. Bot) =ord( are o& S2ani()RPort%g%e(e origin, &ro- sa%er5sa%ir Fto 'no=G and $e,ue<o F(-allG, and are =idel* %(ed in Engli()5/a(ed 2idgin( and creole( in t)e Cari//ean and Paci&ic. S%c) =ord( co%ld eit)er )a4e /een directl* in)erited locall* or tran(-itted &ro- one location to anot)er /* (ailor(, =)o %ndo%/tedl* acco%nt &or (o-e o& t)e le<ical ()aring acro(( %nrelated 2idgin(, alt)o%g) t)eir role in t)e &or-ation o& (ta/le 2idgin( =a( 2ro/a/l* not great. Ho=e4er, it i( di&&ic%lt to acco%nt &or t)e -an* di&&erence( a-ong 2idgin( /* a22ealing entirel* to rele<i&ication, and neit)er a22roac) e<2lain( t)e origin o& t)e -an* non5E%ro2ean5/a(ed 2idgin lang%age(. .ol+"enesis. T)i( t)eor* (tre((e( di(tinctne(( and re&er( to t)e in&l%ence o& (%/(trate lang%age(, (%c) a( t)e in&l%ence o& A&rican lang%age( in t)e &or-ation o& t)e Atlantic 2idgin(. According to one 4ie=, 2idgin( ari(e o%t o& t)e i-2er&ect learning o& a -odel lang%age /* (la4e( or a( a re(%lt o& deli/erate (i-2li&ication, &or e<a-2le /* E%ro2ean( in a -a(terR(la4e relation()i2. T)ere i( e4idence t)at t)e Port%g%e(e ta%g)t a (i-2li&ied 4er(ion o& t)eir lang%age to t)o(e t)e* traded =it) along t)e =e(t coa(t o& A&rica. ni8ersalis&. T)i( 4ie= arg%e( &or t)e %ni4er(al nat%re o& t)e (ocial and 2(*c)ological &actor( =)ic) occ%r in lang%age contact. T)e %a%+1talk theor+ i( /a(ed on t)e idea t)at certain (*(te-( o& co--%nication e-erge in re(2on(e to 2artic%lar (ocial and )i(torical circ%-(tance(. 20
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T)ere i( e4idence &or t)i( )*2ot)e(i( in t)e &act t)at /a/* tal', &oreigner tal', and 2idgin( ()o= certain (i-ilaritie( o& (tr%ct%re. Ba/* tal' e<2re((ion( (%c) a( Dadd+ "o %+e1%+e are (i-ilar to t)e red%ced 4er(ion( or lang%age %(ed to addre(( &oreigner(. T)ere i( no do%/t t)at t)e nati4e lang%age( o& coloni8ed, en(la4ed, and tran(2lanted 2o2%lation( 2ro4ided i-2ortant in2%t to 2idgin(, /%t t)ere are al(o -an* &eat%re( =)ic) can /e e<2lained onl* /* re&erence to t)e (%2er(trate lang%age( o& t)e coloni8er(, en(la4er(, and tran(2lanter(. At 2re(ent, t)ere&ore, no (ingle t)eor* can ade>%atel* e<2lain t)e origin o& 2idgin lang%age(.
C"EOLE Definition It a22eared &ir(t in t)e lang%age in t)e 0Dt) cent%r* and co-e( &ro- !renc) cr=ole, S2ani() criollo, Port%g%e(e crioulo, &ro- criar Bto n%r(eC or B/reedC, &ro- Latin creare5creatu& Bto /egetC. T)e ter- relate( to 2eo2le and lang%age( e(2eciall* in t)e &or-er colonial tro2ic( and (%/tro2ic(, in t)e A-erica(, A&rica, t)e Indian Ocean, and Oceania. In Port%g%e(e, crioulo a22ear( to )a4e re&erred &ir(t to an ani-al or 2er(on /orn at )o-e, t)en to a /lac' A&rican (la4e in Bra8il =)o =a( /orn in )i( or )er -a(terH( )o%(e. In t)e 07 t) X 0$t) cent%rie(, 2artic%larl* in t)e Ke(t Indie(, t)e ter- co%ld -ean /ot) a de(cendant o& E%ro2ean (ettler( F a 0hite creoleG or a de(cendant o& A&rican (la4e( Fa creole Ne"ro or Ne"ro creoleG. Later, t)e ter- ca-e to a22l* al(o to li&e and c%lt%re in creole (ocietie(? &or e<a-2le, t)e F!renc)G Creole c%i(ine o& Lo%i(iana. T)e co-2le<it* o& t)e ter- i( ca2t%red /* t)e co--ent o& U. M. L%dlo=? HT)ere are creole =)ite(, creole negroe(, creole )or(e(, etc.E and creole =)ite( are, o& all 2er(on(, t)e -o(t an<io%( to /e dee-ed o& 2%re =)ite /loodH FA Sketch of the Histor+ of the nited States , 0$DJ in McArt)%r 0""N? JN7G. Since t)e later 0" t) cent%r*, t)e ter- )a( e<tended to incl%de a lang%age (2o'en /* creole( and )a( ac>%ired a ne= (en(e in ling%i(tic(, a((ociated =it) t)e de4elo2-ent o& 2idgin lang%age(. Creole languages In (ocioling%i(tic ter-(, t)e(e lang%age( )a4e ari(en t)ro%g) contact /et=een (2ea'er( o& di&&erent lang%age(. T)i( contact &ir(t 2rod%ce( a -a'e()i&t lang%age called a $id"inE =)en t)i( i( nati4i8ed and /eco-e( t)e lang%age o& a co--%nit*, it i( a creole. S%c) lang%age( are o&ten 'no=n locall* a( $id"in or creole, /%t -a* )a4e (%c) (2eci&ic na-e( a( Aku in ,a-/ia and .a$ia&entu in t)e Net)erland( Antille(. T)e* are %(%all* gi4en la/el( /* (ocioling%i(t( t)at re&er to location and 2rinci2al le3ifier lang%age Ft)e lang%age &ro- =)ic) t)e* dra= -o(t o& t)eir 4oca/%lar*G? &or e<a-2le, :a&aican 21
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Creole, in &%ll :a&aican Creole En"lish or :a&aican En"lish Creole, t)e Engli()5/a(ed creole (2o'en in Ua-aica. Haitian Creole French i( (2o'en in Haiti and i( !renc)5/a(ed. Creole( /a(ed on Engli(), !renc), S2ani(), and Port%g%e(e occ%r in t)e A-erica(, A&rica, and A(ia. T)ere are t)ree Por5 t%g%e(e creole( in i(land( o&& t)e Ke(t A&rican coa(t? Ca2e .erde, Anno/on, and SYo To-Z. .a$ia&entu i( t)e onl* (%c) creole in t)e Cari//ean, (2o'en /* in)a/itant( o& t)e Net)erland( Antille( FAr%/a, Bonaire, and C%ra[aoG, =it) an ad-i<t%re o& D%tc). T)e D%tc)5/a(ed creole Ne"erhollands FBlac' D%tc)G i( (2o'en /* a (-all n%-/er o& 2eo2le in t)e .irgin I(land(. Creole( not /a(ed on E%ro2ean lang%age( can /e &o%nd in 2art( o& A&rica F(%c) a( S=a)ili =)en %(ed a( a trade 4ernac%larG and in Pa2%a Ne= ,%inea F(%c) a( Hiri Mot%G. Creole En"lish. T)ere are -an* Engli()5/a(ed creole(. In Ke(t A&rica, t)e* incl%de Aku in ,a-/ia, 'rio in Sierra Leone, 'ru En"lish in Li/eria, and 'a&tok in Ca-eroon. In t)e Cari//ean and t)e neig)/o%ring -ainland t)e* incl%de /a-an in Bar/ado(, Creolese in ,%*ana, ;iskito Coast Creole in Nicarag%a, Sranan in S%rina-, Trin%a"onian in Trinidad and To/ago, and t)e creole( o& t)e Ba* I(land( o& Hond%ra(. In Nort) A-erica, t)e* incl%de Afro1Se&inole# A&erindian .id"in En"lish, and Gullah. In Oceania, t)e* incl%de /isla&a in .an%at%, /roken in t)e Torre( Strait(, Ha0aii En"lish Creole, 'riol in Nort)ern A%(tralia, .i-in in t)e Solo-on I(land(, and Tok .isin in Pa2%a Ne= ,%inea. It )a( /een arg%ed t)at /lack En"lish F>ernacularG in t)e #nited State( )a( creole origin( (ince it ()are( -an* &eat%re( =it) Engli()5/a(ed creole( in t)e Cari//ean. In t)e #V, /ritish /lack En"1 lish, (2o'en /* i--igrant( &ro- t)e Cari//ean and t)eir c)ildren, )a( &eat%re( in)erited &roCari//ean Engli() Creole. Common characteristics T*2ical gra--atical &eat%re( in E%ro2ean5/a(ed creole( incl%de t)e %(e o& 2re4er/al negation and (%/9ect54er/5o/9ect =ord order? &or e<a-2le F&ro- Sranan in S%rina-G A no koti a %rede BHe didnHt c%t t)e /readC. Man* %(e t)e (a-e ite- &or /ot) e<i(tential (tate-ent( and 2o((e((ion? &or e<a-2le, "et in ,%*ane(e Creole De& "et 0an u&an 0e "et "+al $ikni BT)ere i( a =o-an =)o )a( a da%g)terC. T)e* lac' a &or-al 2a((i4e? &or e<a-2le, in Ua-aican Creole no di(tinction i( -ade in t)e 4er/ &or-( in (entence( (%c) a( De& $laan di tri FT)e* 2lanted t)e treeG and Di tri $laan FT)e tree =a( 2lantedG. Creole( tend to )a4e no co2%la and ad9ecti4e( -a* &%nction a( 4er/(? &or e<a-2le, Ua-aican Creole Di $ikni sik BT)e c)ild i( (ic'C. Mo(t creole( do not ()o= an* (*ntactic di&&erence /et=een >%e(tion( and (tate-ent(? &or e<a-2le, ,%*ane(e Creole I %ai di e" de& can -ean HHe /o%g)t t)e egg(H or HDid )e /%* t)e egg(OH Falt)o%g) t)ere i( a di(tinction in 22
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intonationG. \%e(tion =ord( in creole( tend to )a4e t=o ele-ent(, t)e &ir(t generall* &ro- t)e le<i&ier lang%age? &or e<a-2le, Haitian Creole ki kote F&ro- ,ui and cot=, H=)ic)H and H(ideHG -eaning 0here, and Va-to' 0etin F&ro- 0hat and thin"G -eaning 0hat. It )a( /een clai-ed t)at -an* (*ntactic and (e-antic (i-ilaritie( a-ong creole( are d%e to an innate H/io2rogra-H &or lang%age, and t)at creole( 2ro4ide t)e 'e* to %nder(tanding t)e original e4ol%tion o& )%-an lang%age. Creoli#ation T)e 2roce(( o& /eco-ing a creole -a* occ%r at an* (tage a( a -a'e()i&t lang%age de4elo2( &ro- trade 9argon to e<2anded 2idgin, and can )a22en %nder radical condition(, (%c) a( =)ere a 2o2%lation o& (la4e( (2ea'ing -an* lang%age( )a( to de4elo2 a co--on lang%age a-ong (la4e( and =it) o4er(eer(. In d%e co%r(e, c)ildren gro= %2 (2ea'ing t)e 2idgin a( t)eir -ain lang%age, and =)en t)i( )a22en( it -%(t c)ange to -eet t)eir need(. De2ending on t)e (tage at =)ic) creoli8ation occ%r(, di&&erent t*2e( o& (tr%ct%ral e<2an(ion are nece((ar* /e&ore t)e lang%age can /eco-e ade>%ate. In t)e ca(e o& Ua-aican Creole, it i( t)o%g)t t)at a r%di-entar* 2idgin creoli8ed =it)in a generation, t)en /egan to de1 creoli4e to=ard( general Engli(). To' Pi(in, )o=e4er, &ir(t (ta/ili8ed and e<2anded a( a 2idgin /e&ore it /eca-e creoli8edE in (%c) ca(e(, t)e tran(ition /et=een t)e t=o (tage( i( grad%al rat)er t)an a/r%2t. T)e ter- i( al(o a22lied to ca(e( =)ere )ea4* /orro=ing di(r%2t( t)e contin%it* o& a lang%age, t%rning it into a creole5li'e 4ariet*, /%t =it)o%t a 2rior 2idgin (tage. So-e re(earc)er( )a4e arg%ed t)at Middle Engli() i( a creole t)at aro(e &ro- contact =it) Nor(e d%ring t)e Scandina4ian (ettle-ent( F$t) 5 00t) cent%rie(G and t)en =it) !renc) a&ter t)e Nor-an Con>%e(t F00t) cent%r*G. In addition to -a((i4e le<ical /orro=ing, -an* c)ange( led to (%c) (i-2li&ication o& gra--ar a( lo(( o& t)e Old Engli() in&lectional ending(. It i( not, )o=e4er, clear t)at t)e(e c)ange( =ere d%e onl* to lang%age contact, (ince ot)er lang%age( )a4e %ndergone (i-ilar re(tr%ct%ring( in t)e a/(ence o& contact, a( &or e<a-2le =)en Latin /eca-e Italian. De$creoli#ation It i( a &%rt)er de4elo2-ent in =)ic) a creole grad%all* con4erge( =it) it( (%2er(trate or le<i&ier lang%age? &or e<a-2le, in Ha=aii and Ua-aica, /ot) creole( are -o4ing to=ard Standard Engli(). !ollo=ing t)e creoli8ation o& a 2idgin, a $ost1creole continuu& -a* de4elo2 =)en, a&ter a 2eriod o& relati4el* inde2endent ling%i(tic de4elo2-ent, a 2o(t52idgin or 2o(t5creole 4ariet* co-e( %nder a 2eriod o& rene=ed in&l%ence &ro- t)e le<i&ier lang%age. Decreoli8ation 23
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-a* o/(c%re t)e origin( o& a 4ariet*, a( in t)e ca(e o& A-erican Blac' Engli(). Conclusion Pidgin and creole lang%age( =ere long neglected /* t)e acade-ic =orld, /eca%(e t)e* =ere not regarded a( HrealH or de4elo2ed lang%age(, /%t, t)eir (t%d* i( c%rrentl* regarded a( (igni&icant &or general ling%i(tic( a( =ell a( t)e (t%d* o& (%c) lang%age( a( Engli(). T)e (t%d* o& 2idgin( and creole( )a( /een ra2idl* e<2anding a( ling%i(t( intere(ted in lang%age ac>%i(ition, lang%age c)ange, and %ni4er(al gra--ar )a4e ta'en -ore notice o& t)e-. Beca%(e t)e(e 4arietie( ari(e and o&ten e<2and ra2idl*, t)e* 2ro4ide an e<cellent te(ting gro%nd &or t)eorie( o& )i(torical c)ange. S2ea'er( -%(t /ring (o-e general and 2o((i/l* innate 2rinci2le( and (trategie( to /ear on t)e ta(' o& learning to co--%nicate %nder (%c) circ%-(tance(. T)e(e lang%age( )a4e al(o attracted t)e attention o& (ocioling%i(t(, o=ing to t)e a-o%nt o& 4ariation a-ong t)e-, and t)e (t%d* o& (%c) 4ariation )a( )ad re2erc%((ion( on t)e (t%d* o& t)e totalit* o& lang%age( li'e Engli(), in =)ic) 4ariet* i( a( -%c) t)e nor- a( %ni&or-it*. Since 2idgin( and creole( are generall* (2o'en in T)ird Korld co%ntrie(, t)eir role and &%nction are clo(el* connected =it) a 4ariet* o& 2olitical -atter( concerned =it) national, (ocial, and econo-ic de4elo2-ent and tran(ition into 2o(t5colonial (ocietie(. So-e co%ntrie( gi4e o&&icial recognition to 2idgin and creole lang%age(, a-ong t)e- Pa2%a Ne= ,%inea, .an%at%, and Haiti. In Haiti, t)e 0"$S Con(tit%tion declared /ot) Haitian Creole and !renc) to /e national lang%age(, /%t recogni8ed !renc) a( t)e o&&icial lang%ageE in 0"$7, Creole =a( declared o&&icial too. T)e &or-er Pa2%a Ne= ,%inean Pri-e Mini(ter, Mic)ael So-are, )a( on occa(ion (2o'en a/road in To' Pi(in, e4en t)o%g) )e endor(e( t)e %(e o& Engli() &or o&&icial 2%r2o(e(. Pidgin and creole lang%age( al(o &%nction a( (*-/ol( o& (olidarit* in -an* 2art( o& t)e =orld =)ere t)eir %(e i( increa(ing. In Haiti, it i( o&ten t)e ca(e t)at to (2ea' creole i( to tal' (traig)t, =)ile to (2ea' !renc) i( (*non*-o%( =it) d%2licit*.
%"ITIS& EN!LIS&
%ritish languages Man* lang%age( )a4e /een and are %(ed in Britain. T)e nati4e li4ing lang%age( are En"1 lish# French in t)e C)annel I(land(, Scottish Gaelic, 9elsh, and Scots. Lang%age( no= e<tinct 24
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are An"lo1Danish# An"lo1Sa3on F2ld En"lishG, /r+thonic or /ritish Fa lang%age o& 2re5 o-an and o-an ti-e(G, Cornish# An"lo1Latin# ;an3 Gaelic# Nor&an French FAn"lo1Nor&anG, Norn Ft)e Nor(e o& Cait)ne((, Or'ne*, and S)etlandG, and .ictish Fin ancient CaledoniaG. T)e do-inant lang%age (ince t)e 0Dt) cent%r* )a( /een Engli(). Kel() i( (2o'en /* a -inorit* in Kale( and ,aelic /* a -inorit* in Scotland. .ario%( i--igrant lang%age(, e(2eciall* Hindi# rdu# Gu-arati, and .un-a%i &ro- t)e Indian (%/continent and Cantonese &ro- Hong Vong, are (2o'en in (%c) citie( a( London, Bir-ing)a-, ,la(go=, and Cardi&&. Cari%%ean En"lish Creole and /ritish /lack En"lish are %(ed a-ong Ke(t Indian co--%nitie( e(2eciall* in (%c) citie( a( London, Bir-ing)a-, and Leed(. C%rrentl*, all t)e =orldH( -a9or lang%age( can /e )eard in London. %ritish English It )a( t)e ()ort &or- BrE and i( t)e Engli() lang%age a( %(ed in Britain. T)e 2)ra(e contra(t( =it) 'ind( o& Engli() %(ed el(e=)ere, and e(2eciall* =it) A-erican Engli(). !or -an* 2eo2le, )o=e4er, e(2eciall* in England, t)e %(age i( red%ndant. !or e<a-2le, t)e lang%age5 teac)ing organi8ation Lin"ua$hone -a'e( a di(tinction in ad4erti(ing it( co%r(e( /et=een (i-2l* HEngli()H and HA-erican Engli()H. T)e ter-, )o=e4er, i( a-/ig%o%( and create( ten(ion( a((ociated =it) t)e ter- Briti(), and can /e %(ed and inter2reted in t=o =a*(, not al=a*( 4er* clear? A general inter'retation Broadl* %nder(tood, Briti() Engli() i( t)e Engli() lang%age a( %(ed in ,reat Britain FEngland, Scotland, and Kale(G or t)e #nited Vingdo- o& ,reat Britain and Nort)ern Ireland, de2ending on t)e %(e o& Briti() e-2lo*ed. Kit) t)i( -eaning, t)e terre&er( to all 4arietie(, (tandard and non5(tandard, at all ti-e(, in all region(, and at all (ocial le4el(. B%t it can )ardl* incl%de t)e 4ariet* 'no=n a( Scot(, =)ic) in t)i( conte<t i( %(%all* treated, e<2licitl* or i-2licitl*, a( a (e2arate entit*. In t)i( inter2retation, Briti() Engli() i( a )eterogeneo%( range o& accent( and dialect(, incl%ding (tandard 4arietie( %(ed in (e4eral (*(te-( o& ed%cation. A s'ecific inter'retation In a more specific sense, Briti() Engli() i( t)e &or- o& Standard Engli() %(ed in Britain at large or, to /e -ore 2reci(e, in England, and -ore (2eci&icall* (till in (o%t)5ea(tern England. It i( e((entiall* t)e -edi%- o& t)e -iddle and %22er cla((e(. Alt)o%g) not re(tricted to one accent, e(2eciall* in recent decade(, it )a( /een a((ociated (ince at lea(t t)e late 0"t) cent%r* =it) t)e accent 'no=n (ince t)e 0"J+( a( 7ecei8ed .ronunciation F PG, and =it) t)e 2)ra(e( t)e )ueen(s 25
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En"lish# 23ford En"lish, and //C En"lish. K)en Briti() Engli() re&er( to a -odel o& Engli() ta%g)t to &oreigner(, it i( an ideali8ation o& t)e (o%t)5ea(tern -iddle5cla(( (tandard, a( 2re(ented in dictionarie( and ot)er -aterial( 2re2ared &or learner(. Debates and controversies T)e 2reci(e na-ing o& t)e 'ind or 'ind( o& Engli() %(ed in t)e #nited Vingdo-, and in t)o(e 2art( o& t)e Engli()5(2ea'ing =orld =)ic) )a4e /een clo(el* in&l%enced /* it F-ainl* in t)e Co--on=ealt)G, i( a&&ected /* de/ate( and contro4er(ie( t)at are cla((i&ied in t)ree gro%2(? 7e"ional anta"onis&. T)ere are di&&erent 2er(2ecti4e( and 2re&erence( in di&&erent 2art( o& Britain. T)e(e incl%de o/9ection( a-ong t)e non5Engli() to /eing categori8ed a( Engli(). K)ile t)e* o/9ect to t)i( ta'ing into acco%nt t)e et)nic realit*, t)e* al(o o/9ect to occa(ion( =)en e(2eciall* t)e (o%t)ern Engli() treat t)eir %(e o& Engli() a( old5&a()ioned or in&erior. Scot( o&ten arg%e t)at t)e* &ace t=o /ad e<2erience(? t)e* are called Engli() =)en t)e* are not Engli() at t)e (a-e ti-e a( t)eir %(e o& Engli() i( di(-i((ed a( not Engli(). To a le((er degree, t)ere are al(o =it)in England ten(ion( e(2eciall* /et=een t)e Nort) and t)e So%t), in =)ic) Nort)ern Engli() i( o&ten (een a( (econdar* to So%t)ern Engli(), -ainl* /e5 ca%(e it )a( no ed%cated (2o'en (tandard to co-2are =it) P. Class anta"onis&. I((%e( o& cla(( re-ain (igni&icant in Britain, o&ten -i<ed =it) regional, et)nic, and ling%i(tic i((%e(. Man* =or'ing5cla(( 2eo2le regard t)e (tandard lang%age and P a( /e*ond t)eir reac), a( -iddle5cla(( i-2o(ition(, or /ot). Standard %(age containing H/ig =ord(H i( (o-eti-e( (een a( a 'ind o& (ocial and ed%cational con(2irac*, =)ile P and near5 P accent(, de(2ite t)eir general 2re(tige, or 2er)a2( /eca%(e o& it, are 2ercei4ed a( &a()iona/le, arrogant, &al(e, or (no//i() and a&&ected. .recision of reference. T)e i((%e( relating to region and cla(( /eco-e ling%i(tic =)en t)eir clari&ication de2end( on t)e 2reci(ene(( or loo(ene(( o& t)e ter-( %(ed to di(c%(( t)e-. T)e (c)olarl* de/ate incl%de( /ot) de&ence( o& and o/9ection( to t)e 2re(entation o& t)e traditional, (tandard, P5lin'ed 4ariet* a( a (ingle, 2re(tige &or- =)en it i( %(ed /* a (-all -inorit*. T)e Engli() (ocioling%i(t Peter Tr%dgill )a( o/(er4ed? HM* o=n 2re&erred la/el &or 4arietie( o& Engli() &ro- England i( PEngli() Engli()P, /* analog* =it) PA-erican Engli()P, PA%(tralian Engli()P etc. Note t)at, =)ate4er la/el i( %(ed, =e )a4e /een care&%l in t)i( /oo' to di(ting%i() /et=een t)e ter-( PEngli() Engli()P and PBriti() Engli()]. T)e latter i( o&ten %(ed in literat%re 2artic%larl*, it (ee-(, /* A-erican( and =riter( on Engli() a( a &oreign lang%age =)ere it i( reall* t)e &or-er t)at i( HtendedH FIntrod%ction, Lan"ua"e in /ritish Isles, 0"$NG. Ty'es of %ritish English 26
ENGLISH DIALECTS
It i( not, )o=e4er, (%r2ri(ing t)at t)e ter- En"lish En"lish i( not =idel* %(ed. To t)e Engli() it (ee-( red%ndant and a='=ard a( H,er-an ,er-anH and H!renc) !renc)H, =)et)er or not t)ere -a* /e rea(on( &or %(ing t)o(e na-e(, &or e<a-2le to di(ting%i() ,er-an in ,er-an* &ro- A%(trian ,er-an and !renc) in !rance &ro- \%e/ec !renc). Ho=e4er, to -an* Scot(, Iri(), and, Kel() 2eo2le, and to ot)er( =it) co-2ara/le 2er(2ecti4e(, (%c) ter- i( e((ential to allo= an e<2licit contra(t a-ong t)e Briti() 4arietie( o& Engli(). E>%all*, )o=e4er, t)e terScottish En"lish can (ee- odd to Engli() and Scot( ali'e, /eca%(e o& t)e et)nic (en(e o& t)e =ord HEngli()H? Scottish En"lish (ee-( a contradiction in ter-(. Si-ilarl*, t)e ter- Irish En"lish -a* (ee- (trange, /ot) /eca%(e o& cent%rie(5old connotation( ac>%ired /* t)e =ord Irish and /eca%(e o& t)e )o(tilit* o& -an* 2eo2le in Ireland to=ard( an*t)ing t)at lin'( t)e- too clo(el* =it) England. Engli() and A-erican (c)olar( )a4e tended to &ind HBriti() Engli()H and HA-erican Engli()H con4enient la/el( &or t)eir re(2ecti4e 4arietie( and (tandard(, =it)o%t &%rt)er >%ali&ication. Ho=e4er, in recent *ear(, intere(t in and action on /e)al& o& ot)er 4arietie( )a( -ade it di&&ic%lt &or t)e(e la/el( to /e %(ed a( =idel* and %ncriticall* a( in t)e 2a(t. It )a( al(o /eco-e increa(ingl* di&&ic%lt to re(i(t t)e %(e o& (%c) ter-( a( En"lish En"lish, Scottish En"lish# 9elsh En"lish# Ha0aiian En"lish# Indian En"lish# Sin"a$ore En"lish on t)e gro%nd( t)at t)e* are red%ndant, 2arado<ical, /i8arre, or d%/io%(. Dialect in England In it( 2ri-ordial &or- on t)e E%ro2ean -ainland and in it( earl* (tage( in Britain FQ t) X 7t) cent%rie(G, Engli() =a( a contin%%- o& dialect( =)o(e trace( can /e &o%nd onl* in te<t(. Pre(ent5 da* ter-( do not (er4e =ell in di(c%((ing t)e 2eriod? HEngli()H and H,er-anH no= )a4e di&&erent -eaning( and Hlang%ageH and HdialectH do not 2ro2erl* de(cri/e t)e condition o& ,er-anic (2eec) =)en t)e o-an E-2ire =a( in decline. #ntil c. D++, a22arentl* all t)e tri/e( co%ld %nder(tand eac) ot)er? &or e<a-2le, on t)eir =a* to con4ert t)e Engli() in Q"7, t)e -i((ionar* A%g%(tine and )i( co-2anion( engaged !ran'i() inter2reter( to )el2 t)e-. Ho=e4er, di&&erence( =ere alread* o/(er4ed /et=een t)e continental and in(%lar ,er-an(. T)e (ettler( in Britain de4elo2ed t)eir o=n %(age( and t)o(e on t)e -ainland de4elo2ed ot)er(? t)e Angle( t%rned to Dani(), t)e Sa<on( to Lo= ,er-an. The Angelcynn Aro%nd 7S+, t)e )i(torian Bede called t)e in4ader( Angle(, Sa<on(, and U%te(, /%t ot)er e4idence indicate( t)at t)e* al(o incl%ded !ri(ian( and 2ro/a/l* !ran'(. Once e(ta/li()ed, t)e* called t)e-(el4e( t)e An"elc+nn FHAngle'inHG, )a4ing En"lisc a( t)eir co--on (2eec). T)e 27
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Angle( (ettled in t)e Midland( and along t)e ea(t coa(t, &ro- nort)ern region( o& t)e T)a-e( to t)e !ort). T)e Anglian or Anglic dialect( =ere ;ercian, a((ociated =it) t)e 'ingdo- o& Mercia and (2o'en &ro- t)e T)a-e( to t)e H%-/er, and Northu&%rian, a((ociated =it) t)e 'ingdo- o& Nort)%-/ria, and (2o'en &ro- t)e H%-/er to t)e !ort). T)e U%te( (ettled in and near Vent, /%t t)e dialect &or t)e region i( 'no=n a( 'entish. T)e Sa<on( (ettled aro%nd t)e T)a-e(, t)e (o%t), and t)e (o%t)5=e(t? Ea(t Sa<on( in Esse3, Middle Sa<on( in ;iddlese3, So%t) Sa<on( in Susse3, and Ke(t Sa<on( in 9esse3. Eac) gro%2 )ad it( o=n %(age(, /%t 9est Sa3on, t)e dialect o& Ke((e<, /eca-e do-inant and &or a ti-e (er4ed a( t)e literar* lang%age. T)e earl* dialect( contin%ed into t)e 2eriod o& Middle Engli(), -an* )a4ing %ndergone con(idera/le c)ange %nder t)e i-2act o& t)e Dani() (ettle-ent( o& t)e $t) X "t) cent%rie(. (iddle English dialects B* t)e 00t) cent%r*, t)e di4i(ion o& t)e i(land into t)e t)ree region( o& England, Scotland, and Kale( )ad ta'en 2lace and &ro- t)at ti-e &or=ard t)e lang%age de4elo2ed =it) a /order /et=een t)e dialect( o& England and Scotland. T)e dialect( o& Middle Engli() are generall* cla((i&ied a(? Northern, /ot) (o%t) and nort) o& t)e /order, t)e nort)ern /ranc) de4elo2ing into Scot(E 9est ;idland, e<tending to t)e Kel() -ar()e(E East ;idland, incl%ding Ea(t Anglia and t)e London areaE Southern, e<tending =e(t to Celtic Corn=allE 'entish, clo(e to t)e I(le o& Kig)t. T)e (ocial and literar* (tandard &or- o& Engli() =)ic) (lo=l* e-erged a&ter t)e Nor-an Con>%e(t in 0+DD =a( /a(ed not on t)e So%t)ern /%t t)e Ea(t Midland dialect, =it) an increa(ing Scandina4ian in&l%ence. Dialectal and standard language Wit) t)e introd%ction o& t)e 2rinting 2re(( in London in 0N7D /* Ca<ton a great i-2et%( =a( gi4en to t)e (2eec) o& t)e ca2ital. A( t)e (tandard lang%age e4ol4ed, =riting in t)e ot)er dialect( o& England ra2idl* ca-e to an end. egional (2eec), increa(ingl* co--ented on a( a='=ard and di&&ic%lt to %nder(tand, ca-e to /e (een a( t)e lang%age o& t)e lo=er cla((e(. De(2ite t)e 2o=er&%l in&l%ence o& 2rint and t)e 2re(tige o& London, )o=e4er, letter(, -an%(cri2t(, 2%/lic co--ent, and re2re(entation( o& dialect in no4el( all ()o= t)at local (2eec) contin%ed a-ong t)e le((er gentr* and t)e %22er -iddle cla((e( %ntil =ell into t)e 0$ t) cent%r*, and a-ong ind%(triali(t(, 2olitician(, and ot)er 2%/lic &ig%re( &rolo=er -iddle5cla(( and =or'ing5cla(( /ac'gro%nd( %ntil t)e 2re(ent da*. Literary dialect and dialectology 28
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Dialect =a( %(ed /* S)a'e(2eare and ot)er( to de(cri/e 4ario%( 2ro4incial and r%ral c)ar5 acter(, and a di(tincti4e &or- o& (o%t)5=e(tern (2eec) /egan to de4elo2 a( a (tage co%ntr*5 /%-2'in dialect. !ro- t)e 0$t) cent%r* on=ard, no4eli(t( )a4e (o%g)t to re2re(ent dialect, e(2e5 ciall* in con4er(ationE re2re(entati4e( o& dialect =riting in England incl%de ,eorge Eliot in Ada& /ede F0$Q"G and T)o-a( Hard* in t)e Ke((e< no4el(. Intere(t /* (c)olar( in t)e 4arietie( o& Engli() gre= at t)e /eginning o& t)e 07t) cent%r* and an earl* -ention /* Ale<ander ,il in )i( .ol+chronicon F0D0"G /egan a tradition o& e<a-ining and co-2aring dialect &or-( again(t (tandard Engli(). Alt)o%g) (c)olar( reali8ed t)at t)ere =a( a )i(torical de4elo2-ent /e)ind t)e &or-( o& t)eir (2eec), dialect (2ea'er( /eca-e increa(ingl* identi&ied a( lo=er cla((. T)ro%g)o%t t)e 07t) X 0$t) cent%rie(, intere(t in /ot) (tandard and dialect 4arietie( o& Engli() contin%ed to gro=. Man* clerg*-en recorded t)e gra--ar and 4oca/%lar* o& t)eir 2ari()ioner(, and a n%-/er o& =ord li(t( and -onogra2)( o& 4ario%( 'ind(, o&ten lin'ed to de(cri2tion( o& local ind%(trial 2roce((e(, /egan to a22ear. T)e En"lish Dialect Societ+ %(ed to 2%/li() t)e(e a( 2art o& it( =or' to=ard( an Engli() dialect dictionar*. Contem'orary dialect C%rrentl*, t)ere i( a =ide(2read /elie& t)at local dialect i( d*ing o%t and to a certain e<tent t)i( i( tr%e o& 4oca/%lar*, /%t (trong local 2ron%nciation contin%e( to /e )eard, in London a( =ell a( in t)e region(, and &ro- t)e 0"7+( it /egan to /e %(ed increa(ingl* =idel* on radio and tele4i(ion? &or e<a-2le, in (%c) dra-atic (erie( a( Coronation Street FManc)e(terG, Crossroads FBir-ing)a-G, Auf 9iedersehen .et FNe=ca(tleG, /read FLi4er2oolG, and EastEnders FLondonG. In (%c) large citie( (trong local &or-( o& 2ron%nciation and gra--ar, =it) t)eir o=n (ocial 4arietie( =it)in an area, ()o= little (ign o& di-ini()-ent. T)e(e &or-( contin%e to c)ange and de4elo2 o4er generation(E 2ron%nciation( ()o= t)e inter-ittent in&l%ence o& ecei4ed Pron%nciation, a (o%t)ern -iddle5 and %22er5cla(( accent o&ten de(cri/ed a( t)e (tandard accent o& England, /%t =it) con(idera/le -odi&ication? &or e<a-2le, in Ne=ca(tle t)e traditionall* de4elo2ed R(tiAnR and R(t9enR &or stone, &ro- a Middle Engli() %nro%nded &or- R(ta?nR, can /e )eard along(ide a loaned R(t^?nR and R(tA%nR, de4elo2ed &ro- t)e -ore (o%t)erl* Middle Engli() R(to?nR. DIALECT IN I"ELAND Beca%(e o& t)e (2read o& ed%cation and t)e in&l%ence o& t)e -edia, it i( /eco-ing increa(ingl* di&&ic%lt to (%/di4ide t)e contin%%- o& Engli() &o%nd in Ireland. Ho=e4er, t)ree -ain regional and (e4eral %r/an dialect( can /e di(ting%i()ed. T)e* are all r)otic, =it) a 29
ENGLISH DIALECTS
retro&le< r, and ()are 2)onological &eat%re( =it) A-erican Engli(). T)e regional dialect( are? F0G An"lo1Irish, %(ed /* t)e de(cendant( o& Engli() (ettler( and &o%nd t)ro%g)o%t t)e co%ntr* =it) t)e e<ce2tion o& t)e -o(t nort)erl* co%ntie(. FJG lster Scots, in t)e nort)ern-o(t co%ntie(, t)e (2eec) o& t)e de(cendant( o& 07t) cent%r* Prote(tant Scot( (ettler(. FSG Hi%erno1Irish, %(%all* (2o'en /* Cat)olic 2eo2le =)o(e ance(tral tong%e =a( ,aelic. In an* region, Hi/erno5Engli() a22ro<i-ate( to t)e do-inant dialect, =)et)er Anglo5Iri() or #l(ter Scot( /%t, in t)e ,aeltac)t and in le(( ed%cated, r%ral %(age, it ()o=( a (trong ,aelic (%/5 (trate. Ireland )a( &e=er %r/an d=eller( t)an -o(t Ke(tern E%ro2ean co%ntrie(, /%t eac) cit*, incl%ding Ar-ag), Bel&a(t, Cor', Derr*, Donegal, D%/lin, ,al=a*, and Li-eric', )a( it( o=n &or-( and (2)ere o& ling%i(tic in&l%ence. DIALECT IN SCOTLAND T)e dialect( o& Scot( &all into &o%r -ain regional gro%2(? F0G T)o(e o& t)e Nort)ern I(le(. FJG Northern Scots, &ro- Cait)ne(( to A/erdeen()ire and Ang%(. FSG Southern Scots, t)e Border di(trict( o& o</%rg) and Annandale, and E('dale. FNG Central Scots, -%c) o& t)e re(t o& t)e Scot(5(2ea'ing area, incl%ding t)e =or'ing5cla(( dialect( o& Edin/%rg), ,la(go=, and ot)er %r/an area( o& Central Scotland. T)e =or'ing5cla(( %r/an dialect( are identi&ied /* /ot) (ociall* and regionall* deli-ited &eat%re(. T)e regional -ar'er( o& t)e -ainland dialect( incl%de? ronunciation F0G T)e Nort)ern %(e (ince t)e 0Qt) cent%r* o& f5 =)ere ot)er dialect( )a4e 0h5, a( in Fa fu$$it the f+te ful$ieO K)o =)i22ed t)e =)ite =)el20O FJG T)e di&&erent o%tco-e( o& t)e old &ront, ro%nded 4o=el ui R^?R in (%c) =ord( a( "uid FgoodG, scuil F(c)oolG, &uin F-oonG, uise F%(e? no%n and 4er/G, $uir F2oorG, shui F()oeG. In Ang%( and t)e Mearn( in Nort)ern Scot( and in So%t)ern Scot( t)i( 2ron%nciation 2er(i(t(. In t)e re(t o& Nort)ern, )o=e4er, t)e original 4o=el )a( (ince t)e 0D t) cent%r* /een %nro%nded to ee RiR? &een -oon, eese %(e Fno%nG, ee4e %(e F4er/G, shee ()oe. In t)e ,ra-2ian egion, a&ter "5 and k5 t)e o%tco-e i( 50ee5, =it) "0eed good, and sk0eel (c)ool, /%t "eed and skeel &%rt)er nort). In -%c) o& t)e Central dialect, t)e re(%lt( o& a di&&erent and -ore recent %nro%nding are conditioned /* t)e Scotti() .o=el5Lengt) %le. In t)e(e dialect(, S.L long en4iron-ent( *ield ai ReR? 2air $oor, shae ()oe, +ai4e %(e F4er/G, /%t in S.L
0
()ort en4iron-ent( t)e o%tco-e i( an i5li'e
an old =ord -eaning a 4er* *o%ng dog, /ear etc. t)at i( (till /eing &ed /* it( -ot)er
30
ENGLISH DIALECTS
4o=el RiR? &in -oon, %it /oot, "id good, +is %(e Fno%nG. FSG So%t)5Ea(tern and So%t)ern dialect( ha8e t0ae# 0hae, a0a+# 0hare# 0aken# 0aiter &or Ke(tern and Nort)ern t0a05t0aa# 0ha050haa5faa# a0a5a0aa# 0haur50haarlfaar# 0auken50aaken# 0auter50aater Ft=o, =)o, a=a*, =)ere, =a'en, =aterG on eit)er (ide o& a /and o& co%ntr* &ro- M%((el/%rg) on t)e !irt) o& !ort) to ,ate)o%(e5o&5!leet on t)e Sol=a* !irt). !rammar T)e gra--ar o& t)e dialect( o& t)e &ar nort) and &ar (o%t) i( -ore arc)aic, in retaining t)e old o22o(ition /et=een t)e 2re(ent 2artici2le and t)e 4er/al no%n in He(s a+e "utteran a%oot F2artici2le, =it) 5anG and He(s fond o "utterin a%oot F4er/al no%n, =it) 5in or 5eenG and, t)o%g) no= al-o(t o/(olete, e<ce2t in Or'ne* and S)etland, trace( o& t)e 2rono%n (*(te- =it) thou5thee5th+ a( =ell a( +e5+ou5+our. T)e %(e o& on5, ohn5 RonR a( a negati4e =it) 2artici2le( i( no= re(tricted to t)e Nort)5Ea(t F,ra-2ian egionG? to haud her ohn kent at she had tint it Fto 'ee2 )er Hnot 'no=nHRignorant t)at ()e )ad lo(t itGE Fa could %e on lauch(n at thatO FK)o co%ld 'ee2 &ro- la%g)ing at t)atOG. )ocabulary O& t)e inn%-era/le local ite-( o& 4oca/%lar* in t)e -ainland dialect(, (o-e re(%lt &rot)e in&l%ence o& Scandina4ian in Cait)ne((, (%c) a( aikle a -olar toot), "ilt a large )a*(tac', roo" a 2eatJ (tore, scorrie a *o%ng (eag%ll, scroo a (tac'. Cait)ne(( al(o di(2la*( local ,aelic in&l%ence =it) ask a c)ain &or tet)ering cattle, %rota" a cater2illar, %uckie1faulie a ro(e5)i2, 2ri-ro(e, cairie a /reed o& ()ee2, coachie (o&t, (2ong*, co0n to =ee2, crella" a /l%e/ottleS, c+o0tach (-art in a22earance, and -an* ot)er(. Si-ilar, /%t indi4id%all* di&&erent, li(t( o& ,aelic5deri4ed =ord( can /e cited &or ot)er 2art( o& t)e Nort), &or t)e Nort)5Ea(t, &or Vint*re, and &or t)e So%t)5Ke(t, e(2eciall* ,allo=a*. Ot)er 4ariation( re(%lt &ro- t)e locall* 2atc)* e&&ect( o& o/(ole(cence and inno4ation, a( =it) t)e =ord( &or H(oa2* lat)erH, &or =)ic) t)e older "raith i( =idel* di(tri/%ted in -ainland Scotland, e<ce2t t)e Ke(t Faro%nd ,la(go=G and t)e So%t)5Ke(t, =)ere (ince t)e 0$t) cent%r* it )a( /een (%2er(eded /* t)e ne=er sa$$les. T)e dialect( al(o di(2la* n%-ero%(, (ee-ingl* rando- or ine<2lica/le, 4ariation( in =ord( &or e4er*da* notion(, li'e (%c) (*non*-( &or &ud aro%nd t)e co%ntr* a( du%s# "utters# "la%%er# da%%er# "laur. Literature and dialect
J S
a t*2e o& (oil con(i(ting o& deca*ing 2lant( t)at can al(o /e %(ed a( &%el Ft%r/IG a large &l* =it) a ()in* /l%e /od*
31
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Written re2re(entation( o& local &or-( o& Scot( /egan a22earing in t)e late 07 t) cent%r* in di(tincti4e ada2tation( o& t)e traditional H-ain(trea-H ort)ogra2)* o& Scot(. T)e Nort)5Ea(t in 2artic%lar e(ta/li()ed it( o=n regional (tandard in t)e 0$t) cent%r*, and t)i( )a( 2rod%ced -an* re-ar'a/le =or'(, (%c) a( Killia- Ale<anderH( no4el :ohnn+ Gi%% of Gushetneuk F0$70G, t)e dialog%e o& =)ic) i( =ritten in a (%/tle lang%age o& A/erdeen()ire Scot(, and toda* in t)e 2oetr* o& !lora ,arr* and t)e de(cri2ti4e 2ro(e o& Da4id Og(ton. DIALECT IN *ALES Dialect di&&erence( in t)e Kel() lang%age are to a large e<tent li-ited to 4ariation in accent(, t)e 4oca/%lar* )a4ing /een (tandardi8ed /* literat%re, ed%cation, and t)e -edia. Dia5 lect( o& Engli() in Kale( are a( di4er(e a( el(e=)ere in Britain. T)e* 4ar* in ter-( o& 2ron%nciation, gra--ar, and 4oca/%lar*, /%t can /e /roadl* cla((i&ied a(? F0G T)e Engli() o& 2eo2le =)o are /iling%al, Kel()REngli(), and =)o(e Engli() i( (trongl* in&l%enced /* Kel(). FJG Dialect( o& Engli() (i-ilar to t)o(e in neig)/o%ring co%ntie( o& England, and o&ten ()aring &eat%re(, e(2eciall* at t)e (*ntactic le4el, =it) ot)er =or'ing5cla(( Briti() Engli() dia5 lect(. FSG Standard Engli() =it) a Kel() accent. FNG Standard Engli() =it) an P accent. *elsh Wel() co-e( &ro- Old Engli() 9ilisc# 9+lisc# 9elisc# 9relisc, &ro- 9ealh# 9alh -eaning a &oreigner, (la4e, Briton, e>%i4alent to Middle Hig) ,er-an 9alch and ,er-an 9ahle a Celt, o-an, &oreigner, and Old Nor(e 2l%ral >alir ,a%l(, !renc)-en. T)e Engli() ad9ecti4e corre(2ond( to Middle Hig) ,er-an 0alh5, 0?lhisch, 0alsch and ,er-an 0?lsch# 0elsch, %(ed to de(cri/e t)e o-an(, Italian(, and !renc), and D%tc) 0aalsch Kalloon. B* t)e 0Dt) cent%r* t)e -a9or &or- =a( 9elsh or 9elch, re2lacing (%c) earlier 4ariant( a( 9elische, 9elsc, 9alsshe, and 9alsh, =)ic) )o=e4er (%r4i4e( a( a &a-il* na-e, li'e t)e Scotti() na-e 9allace, =)ic) deri4e( &ro- Anglo5!renc) 9aleis. 9elch (%r4i4e( in 7o+al 9elch Fusiliers, =it) t)e (a-e 2ron%nciation a( 9elsh and -ean(? F0G An ad9ecti4e relating to Kale( and it( 2eo2le, al(o %(ed elli2ticall* &or t)e nation? the 9elsh. T)e Anglo5Sa<on original re&erred to t)e Briton( in general, (een a( &oreigner( and (la4e(, /%t /* t)e 0Jt) cent%r* it )ad /een generall* re(tricted to Kale( 2ro2er, it( 2eo2le, t)eir lang%age, c%(to-( etc., largel* lo(ing t)e original connotation(? HSir, t)ere i( a &ra* to /e &o%g)t, /et=eene Sir H%g) t)e Kelc) Prie(t, and Cai%( t)e !renc) doctorH FS)a'e(2eare, ;err+ 9i8es of 9indsor? J. I, 0Q"$GE (All the 0ater in 9+e# cannot 0ash +our ;aiesties 9elsh $lood out of +our 32
ENGLISH DIALECTS
$od+H FS)a'e(2eare, Henr+ >, Q. I, 0Q""G. It co--onl* occ%r( in (%c) co-2o%nd( a( 9elsh dresser, 9elsh terrier, 9elsh ra%%it5rare%it. FJG T)e Celtic lang%age o& Kale(, 'no=n to it( (2ea'er( a( C+&rae". Kel() and Breton are t)e onl* (%r4i4ing -e-/er( o& t)e ancient Briti() or Br*t)onic (%/di4i(ion o& t)e Celtic lang%age &a-il*. T)e original Briti() lang%age =a( )ig)l* in&lected, /%t it( de(cendant, Modern Kel(), )a( lo(t (o-e o& t)e(e in&lection(. Once t)e 2rinci2al lang%age o& Kale( and a literar* lang%age (ince t)e Dt) cent%r*, Kel() )a( /een in decline (ince t)e acce((ion o& t)e 2artl* Kel() Henr* T%dor FHenr* .IIG to t)e Engli() t)rone in 0N$Q. T)ere are no= &e= -onoling%al (2ea'er( o& Kel(), and (o-e Q++,+++ o& t)e 2eo2le o& Kale( are /iling%al? t)at i(, JQ_ o& t)e 2o2%lation. T)e condition o& Kel() at t)e end o& t)e J+t) cent%r* =a( relati4el* (ta/le, and it i( /eing learnt /* non5Kel()5(2ea'ing Kel() 2eo2le and ot)er(, incl%ding i--igrant( &roEngland. It i( ta%g)t in all (c)ool( and i( a -edi%- o& in(tr%ction in (o-e. In t)e nort)ern co%nt* o& ,=*nedd it i( a lang%age o& local go4ern-ent and a22ear( =it) Engli() on road (ign(. T)e (2o'en lang%age con(i(t( o& (e4eral dialect(, and )a( )ad a (igni&icant in&l%ence on t)e Engli() lang%age a( %(ed in Kale(, /%t )a( )ad little i-2act on Engli() at large. T)e -o(t c)aracteri(tic (o%nd( o& Kel() are t)e 4oicele(( al4eolar lateral &ricati4e F(2elt ll a( in LlanelliG, t)e 4oicele(( al4eolar roll R`R F(2elt r) a( in 7honddaG, and t)e 4elar &ricati4e Fre2re(ented a( in Scot( and ,er-an /* ch, a( in Ll+0archG. A( in all Celtic lang%age(, gra--atical -%tation( occ%r, a( in t)e no%n ci FdogG, =)ere t)e initial (o%nd i( a&&ected /* t)e -odi&ier, a( in d+ "i *o%r dog, f+ n"hi -* dog, ei chi )er dog, and tri chi t)ree dog(. *elsh English It i( t)e Engli() lang%age a( %(ed in Kale(. T)e ter- i( recent and contro4er(ial. According to ,. Killia-( He(ta/li()ing PKel() Engli()P or e4en di(c%((ing it( 2o((i/le e<i(tence i( a 2olitical actH, in4o'ing Hdi(tinction( (%c) a( t)at /et=een Pt)e (tateP Fand it( lang%age5 nece((aril* Engli()G, and Pt)e regionP Fand it( (%/ordinate 4ariet* o& t)e (tate lang%age X Kel() Engli()GH Fin McArt)%r 0""D? 0+0QG. Engli() i(, )o=e4er, t)e -a9orit* lang%age o& Kale(, and a( in ot)er 2art( o& t)e Engli()5(2ea'ing =orld, a conci(e ter- (%c) a( 9elsh En"lish Fanalogo%( to, a-ong -an* ot)er(, Canadian En"lish and South African En"lishG a22ear( %na4oida/le. It i( increa(ingl* a22lied /* (ocioling%i(t( to a contin%%- o& %(age t)at incl%de( t)ree gro%2( o& o4erla22ing 4arietie( o& Engli()? 5 5 5 t)o(e in&l%enced /* t)e Kel() lang%age, t)o(e in&l%enced /* dialect( in ad9acent co%ntie( o& England, and t)o(e in&l%enced /* t)e (tandard lang%age a( ta%g)t in t)e (c)ool( and %(ed in t)e -edia. 33
ENGLISH DIALECTS
T)e in&l%ence o& Kel() i( (tronge(t in t)e nort)ern co%ntie( F(o-eti-e( re&erred to a( 9elsh 9alesG, =)ere Kel()REngli() /iling%ali(- i( -o(t co--onl* &o%ndE it i( =ea'er in -id5 Kale(, and =ea'e(t in t)e (o%t), /%t e4en in (%c) (o%t)ern citie( a( Cardi&& and S=an(ea t)e in&l%ence o& Kel() i( 2re(ent. Origins It i( not certain =)en (2ea'er( o& an Engli() dialect arri4ed in Kale(, /%t it (ee-( 2ro/a/le t)at Mercian (ettler( =ere in t)e K*e 4alle* /* t)e $ t) cent%r*, =)en Ving O&&a /%ilt )i( D*'e. In t)e =inter o& 00+$5", Henr* I e(ta/li()ed a gro%2 o& !le-i() (ettler( in Pe-/ro'e()ire and it i( li'el* t)at t)ere =ere Engli()5(2ea'er( a-ong t)at gro%2. Ot)er Engli() (ettle-ent( gre= %2 in t)e 0Jt) X 0St) cent%rie( in t)e ,o=er Penin(%la, t)e #(' 4alle*, and in t)e to=n( o& Bea%-ari(, Caernar&on, and Harlec) in t)e nort) and in t)e (o%t)ern to=n( o& Brecon and Car-art)en. Since -o(t trade =a( -ade /* t)e Engli(), t)e earlie(t reg%lar Kel() %(er( o& Engli() =ere al-o(t certainl* trader(. ronunciation Accent 4arie( according to region, et)nicit*, and ed%cation. re&er to t)e Engli() o& nati4e Kel() 2eo2le? F0G S2ea'er( o& Kel() are o&ten de(cri/ed a( )a4ing a lilting or (ing(ong intonation in t)eir Engli(), an e&&ect created /* t)ree tendencie(? 5 a ri(e5&all tone at t)e end o& (tate-ent( F=)ere P )a( a &allGE 5 long 4o=el( onl* in (tre((ed (*lla/le(, t)e 4o=el( in t)e (econd (*lla/le( o& (%c) =ord( a( Hincrease and He3$ert /eing ()ortE 5 red%ced 4o=el( a4oided in 2ol*(*lla/ic =ord(, (2ea'er( 2re&erring, &or e<a-2le, Rti'etR &or ticket and R'one':onR &or connection. FJG Kel() Engli() i( %(%all* nonr)otic, /%t 2eo2le =)o reg%larl* (2ea' Kel() are li'el* to )a4e a 2o(t4ocalic r Fin (%c) =ord( a( 0orkerG. FSG T)e accent( o& So%t) Kale( are generall* (2o'en =it)o%t h. In Nort) Kale(, =ord5 initial R)R i( not %(%all* dro22ed, 2artl* /eca%(e it occ%r( in Kel(). FNG T)ere i( a tendenc* to=ard( t)e -ono2)t)ong( ReR and RoR and a=a* &ro- t)e di2)t)ong( ReiR and RA%R in (%c) =ord( a( late and ho$e. FQG T)e 4o=el RaR i( o&ten %(ed &or /ot) "as and "lass. FDG Sc)=a i( o&ten 2re&erred to R R in (%c) =ord( a( %ut and cut. F7G Di2)t)ong( are o&ten t%rned into t=o (*lla/le( =it) R/iAR &or %eer /eco-ing R/i9AR and R2%AR &or 2oor /eco-ing R2%=AR. 34 P i( (2o'en -ainl* /*
Engli() e<2atriate( and it( in&l%ence i( (tronge(t in t)e (o%t)5ea(t. T)e &ollo=ing generali8ation(
ENGLISH DIALECTS
F$G T)ere i( a 2re&erence &or R%R o4er R9%R in (%c) =ord( a( actuall+ Ra't%aliR and s$eculate R(2e'%letR. F"G T)e in4entor* o& con(onant( i( a%g-ented &ro- Kel() /* t)e 4oicele(( al4eolar lateral &ricati4e a F(2elt ll a( in Llan"ollenG, t)e 4oicele(( al4eolar roll RrR F(2elt rh a( in 7h+lG, and t)e 4oicele(( 4elar &ricati4e R<R F(2elt ch a( in .ent+rchG. F0+G In -an* 2art( o& t)e (o%t), RlR tend( to /e lig)t and clear in (%c) =ord( a( li"ht and fallE in t)e nort), it tend( to /e dar' in /ot). F00G T)e 4oiced 2lo(i4e( R/, d, gR are o&ten a(2irated in initial 2o(ition, a( =it) R/)adR &or %ad, o&ten )eard /* non5Kel() 2eo2le a( H2adH. T)e 4oicele(( 2lo(i4e( R2, t, 'R are o&ten a(2irated in all 2o(ition(, a( =it) R2)i2)R &or $i$. Con(onant( /et=een 4o=el( are o&ten lengt)ened, a( in R-i(?inR &or &issin", and Ra2?i?R &or ha$$+. F0JG T)e 5in" 2artici2le i( o&ten reali8ed a( RinR, a( in Rdan(inR &or dancin". F0SG T)ere i( a tendenc*, e(2eciall* in t)e nort), to (%/(tit%te R(R and R:R &or R8R and R R, (o t)at is /eco-e( Hi((H and di8ision Hdi4i()onH. F0NG T)e 5+ ending in =ord( (%c) a( ha$$+ and lo8el+ i( reali8ed /* Ri?R Ha22eeH, Hlo4eleeH. !rammar F0G Wor'ing5cla(( %(er( o& Engli() in Kale( tend to %(e t)e &ollo=ing con(tr%ction(, al(o &o%nd el(e=)ere in t)e #nited Vingdo-? 5 -%lti2le negation FI (a8en(t done nothin( to no%od+# seeOGE 5 the& a( a de-on(trati4e ad9ecti4e Fthe& thin"sGE 5 as in(tead o& a relati4e 2rono%n Fthe one as $la+ed for CardiffGE 5 non5(tandard 4er/ &or-( FShe catched it# The coat 0as all toreGE 5 Hisself &or hi&self and theirsel8es &or t)e-(el4e( F(E done it (isself and the+ sa0 it for theirsel8esGE 5 t)e ad4er/ial %(e o& an ad9ecti4e F9e did it 0illin(? t)at i(, =illingl*GE 5 t)e addition o& 5like at t)e end o& 2)ra(e( and (entence( F (E looked real (a$$+1likeGE and 5 t)e %(e o& t)e 5s 4er/ ending =it) all (%/9ect( in t)e 2re(ent FI "oes to school an( the+ "oes to 0orkG. JG Non5(tandard &or-( re&lecting an in&l%ence &ro- Kel() incl%de? 5 do5did b 4er/, to indicate a reg%larl* 2er&or-ed action FHe do "o to the ru"%+ all the ti&e; He did "o re"ular1likeGE 5 &oregro%nding &or e-2)a(i( FGoin( do0n the &ine (e i( He i( going do=n t)e -ineE ;one+ the+(re not short of T)e* arenHt ()ort o& -one*GE 35
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5 there and not ho0 in e<cla-ation( FThere(s lo8el+ +ou arecGE 5 %ntran(&or-ed e-/edded (entence(, e(2eciall* a&ter 4er/( o& (a*ing and t)in'ing FI(& not sure is (e in IH- not (%re i& )eH( inGE 5 t)e o4er5generali8ation o& t)e >%e(tion tag isn(t itO F9e(re "oin( out no0# isn(t itOGE 5 occa(ional +es re2lacing a 2o(iti4e >%e(tion tag FYou(re a teacher# +esOGE 5 0ill and not 0ill %e FI(& not ,uite read+# %ut I 0ill soonGE and 5 too &or eit)er FI don(t like it! 1 I don(t like it tooG. FSG Look +ou F*o% (eeG i( o&ten regarded a( a ()i//olet) o& Kel() Engli() in (%c) (entence( a( Tried hard# look +ou# %ut earned nothinH. See i( al(o o&ten %(ed? 9e 0ere 0orried a%out (i&# see. T)e non5%(e o& t)e (%/9ect 2rono%n i( al(o c)aracteri(tic o& Kel()in&l%enced Engli()? Sa0 (i&# %ach! Sa0 (i& +esterda+. )ocabulary F0G Word( dra=n &ro- Kel() generall* relate to c%lt%re and /e)a4io%r? carre" a (tone, clenni" a gi&t o& -one*, eisteddfod F2l%ral ei(tedd&oda%G a c%lt%ral &e(ti4al, "laster a drin' o& -il' and =ater, iech+d da FH*ac)* daHG good )ealt) Fa (al%tation or toa(t, &ro- iech+d )ealt), da goodGE t)e %(e o& %ach and del a( ter-( o& a&&ection? Like a drink# %achO Co&e near the fire# del. FJG Kord( t)at are ()ared /* Kel() Engli() and dialect( o& England incl%de? askel@ a ne=t, da$ to /o%nce, lu&$er a *o%ng 2er(on, $il& d%(t, sall+ =illo=, stea& a /read5/in. FSG ,eneral Engli() =ord( =it) local e<ten(ion( o& -eaning incl%de? deli"ht a 'een intere(t, a( in She(s "ettin( a deli"ht in %o+sE lose to -i((, a( in ( rr+ or 0e(ll lose the trainE tid+ good, attracti4e, a( in Tid+ (ouse +ou(8e "ot# %ach. FNG T)e &or- %o+o, &ro- %o+, i( co--on a( /ot) a ter- o& addre(( and re&erence, and i( (o-eti-e( negati4e in tone? Listen# %o+o# I(8e so&ethin( to tell +ou; That %o+o is not to %e trusted. Social 'ers'ectives T)ere (ee-( to /e little or no (tig-a attac)ed to t)e %(e o& Kel() Engli() in Kale(, a( co-2ared =it), &or e<a-2le, ,%tter Scot( in Scotland, or Br%--ie in Bir-ing)a-. E<2eri-ent( re2orted in 0"7Q (%gge(t t)at (2ea'er( o& Kel() Engli() are 2o(iti4el* 4ie=ed in t)e 2rinci2alit*. T)ere i(, )o=e4er, con(idera/le ten(ion =it) regard to t)e %(e o& t)e Kel() lang%age, e(2eciall* in (c)ool(, and t)e -edia, and t)i( can a&&ect attit%de( to Engli(). Man* con(ider t)at ed%cation ()o%ld /e /iling%al, (o t)at all Kel() 2eo2le )a4e acce(( to Kel() a( t)eir HnationalH lang%ageE ot)er(, )o=e4er, incl%ding (o-e 2arent( originall* &ro- England, &eel t)at /iling%ali(- in
N
a (-all ani-al (i-ilar to a li8ard t)at -o(tl* li4e( in =ater FtritonG
36
ENGLISH DIALECTS
(c)ool( 2%t( an %nnece((ar* (train on c)ildren, and do not nece((aril* regard Kel() a( 2art o& t)eir 2atri-on*. COC+NE, Definition It date( a( a ter- &ro- t)e 0Nt) cent%r* and i( %(ed =it) or =it)o%t an initial ca2ital. It re&er( to a =or'ing5cla(( Londoner, e(2eciall* in t)e Ea(t End, and t)e Engli() %(ed /* (%c) a Londoner. T)o%g) o&ten (tig-ati8ed a( a g%tterQ dialect, Coc'ne* i( a -a9or ele-ent in t)e Engli() o& London, t)e core o& a di4er(e 4ariet* (2o'en /* (o-e 7 -illion 2eo2le in t)e ,reater London area. Origins of the term In LanglandH( .iers .lo0&anA F0SDJG, cokene+es -ean( egg(, a22arentl* (-all and de&or-ed, a( i& laid /* a coc'. In C)a%cerH( Canter%ur+ Tales Fc. 0S$DG, t)e ee4e %(e( cokena+ in t)e (en(e o& a -ot)erH( darling or co=ard. B* t)e earl* 0D t) cent%r*, co%ntr* 2eo2le )ad e<tended t)e ter- to 2eo2le /ro%g)t %2 in citie( and ignorant o& real li&e? HT)i( co'ne*( and t*t*ll*nge( 1delicati 2%eri3 -a* a/ide no (orro= =)en t)e* co-e to age. In t)i( great citee( a( London, Yor' t)e c)ildren /e (o n*cel* and =antonl* /ro%g)t %2 t)at co-onl* t)e* can little goodH F o/ert K)itinton, >ul"aria, 0QJ+G. B* t)e earl* 07t) cent%r*, )o=e4er, t)i( e<2re((ion o& di(dain &or t)e cit*5/red *o%ng )ad narro=ed to one 2lace and one 2er(on? t)e HBo=5/ell Coc'ne*H F0D++G and Ho%r Coc'ne* o& LondonH F0D00G. In 0D07, t=o de&inition( =ere =ritten &or t)e ter- in t)i( (en(e? A Cockne+ or Cockn+, a22lied onl* to one /orne =it)in t)e (o%nd o& Bo=5/ell, t)at i(, =it)in t)e Cit* o& London, =)ic) tear-e ca-e &ir(t o%t o& t)i( tale? T)at a Citti8en( (onne riding =it) )i( &at)er into t)e Co%ntr* a('ed, =)en )e )eard a )or(e neig), =)at t)e )or(e did )i( &at)er an(=ered, t)e )or(e dot) neig)? riding &art)er )e )eard a coc'e cro=, and (aid dot) t)e cocke nei"h tooO and t)ere&ore Coc'ne* or Coc'nie, /* in%er(ion t)%(? incoc', >. incoct%( i. ra= or 4nri2e in Co%ntr*5-en( a&&aire( FUo)n Min()e%, Ductor in lin"uasB The "uide into ton"uesG. Londiner(, and all =it)in t)e (o%nd o& Bo=/ell, are in re2roc) called Coc'nie( F!*ne( Mor*(on, An Itinerar+ in McArt)%r 0""D? J+7G.
Q D
t)e lo=e(t le4el o& -oral (tandard( Langland, Killia- Fc. 0SSJ5c.0N++G, (%22o(ed a%t)or o& T)e .i(ion o& Killia- concerning Pier( t)e Plo=-an FPier( Plo=-anG, a 4er* 2o2%lar Middle Engli() allegorical 2oe- in %nr)*-ed alliterati4e 4er(e.
37
ENGLISH DIALECTS
A n%-/er o& lo= t)o%g)t( )a4e t)ere&ore /een a((ociated =it) t)e na-e &ro- t)e (tart? odd egg, -il'(o2 Fco=ardG, *o%ng cit* (lic'er, and (treet5=i(e Londoner. At t)e (a-e ti-e, t)e re&erence o& Cockne+ -o4ed &ro- (o-et)ing ne= or *o%ng Fan egg, a c)ildG to a (2oiled adole(cent Fcit* *o%t)G to an*one o& an* age /orn in London =it)in t)e (o%nd o& t)e /ell( o& St Mar*5le5Bo= C)%rc). Kit) Ho%r Coc'ne* o& LondonH, t)e ot)er %(age( =ere &orgotten and a (tereot*2e de4elo2ed t)at =a( intere(ted onl* in t)e li&e o& t)e ca2ital? HT)at S*nod( ,eogra2)* =a( a( ridic%lo%( a( a Coc'ne*( Fto =)o- all i( Bar/ar* /e*ond Brain&ordE and C)ri(tendo-e endet) at ,reen=itc)GH F ic)ard K)itloc', Cooto&ia, or o%ser8ations on the $resent &anners of the En"lish, 0DQNG. Eighteenth$century Coc-ney Co--ent( on t)e %(age o& London Coc'ne*( date &ro- t)e 0$ t) cent%r*. A&ter (etting o%t t)e &a%lt( o& t)e Iri(), t)e Scot(, and t)e Kel(), t)e London eloc%tioni(t Uo)n Kal'er noted in 07"0? HT)ere are dialect( 2ec%liar to Corn=all, Lanca()ire, Yor'()ire, and e4er* di(tant co%nt* in EnglandE /%t a( a con(ideration o& t)e(e =o%ld lead to a detail too -in%te &or t)e 2re(ent occa5 (ion, I ()all concl%de t)e(e re-ar'( =it) a &e= o/(er4ation( on t)e 2ec%liaritie( o& -* co%ntr*-en, t)e Coc'ne*(E =)o, a( t)e* are t)e -odel( o& 2ron%nciation to t)e di(tant 2ro4ince(, o%g)t to /e t)e -ore (cr%2%lo%(l* correctH FA Critical .ronouncin" Dictionar+ of the En"lish Lan"ua"e in McArt)%r 0""D? J+7G. Kal'er li(t( &o%r &a%lt(? F0G A )a/it a-ong Londoner( o& Ht)e lo=e(t orderH o& 2rono%ncing =ord( li'e fists# $osts# 0astes a( t=o (*lla/le(, a( i& t)ere =ere an e /et=een t)e t and t)e s. FJG Not con&ined to t)e lo=e(t order, Ht)e 2ron%nciation o& 8 &or 0, and -ore &re>%entl* o& 0 &or 8H FH4ine and =ealH &or 0ine and 8ealG, =)ic) )e called Ha /le-i() o& t)e &ir(t -agnit%deH. FSG Not 2rono%ncing h a&ter 0, (o t)at H=e do not &ind t)e lea(t di(tinction /et=een 0hile and 0ile, 0het and 0et, 0here and 0ere, dc.H FNG HSin'ing t)e h at t)e /eginning o& =ord( =)ere it o%g)t to /e (o%nded, and o& (o%nding it, eit)er =)ere it i( not (een, or =)ere it o%g)t to /e (%n'. T)%( =e not in&re>%entl* )ear, e(2eciall* a-ong c)ildren, heart 2rono%nced art, and ar&, har&.H He al(o note( t)at =ord( li'e hu&our are 2rono%nced a( i& =ritten H*e=-o%rH. E4en (o, )e concl%de(? HT)%( I )a4e en5 dea4o%red to correct (o-e o& t)e -ore glaring error( o& -* co%ntr*-en, =)o, =it) all t)eir &a%lt(, are (till %2on t)e =)ole t)e /e(t 2rono%ncer( o& t)e Engli() lang%age.H Nineteenth$century Coc-ney Coc'ne* and London %(age (ee- to )a4e /een ali'e &or Kal'er. He -a'e( no di(tinction 38
ENGLISH DIALECTS
/et=een good and /ad %(age in t)e ca2ital e<ce2t )i( re&erence to t)e lo=e(t (ocial order. In t)e 0"t) cent%r*, )o=e4er, t)e ter- =a( li-ited to t)o(e =)o(e %(age ne4er (er4ed a( a -odel &or an*one. B* t)e ti-e o& S)a=H( 2la* .+"&alion F0"0SG, Coc'ne* =a( generall* regarded a( de/a(ed lang%age FHg%tter Coc'ne*HG and S)a=H( &lo=er5girl Eli8a Doolittle recei4ed &ar -ore )el2 &ro- t)e 2)onetician Henr* Higgin( t)an Kal'er &elt )i( &ello=( needed. T)e (2eec) o& all cla((e( o& Londoner )a( c)anged greatl* (ince Kal'erH( ti-e. In t)e 2roce((, one o& )i( H&a%lt(H )a( on t)e =)ole /eco-e a &eat%re o& t)e (tandard (2o'en Engli() o& England? t)e R=R in (%c) 2air( a( 0hile50ile! O& t)e ot)er(, one re-ain( a (tig-a, one )a( onl* recentl* di(a22eared, and t)e t)ird 4ani()ed long ago /%t re-ain( contro4er(ial. T)e dro22ing o& hC( i( =ide(2read /e*ond Coc'ne*5(2ea'ing area( and i( generall* con(idered (%/(tandard. Ne4ert)ele((, t)ere i( %ncertaint* a/o%t t)e e<tent to =)ic) hC( are (o%nded =)ere t)e* Ho%g)t to /e (%n'H. Pron%n5 ciation( li'e H&i(ti8H &or fists contin%ed into t)e J+t) cent%r*, /%t a22ear to )a4e died o%t in t)e 0"Q+(. T)e e<c)ange o& 8 and 0 )a( /een t)e -o(t contro4er(ial o& Kal'erH( ()i//olet)(, and t)ere are co--entator( =)o den* t)at it e4er occ%rred, (o-eti-e( /la-ing Dic'en( &or in4enting it. He %(e( it in The .ick0ick .a$ers F0$S7G, a( 2art o& t)e dialect o& Sa-%el Keller, =)o(e &at)er call( )i- HSa-i4el YellerH? HI )ad a regHlar ne= &it oH clot)e( t)at -orninH, genHlH-en o& t)e 9%r*,H (aid Sa-, Hand t)at =a( a =er* 2artic'ler and %nco--on circ%-(tance 4it) -e in t)o(e da*(. . . . I& t)e* =o( a 2air oH 2atent do%/le -illion -agni&*inH ga( -icro(co2e( o& )e<tra 2o=er, 2Hra2( I -ig)t /e a/le to (ee t)ro%g) a &lig)t oH (tair( and a deal doorE /%t /einH onl* e*e(, *o% (ee, -* =i(ionH( li-itedH Fc). SNG. Kal'er, )o=e4er, 2ro4ide( t)e 2roo& t)at Sa-H( (t*le o& (2eec) e<i(ted =ell /e&ore Dic'en( created )i-, /%t it a22ear( to )a4e /een in decline =)en Dic'en( -ade it a literar* (tereot*2e, and )ad 4irt%all* di(a22eared /* t)e 0$7+(, a( noted /* S)a= in an a22endi< to Ca$tain /rass%ound(s Con8ersion F0"++G? K)en I ca-e to London in 0$7D, t)e Sa- Keller dialect )ad 2a((ed a=a* (o co-2letel* t)at I ()o%ld )a4e gi4en it %2 a( a literar* &iction i& I )ad not di(co4ered it (%r4i4ing in a Middle(e< 4illage, and )eard o& it &ro- an E((e< one. So-e ti-e in t)e eig)tie( t)e late Ale<ander T%er called attention in t)e Pall Mall ,a8ette to (e4eral 2ec%liaritie( o& -odern coc'ne*, and to t)e o/(ole(cence o& t)e Dic'en( dialect t)at =a( (till /eing co2ied &ro/oo' to /oo' /* a%t)or( =)o ne4er drea-t o& %(ing t)eir ear(, -%c) le(( o& training t)eto li(ten. 39
ENGLISH DIALECTS
T.entieth$century Coc-ney C%rrentl*, t)e ter- Coc'ne* i( a22lied to %(age in t)e London area /%t t=o /road 2erce2tion( are di(ting%i()ed? F0G T)at it i( a range o& %(age centred on t)e Ea(t End o& London, =it) 2eri2)eral &or-( t)at (2read o%t into t)e co%ntie( aro%nd t)e cit*, e(2eciall* a-ong t)e *o%ng. Here, t)e terre&er( to a =idel* di&&%(ed 4ariet* o& =or'ing5cla(( (2eec) in (o%t)5ea(tern England. FJG T)at, in (ocioling%i(tic ter-(, it i( t)e /a(ilect in a range o& %(age( in =)ic) Standard Engli() =it) an P accent i( t)e acrolect. Here, Coc'ne* i( t)e core o& =or'ing cla(( London (2eec) and i( not 2ro2erl* a22lied to t)e -e(olect( o& t)e area, =)ic) -a* )o=e4er )a4e Coc'ne*5li'e &eat%re(. K)ic)e4er 4ie=2oint i( c)o(en, degree( o& Coc'ne*)ood are co--onl* 2ercei4ed in t)e London area, according to (%c) &actor( a( cla((, (ocial a(2iration(, localit*, and ed%cation. T)e a((ociation =it) Bo= /ell( i( (o-eti-e( -entioned /* inner Londoner( =it) no(talgia. !e= /a/ie( are no= /orn near t)e C)%rc) o& St Mar*5le5Bo=, and -an* =)o )a4e in t)e 2a(t /een /orn =it)in t)e (o%nd o& it( /ell( co%ld ne4er, /eca%(e o& t)eir (ocial cla((, )a4e /een Coc'ne*(, e<ce2t ironicall*. Coc'ne* )a( long /een a((ociated =it) t)e Ea(t End and t)e inner (%/%r/( o& ea(t London? Aldgate, Bet)nal ,reen, Bo=, Hac'ne*, Li-e)o%(e, Mile End, Old !ord, Po2lar, S)oreditc), Ste2ne*, Ka22ing, and K)itec)a2el. Core Coc'ne* i( di(tinct &ro- =or'ing5cla(( %(age (o%t) o& t)e T)a-e( in Ber-ond(e*, So%t)=ar', and Kal=ort). Li'e -an* 4arietie( o& Engli(), it i( -o(t ea(il* identi&ied t)ro%g) it( e<tre-e &or-(. Li'e ot)er (tig-ati8ed %r/an dialect(, (%c) a( Broo'l*n FNe= Yor'G, ,la(go=, and Sco%(e FLi4er2oolG, it i( 4igoro%( and in&l%ential, /%t generall* 4ie=ed /* /ot) it( (2ea'er( and o%t(ider( a( a 2ro/le- &or t)e one( =)o =ant a )ig)er 2o(ition. ronunciation T)e &ollo=ing &eat%re( c)aracteri8e Coc'ne* (2eec)? F0G F and >. Coc'ne* di&&er( &ro- all ot)er 4arietie( o& Engli() in )a4ing R&R &or R6R, a( in H&irt* &a)(nH thirt+ thousand. T)i( i( -atc)ed -ediall* /* R4R &or R7R, a( in H/o44erH %other, H-%44erH &other. Initiall*, t)e (o%nd i( clo(er to R7R in (%c) =ord( a( this# these, /%t 2ron%nciation( li'e H4i(H and H4e(eH can /e )eard. E8er+thin"# nothin"# so&ethin" are 2rono%nced He4r*&in'H, Hn%&&in'H, H(%-&in'H. A ()i//olet) &or t)e f58 %(age i( Firt+ fahsn fe88ers on a frush(s froat. FJG H1dro$$in". Li'e -an* 4arietie( o& Engli() in England, Coc'ne* )a( no initial R)R in =ord( li'e house FNo%od+ li8es in the& ouses no0G, /%t (o-eti-e( add( R)R &or e-2)a(i( or a( 40
ENGLISH DIALECTS
)*2ercorrection /e&ore initial 4o=el(, a( =it) H)e4erH &or e8er FDid +ou he8er see the likeOG. FSG Di$hthon"s. Coc'ne* i( =ell 'no=n &or t)e elongation o& it( 4o=el (o%nd(, o&ten re2re(ented in 2rint /* (e4eral 4o=el( toget)er, a( in S)a=H( Hdao=ntH &or don(t. Di(tincti4e di2)5 t)ong( incl%de RAiR &or Ha/a)tH, thousand H&a)(nH. FNG The "lottal sto$. #(e o& t)e glottal (to2 &or -edial and &inal RtR, R'tR, and R'R, a( in %ut# %utter# hectic# technical FHtetnicalHG, and a glottali8ed RR, a( in actuall+ FHat()ell*HG. FQG Linkin" 7. T)ere i( no 2o(t4ocalic RrR in Coc'ne*, =)ic) li'e P i( non5r)otic? Hca)H &or car, Hca)dH &or card. Coc'ne* ()are( t)e lin'ing r %(ed generall* in (o%t)5ea(t England, a( in Hdra=RrRing roo-H &or dra0in" roo&, HS)a)Rr o& Per(iaH &or Shah of .ersia. FDG S+lla%le1final 5l5 i( 4ocali8ed a( R=R? Hte==i-H &or tell hi&. Synta/ and usage F0G T)e gra--ar o& Coc'ne* i( on t)e =)ole Hgeneral non(tandardH, =it) (%c) %(age( a( do%/le negation FThere aint nuffink like it T)ere i( not)ing li'e itG and done and seen &or did and sa0 FI done it +esterda+, I -ust seen erG. FJG \%e(tion tag( are =idel* %(ed to (ee' &or agree-ent or e(ta/li() oneH( 2o(ition? I(& el$in +ou no0# inne+eO I a- )el2ing *o% no=, ainHt IO 5 alt)o%g) I -a* not )a4e )el2ed *o% /e&ore or =anted in &act to )el2 *o% at allE 9ell# e kne0 all a%aht it# dinneeO Kell, )e 'ne= all a/o%t it, didnHt )eO 5 Beca%(e )e 'ne= all a/o%t it, itH( not (%r2ri(ing )e did =)at )e did. FSG T)e 2re2o(ition( to and at are &re>%entl* dro22ed in relation to 2lace(? I(& "oin do0n the $u% IH- going do=n to t)e 2%/, He(s round is &ate(s He i( ro%nd at )i( &riendH( )o%(e, The+(re o8er &e &u&(s T)e*Hre o4er at -* -ot)erH(. Literary and stage Coc-ney Since t)e ti-e o& Dic'en(, Coc'ne* dialog%e )a( o&ten /een incl%ded in (tandard te<t( and (o (2ecial ort)ogra2)* )a( de4elo2ed &or it, (%c) a( a%aht a/o%t, Ga0d ,od, larf la%g), &u88er -ot)er, orful a=&%l, orl all, =it) t)e a2o(tro2)e %(ed to -ar' a/(ent h a( in Ha%it and a/(ent ", (ignalling t)e 2ron%nciation o& 5in" a( (*lla/ic RnR, a( in cuttinH and shoutinH. Kriter( generall* %(e t)i( dialect &or &la4o%r, along =it) t*2ical e<2re((ion( and a c)eer&%l (t*le, a( in Vi2lingH( The (Eathen F0$"JG? T)e Heat)en in Hi( /lindne(( /o=( do=n to =ood anH (toneE 41 %d*ard P Ri?R in %eet5seat, RaiR &or P ReiR in fate5"reat, RoiR &or P RaiR in hi"h50h+. Con4er(el*, t)e -ono2)t)ong RaR (er4e( =)ere P )a( t)e di2)t)ong Ra%R in a%out
ENGLISH DIALECTS
HE donHt o/e* no order( %nle(( t)e* i( Hi( o=nE HE 'ee2( Hi( (ide5ar-( a=&%l? He lea4e( Heall a/o%t, AnH t)en co-e( %2 t)e egi-ent anH 2o'e( t)e Heat)en o%t. S)a= %(e( a 2arallel (tage Coc'ne* &or a (i-ilar e&&ect in Ca$tain /rass%ound(s Con8ersion? It go=( agin %( a( Hingli()-en to (ee t)e(e /loo-in &%rriner( (ettin a2 t)eir Ca(to-( A)(e( and (2)ere( o )in&l%ence and (ic) la=' )all o=4er Ar&ricar. Dao=nt Har&ricar /elong a( -%c) to )%8 a( to t)e-O t)et( =ot =e (* FAct IG. Alln%tt, t)e -ec)anic in C. S. !ore(terH( The African )ueen F0"SQ? c). JG i( le(( ort)ogra2)icall* a((erti4e, /%t re-ain( %ne>%i4ocall* a =or'ing5cla(( Londoner? HK)* notOC H a2id(, -i((. oc'( anH cataract( anH gorge(. Yo% Ha4enHt /een t)ere, -i((. ICa4e. T)ereH( a n%ndred -ile( o& ra2id( do=n t)ere. K)*, t)e ri4erH( got a di&&erent ni-e =)ere it co-e( o%t in t)e La'e to =)at itH( called %2 Here. ItH( t)e Bora do=n t)ere. T)at 9%(t ()o=( *o%. No one 'ne= t)e* =a( t)e (a-e ri4er %ntil t)at c)a2 S2engler5H Literar* a22roac)e( to Coc'ne* )a4e generall* /een t)e =or' o& -iddle5cla(( non5 Coc'ne*(. T)eir con4ention( )a4e, )o=e4er, /een /ot) %(ed and >%e(tioned /* Coc'ne*( =riting a/o%t t)eir o=n (2eec), a( in Barltro2 and Kol4eridgeH( The ;u88er Ton"ue F0"$+G? B%t t)e ()ort o% o& Ho%tH and Ha/o%tH i( t)e c)ronicall* -i(re2re(ented Coc'ne* 4o=el. !or a )%ndred *ear( t)ere )a( /een a con4ention o& =riting it a( Ha)H. S)a= 2%t H/a= *a &la)r or& a 2ore gelH into Eli8a DoolittleH( -o%t)? Hra)nd t)e a)(e(H i( t)e cla((ic =a* o& con4e*ing Ea(t London (2eec). It i( 2ain&%ll* =ide o& t)e -ar'. K)ate4er a Coc'ne*H( Ho%tH -a* /e t)o%g)t to (o%nd li'e, it i( not HartH5=)ic) i( =)at Ha)tH =o%ld -a'e it. T)e (o%nd i( a lengt)ened ()ort %. It -ig)t /e =ritten H%)tH, t)e % a( in Hc%tH /%t (tretc)ed o%tE -ore 2reci(el*, it i( H%)5ertH. T)e 2)onetic 4er(ion o& a Coc'ne*H( H/%* a &lo=er o&& a 2oor girlH =o%ld /e H/a)ee*a &l%)5er or& a 2ore gelH. Practicall* an* Coc'ne* doe( t)i( =)en )e tal'(, 42
ENGLISH DIALECTS
/%t in a (treet 4endorH( c)ant it =o%ld /eco-e a &lo%ri() and al-o(t -%(ical. Fin McArt)%r 0""D? J0+G Tone and rhetoric A (tri'ing a(2ect o& Coc'ne*, e(2eciall* =)en co-2ared =it) P, i( it( =ide range o& tone and e-otion. Barltro2 and Kol4eridge co--ent? T)e Ea(t Londoner li'e( )i( %tterance( to /e attention5catc)ing =)et)er t)e* are 2lainti4e, indignant, gloo-* or )%-oro%(... Nagging, anecdote, gi4ing o2inion( and e4en greeting a &riend in t)e (treet are done =it) t)e (a-e -o/ilit* o& 4oice, to (>%ee8e t)e %t-o(t -eaning o%t o& t)e-, and it i( noticea/le in ordinar* con4er(ation. Fin McArt)%r 0""D? J0+G T)e de4ice( o& d*na-ic (2eec) incl%de a di4er(it* o& tone(, e-2)atic lo%dne((, (trong &acial e<2re((ion, and (trong /od* lang%age. T)ere i( in 2artic%lar 2itc) 2ro-inence on content =ord( Fno%n(, 4er/(, ad9ecti4e(, ad4er/(G and t)eir 4o=el( are o&ten (tretc)ed, a( in You ou"ht to a8e SEEEEN it1it 0as e8er so G2222D . Toget)er Coc'ne*( are generall* -ore %nin)i/ited (ociall* Fla%g)ing lo%dl*, co-2laining 4igoro%(l*G t)an -iddle5cla(( Londoner(, a &eat%re =)ic) -a* )a4e /een in&l%enced /* ,*2(ie(, Ue=(, and Iri() in t)e Ea(t End. Slang Pro/a/l* t)e /e(t5'no=n and -o(t5di(c%((ed %(age i( Coc'ne* r)*-ing (lang, a( in 9ould +ou Ada& and E8e it O Ko%ld *o% /elie4e itO, and The+ had a %it of a %ull and a co0 a ro0 . It -a* )a4e originated in t)ie4e(H cant, /%t it( )i(tor* i( %nclear and t)ere i( little e4idence t)at it =a( e4er =ide(2read or e<ten(i4e eno%g) to /e a code in it( o=n rig)t. I& it =a( once (o %(ed /* trader(, entertainer(, t)ie4e(, and ot)er(, t)e (ecret )a( /een =ell 'e2t. S%c) =ord52la* =a( a &a()iona/le ga-e in t)e Ke(t End o& London in t)e 0"S+(, and d%ring and a&ter t)e Second Korld Kar =a( di((e-inated /* t)e -edia. Man* o& it( %(age( )a4e /een (2read /* tele4i(ion? /rah&s and Lis4t 2i((ed, dr%n', in t)e 0"7+( T. co-ed* (erie( Ste$toe and Son, F&ir(t cited in 23ford En"lish Dictionar+ in 0"SDG. Se4eral r)*-e( &or t)e (a-e =ord -a* co-2ete? tea i( /ot) 7os+ Lea and +ou and &e. /ristol Cities Ftittie(G -a* )a4e /een -edia5in(2ired, traditional Coc'ne* /eing ;anchester Cities or three$enn+ %its Ftit(G. Slang )a( contri/%ted to in&or-al Briti() Engli() at large (%c) a( co%%lers, a( an e<2re((ion o& (ce2tici(- &ro- co%%lers( a0ls /all(, te(ticle(, %utchers &ro- %utcher(s hook a loo', :i&&+ 7iddle a 2iddle Fan act o& %rinatingG, ra%%it on &or tal'ing all t)e ti-e, &ro- ra%%it and $ork tal', ras$%err+ &or a deri(i4e /lo=ing (o%nd =it) t)e li2( Fa22arentl* &ro- ras$%err+ tart &artG. 43
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Coc'ne* (lang incl%de(? F0G Kord( &ro- o-an*? cha88+ a c)ild, &ush a -ate, /%dd*, $ut the &ockers onD to 9in<. FJG Kord( &ro- Yiddi()? "e4u&$h5"a4u&$ to (=indle, sche&o44le a di(t%r/ance, schle&iel a &ool. FSG Minced oat)( and e%2)e-i(-(, e(2eciall* relating to ,od? /li&e+ ,od /lind -e, Cor$ ,od, a( in Cor stone the cro0s, Gordon /ennett Ft)e na-e o& an earl* J+t) cent%r* car5racing 2ro-oterG ,od. FNG !orce( (lang 2ic'ed %2 in A(ia? ackers -one* F2ro/a/l* &ro- Ara/ic fakka (-all c)angeG, %int a girl FAra/icG, cush+ (o&t, ea(*, a( in a cush+ %illet an ea(* 9o/ F&ro- Hindi khush 2lea(%reG, dekko a loo' F&ro- t)e Hindi i-2erati4e dekho loo'GE shufti a loo' FAra/icG, doolall+ F-ad, &ro- Deolali, a to=n in India =)ere a Briti() !orce( -ental )o(2ital =a( locatedG. FQG A//re4iation(, (o-eti-e( =it) 5o added Fco-2are A%(tralian Engli() (langG? a""ro aggra4ation FW aggre((ionG, rar4o a red no(e F()ort &or ra(2/err*G. FDG Bac'5(lang? +o% a /o*, (o-eti-e( in t)e &or- +o%%o. F7G #(age =it) r%n5toget)er 2)ra(e( t)at (o%nd li'e, and are o&ten =ritten a(, (ingle =ord(? Ga0del$us ,od )el2 %(, Geddoudo8it ,et o%t o& it, Gor%li&e+ originall* H,od /lind -eH, 9otcha59otcher K)at c)eer Fa once =ide(2read greetingG. Beca%(e o& =arti-e contact(, National Ser4ice a&ter t)e Second Korld Kar, and t)e -edia, -an* o& t)e(e e<2re((ion( are %nder(tood and o&ten %(ed t)ro%g)o%t Britain. Social matters Core Coc'ne*, &ringe Coc'ne*, and t)eir neig)/o%ring &or-( -a'e %2 t)e -o(t 2ro-inent and =idel* (2o'en %r/an dialect in Britain. It re(t( on an ancient =or'ing5cla(( tradition and )a( )ad con(idera/le -edia in&l%ence on Briti() Engli() %(age in general, e(2eciall* in t)e London5 /a(ed ta/loid ne=(2a2er(, in radio and T. 2o2%lar entertain-ent, (%c) a( t)e c%rrent BBC (oa2 o2era EastEnders. It re-ain(, )o=e4er, a (tig-ati8ed 4ariet* t)at attract( little acade-ic attention and i( o&ten regarded a( 2ict%re(>%e and a-%(ing. Barltro2 and Kol4eridge note? Ke =anted to =rite &or Coc'ne*( a( -%c) a( a/o%t t)e-. T)e lang%age i( con(tantl* ()o=n a( 2ict%re(>%e or co-ic, and al-o(t in4aria/l* a( in&eriorE it i( ta'en &or granted a( co-ing &ro- a 2eo2le =)o do not 'no= an* /etter. Ke )o2e to 2er(%ade Coc'ne*( a( =ell a( ot)er( t)at it i( -ore t)an t)e e>%al o& an* ot)er &or- o& (2eec). . . T)e Coc'ne* doe( not )a4e to de&ine cla(( X it de&ine( )i-. K)ile Ea(t Londoner( are de&ined /* t)e (ocial
7 $
to ca%(e /ad l%c' &or (o-eone or (o-et)ing %(ed &or ()o=ing t)at *o% are (%r2ri(ed, i-2re((ed, or ent)%(ia(tic
44
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(*(te- a( are all ot)er =or'ing 2eo2le, t)e* are re(ent&%l o& it in a re(igned (ort o& =a* and (trongl* con(cio%( o& HT)e- and #(H. . .. T)%(, (2ea'ing =ell X Btal'ing 2o()H X doe( not -a'e a great i-2re((ionE it (-ac'( o& /eing t)e ene-*H( lang%age. Fin McArt)%r 0""D? J00G T)e Coc'ne*( &eel t)e (a-e li'e %(er( o& ot)er =or'ing5cla(( 4arietie( t)at gre= %2 =it) t)e Ind%(trial e4ol%tion. Li'e (2ea'er( o& Sco%(e and ,%tter ,la(go=, t)e* are 2lag%ed and o&ten -oc' t)e re(t o& t)e =orld. Coc'ne*( )a4e &aced an e<tra (tig-a /eca%(e t)e* )a4e o&ten /een (een a( letting London do=n /%t, at t)e (a-e ti-e, t)e* are in4o'ed =it) a&&ection a( a 'e* ele-ent in de&ining t)e cit*.
A(E"ICAN EN!LIS& Definition A-erican Engli() or #nited State( Engli() )a( al(o t)e ()ort &or-( A-E, AE, #SE and i( t)e Engli() lang%age a( %(ed in t)e #nited State( o& A-erica. T)e (2ea'er( o& A-erican Engli() o%tn%-/er all nati4e (2ea'er( o& Engli() o%t(ide t)e #nited State( /* a/o%t t=o to one and t)o(e o& Briti() Engli() /* nearl* &o%r to one FMcArt)%r 0""D? S$G. T)i( ad4antage =a( (trengt)ened /* t)e (tateC( in4ol4e-ent =it) =orld a&&air( and )a( gi4en A-erican Engli() a glo/al i-2ortance in t)e late J+t) cent%r* =)en co-2ared to t)at o& Briti() Engli() in t)e late 0" t) cent%r*. &istory T)e )i(tor* o& t)e 4ariet* can /e di4ided into t)ree 2eriod(, according to 2olitical and (ocial e4ent( t)at in&l%enced t)e lang%age? F0G The Colonial .eriod, d%ring =)ic) a di(tincti4e A-erican Engli() =a( e-erging. FJG The National .eriod, =)ic) (a= it( /irt), e(ta/li()-ent, and con(olidation. FSG The International .eriod, d%ring =)ic) it )a( co-e increa(ingl* %nder &oreign in&l%ence and )a( in&l%enced ot)er 4arietie( o& Engli() and ot)er lang%age(. The Colonial eriod F0D+75077DG 45
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Engli() coloni8ation o& t)e A-erica( ca-e relati4el* late, i& =e co-2are it =it) S2ani() (ettle-ent in Central and So%t) A-erica? 5 In 0N"7 Uo)n Ca/ot e<2lored t)e coa(t o& =)at /eca-e t)e Canadian 2ro4ince o& No4a Scotia, /%t no/od* -ade an* e&&ort to e(ta/li() a colon* &or nearl* anot)er cent%r*. 5 In 0Q$S H%-2)re* ,il/ert clai-ed t)e i(land o& Ne=&o%ndland. 5 In 0Q$N Kalter aleig) atte-2ted )i( %nl%c'* (ettle-ent at oano'e, .irginia. aleig)H( Hlo(t colon*H did not (%r4i4e. 5 In 0D+7 t)ere =a( t)e &ir(t 2er-anent Engli() (ettle-ent on t)e -ainland at Ua-e(to=n. 5 In 0DJ+ /ot) religio%( and co--ercial -oti4e( )el2ed t)e &o%nding o& t)e Pl*-o%t) colon*. 5 In 0DSN t)e Mar*land colon* =a( &o%nded. 5 In 0DDS /egan t)e coloni8ation o& t)e Carolina(. 5 In 0DDN t)e D%tc), =)o )ad (ettled Man)attan I(land in 0DJN, =ere /ro%g)t %nder Engli() r%le. 5 In 0D$0 =a( t)e Engli() rental o& a \%a'er colon* %nder Killia- Penn =)ic) &ollo=ed E%ro2ean (ettle-ent o& Penn(*l4ania, 2artl* /* t)e D%tc) and S=ede(. !ro- t)e /eginning, t)e colonie( =ere o& -i<ed origin. Beca%(e (ettler( ca-e &ro- a 4ariet* o& location(, t)ere =a( no (i-2le tran(2lanting o& Briti() dialect(, /%t rat)er a co-/ination o& &eat%re( in a (ingle colon*, re(%lting in t)e le4elling o& di4er(i&ied &eat%re( and t)e a22arentl* rando- (%r4i4al o& &eat%re( &ro- di(2arate (o%rce(. T)e re(%lt =a( a -ore %ni&or- (2eec) in t)e colonie( t)an in t)e -ot)erland. T)e /arrier o& t)e Atlantic /egan t)e 2roce(( o& di4ergence o& A-erican &ro- Briti() %(age al-o(t i--ediatel*. C)ange( in t)e -ot)erland =ere (lo= in reac)ing t)e colonie(E t)e coloni(t( ada2ted old %(e( to ne= 2%r2o(e(, and /orro=ed &root)er gro%2(, e(2eciall* t)e A-erindian(, D%tc), and !renc). Alt)o%g) (till de2ending on England &or a%t)orit* and a (tandard, t)e colonie( =ere &orced to de4elo2 t)eir o=n re(o%rce(. The National eriod F077D50$"$G. T)e Kar o& Inde2endence F077D5$SG /ro%g)t t)e Colonial Period to an end. Se4eral o& t)e !o%nding !at)er( o& t)e ne= re2%/lic recogni8ed t)at 2olitical inde2endence =o%ld re>%ire c%lt%ral inde2endence a( =ell. Ling%i(ticall*, t)i( 2eriod &aced t=o related c)allenge(? 5 t)e e4ol%tion and recognition o& a (e2arate (tandard Engli() &or t)e #nited State( and 5 t)e e<ten(ion o& t)at (tandard o4er t)e =)ole nation a( it con>%ered t)e =e(t. Noa) Ke/(ter i( -o(t clo(el* a((ociated =it) ling%i(tic nationali(- in 2ro-oting =)at )e called !ederal Engli(), /%t ot)er( contri/%ted to it. T)e Ci4il Kar F0$D05QG di(r%2ted t)e 46
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(tr%ct%re o& t)e #nion in 2olitic(, c%lt%re, and lang%age. B* t)e ti-e it /egan, #nited State( (o4ereignt* e<tended to t)e Paci&ic, &%l&illing a (en(e o& a -i((ion Ft)e HMani&e(t De(tin*H o& t)e #nited State(G =)ic) -oti4ated national 2olic* d%ring t)i( 2eriod. T)e a((i-ilation o& &oreign in&l%ence( contin%ed, incl%ding large n%-/er( o& i--igrant( &ro- E%ro2e and al(o contact( =it) (2ea'er( o& S2ani() in !lorida and t)e Ke(t. De4elo2-ent( =)ic) ()a2ed t)e lang%age o& A-erican( d%ring t)e 0"t) cent%r* incl%ded? 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 t)e (ettle-ent o& t)e Ke(t, t)e e<ten(ion o& t)e railroad(, t)e gro=t) o& ind%(tr* and t)e la/o%r -o4e-ent, t)e in4ention o& t)e telegra2) and tele2)one, t)e /eginning o& 9o%rnali(-, t)e e<2an(ion o& ed%cation at all le4el(, and t)e 2%/lication o& te<t/oo'( and dictionarie(.
Searc)ing &or a national identit* and it( do-e(tic ela/oration =ere t)e 2reocc%2ation o& t)i( 2eriod, /%t /* t)e end o& t)e cent%r* ne= direction( in national 2olic* /egan to a&&ect t)e lang%age. B* t)e 0$"+( t)e do-e(tic &rontier )ad /een e(ta/li()ed, and e<2an(ioni(- too' A-erican( into territorie( o4er(ea(. T)e S2ani()5A-erican Kar F0$"$G la(ted /arel* &o%r -ont)(, /%t =a( a t%rning 2oint in t)e &oreign 2olic*. D%ring t)e 0J+ *ear( (ince t)e &o%nding o& t)e nation, t)e #nited State( )ad generall* o/(er4ed ,eorge Ka()ingtonH( co%n(el to a4oid &oreign alliance( and &ollo=ed an i(olationi(t 2olic* concentrating on do-e(tic -atter(. Kit) t)i( =ar, )o=e4er, t)e #nited State( and it( Engli() /eca-e internationall* (igni&icant. The International eriod F&ro- 0$"$G T)e Ha=aiian I(land( =ere anne<ed d%ring t)e co%r(e o& t)e S2ani()5A-erican Kar, t)e i(land o& P%erto ico =a( ceded to t)e #nited State(, and t)e P)ili22ine( =ere /o%g)t &or eJ+-. In t)e &ollo=ing *ear(, t)e #nited State( e<tended it( o4er(ea( intere(t(? 5 5 5 5 5 5 an O2en Door 2olic* =a( a&&ir-ed &or C)inaE t)e #nited State( -ediated t)e %((o5Ua2ane(e =ar o& 0"+QE t)e re4ol%tion in Pana-a again(t Colo-/ia =a( (%22orted Fi& not act%all* enco%ragedG, (o t)at t)e #nited State( co%ld /%ild a canal acro(( t)e i(t)-%( o& Pana-aE inter4ention in Latin A-erican a&&air( /eca-e &re>%ent, to 2re4ent E%ro2ean in4ol4e-ent and (ec%re A-erican intere(t(E t)e .irgin I(land( in t)e Cari//ean =ere 2%rc)a(ed &ro- Den-ar'E and in 0"07 t)e #nited State( entered Korld Kar I.
T)erea&ter, A-erican( )a4e 2la*ed an increa(ing role in =orld 2olitic( and econo-ic( =it) 47
ENGLISH DIALECTS
a con(e>%ent e&&ect on A-erican Engli() %(age. In t%rn, (%c) #nited State( in(tit%tion( a( t)e -o4ie ind%(tr* in Holl*=ood, 9a88 and 2o2%lar -%(ic &ro- t)e So%t), 2artici2ation in Korld Kar II, 2o(t5=ar tec)nological de4elo2-ent( (%c) a( t)e co-2%ter, and t)e acti4itie( and 2rod%ct( o& -a9or #nited State( cor2oration( and 2%/lication(, &ro- Coca5Cola to Ti&e -aga8ine, )a4e )el2ed di((e-inate A-ericani(-( t)ro%g)o%t t)e =orld. )ariation Variation =it)in A-erican Engli() i( &ar le(( t)an =it)in -an* ot)er national lang%age(. Alt)o%g) A-erican( are con(cio%( o& t)e (trange =a* t)eir co-2atriot( in ot)er co--%nitie( tal', con(idering t)e (i8e and 2o2%lation o& t)e #nited State(, it( lang%age i( relati4el* )o-ogeneo%(. Yet t)ere are di(tincti4e (2eec) =a*( in 2artic%lar co--%nitie(? 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 T)e Bo(ton Bra)-in(, t)e old &a-ilie( o& Ne= England =)o 2ride t)e-(el4e( on t)eir c%lt%re and con(er4ati4e attit%de( and are noted &or t)eir (%2eriorit*E T)e ,%lla), =)o li4e on t)e i(land( o&& t)e ()ore o& So%t) Carolina and ,eorgia and tal' =it) )ea4* Ke(t A&rican in&l%enceE T)e Ca9%n( o& Lo%i(iana, de(cendent( &ro- Acadian !renc) i--igrant(, =it) &ol'5 =a*(, c%i(ine, and (2eec)=a*( t)at /lend in&l%ence( &ro- (e4eral tradition(E T)e A22alac)ian -o%ntain 2eo2leE T)e Te<5Me< /ronco5/%(ter(E T)e laid5/ac' li&e(t*ler( o& Marin Co%nt*, Cali&orniaE T)e C)arle(tonian Old So%t) ari(tocrac*E T)e inner5cit* A&rican A-erican(E T)e Minne(ota S=ede(E T)e C)icano( o& t)e So%t)=e(t and -an* ot)er(.
De(2ite it( relati4e %ni&or-it* o& it( (tandard and edited 4ariet*, A-erican Engli() i( a ric) and e<otic -i<t%re. ronunciation Underl*ing t)e regional accent( o& t)e #nited State( are (o-e =ide(2read &eat%re( t)at are t*2ical o& A-erican Engli()? F0G Kit) t)e e<ce2tion o& t)e So%t)ern (tate(, ea(tern Ne= England, and Ne= Yor' Cit*, 2ron%nciation i( r)otic, 2o(t4ocalic RrR /eing 2rono%nced in (%c) =ord( a( $art# four# &otor. FJG T)e A-erican Engli() RrR i( retro&le<, and i( o&ten lo(t a&ter an %n(tre((ed 4o=el i& anot)er RrR &ollo=(? t)e r in "o8ern i( 2rono%nced /%t i( dro22ed in "o8ernor. FSG T)e 4o=el( o& =ord( li'e hoarse and horse are increa(ingl* -erged in &a4o%r o& a 48
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4o=el o& t)e >%alit* in ha0 or hoe. FNG In =ord( li'e $ath# can(t# dance, A-erican Engli() generall* )a( t)e 4o=el o& $at and cant. FQG T)e 4o=el( o& t)e (tre((ed (*lla/le( in (%c) =ord( a( father and fodder are generall* identical. FDG T)e o5(o%nd o& "o# note# soa$ /egin( =it) a ro%nded 4o=el, =)ile t)e o5(o%nd in not i( %nro%nded. F7G ,enerall* t)ere i( no R9R glide /e&ore a (tre((ed u54o=el in =ord( li'e tune# duke# ne0# sue# lute FHtoonH, Hdoo'H, HnooH, etc.G, in =)ic) a dental con(onant 2recede(, /%t t)e glide i( retained in %n(tre((ed (*lla/le( Ft)e (econd (*lla/le( o& &enu# 8alueG, =)en t)e 4o=el i( initial Fe0eG, and =)en it i( 2receded /* a la/ial or 4elar (o%nd F$e0# cuteG. F$G A-ong c)ange( alread* %nder =a* and li'el* to /eco-e general i( a -erger o& t)e 4o=el (o%nd( in =ord( li'e cau"ht# cot. T)e re(%lting 4o=el i( (o-eti-e( lig)tl* ro%nded /%t -ore o&ten %nro%nded, li'e t)e (tre((ed 4o=el o& father. F"G A RdR t*2icall* occ%r( =)ere t)e (2elling )a( t or tt in =ord( li'e latter# ato&# &etal# %itt+ =)ic) are )o-o2)ono%( =it) ladder# Ada&# &edal# %idd+. F0+G Si-ilarl*, RtR i( o&ten lo(t &ro- RntR in 0inter FH=innerHG, anti FHannieH, t)o%g) retained =)en t)e (econd 4o=el )a( &%ll 4al%e and (o-e (tre((, Han5tieHG, international FHinnernationalHG. T)e t o& =ord( li'e eaten i( %(%all* glottali8ed and i( &ollo=ed /* a (*lla/ic n. F00G T)e l at t)e end o& =ord( and /et=een 4o=el( F %ill# $illo0G i( t*2icall* dar'? 2rono%nced =it) t)e /ac' o& t)e tong%e li&ted to=ard t)e (o&t roo& o& t)e -o%t). F0JG Secondar* (tre(( i( nor-al on t)e 2en%lti-ate (*lla/le( o& =ord( li'e la%orator+ and secretar+, (o t)at t)e(e =ord( end li'e Tor+ and Terr+. At t)e (a-e ti-e, (*nco2e i( co--on in =ord( li'e fa& (l+# fed(ral# ha$$ (nin". !rammar F0G For t)e 4er/ "et, t)e old 2a(t 2artici2le "otten occ%r( toget)er =it) t)e ne=er "ot. A-erican( %(e /ot), /%t di&&erentl*. Gotten generall* occ%r( =)en a 2roce(( rat)er t)an a (tate or condition i( intended? I(8e "otten it -ean( Hac>%iredH, =)erea( I(8e "ot it -ean( H2o((e((H. Si-ilarl*, I(8e "otten to "o -ean( Hrecei4ed 2er-i((ion or o22ort%nit*H, =)erea( I(8e "ot to "o -ean( Ha- o/ligedH. FJG I 0ill# +ou 0ill# he 0ill, etc., are %(%al. Shall i( rare in A-erican Engli(), /eing largel* re(tricted to &or-al in4itation FShall 0e danceOG and e-2)a(i( FI shall returnG. FSG A (i-2le 2a(t ten(e rat)er t)an a 2er&ect &or- i( (o-eti-e( %(ed &or action( leading %2 to t)e 2re(ent ti-e, e4en =it) ad4er/(? Did +ou e8er hear thatOE I alread+ did it. 49
ENGLISH DIALECTS
FNG In &or-al -andator* con(tr%ction(, =it) cla%(e( &ollo=ing 4er/(, ad9ecti4e(, and no%n( o& re>%iring and %rging, A-erican Engli() 2re&er( t)e 2re(ent (%/9%ncti4e &or-? The+ insisted that he "o 0ith the&, It is i&$erati8e that +ou %e here on ti&e. FQG K)en t)e (%/9ect o& a cla%(e i( a collecti4e no%n, t)ere i( generall* a (ing%lar 4er/, in concord =it) t)e &or- rat)er t)an t)e (en(e o& t)e (%/9ect? The airline insists E.E The "o8ern&ent is E! FDG T)e %(e o& 2re2o(ition( i( o&ten di(tincti4e? A-erican( li4e on a (treet FBriti() Engli() inG, cater to 2eo2le FBriti() Engli() forG, do t)ing( on t)e =ee'end FBriti() Engli() atG, are of t=o -ind( a/o%t (o-et)ing FBriti() Engli() inG, )a4e a ne= lea(e on li&e FBriti() Engli() ofG, and =)en -entioning date( =)en t)ing( )a22en, -a* %(e or o-it on F:ack 0ent ho&e on ;onda+ and ca&e %ack Thursda+G. )ocabulary A di(tincti4e 4oca/%lar* de4elo2ed &ro- t)e Colonial Period %ntil t)e 2re(ent, incl%ding? F0G Old =ord( 2%t to ne= %(e(? creek &or a (-all (trea- Fco-2are A%(tralian Engli()G rat)er t)an an estuar+ Fa( in Briti() Engli()G. T)i( %(e 2ro/a/l* aro(e /eca%(e t)e ter- =a( &ir(t a22lied to t)e -o%t)( o& (trea-( along coa(t( (ettled /* t)e coloni(t( t)en e<tended to t)e =)ole =aterco%r(e. FJG Ne= =ord( -ade %2 &ro- old re(o%rce(? len"th+ &ro- lengt) and 5+ &or t)e -ar'ed (en(e o& lon" Fo& greater lengt) t)an %(%alG a( di(tinct &ro- t)e %n-ar'ed (en(e F Ho0 lon" is itOG, =)ic) doe( not i-2l* great lengt)E /riticis& an e<2re((ion 2ec%liar to BritainE co&$lected in co-/ination( li'e dark1co&$lected F)a4ing a dar' co-2le<ionG. FSG Borro=ing( &ro- A-erindian lang%age(? chi$&unkF, hickor+GH# &occasin# $ecanGG# skunk# s,uash# tote&# 0i"0a&. So-eti-e( (%c) =ord( ca-e t)ro%g) !renc)? cari%ou# to%o""an. FNG Borro=ing( &root)er colonial lang%age(? !renc) cho0derGI# $rairieE D%tc) %oss, colesla0GJ# cookie# Santa Claus# slei"h# snoo$# 0affle G@, and 2ro/a/l* YankeeE S2ani() corral# lasso# ranch. FQG Borro=ing( &ro- later i--igrant lang%age(? A&rican "oo%er# "u&%oGK# -uke# 8oodoo# 4o&%ieE ,er-an Fe(2eciall* t)ro%g) Penn(*l4ania D%tc)G du&% (t%2id, noodle# sauerkraut# snorkel, and t)e 5fest and 5%ur"er ending( in %ookfest, cheese%ur"er, etc. A-ong &ood ter-( are
"
a (-all &%rr* A(ian and Nort) A-erican ani-al =it) a long tail and /and( o& dar'er colo%r on it( /ac' a tree t)at 2rod%ce( n%t( and gro=( -ainl* in Nort) A-erica 00 a (=eet n%t =it) a t)in (-oot) ()ell. It gro=( on a 2ecan tree 0J a t)ic' (o%2 %(%all* -ade =it) &i() or ()ell&i(), -il' or crea-, and 4egeta/le( 0S a t*2e o& (alad -ade &ro- ra= ca//age and carrot( -i<ed =it) -a*onnai(e 0N a &lat ca'e t)at )a( dee2 (>%are -ar'( on /ot) (ide( 0Q a t)ic' (o%2 -ade =it) c)ic'en or &i() and t)e 4egeta/le o'ra, eaten -ainl* in t)e (o%t)ern #nited State(
0+
50
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Me<ican S2ani() chili Fcon carneG, C)ine(e cho$ sue+GA, C8ec) kolach a 'ind o& (=eet /%n, Italian $i44a, S=edi() s&or"as%ordGD, Ua2ane(e suki+akiGL, Na)%atl5S2ani() ta&aleGF, ,er-an 0iener Fa &ran'&%rterG. FDG So-e t*2icall* A-erican Engli() =ord( =it) co-2le< )i(torie(? la"nia$$e, a ter- &or a (-all 2re(ent gi4en /* -erc)ant( to t)eir c%(to-er(, e<tended to an* little e<tra /ene&it. A((ociated =it) t)e So%t), it i( &ro- Lo%i(iana !renc), /orro=ed &ro- S2ani() la fla$a t)e gi&t, &ro- \%ec)%aJ+ +a$a. A (election o& =ord( o& A-erican origin indicate( t)e 4ariet* and (igni&icance o& t)e A-erican Engli() contri/%tion to Engli() at large? airline# %oondo""leIG# checklist# disco# e3$ense account# flo0chart# "ee0hi4# half%reed# inner cit+# -unk food# kan"aroo court# laser# &ass &eetin"# nift+# ouch# $ants# ,uasar# radio# soa$ o$era# tedd+ %ear# 0holehearted# 3ero3# +u$$ieII# 4i$$er. The story of O+ T)e /e(t5'no=n and -o(t e<2orted ite- in A-erican Engli(), OV or o'a*, )a( a 2artic%larl* co-2le< )i(tor* trac'ed do=n /* Allen Kal'er ead to t=o &ad( o& t)e 0$S+( in t)e cit* o& Bo(ton FMcArt)%r 0""D? N0G. In t)e &ir(t, t)e initial( o& t)e =ord( in a 2)ra(e =ere %(ed in(tead o& t)e 2)ra(e it(el&? 2F; &or our first &enE n" &or no "o5no "ood. In t)e (econd, co-ic -i((2elling( o& =ord( =ere &a4o%red? oll 0ri"ht &or all rig)t. T)e t=o ca-e toget)er to 2rod%ce acron*-( li'e 29 FHoll =rig)tHG, 'Y FH'no= *%(eH? no %(eG, and 2' FHoll 'orrectH? all correctG. 2' =o%ld 2ro/a/l* )a4e died a=a* li'e 2F; and 29 %nle(( it =a( ta'en %2 a( a 2%n on t)e nic'na-e o& t)e 2olitician Martin .an B%ren? 2ld 'inderhook Fa&ter t)e to=n in Ne= Yor' (tate in =)ic) )e =a( /ornG. A 2olitical organi8ation, t)e OV Cl%/, =a( &or-ed to (%22ort )i( 2olitical &ort%ne(, and it( %(e o& t)e ter- in t)e election ca-2aign o& 0$N+ -ade t)e =ord 'no=n. .an B%ren lo(t t)e election, /%t )i( catc)=ord la(ted. FOt)er et*-ologie( &or OV )a4e /een 2ro2o(ed, tracing it to !renc), !inni(), Nor=egian, ,ree', ,er-an, Scot(, Coc'ne*, C)octa=, and (e4eral A&rican lang%age(, a( =ell a( to a n%-/er o& 2er(onal na-e(. All are i-aginati4e, /%t )a4e no doc%-entar* (%22ort.G
0D 07
F2# 8i"ilante#
a C)ine(e -eal con(i(ting o& -eat c%t into long t)in 2iece( =it) 4egeta/le( a collection o& (i-ilar t)ing( &ro- =)ic) *o% can c)oo(e 0$ a di() con(i(ting o& t)in (lice( o& /ee& &ried =it) 4egeta/le( in (%gar, (toc' and (o* (a%ce 0" a Me<ican -eal -ade /* rolling coo'ed -eat and 2e22er( in corn-eal, =ra22ing it in t)e o%ter co4ering o& -ai8e, and t)en coo'ing it J+ al(o Vec)%a or \%ic)%a? ling%i(tic &a-il* /elonging to t)e Andean /ranc) o& t)e Andean5E>%atorial (toc' o& Nati4e A-erican lang%age( J0 Boondoggling? an e<2re((ion %(ed in t)e earl* 0"S+( to denote %(ele(( (2ending, %(%all* =it) re&erence to t)e #nited State( go4ern-entC( e<2endit%re in t)e e&&ort to co-/at t)e de2re((ion. It a22arentl* deri4e( &ro- t)e Scotti() =ord %oondo""le, -eaning a -ar/le *o% recei4e a( a gi&t =it)o%t =or'ing &or it. JJ So-eone =)o i( *o%ng, earn( a lot o& -one*, and li4e( in a cit* in a (t*le t)at i( too e<2en(i4e &or -o(t 2eo2le
51
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Social matters At the end o& t)e 0"t) cent%r* and t)ro%g)o%t t)e J+t) cent%r*, t)e A-erican concern o4er correct %(age (ee-( to )a4e /een -ore inten(e t)an t)e Briti(). \%e(tion( o& lang%age engineer5 ing )a4e generall* /een -ore (trongl* con(idered in t)e #nited State( t)an in ot)er Engli()5 (2ea'ing co%ntrie(. T)ree i((%e( in 2artic%lar )a4e 2o=er&%l and %n2redicta/le (ocial con(e>%ence(? 5 5 5 T)e &e-ini(t concern &or (e<i(t lang%ageE T)e relation()i2 /et=een Blac' Engli() and t)e (tandard lang%ageE T)e relation()i2 /et=een Engli() and ot)er lang%age( in t)e #nited State(, 2artic%larl* S2ani(). Se3is&! T)e >%e(tion o& (e<i(- in lang%age aro%(e( (trong de/ate(. One o& it( (i-2ler -ani&e(tation( i( t)e %(e o& =ord( =it) -a(c%line i-2lication( F&an# heG =)en /ot) (e<e( are intended or a22ro2riate. Occ%2ational ter-( li'e chair&an# fore&an# $olice&an# &ail &an, and airline ste0ardess, =it) real or 2ercei4ed (e<%al re&erence, are no= /eing re2laced /* (e<%all* ne%tral ter-( li'e chair# su$er8isor# $olice officer# letter carrier, and fli"ht attendant. A /rie& &ad &or t)e %(e o& $erson in(tead o& &an in (%c) &or-( (ee-( to )a4e r%n it( co%r(e, lea4ing (o-e =ord(, (%c) a( chair$erson, in =ide(2read %(e and ot)er(, (%c) a( fore$erson, a( c%rio(itie(. Anot)er %nco-&orta/le 2oint i( t)e re>%ire-ent t)at a =o-anH( (ocial title F ;rs or ;issG (2eci&* )er -arital (tat%(, =)erea( a -anH( F;rG doe( notE a( a con(e>%ence, t)e &e-ale title ;s )a( /eco-e 4er* =idel* %(ed, 2artl* /eca%(e it i( )and* =)en t)e -arital (tat%( o& a =o-an i( %n'no=n e4en &or t)o(e =)o are ot)er=i(e indi&&erent to t)e 2ro/le-. A (%/tler &or- o& (e<i(- in lang%age i( t)e %(e o& "irls and ladies =it) re&erence to -at%re =o-enE /ot) are t)o%g)t to /e 2atroni8ing, t)e &ir(t /eca%(e it la/el( =o-en a( i--at%re and t)e (econd /eca%(e it i(olate( t)e- (ociall*. In t)i(, a( in ot)er -atter(, )o=e4er, -%c) de2end( on oneH( age and (ocial (tat%(. A-ong -an* -iddle5aged cl%//* =o-en, the "irls i( t)e nor-al =a* o& re&erring to oneH( inti-ate( F9%(t a( the %o+s i( a-ong -enG, and ladies i( t)e 2re&erred general ter-, 0o&en (o%nding a/r%2t and r%de. In general, con(cio%(ne(( o& (e<i(- in lang%age i( a *o%nger5generation, %r/an, and 2oliticall* li/eral concern. /lack En"lish. T)e ter-( %(ed &or A-erican( de(cended &ro- A&rican (la4e( contin%e to 4ar* a( -e-/er( o& t)e gro%2 c)ange t)e na-e /* =)ic) t)e* 2re&er to /e 'no=n. At one ti-e, colored $erson =a( t)e 2re&erred ter-, recorded in t)e National A((ociation &or t)e Ad4ance-ent o& Colored Peo2le FNAACPG. It =a( re2laced /* Ne"ro F=it) a &ir(t 4o=el li'e lea"ue, a( o22o(ed to t)e (o%nd in t)e 4ariant ni"raG, t)en /* /lack, and -ore recentl* African A&erican )a( /een &a4o%red. Con(idera/le contro4er(* )a( e<i(ted a/o%t /lack En"lish F.ernac%larG or /E>, t)e 52
ENGLISH DIALECTS
lang%age a((ociated =it) A&rican A-erican(. T)ere )a4e /een de/ate( a/o%t =)et)er (%c) %(age ()o%ld /e a -edi%- o& in(tr%ction a( an alternati4e to Standard Engli(). A-ong t)e (tronge(t o22onent( o& (%c) a de4elo2-ent )a4e /een older -e-/er( o& t)e gro%2. T)e origin and )i(tor* o& Blac' Engli() )a( al(o /een a (%/9ect o& contro4er(* a-ong ling%i(t(, and t)e 4er* e<i(tence o& (%c) a di(crete dialect )a( /een >%e(tioned. En"lish and S$anish! T)ere i( a (i-ilar contro4er(* a/o%t t)e o&&icial %(e o& an* non5Engli() lang%age(, /%t 2artic%larl* o& S2ani(), a( a -edi%- o& in(tr%ction in 2%/lic (c)ool(, &or 4oting in election(, and &or ot)er go4ern-ental and o&&icial &%nction(. Pre((%re &or (%c) %(e o& ot)er lang%age( co-e( &ro- i--igrant co--%nitie( =anting to -aintain t)eir identit* =it)in #nited State( (ociet* and )a( generated a co%nter52re((%re to declare Engli() t)e o&&icial lang%age o& t)e #nited State(. Se4eral co--%nitie( and (tate( )a4e 2a((ed la=( or re(ol%tion( to t)at e&&ect. T)e En"lish for nited States, En"lish First, or 2fficial En"lish -o4e-ent )a( /een called <eno2)o/ic, /%t can /e (een a( an e<ten(ion o& t)e H!ederal Engli()H ca-2aign o& t)e earl* e2%/lic, =)o(e ai- =a( t)e e(ta/li()-ent o& a %ni&or- national lang%age. Conclusion Regardle(( o& t)e con(tit%tional or ot)er (tat%( o& Engli() in t)e #nited State(, t)e &%t%re o& A-erican Engli() cannot /e do%/ted. T)e international %(e o& Engli() (ee-( a((%red &or t)e &ore(eea/le &%t%re. T)e e<tent to =)ic) international Engli() re&lect( t)e (tandard( o& Briti() Engli() or A-erican Engli(), or a -id5Atlantic co-2ro-i(e, can /e (2ec%lated, /%t one t)ing i( (%re? all national (tandard( o& Engli() are clo(e to one anot)er. T)e gro=t) o& HNe= Engli()e(H in t)e nation( t)at )a4e e-erged (ince Korld Kar II -a* di4er(i&* t)e total range o& t)e lang%age, /%t international %(e i( clo(el* tied to t)e relati4el* %ni&or- A-erican5Briti() co-2le<. DIALECT IN A(E"ICA W)ile earl* tra4eller( =ere inclined to 2rai(e t)e H2%rit*H and H%ni&or-it*H o& Engli() in colonial Nort) A-erica, later 4i(itor( identi&ied di(tinct dialect( in t)e Yan'ee Nort) and t)e 2lantation So%t). In -odern ti-e(, a ne%tral (2o'en 4ariet* o& A-erican Engli() i( =idel* acce2ted to /e %(ed /* national ne=( 2re(enter(, =)ile /roadca(ter( =)o 2re(ent =eat)er and (2ort( in&or-ation are li'el* to (2ea' one or anot)er regional 4ariet*, (ince t)eir do-ain( o& re2orting are le(( (erio%(. In t)i( &ield, a 'ind o& Net0ork Standard i( regarded a( e-/od*ing 2re(tige nor-( de(2ite t)e e4ident regional &eat%re( in t)e /e(t5'no=n ne=( 2re(enter(. T)ere i( no e4idence t)at li(tener( are -%c) in&l%enced /* t)e ling%i(tic (t*le and 2re&erence( o& t)e(e /roadca(ter(. .arietie( o& A-erican Engli() are =ell 'no=n acro(( co--%nitie(. Ne= Yor'er( 'no= t)at t)eir 53
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Engli() i( regarded a( H%nre&inedH or Hro%g)H /* 2eo2le o%t(ide t)e cit*, /%t t)i( reali8ation )a( )ad onl* a -inor in&l%ence on t)e Ne= Yor' dialect. Si-ilarl*, (2ea'er( &ro- t)e O8ar' Mo%ntain( generall* e4al%ate t)eir (2eec) a( H)ill/ill*H JS or H2oorH, /%t -o(t ()o= little de(ire to alter it, (ince t)e 2o(iti4e con(e>%ence( o& it( local %(e o%t=eig) t)e(e negati4e c)aracteri8ation(. Migrant( to ne= area( -a* retain t)eir )o-e 4ariet* and, i& t)ere i( a co--%nit* to (%22ort it, t)at 4ariet* -a* 2a(( &ro- one generation to t)e ne<t, a( inland Nort)ern )a( done in t)e larger citie( o& ,eorgia and Ala/a-a, or a( t)e (o%nd( o& ea(tern Vent%c'* )a4e a&&ected t)e (2eec) o& 2art( o& C)icago and Detroit. A-erican( tend to t)in' t)at 4arietie( o& Engli() are -ore deter-ined /* region t)an /* an* ot)er &actor t)at ()a2e( %(age, (%c) a( age, et)nicit*, gender, and (ocial cla((. A long5 re-e-/ered radio 2rogra--e o& t)e 0"Q+(, 9here Are You Fro&O, cond%cted /* t)e ling%i(t Henr* Lee S-it) Ur., (%(tained t)e idea t)at eac) region o& A-erican Engli() i( )ig)l* di(tincti4e. Ling%i(t( =)o )a4e in4e(tigated t)e -atter )a4e /een in&l%enced /* t)e t)eor* o& dialect geogra2)* &or-%lated in t)e 0"t) cent%r* /* A. U. Elli( &or England, /* U%le( ,illieron and Ed-ond Ed-ont &or !rance, and /* ,eorg Ken'er &or ,er-an* FMcArt)%r 0""D? JD"G. A( a re(%lt, in4e(tigation( )a4e 2re(%-ed t)e idea o& long5(ettled and (ta/le region(, an idea a22ro2riate &or E%ro2e /%t le(( a2t to t)e -ore recent and &l%id (ettle-ent 2attern( o& t)e #nited State(. E4en (o, A-erican Engli() dialect( are na-ed according to &o%r /road geogra2)ical region(? Nort), Coa(tal So%t), Midland, and Ke(t. The North T)e Nort)ern dialect, (tretc)ing &ro- Ne= England and Ne= Yor' =e(t=ard to Oregon and Ka()ington, =a( ()a2ed /* -igration &ro- t)e 07t) cent%r* colonial (ettle-ent( in Bo(ton and Ne= Yor'. K)ile t)e 2o2%lation o& t)e region =a( greatl* enlarged /* =a4e( o& -igration Fin t)e 0$Q+( &ro- nort)ern E%ro2e, e(2eciall* Scandina4ia and ,er-an*, in t)e 0$"+( &roea(tern and (o%t)ern E%ro2e, and in t)e 0"S+( &ro- t)e A-erican So%t)G, t)e nort)ern -etro2olitan area( are relati4el* %ni&or- FB%&&alo, Cle4eland, Detroit, C)icago, and Minnea2oli(G. Bot) Bo(ton and Ne= Yor' Engli() )a4e c)anged in =a*( not &ollo=ed in t)eir da%g)ter citie( to t)e =e(tE de(2ite t)eir internal di4er(it*, )o=e4er, /ot) Bo(ton and Ne= Yor' re-ain di(tinctl* Nort)ern. Northern $ronunciation. F0G T)e -o(t noticea/le di&&erence =it)in t)e region i( t)at Ne= Yor' and Ne= England ea(t o& t)e Connectic%t
JS
i4er are non5r)otic area(, =)ile t)e =e(tern 2ortion o& t)e Nort) i(
(o-eone =)o li4e( in t)e co%ntr*(ide, e(2eciall* (o-eone =)o i( not 4er* =ell ed%cated
54
ENGLISH DIALECTS
r)otic. Lin'ing r, co--on in -an* non5r)otic dialect( o& Engli(), occ%r( in Ne= England in e<2re((ion( li'e the idea5r of it. FJG T)e Nort)ern dialect lag( /e)ind Midland and Ke(tern 4arietie( in t)e 4o=el -erger t)at -a'e( )o-o2)one( o& cot and cau"ht? in Ne= England, =)ere t)e -erger i( /eginning to occ%r, (2ea'er( (elect t)e &ir(t 4o=elE in t)e Midland and Ke(t, t)e (econd 4o=el i( %(ed &or /ot). FSG Grease tend( to r)*-e =it) lease in t)e Nort) and Ke(t, r)*-ing =it) free4e el(e=)ere. FNG In Nort)ern (2eec), &atter and &adder are o&ten near5)o-o2)one(. Northern "ra&&ar F0G A di(tincti4e (*ntactic &eat%re i( all the b an ad9ecti4e in t)e co-2arati4e degree? That(s all the farther I could "o FT)atH( a( &ar a( I co%ld goG. FJG Do8e a( t)e 2a(t ten(e o& di8e i( a22arentl* a Nort) A-erican in4ention /* analog* =it) dri8e5dro8e and 0ea8e50o8e. Kidel* atte(ted in Nort)ern and in Canadian Engli(), do8e i( )olding it( o=n in it( )i(toric territor* and (2reading in A-erican Engli(). FSG Had ou"ht and hadn(t ou"ht, =)ile -ore co--on in le(( &or-al conte<t(, are Nort)erni(-( &or ou"ht and ou"ht not, t)o%g) t)e %(age )a( (2read el(e=)ere? HI& *o% donHt li'e 2eo2le, *o% )adnHt o%g)t to /e in 2olitic( at allH FHarr* S. Tr%-anG. FNG T)e Nort)ern ter- cellar F/a(e-entG a22ear( in a c)aracteri(tic 2re2o(itional 2)ra(e do0n cellarB 9on(t +ou "o do0n cellar and "et so&e $otatoesO Northern 8oca%ular+ Le<ical %(age 2ro4ide( t)e cleare(t e4idence o& t)e %nit* o& t)e Nort)ern region. In co-2ari(on to ot)er 4arietie( o& A-erican Engli(), Nort)ern doe( not ()o= -an* (%r4i4al( o& =ord( or (en(e( t)at )a4e /eco-e arc)aic in Briti() Engli(). T)e &ollo=ing ter-( are 'no=n el(e=)ere in t)e #nited State( and (o-e are %(ed &or nationall* di(tri/%ted 2rod%ct(, /%t t)e* &or- a cl%(ter t)at de&ine( t)e Nort)ern region? A&erican fries W /oiled 2otatoe( (liced and t)en &ried in a 2an, %is&ark5danish W (=eet 2a(tr*, %itch W to co-2lain, %loodsucker W a leec), ca%%a"e salad W cole(la=, co&forter W a )ea4* >%ilt, co0%o+ W a rec'le(( dri4er, "rackle W a 'ind o& /lac'/ird, ice1crea& social W a gat)ering o& 2eo2le &or re&re()-ent(, o&ten to rai(e -one* &or a 55
ENGLISH DIALECTS
=ort)* ca%(e, ni"htcra0ler M a large eart)=or-, $itch W t)e re(in o& coni&ero%( tree(, su%N&arineO W (and=ic) 2re2ared on a long roll, containing -eat, c)ee(e, and ot)er ingredient(, s0eet corn W -ai8e gro=n &or )%-an con(%-2tion, teeter1totter W a (ee5(a=. Ot)er lang%age( )a4e contri/%ted to t)e Nort)ern le<icon? %a%ushka W a )ead (car& FPoli() and %((ianG, cruller W a (-all &ried (=eet ca'e FD%tc)G, frankfurter5forter# frankfurt5fort# frank W a coo'ed (a%(age, )ot dog F,er-anG, ,uaho" W a t)ic'5()elled edi/le cla- FNarragan(etG, schno44le W no(e F&ro- Yiddi()G. The Coastal South Hi(toricall*, t)e Coa(tal So%t)ern dialect centre( on t)e Atlantic 2ort citie( o& t)e (tate( o& .irginia, t)e Carolina(, and ,eorgia, /lending =e(t=ard along t)e ,%l& Coa(t into Te<a(. T)e(e area( are di(tinct /ot) &ro- t)e Nort) and &ro- t)eir o=n )interland(, =)o(e dialect )a( con4entionall* /een la/elled South ;idland. Coa(tal So%t)ern =a( &or-ed in a ti-e o& 2lanta5 tion and ranc) agric%lt%re, an econo-* t)at re>%ired large5(cale o2eration(, =)ile t)e generall* )illier interior region( =ere t*2i&ied /* 4illage( and &ar-( o&ten clo(e to t)e (%/(i(tence le4el. Plantation agric%lt%re re>%ired an e<ten(i4e la/o%r &orce to gro= rice, to/acco, and cotton, t)ree earl* ca() cro2( in A-erica, and large n%-/er( o& A&rican( =ere en(la4ed to tend t)e-. K)ile t)e e<tent o& A&rican in&l%ence on So%t)ern A-erican Engli() re-ain( a (%/9ect &or de/ate, it i( generall* agreed t)at A&rican in&l%ence( re-ain in ,%lla), a creole (2o'en on t)e o&&()ore i(land( o& So%t) Carolina and ,eorgia. Southern $ronunciation. F0G Coa(tal So%t)ern i( non5r)otic. K)ile non5r)otic Nort)erner( e-2lo* a 4o=el in 2lace o& )i(toric r Fin Ne= England, (ea/oard Ne= Yor', and Ne= Uer(e* nort) o& P)iladel2)iaG, -an* So%t)erner( %(e t)e 2re4io%( 4o=el alone, -a'ing door r)*-e =it) doe and torn =it) tone. Lin'ing r i( rare. FJG T)e (a-e tendenc* &or di2)t)ong( to /eco-e -ono2)t)ong( i( a related So%t)ern &eat%re, (o t)at hide i( a near r)*-e o& /ot) hod FBa container =it) a long )andle %(ed &or carr*ing /ric'(CG and non5r)otic hard. On t)e ot)er )and, So%t)ern and Midland A-erican Engli() add a 4o=el not %(ed el(e=)ere in =ord( li'e loft =)ic) re(%lt( in a near r)*-e =it) 56
ENGLISH DIALECTS
lout. FSG So-e =ord5internal con(onant cl%(ter( can /e ca2t%red /* (%c) (2elling( a( %idness F/%(ine((G and /a%tist FBa2ti(tG. FNG Merger o& 4o=el( in $in and $en, since and cents Fto t)e 4o=el o& t)e &ir(t in eac) 2airG i( a So%t)ern &eat%re t)at i( (2reading el(e=)ere. Southern "ra&&ar F0G A &eat%re o& t)e region i( all the b ad9ecti4e in t)e 2o(iti4e degree? That(s all the fast I can run FT)atH( a( &a(t a( I can r%nG. FJG T)o%g) -ore co--on in Blac' t)an K)ite (2eec) Fand -ore co--on a-ong -en and t)e *o%ngG, t)e %(e o& in4ariant %e i( e(2eciall* So%t)ern? She %e here to&orro0E I %e $rett+ %us+; That land don(t %e sand+! FSG Coa(tal So%t)ern and #22er So%t) are t*2i&ied /* do%/le -odal(? She &i"ht can do itE Could +ou &a+ "oO FNG T)e(e area( al(o ()are a tolerance &or ain(t in in&or-al conte<t(, t)o%g) ain(t i( t)e %ni4er(al ()i//olet)JN in A-erican Engli() and e(2eciall* (tig-ati8ed in t)e Nort). In t)e Coa(tal and #22er So%t), degree( o& (tig-a attac) to ain(t increa(ingl* &ro- t)e (et 2)ra(e ain(t IO, to it( %(e &or are not NThe+ ain(t hereG, to it( %(e &or ha8e not FYou ain(t told us +etG. Southern 8oca%ular+ T)e co-2le< (ettle-ent )i(tor* o& t)e So%t) i( e4ident in c%lt%ral and ling%i(tic di&&erence( /et=een t)e coa(tal 2lain( and t)e )ill co%ntr*. M%c) o& t)e di(tincti4e coa(tal 4oca/%lar* con(i(t( o& e<2re((ion( t)at )a4e /eco-e arc)aic in ot)er 4arietie( o& Engli()? all1o8ers W &eeling( o& %nea(ine((, anti1"o"lin W a('e=, (lant=i(e, Na$O$reciate it W t)an' *o%, %ank W a (torage )ea2 o& 2otatoe(, ot)er 4egeta/le(, or coal, %ranch W a /roo', (trea-, carr+ W e(cort, "ull+0asher W a 4iolent rain(tor-, hand W a &ar- =or'er, hull W t)e ()ell o& a n%t, kinfolk W relati4e(, lick W a ()ar2 /lo=,
JN
a 2rinci2le or /elie& t)at i( con(idered to /e old5&a()ioned and no longer i-2ortant
57
ENGLISH DIALECTS
ScatP Gesundheitc W Ble(( *o%c, slouch M a la8* or inco-2etent 2er(on, s,uinch W to (>%int Fa -i9i oc)iiG. Ot)er lang%age( )a4e contri/%ted to So%t)ern? ho&in+ W )%lled 'ernel( o& cornR-ai8e, terra$in W a t%rtle Ft)e A-erindian lang%age( o& .irginia and %(ed -ore in t)e So%t) t)an el(e=)ereGE cooter W a t%rtle, "u&%o W (o%2 t)ic'ened =it) o'ra 2od( Ft)e lang%age( o& Ke(t A&rican (la4e(GE ar&oire W =ardro/e, %a+ou W (-all cree' or ri4er, -a&%ala+a W a (te= -ade =it) rice and 4ario%( -eat(, la"nia$$e W a (-all gi&t gi4en /* a -erc)ant to a c%(to-er Ft)e !renc) o& Lo%i(ianaG. !art)er =e(t, t)ere i( S2ani() in&l%ence? arro+o W a /roo' or cree', llano W an o2en, gra((* 2lain, riata W lariat, la((o, 8a,uero W co=/o*. The (idland Bet=een Nort)ern and Coa(tal So%t)ern i( a region t)at )a( /een (%/9ect to -%c) di(2%te. So-e (c)olar( )a4e treated it a( a %ni&ied area di4ided into Nort) and So%t) MidlandE ot)er( e-2)a(i8e it( a&&iliation =it) it( neig)/o%r( and de(cri/e it a( Lo0er North and $$er South. T)e ter- ;idland e-2)a(i8e( t)e (ettle-ent 2attern t)at &lo=ed &ro- P)iladel2)ia in t=o direction(? one, =e(t=ard t)ro%g) Penn(*l4ania into O)io, Indiana, and Illinoi(E t)e ot)er, (o%t)5 =e(t into t)e )ill co%ntr* o& Vent%c'*, Tenne((ee, t)e interior o& t)e So%t)ern coa(tal (tate(, Mi((o%ri, and Ar'an(a(. T)e (o%t)5=e(tern direction o& -igration /ro%g)t (ettler( into contact =it) t)e tran(2ortation ro%te( nort)=ard &ro- Ne= Orlean( along t)e Mi((i((i22i, Ar'an(a(, and O)io ri4er(, and t)e(e contact( le&t la(ting trace( on t)e dialect. ;idland $ronunciation F0G In co--on =it) ot)er A-erican Engli() dialect( =e(t o& t)e Atlantic coa(t, Midland i( r)otic. FJG P)iladel2)ia, t)e onl* r)otic cit* on t)e Atlantic (ea/oard, i( t)e &ocal area &or Midland, and it( dialect )a( traditionall* in&l%enced t)e )interland, incl%ding Pitt(/%rg), Col%-/%(, Indiana2oli(, S2ring&ield, and St Lo%i(. T)%(, t)e /o%ndar* /et=een t)e no= old5&a()ioned 58
ENGLISH DIALECTS
Nort)ern 2ron%nciation o& creek Fr)*-ing =it) trickG -eet( t)e Midland creek Fr)*-ing =it) seekG along an ea(t5=e(t line r%nning 2arallel to t)e Penn(*l4ania -igration ro%te(. FSG T)e -erger o& 4o=el( in tot and tau"ht /egin( in a narro= /and in central Penn(*l4ania and (2read( nort) and (o%t) to in&l%ence t)e Ke(t, =)ere t)e -erger i( %ni4er(al. FNG In t)e O)io i4er 4alle* =e(t=ard to Mi((o%ri, t)e 4o=el o& itch -a'e( a near r)*-e =it) each, (o t)at fish and tele8ision )a4e t)e (o%nd o& t)e 4o=el in &eek. FQG Anot)er Midland 4o=el i( &o%nd in %it and hill, =it) a di2)t)ong re(e-/ling t)e non5 r)otic 2ron%nciation o& %eer. T)at 2ron%nciation i( /eginning to (2read a-ong *o%nger (2ea'er( in t)e inland Nort). ;idland "ra&&ar F0G T)o%g) increa(ingl* arc)aic, a52re&i<ation to 4er/( ending in 5in" i( a =ell5'no=n Midland &eat%re? She 0ent a18isitin" +esterda+E The+ 0ere a1co&in" across the %rid"e. FJG T)e %(e o& an+&ore in t)e (en(e o& Hno=ada*(H Fand =it)o%t t)e re>%ire-ent o& a 2rior negati4eG i( (2reading to ot)er region( &ro- a Midland /a(e? ;+ aunt &akes hats all the ti&e an+&oreE 9e use a "as sto8e an+&ore. FSG egion( o& t)e Midland in&l%enced /* t)e ,er-an (ettle-ent( o& ea(t5central Penn(*l4ania e-2lo* all to re&er to a (%22l* o& &ood or drin' t)at )a( r%n o%t? The $ot roast is all Fel(e=)ere all "oneG. ;idland 8oca%ular+ F0G Di(tincti4e ter-( &or t)i( region incl%de? %linds W roller =indo= ()ade, fishin" 0or& W eart)=or-, &an"o W (=eet or /ell 2e22er, 0ooll+ 0or& W a cater2illar. FJG A( =it) t)e ot)er region(, (o-e &or-erl* li-ited %(age( )a4e co-e into -ore general %(e? %ucket W 2ail, hull W to re-o4e t)e o%ter co4ering o& a /ean, off a( in I 0ant off at the ne3t %us sto$. FSG T)e i(olation o& t)e (o%t)ern 2art o& t)e Midland area, it( 2oor (oil and c)ronic 2o4ert*, -ade it in)o(2ita/le to &%rt)er -igrant( a&ter initial (ettle-ent /* Scot(5Iri() and ,er-an(. Hence, &e= in&l%ence( &root)er lang%age( are a22arent in t)e 4oca/%lar*, =)ic) i( t*2i&ied /* relic &or-( and arc)ai(-( no longer &o%nd el(e=)ere in A-erican Engli()? &or e<a-2le, %rickle W /rittle, donsie W (ic'l*, 59
ENGLISH DIALECTS
$oke W (ac', /ag, redd W to tid* %2 Fall &ro- Scot(G. The *est T)e Ke(t =a( &ir(t (ettled /* Engli() (2ea'er( a&ter t)e gold r%() o& t)e 0$Q+(. So%t)ern -igration along t)e B%tter&ield Stage o%te /ro%g)t (ettler( &ro- Mi((o%ri and Ar'an(a( t)ro%g) central Te<a(, Ne= Me<ico, and Ari8ona, to Cali&orniaE t)e Santa !e trail al(o originated in Mi((o%ri and reac)ed (o%t)ern Cali&ornia /* a (o-e=)at -ore nort)erl* ro%te. Nort)ern trail( and (%/(e>%entl* t)e railroad too' (ettler( into t)e central 4alle* o& Cali&ornia and San !ranci(co t)ro%g) Ne/ra('a, K*o-ing, and #ta). T)e Oregon Trail and it( (%cce((or railroad connected t)e nort)ern tier o& (tate( to t)e Paci&ic Nort)=e(t. !or )i(toricall* -inded dialectologi(t(, initial in4e(tigation( o& t)e Ke(tern dialect region d=elt on t)e contin%it* o& -igration =e(t=ard on t)e 2re(%-2tion t)at Nort)erner( 2re&erred t)e nort)ern Paci&ic coa(t =)ile So%t)erner( =ere -ainl* attracted to t)e -ore )ealt)* cli-ate in (o%t)ern Cali&ornia. T)%(, it =a( no (%r2ri(e t)at (%c) (t%die( e-2)a(i8ed contin%it*? &or e<a-2le, curtains Froller =indo= ()ade(G, a Nort)ern ter-, a22ear( -ore co--onl* &ro- San !ranci(co nort)=ardE arro+o can /e traced &ro- Te<a( =e(t=ard to Lo( Angele(, /%t doe( not e<tend nort) to San !ranci(co. K)at i( -i((ed /* t)i( a22roac) i( t)e &act t)at t)e Ke(t /eca-e a (o%rce o& ling%i(tic inno4ation (2reading /ac' to t)e longer5(ettled dialect region(. K)ile it -a* )a4e /een a H-i<edH region in t)e 2a(t, Cali&ornia and t)e Paci&ic Nort)=e(t are no= co-ing to /e (een a( a co)erent dialect region in t)eir o=n rig)t. 9estern $ronunciation In (o-e re(2ect(, t)e Ke(t /ring( to co-2letion 2roce((e( /eg%n el(e=)ere. T)e -erger o& t)e 4o=el( o& Don and Da0n, noted a/o4e, i( 4irt%all* %ni4er(al in t)e Ke(t, and it( in&l%ence i( (2reading ea(t=ard. T)e 4o=el in (%c) =ord( a( &easure and fresh F=)ic) )a( t)e 4al%e o& %et in -%c) o& t)e Ea(tG i( increa(ingl* gi4en t)e (o%nd o& %ait, (o t)at ed"e and a"e )a4e co-e to re(e-/le eac) ot)er. T)o%g) Ke(terner( di(ting%i() seal &ro- sill, Ea(terner( )ear t)e(e a( nearl* identical F=it) t)e 4o=el o& sill in /ot)GE a( a re(%lt, o%t(ider( regard t)e Ke(tern 2ron%nciation o& reall+ a( identical to t)eir o=n 2ron%nciation o& rill+. 9estern "ra&&ar T)e &act t)at Ke(tern i( t)e lea(t inten(i4el* (t%died o& A-erican Engli() dialect( -a* contri/%te to t)e lac' o& e4idence &or a di(tincti4e gra--ar o& t)e region. S%/gro%2( =it)in t)e region e-2lo* -ar'ed (*nta<? 9e all the ti&e used to "o outside FHi(2anic5in&l%enced Engli(), Ea(t Lo( Angele(GE I %een tri$$in" for three 0eeks F0"D+( San !ranci(co dr%g %(ageGE ;ora+ eel +ou can s$ear it FHa=aiian Engli()GE Do +ou ha8e an+ %ets onO FLa( .ega( ga-/ling tal'GE 60
ENGLISH DIALECTS
.ete(s 0oodin" those trucks do0n Flogger %(age, Paci&ic Nort)=e(tGE Here 0e sho$$in" and 0ent throu"h the to0n to see thin"s and $laces FA2ac)ean Engli() o& t)e ,reat Plain(GE Like# no %i""ie FSan !ernando .alle* teenage tal'G. 9estern 8oca%ular+ So-e co--on Ke(tern ter-( are %nco--on el(e=)ere e<ce2t in re&erence to Ke(tern lang%age or c%lt%re? %ar $it W a ditc) /* t)e (ide o& an %ngraded road, %ear cla0 W a large, (=eet 2a(tr* ()a2ed li'e a /earH( 2a=, %ush $ilot W a daring 2ilot o& lig)t aircra&t %(ed to reac) re-ote Ala('an area(, can+on W (tee25(ided, narro= 4alle*, chesterfield W a (o&a, "unn+ sack W a /%rla2 Fcine2aG /ag, lo0er @L W %(ed in Ala('a to re&er to t)e re(t o& t)e #nited State(, lu" W a &ield crate &or &r%it and 4egeta/le(, $arkin" Nstri$O W a /and o& gra(( /et=een (ide=al' and c%r/ on a cit* (treet, sourdou"h %read W /read (tarted =it) a 2iece o& &er-ented do%g). T)e -o(t i-2ortant &oreign5lang%age in&l%ence on Ke(tern i( Me<ican S2ani(). Man* /orro=ing( are %(ed -ainl* in (o%t)ern Cali&ornia, Ari8ona, and Ne= Me<ico, /%t (o-e are -ore =idel* 'no=n? adios W good/*e, ado%e W (%n5dried /ric', %ronco W =ild, -ean, ro%g) F&ro- a =ild or 2artl* /ro'en )or(eG, e&%arcadero W =)ar&, ho&%re W g%*, &ello=, Santa Ana W a (ea(onal )ot, dr* =ind in (o%t)ern Cali&ornia. .ario%( ter-( &or Me<ican coo'er* =ere introd%ced into Engli() el(e=)ere /%t are regarded a( t*2ical o& t)e region and )a4e =ide(2read c%rrenc* t)ere? carne seco W c)i22ed /ee&, fri-oles W /ean(, lan"osta W cra*&i() or (2in* lo/(ter, tortilla W t)in, ro%nd, %nlea4ened /read. Ot)er lang%age( )a4e contri/%ted =ord( to Ke(tern t)at )a4e co-e to /e 'no=n o%t(ide t)e region? aloha W a greeting or &are=ell, lei W a garland o& &lo=er( FHa=aiianGE 61
ENGLISH DIALECTS
chinook W a =ar- =inter =ind, Sas,uatch Fal(o called HBig&ootHG W a legendar* )o-inid ani-al FA-erindian lang%age( o& t)e Paci&ic Nort)=e(tGE di& su& W -eat5&illed d%-2ling, kun" fu W a -artial art FC)ine(eGE honcho W a (trong leader, /o((, Nisei W a 2er(on o& Ua2ane(e de(cent /orn or ed%cated in t)e #S FUa2ane(eG. Influences on 0nited States dialects T)e %(age o& all A-erican(, irre(2ecti4e o& t)eir dialect, i( in&l%enced /* (ocial net=or'( t)at incl%de gender, age and 2eer gro%2, (ocial cla((, et)nic /ac'gro%nd, occ%2ation(, and re5 creation(. So-e di(tincti4e 4arietie( )a4e gained national 2ro-inence, (%c) a( :e0ish En"lish t)ro%g) it( %(e /* entertainer( and ot)er(. Peo2le =)o are not Ue=i() are li'el* to )a4e at lea(t (o-e 'no=ledge o& it and a /it o& (%c) loan=ord( a(? chut4$ah W (trong con&idence in *o%r(el& (o t)at *o% can (a* or do r%de or ()oc'ing t)ing( =it)o%t /eco-ing a()a-ed or e-/arra((edE t)i( =ord %(%all* ()o=( t)at *o% ad-ire t)i( >%alit* in a 2er(on, sch&alt4+ M dealing =it) lo4e and ot)er &eeling( in a =a* t)at i( (ill* or not (incere# sch&oo4e W to tal' =it) (o-eone in a &riendl* and in&or-al =a*, o&ten =it) t)e intention o& gaining an ad4antage or 2er(%ading t)e- to do (o-et)ing *o% =ant. Ot)er 4arietie(, 2re(ent (tereot*2e(, (%c) a( Countr+19estern, originating in t)e A22alac)ian and O8ar' region( o& t)e #22er So%t), =)ic) )a( /eco-e =ell 'no=n in t)e J+ t) cent%r* t)ro%g) co%ntr*5and5=e(tern -%(ic, -o4ie( =it) t)e (a-e to2ic, and radio co--%nication a-ong airline 2ilot(, tr%c' dri4er(, and ot)er( =)o i-itate t)e-. His$anic En"lish )a( /een increa(ingl* di((e-inated t)ro%g) 2o2%lar c%lt%re and t)e -edia, t)o%g) o%t(ider( -a* not a22reciate t)at -an* =)o (2ea' it )a4e little or no co-2etence in S2ani(). e&ined So%t)ern (2eec) )a( /een -ade internationall* &a-iliar in t)e -odel( 2re(ented /* &il-( and 2la*(, and a Te<a( (t*le )a( /eco-e 2o2%lar t)ro%g) Ke(tern &il-( and t)e T. (oa2 o2era Dallas. A&erican /lack En"lish )a( long created (ocial (olidarit* a-ong A&rican5A-erican( and )a( /een %(ed F(o-eti-e( a/%(i4el*G in 2o2%lar entertain-ent. S%c) 4arietie(, )a4ing national 2ro-inence, are a4aila/le &or i-itation in dialect and et)nic 9o'e( =it) eno%g) ()i//olet)( to identi&* t)e target gro%2. Ot)er co--%nitie(, t)o%g) le(( =idel* 'no=n, e<ert (i-ilarl* 2o=er&%l con(traint( on t)eir -e-/er( and neig)/o%r(, &or e<a-2le t)e !inni()5&la4o%red Engli() o& nort)ern Mic)iganE 62
ENGLISH DIALECTS
t)e ,er-an5in&l%enced Engli() (2o'en /* t)e A-i() and Mennonite co--%nitie( o& central Penn(*l4ania, O)io, and IndianaE Nati4e A-erican or (Indian( En"lish, e(2eciall* in Ari8ona and Ne= Me<icoE t)e .olish En"lish o& nort)5ea(tern ind%(trial citie( li'e B%&&alo and DetroitE t)e Ca-un En"lish o& Lo%i(iana, =it) it( !renc) and Cari//ean5creole trace(. E4en a (ingle co--%nit* can de4elo2 a di(tincti4e ling%i(tic identit*? /et=een 0$$+ and 0"J+, Boon4ille, a (-all to=n in nort)ern Cali&ornia, de4elo2ed a (*(te-atic tran(&or-ation o& Engli() 'no=n a( /oontlin", an idio- t)at -ade -e-/er( o& t)e co--%nit* at once %nintelligi/le to o%t(ider( =)en t)e* (o =i()ed and con(cio%( o& t)e i-2ortance o& /eing Boonter(. "egional mar-ers Different 2re&erence( &or (*non*-( )el2 to di(ting%i() t)e region(? cra0dad i( li'el* to occ%r in t)e Midland and =e(t o& t)e A22alac)ian(, cra0fish i( %(ed nationall* /%t i( -o(t &re>%ent in t)e So%t) and Ke(t, and cra+fish i( co--on in t)e Nort). In t)e Nort), =e(t o& t)e H%d(on i4er, 2eo2le attend a $otluckE to t)e ea(t o& t)e H%d(on and in Midland and So%t), t)e (a-e e4ent( are co8ered dish luncheons5su$$ers. Peo2le in t)e Nort) and Ke(t are H(ic' to t)eir (to-ac)(HE in Penn(*l4ania and (o%t)=ard along t)e Atlantic coa(t, t)e* are H(ic' on t)eir (to-ac)(HE along t)e ,%l& Coa(t and in t)e So%t)=e(t t)e* are H(ic' at t)eir (to-ac)(H. So-e o& t)e(e are =ell5'no=n -ar'er( o& regional di(tinction(. E4er* A-erican 'no=( t)at -an* c%lti4ated So%t)erner( (a* +ou1all and le(( c%lti4ated Nort)erner( (a* +ouse &or t)e 2l%ral o& +ou. Car/onated (o&t drin'(, =)ate4er t)eir trade-ar'(, )a4e regionall* di&&erent na-e(? coke or do$e in t)e So%t), cold drink in t)e lo=er Mi((i((i22i .alle*, $o$ in t)e interior o& t)e Nort) and Ke(tE soda in t)e Nort)ea(tE tonic in t)at 2art o& t)e Nort)ea(t in&l%enced /* Bo(ton. T)e 4arietie( in =)ic) (%c) %(age( occ%r are o&ten de(cri/ed in ter-( o& (o%nd, (o-eti-e( 2e9orati4el*? So%t)erner( dra0l, Ne= Yor'er( are nasal, Ne= Englander( (2ea' =it) a t0an".
%LAC+ EN!LIS& )E"NAC0LA" It =a( &ir(t %(ed in 0"7J /* Killia- La/o4 and t)e ()ort &or- i( BE.. It i( al(o 'no=n a( A&rican5A-erican Engli(), A&ro5A-erican Engli(), A&ro5A-erican, FA-ericanG Blac' Engli(), /lac' Engli(). T)e(e are ter-( in (ocioling%i(tic( &or Engli() a( %(ed /* a -a9orit* o& #nited State( citi8en( o& Blac' A&rican /ac'gro%nd, con(i(ting o& a range o& (ociall* (trati&ied %r/an and r%ral dialect(. T)e -o(t non5(tandard 4arietie( are %(ed /* 2oor /lac'( =it) li-ited ed%cation, =)o )a4e re(tricted (ocial contact /e*ond t)eir nati4e co--%nitie(. Standard 4arietie( are in&l%enced /* regional nor-(? /lac' (tandard Engli() in t)e So%t) i( di&&erent &ro- t)e A&rican5 A-erican (tandard in t)e Nort), and eac) in t%rn re&lect( collo>%ial %(age a-ong ed%cated 63
ENGLISH DIALECTS
=)ite( in t)e (a-e area(. Con(idera/le (t*le5()i&ting occ%r( /et=een /lac'( tal'ing to non5/lac'( and e(2eciall* on le(( &or-al occa(ion( =)en /lac'( 2re&er to %(e 4ernac%lar (2eec) a-ong t)e-(el4e(. T)e corre(2onding 4ariation i( con(tant, occ%rring =it) 2)onolog*, intonation, -or5 2)olog*, (*nta<, A&rican5A-erican (lang, idio-(, and rit%ali8ed 4er/al con&rontation(. Origins A-erican Blac' Engli() =a( a con(e>%ence o& (la4er* /et=een t)e late 0D t) cent%r* and -id50"t) cent%r*, and &ollo=ed /lac' -igration &ro- t)e (o%t)ern (tate( to raciall* i(olated g)etto( t)ro%g)o%t t)e #nited State(. According to U. L. Dillard F/lack En"lish, 0"7J in McArt)%r 0""D? 0S0G, (o-e $+_ o& /lac' A-erican( (2ea' t)e 4ernac%lar, and )e and (e4eral ot)er co--entator( (tre(( it( A&rican origin(. T)e 2idgini8ation and creoli8ation t)at re(%lted &ro- (la4er* re-ain on t)e tong%e( o& A-erican( o& A&rican de(cent. Sla4e la/o%r in t)e So%t) ga4e /irt) to di4er(e ling%i(tic nor-(E &or-er indent%redJQ (er4ant( &ro- all 2art( o& t)e Briti() I(le(, =)o o&ten /eca-e o4er(eer( on 2lantation(, 4ario%(l* in&l%enced t)e &o%ndation( o& BE.. !ir(t t)e ind%(trial re4ol%tion t)en t)e Ci4il Kar di(r%2ted (la4er* and 2ro-oted A&rican5 A-erican -igration =it)in t)e #nited State(, a( a re(%lt o& =)ic) (la4e dialect( =ere tran(2lanted &ro- So%t)ern 2lantation( to t)e &actorie( o& t)e Nort) and Mid=e(t. K)en H(-o'e(tac'H ind%(trie( gre=, (o too did %r/an e-2lo*-ent &or /lac'(, /%t racial (egregation, rigoro%( in t)e So%t), =a( -aintained in 4ario%( &or-( t)ro%g)o%t t)e entire #nited State(, and %n&ort%natel* )a( not *et co-e to an end. ronunciation F0G Li'e t)e Engli() o& t)e So%t)ern (tate( in general, BE. i( non5r)otic? HcaH &or car, H2a)t*H &or $art+. Co-2ara/l*, RlR i( a/(ent in =ord5&inal con(onant cl%(ter( =it) la/ial( FH)e2H &or hel$, H(e&C &or selfG, and /ot) RrR and RlR are a/(ent in (%c) %(age( a( HKe co-inH &or 9e(re co&in" and HKe /e )ereH &or 9e(ll %e here. FJG A (*lla/ic RnR co--onl* re2lace( R;R in 5in" &or-(? Hco-inH and Hr%nninH &or co&in" and runnin". FSG Kord5&inal con(onant cl%(ter( are red%ced? Hde(H &or desk, Hte(H &or test, HcolH &or cold. FNG Pa(t5ten(e ending( are al(o a/(ent in (%c) cl%(ter(? Hloo'H &or looked, Htal'H &or talked. FQG Kord5initial RdR o&ten ta'e( t)e 2lace o& R7R, a( in Hdat da*H &or that da+ and Hdi( )o%(eH &or this house! FDG Kord5&inal R&R o&ten re2lace( R6R, a( in H/oo&H &or %ooth and H(o%&H &or south.
JQ
&orced /* a contract to =or' &or an e-2lo*er &or a &i<ed 2eriod o& ti-e
64
ENGLISH DIALECTS
F7G T)ere i( o&ten )ea4* initial (tre(( in di(*lla/ic =ord(? $Qlice &or $olRce, d=fine &or defRne. !rammar F0G M%lti2le negation( are co--on, a( =it) -an* non5(tandard Engli() dialect(? No 0a+ no "irl can(t 0ear no $latfor& shoes to no a&use&ent $ark 5 T)ere i( no =a* t)at an* girl can =ear 2lat&or- ()oe( to an a-%(e-ent 2ar'. FJG E<i(tential it re2lace( there? It ain(t no food here 5 T)ere i( no &ood )ere. FSG In&lected &or-( (%c) a( 2l%ral, 2o((e((i4e, and (ing%lar 5 s and 2a(t 5ed are 4aria/l* o-itted? He "ot three cent; That(s &+ %rother %ook; She like ne0 clothes; The+ talk FW tal'edG all ni"ht. FNG So-e in4er(ion occ%r( =it) >%e(tion(? 9hat it isO, Ho0 +ou areO FQG A%<iliar* do can re2lace %e in a negati4e (tate-ent? It don(t all %e her fault 1 It i(nHt al=a*( )er &a%lt. FDG A%<iliar* %e i( o&ten %(ed to indicate )a/it%al occ%rrence? The+ %e fi"htinS 5 T)e* are al=a*( &ig)ting, He %e lau"hinC W He la%g)( all t)e ti-e. F7G Stre((ed %een con4e*( long5(tanding e4ent( =it) re-ote 2a(t(? I %een see dat &o8ie 5 I (a= t)at -o4ie long agoE She %een had dat hat 5 S)e )a( )ad t)at )at &or (o-e ti-e. F$G Intention i( (o-eti-e( e<2re((ed /* t)e 2article a? I(& a shoot +ou 5 IH- going to ()oot *o%? co-2are A22alac)ian Engli() I(& a "onna for HI a- going toH. F"G A(2ect%al %(age =it) stead+ occ%r( /e&ore 2rogre((i4e 4er/( or =it) )ea4* (tre(( in (entence5&inal 2o(itionE greater e-2)a(i( occ%r( =)en (entence( concl%de =it) stead+? 9e %e stead+ ra$$in# 9e stead+ %e ra$$in# 9e %e ra$$in stead+ 5 Ke are al=a*( tal'ingE The+ stead+ %e hi"h# The+ %e stead+ hi"h# The+ %e hi"h stead+ 5 T)e* are al=a*( into<icated F&ro- dr%g( or alco)olG. In (%c) ca(e(, stead+ indicate( t)at t)e acti4it* i( 2er(i(tent, con(i(tent, and inten(e. F0+G Co&e (o-eti-e( &%nction( a( a (e-ia%<iliar*? He co&e tellin &e so&e stor+ 5 He told -e a lieE The+ co&e co&in in here like the+ o0n de $lace 5 T)e* ca-e in )ere li'e t)e* o=ned t)e 2lace. F00G Ad4er/ial %(e o& like to -eaning Hal-o(tH? I like to dieNdO 5 I al-o(t diedE He like to hit his head on that %ranch 5 He al-o(t )it )i( )ead on t)at /ranc). )ocabulary F0G S%c) ter-( a( "oo%er F2ean%tG, +a& F(=eet 2otatoG, tote Fto carr*G, and %uckra F=)ite -anG trace t)eir )i(tor* to Ke(t A&rica, a( do t)e gra--atical &%nction( o& )a/it%al %e and a(2ect%al stead+. 65
ENGLISH DIALECTS
FJG Se4eral in5gro%2 ter-( are %(ed to re&er to inti-ate( or to ot)er A&rican A-erican( in general. !or e<a-2le, ho&e%o+ =a( coined /* con4ict( =)o (er4ed 2ri(on ter-( =it) ot)er H/o*( &ro- )o-eH? t)at i(, ot)er con4ict( &ro- t)e (a-e neig)/o%r)ood. T)e /ond /et=een ho&e%o+s i( (tronger t)an t)at /et=een ot)er /rot)er( or /lood( Fot)er /lac'(G =)o )a4e )ad no relation()i2 2rior to i-2ri(on-ent. T)i( ter- -o4ed &ro- 2ri(on( to t)e /lac' co--%nitie( =)ere -o(t Fe<Gcon4ict( li4eFdG. Ho&ies i( t)e 2l%ral &or- and ho&e"irl t)e &e-inine e>%i4alent, o& ho&e%o+. FSG Pe9orati4e et)nic ter-( &or =)ite( incl%de honkie and 0hite+ &or all =)ite(, and redneck and $ecker0ood &or 2oor andRor r%ral andRor So%t)ern =)ite(, e(2eciall* (%c) o4ert raci(t( a( -e-/er( o& t)e V% Vl%< Vlan. Slang F0G E(ta/li()ed (lang incl%de( (igni&icant c)ange( in t)e (en(e( and a22lication( o& =ord(? %ad i( %(ed to -ead HgoodH FHe+# that(s a %ad car# &ancGE cool and hot are %(ed =it) e>%al inten(it* to -ean H4er* goodH FThat car is real cool5hotGE cri%, %(%all* a((ociated =it) in&ant(, can -ean an* )o-e, a2art-ent, or 2lace =)ere one li4e(, incl%ding a &ederal )o%(ing 2ro9ectE short and ride can re&er to an a%to-o/ile? Ho&e%o+ %e stead+ dri8in" that short5ride. FJG E4er*da* idio-( incl%de? ste$$ed1to F(%/9ect to a 2)*(ical ad4ance /* an o22onent /e&ore a 2o((i/le e<c)ange o& /lo=(G, a( in So I said# (9hat(s u$T( and I "ot ste$$ed1to E u$side the head Fagain(t t)e )eadG, a( in He "ot hit u$side the head; ash+ , in re&erence to a dr* ('in condition t)at a22ear( a( a (lig)t di(coloration? His skin al0a+s %e so ash+. FSG Man* e<2re((ion( %(ed in BE. )a4e Hcro((ed o4erH into -ain(trea- collo>%ial A-erican Engli()? hi$ or he$, re&erring to (o-eone =)o i( 4er* 'no=ledgea/le a/o%t 2o2%lar Fe(2eciall* inner5cit* A&rican5A-ericanG c%lt%reE dude a( a generic re&erence &or an* -ale? That dude %e cra4+. 0sage Man* 'ind( o& A&rican5A-erican (2eec) act( )a4e t)eir origin in A&rican oral tradition(? the do4ens 4er/al in(%lt( to=ard( an o22onentH( -ot)erE ra$$in" a 4ol%/le, r)*t)-ic elo>%ence t)at incl%de( /ot) t)e lang%age o& (ed%ction and t)e l*ric( o& 2o2%lar -%(icE shuckin"# -i8in" decei4ing =)ite( t)ro%g) 4er/al tric'er* =it)o%t t)eir 'no=ledgeE soundin" engaging in arg%-ent(. T)e H-en and =o-en o& =ord(H =)o e-/od* t)e(e tradition( are co--on in -o(t /lac' co--%nitie(E 2reac)er(, 2oet(, -%(ician(, and 2olitical radical( tend to /e ('illed 2racti5 tioner( o& a r)etoric deri4ed &ro- A&rica and o&ten in&l%enced /* t)e Bi/le. Alt)o%g) -en are 2ercei4ed a( do-inating t)e(e tradition(, =o-en )a4e 2la*ed a (igni&icant role in t)e oral 66
ENGLISH DIALECTS
tradition( o& A&rican A-erica. S%c) -%(ic a( Negro (2irit%al( and 9a88, a( =ell a( dance, 2oetr*, ra2, and e4en ela/orate )and()a'e( )a4e (%/(tantiall* Hcro((ed o4erH and /eco-e 2art o& 2o2%lar c%lt%re in t)e #nited State( and el(e=)ere. Literary %lac- English )ernacular T)e i-2le-entation o& BE. in A-erican Engli() literat%re i( co-2ara/le to t)at o& literar* Coc'ne* in England. U. L. Dillard F /lack En"lish, 0"7JG o/(er4ed t)at t)e earlie(t literar* rendition(JD a22eared /e&ore 07"+? HAtte(tation Frecorded literar* e<a-2le(G &roCrf4ecoe%r, Cotton Mat)er, Ben9a-in !ran'lin, t)e co%rt record( o& Sale-, Ma((ac)%(ett(, and (e4eral ot)er (o%rce( -a* /e &o%nd /e&ore t)e 07"+C( 5 and all =it)o%t an* reco%r(e to &ictional (o%rce(. T)e =ealt) o& -aterial a&ter t)at date i( (i-2l* a(toni()ing. T)ere i(, in &act, a 4er* great deal o& 2re5Ci4il Kar literar* Negro dialectH Fin McArt)%r 0""D? 0SSG. Dillard =a( reacting to (%c) (tate-ent( /* H. L. Menc'en a(? HT)e Negro dialect, a( =e 'no= it toda*, (ee-( to )a4e /een &or-%lated /* t)e (ong5=riter( &or t)e -in(trel ()o=(E it did not a22ear in literat%re %ntil t)e ti-e o& t)e Ci4il KarE /e&ore t)at... it =a( a 4ag%e and arti&icial lingo =)ic) )ad little relation to t)e act%al (2eec) o& So%t)ern /lac'(H FThe A&erican Lan"ua"e, Nt) edition, 0"SDG. Min(trel ()o=(, %(%all* =ritten and 2er&or-ed /* =)ite(, did not re&lect t)e tr%e 4oice( o& (la4er*E rat)er, t)e* e-2lo*ed e<aggerated (tereot*2e( t)at )a4e, o&ten /* -i(ta'e, (er4ed to 2er2et%ate ling%i(tic -*t)( acro(( racial, regional, and cla(( /o%ndarie(. Conte-2orar* A&rican5 A-erican =riter(, incl%ding Ma*a Angelo%, Lang(ton H%g)e(, Toni Morri(on, Alice Kal'er, and ic)ard Krig)t, )a4e 2ro4ided in(ig)t(, 4igo%r, and reali(- to literar* 2ro(e and 2oe-( o& Blac' Engli() in t)e #nited State( t)at contin%e to in&lence inter2retation( o& Engli() %(age and A-erican literat%re. Social matters Alt)o%g) t)i( cro((5o4er 2ro4ide( (o-e e4idence o& c%lt%ral 2rogre(( and racial tolerance, t)ere e<i(t -an* -i(conce2tion( a/o%t BE., -ainl* t)at it i( (i-2l* H/ad Engli()H and t)at it )old( A&rican A-erican( /ac' in ed%cation and e-2lo*-ent o22ort%nitie( /eca%(e o& t)i(. T)e do-inant i((%e &or BE. i( a (tereot*2e t)at e>%ate( non5(tandard %(age =it) (t%2idit*. It( negat5 i4e con(e>%ence( contin%e to a&&ect t)e 2ro(2ect( o& /lac' A-erican c)ildren. Beca%(e BE. i( de4al%ed and -i(%nder(tood, %nin&or-ed citi8en( Fincl%ding -an* teac)er( =it) e<cellent intention(G contin%e to denigrate it in &a4o%r o& (tandard A-erican Engli(). !e= (%c) ed%cator(, irre(2ecti4e o& t)eir training in ling%i(tic(, )a4e learned a/o%t t)e )i(tor* and nat%re o& A&rican5 A-erican Engli(), and do not a22reciate it( di4er(it* and logical integrit* a( a long5e(ta/li()ed
JD
rendition W a 2artic%lar =a* o& 2er&or-ing a (ong, 2oe-, 2iece o& -%(ic etc
67
ENGLISH DIALECTS
4ariet* o& t)e lang%age. Conclusion A&rican5A-erican 4arietie( o& Engli() 4ar* con(idera/l*, tending to re&lect t)e (ocial /ac'gro%nd and 2er(onal a(2iration( o& indi4id%al (2ea'er( a( =ell a( t)e (ocial circ%-(tance( in =)ic) di&&erent dialect( 2ro(2er. T)e )i(torical e4idence con&ir-( a co-/ination o& A&rican, Engli(), Scot(, and Iri() in&l%ence( t)at )a4e e4ol4ed t)ro%g) co-2le< 2roce((e( o& 2idgini8ation and creoli8ation. E4er5c)anging racial attit%de( and (ocial o22ort%nitie( &or /lac'( in t)e #nited State( )a4e increa(ed ling%i(tic di4er(it* a-ong t)e de(cendent( o& A-erican (la4e(. A(E"ICAN EN!LIS& AND %"ITIS& EN!LIS& Beca%(e Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli() are t)e -a9or 4arietie( o& t)e Engli() lan5 g%age and (er4e a( re&erence nor-( &or ot)er 4arietie(, t)e* )a4e o&ten /een co-2ared and contra(ted. S%c) co-2ari(on and contra(t are co-2le< -atter(, -ade e4en -ore co-2le< /* t)e a-/ig%it* and 4ag%ene(( o& t)e ter-( t)e-(el4e(. T)e* are a-/ig%o%( in t)at eac) )a( -ore t)an one -eaningE t)e* are 4ag%e in t)at t)e /o%ndarie( /et=een t)e- are o&ten %nclear. !or e<a-2le, to (a* t)at t)e (2elling colour i( Briti() Engli() -ean( t)at it i( %(ed =idel* in t)e #nited Vingdo-, i( not %(ed, or not =idel* %(ed, or no longer %(ed, in t)e #nited State(, -a* or -a* not /e %(ed in Canada, and -a* al(o /e =idel* %(ed in ot)er 2art( o& t)e Engli()5(2ea'ing =orld. !or e<a-2le, to (a* t)at t)e (2elling color i( A-erican Engli() -ean( t)at it i( %(ed =idel* in t)e #nited State(, i( not %(ed, or not =idel* %(ed, or no longer %(ed, in Britain, i( 2ro/a/l* %(ed =idel* in Canada, and -a* or -a* not /e %(ed in ot)er 2art( o& t)e Engli()5 (2ea'ing =orld. Ambiguity and vagueness T)e ter-( Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli() are %(ed in di&&erent =a*( /* di&&erent 2eo2le &or di&&erent 2%r2o(e(. According to McArt)%r F0""D? NSG t)e* -a* re&er to? F0G T=o national 4arietie(, eac) (%/(%-ing regional and ot)er (%/54arietie(, (tandard and non5(tandard. T)e* do not e<tend /e*ond t)e /order( o& t)eir (tate(, /%t =it)in t)o(e /order( e4er*t)ing i( incl%ded. FJG T=o national (tandard 4arietie(, eac) e<cl%ding t)e national non5(tandard 4arietie(, /%t to (o-e e<tent o4erla22ing eac) ot)er. Eac) i( onl* 2art o& t)e range o& Engli() =it)in it( o=n (tate, /%t t)e -o(t 2re(tigio%( 2art. FSG T=o international 4arietie(, &oc%(ed on 2artic%lar nation(, /%t eac) (%/(%-ing ot)er 68
ENGLISH DIALECTS
4arietie( in a -ore or le(( ill5de&ined =a*. Eac) i( -ore t)an a national 4ariet* o& Engli(). FNG T=o international (tandard 4arietie( t)at -a* or -a* not eac) (%/(%-e ot)er (tandard 4arietie(. Eac) (er4e( in a -ore or le(( /adl*5de&ined =a* a( a re&erence nor- &or %(er( o& t)e lang%age el(e=)ere. Moreo4er, t)ere i( (o -%c) co--%nication /et=een Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli() t)at ite-( o& lang%age 2a(( ea(il* and >%ic'l* &ro- one to t)e ot)er, o&ten =it)o%t clear identi&ication a( 2ri-aril* /elonging to one or t)e ot)er, or to (o-e ot)er 4ariet*. Le/icogra'hical ambiguity and vagueness T)e a-/ig%it* o& t)e ter-( i( re&lected in dictionarie(. K)en a dictionar* la/el( (o-et)ing Briti() Engli(), %(er( can (a&el* a((%-e t)at it i( -ore %(ed in Britain t)an in t)e #nited State(, /%t cannot /e (%re =)et)er it i( re(tricted to Britain or i( %(ed el(e=)ere, a( &or e<a-2le in A%(tralia or Ne= Lealand. So-eti-e( t)e le<icogra2)er %(ing t)e la/el doe( not 'no= eit)er. T)e 4ag%ene(( d%e to t)e ea(* 2a((age /et=een t)e t=o 4arietie( i( al(o re&lected in dictionarie(, /* t)e tendenc* to >%ali&* t)e la/el( =it) (%c) =ord( a( chiefl+ or es$eciall+, a tendenc* t)at a22ear( to /e increa(ing a( co--%nication /et=een A-erican Engli() and Briti() Engli() increa(e(? t)e 0(t edition o& t)e A&erican Herita"e Dictionar+ F0"D"G %(ed /ot) /ritish and Chiefl+ /ritish a( la/el(, /%t t)e Jnd F0"$JG %(e( Chiefl+ /ritish onl*. T)e %(e o& >%ali&ier( =it) Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli() i( in ()ar2 contra(t to t)eir non5%(e =it) la/el( o& certain ot)er t*2e(? an ite- -a* /e la/elled Slan" or Archaic, /%t not gChiefl+ slan" or ges$! archaic. An ite- la/elled Chiefl+ /ritish En"lish or es$! /ritish En"lish i( not -ore li'el* to /e %(ed in, (a*, A%(tralia? it i( -ore li'el* to /e %(ed in t)e #nited State(. Si-ilarl*, an ite- la/elled Chiefl+ A&erican En"lish or es$! A&erican En"lish i( not -ore li'el* to /e %(ed in, (a*, Canada? it i( -ore li'el* to /e %(ed in Britain. In t)i( re(2ect, >%ali&ier( li'e Chiefl+ and es$! loo(en t)e national re(triction( on Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli(), /%t do not a&&ect t)eir international range, =)ic) i( alread* rat)er /adl* de&ined. FMcArt)%r 0""D? NNG S'elling Mo(t (2elling di&&erence( /et=een Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli() do not 2oint to di&&erence( in 2ron%nciation /%t )el2 di(ting%i() ling%i(tic nationali(-. It i( 2ri-aril* (2elling t)at indicate( =)et)er a te<t i( Briti() or A-erican in origin. Moreo4er, t)e ado2tion o& certain (2elling( in A-erican Engli() )a( -ade t)eir %(e -ore di&&ic%lt in Briti() Engli() or )a(tened t)eir decline i& t)e* =ere %(ed in t)at 4ariet*? (%c) A-erican Engli() 5 or (2elling( a( color =ere once &reel* a4aila/le alternati4e( to 5our in Briti() Engli(). Ho=e4er, =)en (2elling i( Hnor-ali8edH to one or ot)er 2rint (tandard, it -a* no longer /e 2o((i/le to identi&* t)e (o%rce o& a te<t. It =a( once co--on to c)ange t)e (2elling o& A-erican /oo'( 2%/li()ed in Britain, /%t in 69
ENGLISH DIALECTS
recent *ear( t)e 2ractice )a( /een le(( co--on. T)i( -a* -ean t)at Briti() ling%i(tic nationali(- i( di(a22earing, or (i-2l* t)at t)e 2ractice co(t( le((, /%t (ince it al(o -a'e( A-erican te<t( ea(ier to identi&* in Briti() edition(, it -a* (lo= do=n t)e ado2tion o& e<2re((ion( and con(tr%ction( identi&ied a( A-erican Engli() in t)o(e te<t(. T)ere are t=o =a*( in =)ic) t)e ort)ogra2)ic di&&erence( can /e cla((i&ied? (*(te-ic or non5(*(te-icE e<cl%(i4e or non5e<cl%(i4e. F0G S+ste&ic or non1s+ste&ic differences! I& a di&&erence i( (*(te-ic, it a&&ect( large cla((e( o& =ord(E i& non5(*(te-ic, it a&&ect( onl* one =ord or a (-all gro%2 o& =ord(. ,enerall*, t)e di&&erence /et=een Briti() Engli() colour, A-erican Engli() color i( (*(te-ic, a&&ecting (%c) =ord( a( honoNuOr# fa8oNuOr# nei"h%oNuOr, 8i"oNuOr F/%t not lan"uor# stu$or# tor$or, etc., in /ot) 4arietie(G. T)e Briti() Engli() 4ariant "aol F/* contra(t =it) t)e co--on -ailG i( non5 (*(te-ic, a&&ecting onl* one =ord and it( in&lection( F "aolsG, deri4ati4e( F"aolerG, and co-2o%nd( F"aol%irdG. Occa(ionall*, 4ariant( e<i(t in /ot) 4arietie(? t)e o2tional e in a%rid"NeO&ent, ackno0led"NeO&ent, -ud"NeO&ent can /e &o%nd in /ot) A-erican Engli() and Briti() Engli(). FJG E3clusi8e or non1e3clusi8e differences. K)en =riting coloNuOr, eit)er a Briti() Engli() or an A-erican Engli() (2elling -%(t /e c)o(enE t)ere i( no international alternati4e. In t)e ca(e o& "aol5-ail, )o=e4er, t)ere i( a c)oice /et=een local "aol and international -ail. In t)e ca(e o& a3FeG, an international 4ariant a3e coe<i(t( =it) an a3 t)at i( no= A-erican Engli(), t)o%g) it =a( once %(ed in Briti() Engli()? in 0$$N, t)e 23ford En"lish Dictionar+ &a4o%red t)i( (2elling, /%t in 0"$" t)e Jnd edition )a( c)anged to a3e. T)ere (ee- to /e no ca(e( o& an international (2elling 4ariant coe<i(ting =it) a -ar'ed Briti() Engli() 4ariant on one (ide and a -ar'ed A-erican Engli() 4ariant on t)e ot)er. All 2er-%tation( and co-/ination( o& t)e t=o categorie( are 2o((i/le? colour5color, (*(te-ic e<cl%(i4e 4ariant(E t)e (%&&i<e( 5ise51i4e, (*(te-ic non5e<cl%(i4e 4ariant( in Briti() Engli()E "aol5-ail# a3e5a3, non5(*(te-ic, non5e<cl%(i4e 4ariant( in Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli() re(2ecti4el*E in /an'ing, che,ue5check, non5(*(te-ic e<cl%(i4e 4ariant(. A-ong t)e 2rinci2al (*(te-ic 4ariant( =e &ind? F0G The coloNuOr "rou$. Mo(t =ord( o& t)e t*2e color5colour are &ro- Latin or !renc)? ar%oNuOr# ar&oNuOr# endea8oNuOr# fa8oNuOr# fla8oNuOr# honoNuOr# hu&oNuOr# la%oNuOr# odoNuOr# ri"oNuOr# sa8oNuOr# tu&oNuOr# 8aloNuOr# 8i"oNuOr . In Latin, t)eir &or-( are %ni&or-l* 5or Far%or# odorG and in Modern !renc) t)eir cognate( -a* )a4e 5 eur Fcouleur# honneurG. So-e, )o=e4er, are ,er-anic in origin Fhar%oNuOr# nei"h%oNuOrG and (ee- to )a4e 2ic'ed %2 t)eir u /* analog*. T)e Briti() Engli() u i( not %(ed in =ord(, ot)er t)an nei"h%oNuOr, t)at -ainl* re&er to 2eo2le? actor# author# e&$eror# "o8ernor# sur8i8or# tenor are t)e (a-e in /ot) 4arietie(, t)o%g) 70
ENGLISH DIALECTS
e(2eciall* d%ring t)e 0Dt)507t) cent%rie( (%c) (2elling( a( e&$erour# "o8ernour occ%rred. In (%c) ca(e(, t)e 5or i( generall* inter2reted a( an agent (%&&i< li'e t)e 4ernac%lar 5 er? author i( a( in4aria/le in it( (2elling a( 0riter. T)ere are, )o=e4er, a n%-/er o& ano-alie(? (%c) =ord( a( error# &irror# $allor# terror# tre&or )a4e no u in Briti() Engli(), and in A-erican Engli() t)e (2elling( "la&or# sa8ior# sa8or are none<cl%(i4e 4ariant(, coe<i(ting =it) t)e international "la&our# sa8iour# sa8our. Sa8iour a22ear( to /e t)e la(t (%r4i4ing 5our agent (%&&i< re&erring to a 2er(on. In A-erican Engli(), t)e coloNuOr gro%2 )a( 5or5 in it( in&lection( Fcolorin"G, deri4ati4e( Fcolorful# colorationG, and co-2o%nd( Fcolor%lindG. Briti() Engli() deri4ati4e( are -ore co-2le<. Be&ore 4ernac%lar (%&&i<e(, t)e u i( retained? ar&ourer# colourful# fla8ourso&e# sa8our+. It i( al(o 'e2t /e&ore t)e !renc) (%&&i< 5 a%le? honoura%le. Be&ore Latinate (%&&i<e(, )o=e4er, it i( dro22ed? honorar+# honorific# hu&orous# hu&orist# coloration# deodori4e# in8i"orate. In (%c) ca(e(, A-erican Engli() and Briti() Engli() (2elling( are t)e (a-e. E4en (o, t)ere are (o-e re-aining ano-alie(? Briti() Engli() 'ee2( t)e u in colourist and A-erican Engli() can )a4e t)e u in sa8our+ and a22ear( to /e -ore li'el* t)an Briti() Engli() to )a4e a u in "la&oNuOri4e and "la&oNuOrous. FJG The centre5center "rou$. In =ord( o& t)i( t*2e, Briti() Engli() )a( 5 re and A-erican Engli() 5er, and t)e di&&erence i( e<cl%(i4e. T)e c)ie& -e-/er( are o& non5,er-anic origin and are? centre5center# fi%re5fi%er# "oitre5"oiterID# litre5liter# &ea"re5&ea"er# &itre5&iterIL# sa%re5sa%er# so&%re5so&%er# s$ectre5s$ecter# theatre5theater. T)e agent (%&&i< 5er Fa( in 0riterG and co-2arati4e ending 5er Fa( in colderG are %na&&ected. Man* =ord( in /ot) 4arietie( )a4e 5 er F%anter, canterG and 5re Facre# lucre# &assacre# &ediocre# o"reG. In t)e ca(e o& t)e (econd gro%2, an 5er (2elling =o%ld (%gge(t a -i(leading 2ron%nciation Ft)ere&ore no g acer, glucer, etc.G. Briti() Engli() di(ting%i()e( &etre F%nit o& -ea(%re-entG &ro- &eter Fin(tr%-ent &or -ea(%ringE 2ro(od*G, /%t A-erican Engli() %(e( &eter &or /ot). T)o%g) theater i( t)e 2re&erred A-erican Engli() (2elling, theatre i( co--on a( a 2art o& a na-e. ,enerall*, t)e di&&erence( are 2re(er4ed in in&lection( Fcentred5centeredG and co-2o%nd( Fcentrefold5centerfoldG, /%t %(%all* di(a22ear in deri4ati4e( t)ro%g) t)e lo(( o& t)e e, =)ic) i( no longer 2rono%nced Fcentral# fi%rous# &etric5&etrical# theatricalG. FSG The NoOestro"en "rou$. In =ord( o& ,ree' origin Fin =)ic) an original oi /eca-e a Latin ligat%re UG, Briti() Engli() )a( oe in e<cl%(i4e 4ariant(, A-erican Engli() e or le(( co--onl* oe, t*2icall* in non5e<cl%(i4e 4ariant(? a&NoOe%a# diarrhNoOea# ho&NoOeo$ath+# NoOeso$ha"us# NoOestro"en# NoOestrous! T)e di&&erence( are -aintained in all in&lection(, deri4ati4e(, and co-2o%nd(. T=o =ord( o& Latin origin )a4e /een a((i-ilated into t)i( cla((,
J7 J$
a di(ea(e t)at a&&ect( *o%r t)*roid gland and -a'e( *o%r nec' (=ollen a tall )at =orn /* a /i()o2
71
ENGLISH DIALECTS
fNoOetus and fNoOetid. In /ot) 4arietie(, all trace o& t)e earlier oecono&+# oecono&ical# oecu1 &enical )a( gone Fin econo&+# econo&ic5econo&ical# ecu&enical, etc.G. Kit)in a =ord, FoGe i( 2rono%nced Ri?R in /ot) 4arietie(E at t)e /eginning it i( 2rono%nced Ri?R in Briti() Engli() and -a* /e (o 2rono%nced in A-erican Engli(), t)o%g) e tend( to /e 2rono%nced R/. T)e 2ron%nciation o& Briti() Engli() oestro"en i( t)ere&ore Hee(5H, o& A-erican Engli() estro"en i( generall* He((5H. FNG The NaOesthete "rou$. In =ord( o& cla((ical Fe(2eciall* ,ree'G origin in =)ic) a Neo5 Latin re 2a((ed into Engli() a( re t)en ae, Briti() Engli() )a( tended to 'ee2 ae a( an e<cl%(i4e 4ariant and A-erican Engli() )a( )ad e and ae a( non5e<cl%(i4e 4ariant(? NaOeon# archNaOeolo"+# "+nNaOecolo"+# NaOesthetics# anNaOe&ia# enc+clo$NaOedia# hNaOe&o$hilia# hNaOe&orrha"e# &ediNaOe8al# $alNaOeontolo"+. T)e (2elling di&&erence( are -aintained in in&lection(, deri4ati4e(, and co-2o%nd(. In t)e ca(e o& NaOesthete and it( deri4ati4e(, t)e (2elling can (ignal a di&&erence in 2ron%nciation? /eginning in Briti() Engli() =it) Ri?R, RiR, or R R and in A-erican Engli() =it) RR. El(e=)ere in t)i( cla((, )o=e4er, NaOe i( 2rono%nced Ri?R in /ot) 4arietie(. One cla((ical &or- 'ee2( ae in /ot) 4arietie(? aer5 a( in aerate, aero%ics# aerod+na&ics# aerosol. In /ot) 4arietie(, enc+clo$edia and &edie8al are co--oner t)an enc+clo$aedia and &ediae8al, /%t =)ere Briti() Engli() 2ron%nciation t*2icall* /egin( H-edd*H, A-erican Engli() 2ron%nciation o&ten /egin( H-eed*H. T)ere i( no= a tendenc* &or e and ae to /eco-e non5e<cl%(i4e 4ariant( in Briti() Engli() in (%c) =ord( a( co1e8al# $ri&e8al and archeolo"+# "+necolo"+. FQG The instilNlO "rou$. In (%c) =ord(, Briti() Engli() )a( a (ingle =ritten 4o=el 2l%( 5 l and A-erican Engli() )a( a (ingle =ritten 4o=el 2l%( 5 ll, and t)e e<cl%(i4e 4ariant( are all di(*l5 la/ic 4er/( (tre((ed on t)e (econd (*lla/le? distilNlO# enrolNlO# fulfilNlO# instilNlO! E<ce2tionall*, e3tol 2re4ail( in A-erican Engli() o4er e3toll. .er/( li'e t)i( /%t =it) a in t)e (econd (*lla/le /elong to t)i( cla(( in A-erican Engli()? a$$all# enthrall# install. In Briti() Engli(), )o=e4er, t)e 2re&erence( 4ar*? a$$al# %efall# enthral# install. T)e 4er/ annul )a( 5l in /ot) 4arietie(. FDG The final 1lNlO "rou$. In Briti() Engli(), 4er/( t)at end in a (ingle =ritten 4o=el 2l%( 5l or 5ll 'ee2 t)e- /e&ore 5s Ftra8els# fulfillsG, )a4e 5l /e&ore 5&ent Finstal&ent# fulfil&entG, and )a4e 5ll /e&ore a (%&&i< /eginning =it) a 4o=el Ftra8ellin"# fulfillin"G. In A-erican Engli(), 4er/( t)at end =it) a (ingle =ritten 4o=el 2l%( 5l or 5ll 'ee2 t)e- /e&ore 5s and 5&ent Ffulfill&ent# install&entGE /e&ore a (%&&i< /eginning =it) a 4o=el, t)e 4er/( ending =it) 5ll 'ee2 /ot) letter( Ffulfillin"G, /%t t)e 4er/( ending =it) 5l eit)er )a4e 5ll a( in Briti() Engli() Fco&$ellin"# ca8illin"IFG or -ore %(%all* &ollo= t)e general r%le( &or do%/ling &inal con(onant( Fco&$ellin"# ca8ilin"G. So-eti-e( t)e re(%lt i( t)e (a-e &or /ot) 4arietie(? co&$el# co&$els# co&$elled. So-eti-e( it i( di&&erent? tra8el# tra8els# tra8elled# tra8eller ()ared /* /ot), /%t A-erican Engli() generall* tra8els# tra8eled# tra8eler. .arallel doe( not %(%all* do%/le it( &inal
J"
ca4il W to arg%e or 2rote(t a/o%t %ni-2ortant detail(
72
ENGLISH DIALECTS
5l in eit)er 4ariet*. F7G T)e 5i4e and 5ise gro%2. So-e 4er/( can onl* )a4e 5i4e? ca$si4e# sei4e. In (o-e, onl* 5ise i( 2o((i/le? ad8ise# sur$rise. In -an*, /ot) 5ise and 5i4e are 2o((i/le, a( in ci8ilise5ci8ili4e# or"anise5or"ani4e, and t)e 5s5 or 545 i( 2re(er4ed in deri4ati4e(? ci8ilisation5ci8ili4ation. !or (%c) 4er/(, A-erican Engli() )a( (*(te-ic, e<cl%(i4e 5i4e, and Briti() Engli() )a( /ot) 5ise and 5i4e. In A%(tralian Engli(), 5ise i( 2re&erred. Briti() 2%/li()er( generall* )a4e t)eir o=n )o%(e (t*le(? a-ong dictionar* 2%/li()er(, 5i4e i( 2re&erred /* Ca((ell, Collin(, Long-an, O<&ord, 5ise /* t)e eaderH( Dige(t F#nited Vingdo-G. C)a-/er( )a( 5ise &or it( nati4e5(2ea'er dictionarie(, 5i4e &or it( Engli() !oreign Lang%age learner(H dictionar*, -eant &or an international 2%/lic. T)ere i( no 2er&ect r%le identi&*ing t)e 4er/( t)at ta'e /ot), /%t t)e* generall* &orno%n( in 5 tion. Kit) t)e e<ce2tion o& i&$ro8ise5i&$ro8isation, 4er/( t)at ta'e onl* 5ise do not generall* )a4e a no%n in 5tion? re8ise5re8ision# ad8ise5ad8ice. Ho=e4er, (o-e 4er/( t)at allo= /ot) &or-( do not &orno%n( in 5tion? a$olo"ise5i4e# a$olo"+; a""randise5i4e# a""randise&ent# a""randi4e&ent. F$G The 1l+se and 1l+4e "rou$. In (%c) 4er/( a( anal+se5anal+4e and $aral+se5$aral+4e, Briti() Engli() 2re&er( 5l+se and A-erican Engli() 5l+4e. T)e 4ariant( are (*(te-ic and )a4e /een -%t%all* e<cl%(i4e, /%t recentl* anal+4e )a( /eg%n to a22ear in Briti() Engli(). T)e di&&er5 ence di(a22ear( in corre(2onding no%n(? anal+sis# $aral+sis are international, a( t)e R8R o& t)e 4er/( /eco-e( R(R in t)e no%n(. F"G The 1o"NueO "rou$. Alt)o%g) in =ord( li'e catalo"NueO# dialo"NueO# &onolo"NueO# $eda"o"NueO# $rolo"NueO, A-erican Engli() (o-eti-e( dro2( 5ue, onl* catalo" i( a =idel* %(ed A-erican Engli() 4ariant. T)%(, (%c) (2elling( are (*(te-ic, non5e<cl%(i4e 4ariant( in A-erican Engli(). Analo"NueO i( a (2ecial ca(e? t)e (2elling analo" 2re4ail( in contra(t =it) digital =)en re&erring to (%c) t)ing( a( co-2%ter(, /%t t)at i( tr%e not onl* in A-erican Engli() /%t al(o in Briti() Engli(), =)ere A-erican Engli() (2elling( are generall* %(ed in t)e regi(ter o& co-2%ting. Conclusion F0G W)ere di&&erence( e<i(t, A-erican Engli() (2elling( tend to /e ()orter t)an Briti() Engli() (2elling(? catalo"# colorE A-erican Engli() -e0elr+# -e0eler, Briti() Engli() -e0eller+# -e0ellerE A-erican Engli() councilor# counselor, Briti() Engli() councillor# counsellor. E<ce2tion( incl%de? A-erican Engli() instill and install&ent, Briti() Engli() instil and instal&entE A-erican Engli() skillful and thralldo&, Briti() Engli() skilful and thraldo&JH. FJG In general ter-(, a (2elling %(ed in Britain i( -ore li'el* to /e acce2ta/le in A-erica t)an i( an A-erican (2elling in Britain. Briti() Engli() (ee-( (o-eti-e( to %(e (2elling to
S+
(la4er*
73
ENGLISH DIALECTS
di(ting%i() ite-( =it) t)e (a-e 2ron%nciation? t+re and tire, che,ue and check, t)e ker% in a (treet and cur% restrain5restraint. A-erican Engli() (ee-( to do t)i( rarel*? -oral 8ice and 8ise t)e tool. ronunciation Beca%(e Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli() (2elling can /e (een in 2rinted and edited te<t(, co-2aring and contra(ting t)e- i( -ore or le(( %nde-anding, /%t /eca%(e o& t)e di4er(it* o& (2eec) &or-( =it)in A-erican Engli() and Briti() Engli(), t)ere i( no analogo%( /a(i( &or co-2aring Briti() and A-erican 2ron%nciation. Ke can co-2are t=o -a9or &eat%re( in t)e 2ron%nciation( ()o=n in Briti() dictionarie(, t*2icall* /a(ed on t)e accent called Pron%nciation or 2ron%nciation( o&ten called ,eneral A-erican or ,A. F0G The treat&ent of 7. ,A i( r)otic and P non5r)otic? t)at i(, in ,A, RrR i( 2rono%nced in all 2o(ition( in =ord( li'e rare# rarer, /%t in P it i( not 2rono%nced %nle(( a 4o=el &ollo=(. In P, t)ere&ore, RrR doe( not occ%r &inall* in rare and rarer %nle(( &ollo=ed /* a =ord /eginning =it) a 4o=el? a rare article, a rarer article. ,enerall*, RrR i( a retro&le< con(onant in ,A and an al4eolar con(onant in P. FJG The treat&ent of A! In a/o%t 0Q+ =ord( =)ere t)e (o%nd re2re(ented /* t)e letter a 2recede( a &ricati4e F(%c) a( R(, &, 6RG or a na(al F(%c) a( Rn, -RG &ollo=ed /* anot)er con(onant, ,A )a( RaR and P RR, a( in? after# can(t# dance# fast# half# $ass# $ast. Ot)er ca(e( o& RaR 4er(%( RR incl%de aunt# e3a&$le# lau"h# drau"ht# sa&$le, and t)e (econd a o& %anana. T)e P 2ron%nciation i( =idel* 'no=n a( t)e H/road aH, and i( con(idered H2o()H in Britain and Hton*H or a&&ected in A-erica. It i( in &act a 2)onological de/ate t)ro%g)o%t t)e Engli()5(2ea'ing =orld. In P, in t)e 2ron%nciation o& t)e /road a, t)ere are -an* tra2( &or t)e %n=ar*? "rant# slant )a4e t)e /road a, /%t cant# "rand# hand# $ant do not. Kord( (%c) a( translate and tele"ra$h -a* or -a* not )a4e it, and tele"ra$hic doe( not. !rammar There are grammatical di&&erence( =)ic) can /e /a(ed on te<t%al e4idence. T)e &ollo=ing are (igni&icant contra(t(? F0G Shall50ill. T)o%g) shall i( e4en le(( co--on in A-erican t)an in Briti() Engli(), t)e onl* (igni&icant di&&erence( concern t=o o& t)e lea(t co--on Briti() %(e(? (econd52er(on >%e(tion( and t)e contraction shan(t, a( in Shall +ou %e at the e&%ass+ rece$tionO 5 No# I(& afraid I shan(t. Bot) are 4irt%all* %n'no=n in A-erican Engli(). A( &or 0ill, t=o o& it( Briti() %(e( are -%c) le(( li'el* in A-erican Engli()? in&erence 0ill, ro%g)l* e>%i4alent to &ust FThat 74 ecei4ed P, =it) t)o(e in A-erican dictionarie(, t*2icall* cl%(tering ro%nd a (et o&
ENGLISH DIALECTS
0ill %e the $ost&an at the door GE (tre((ed 0ill indicating a di(agreea/le )a/it or 2ractice FHe 9ILL kee$ tellin" us a%out his o$erationcG. FJG Should50ould. In 2olite &ir(t52er(on (tate-ent( F9e should %e ha$$+ to co&$l+ 0ith +our re,uestG, should i( rarer in A-erican t)an in Briti() Engli(), 2artic%larl* in ad4ice5gi4ing &or-%la( FI should dress 0ar&l+ if I 0ere +ouG. Should i( al(o rarer in A-erican Engli() in it( (2ec%lati4e %(e? I de&and that the+ should lea8e E It is astonishin" that the+ should ha8e left 0ithout tellin" &e. 9ould i( 2ri-aril* Briti() Engli() in %(e( t)at 2arallel 0ill a/o4e? That 0ould ha8e %een the $ost&an at the door; He 92 LD kee$ tellin" us a%out his o$eration c Ho=e4er, it (ee-( to /e 2ri-aril* A-erican Engli() a( an initial e>%i4alent o& used to? 9hen I 0as +oun"# I 0ould "et u$ earl+, t)o%g) a( a (%/(e>%ent (%/(tit%te &or used to it i( ()ared? I used to "et u$ earl+ and %efore %reakfast I 0ould "o -o""in". FSG Can5&a+! Bot) 4arietie( %(e can &reel* &or 2er-i((ion a( =ell a( a/ilit*, a %(age &or-erl* di(co%raged on /ot) (ide( o& t)e Atlantic? You can see hi& no0 FYo% are 2er-itted to (ee )i-G. In a negati4e in&erential (entence li'e If +ou "ot 0et +ou can(t ha8e taken +our u&%rella, can(t i( -ore li'el* in Briti() t)an A-erican Engli(), =)ic) allo=( &ustn(t. FNG ;ust5ha8e N"otO to. An a&&ir-ati4e in&erential (entence li'e This has to %e5This has "ot to %e the %est no8el this +ear i( -ore li'el* to /e A-erican Engli() t)an Briti() Engli(), t)o%g) it i( /eco-ing an alternati4e in Briti() Engli() to t)e ()ared This &ust %e the %est no8el this +ear. A negati4e in&erential (entence li'e If +ou "ot 0et +ou &ustnSt ha8e taken +our u&%rella i( A-erican rat)er t)an (tandard Briti() Engli(), =)ic) %(e( can(t. FQG Ha8e N"otO! T)ere )a4e /een di&&erence( /et=een Briti() and A-erican Engli() in t)e %(e o& ha8e, /%t in t)e 0""+( t)e* )a4e /eco-e largel* o& )i(torical intere(t onl*. T)e -a9or (%r4i4ing di&&erence i( t)e 2a(t &or- had "ot? She left %ecause she(d "ot a lot to do5she(d "ot to do a lot i( a largel* Briti() Engli() alternati4e to t)e ()ared She left %ecause she had a lot to do5she had to do a lot. FDG Let(s. T)e negati4e &or- let(s not Farg%eG i( ()ared, coe<i(ting =it) t)e -ainl* Briti() Engli() 4ariant don(t let(s Farg%eG and t)e A-erican 4ariant let(s don(t Farg%eG, o&ten re2ro4ed a( non5(tandard. F7G Su%-uncti8e for&s. A&ter =ord( li'e de&and, (e4eral con(tr%ction( are 2o((i/le? I de&anded that he should NnotO lea8e F-ore Briti() t)an A-erican Engli()G, I de&anded that he NnotO lea8e F(o-e=)at -ore A-erican t)an Briti() Engli(), e(2eciall* =it) notG, I de&anded that he left5didn(t lea8e F&ar -ore Briti() t)an A-erican Engli()G. F$G .erfecti8e for&s. Kit) +et and alread+, (%c) 2er&ecti4e (entence( a( Ha8e +ou eaten +etO and The+(8e alread+ left are ()ared %(age(. S%c) alternati4e( a( Did +ou eat +etO and The+ left alread+ are 4irt%all* e<cl%(i4e to A-erican Engli(), /%t -a* /e regarded a( non5(tandard. 75
ENGLISH DIALECTS
F"G Ta" for&s. S%c) (entence( a( The+(re here# aren(t the+O co-/ine 2o(iti4e and negati4e 4er/ &or-( and are ()ared. S%c) (entence( a( So the+(re5The+(re here# are the+O co-/ine 2o(iti4e =it) 2o(iti4e and are (o-e=)at -ore Briti() t)an A-erican Engli(). S%c) (entence( a( So the+5The+ didn(t do it# didn(t the+ O co-/ine negati4e =it) negati4e, are 4irt%all* e<cl%(i4e to Briti() Engli(), and are not %(ed &reel* e4en /* all Briti() Engli() (2ea'er(. Tag( %(ed ot)er=i(e t)an to elicit or con&ir- in&or-ation tend to /e -ore Briti() t)an A-erican Engli(), in 2artic%lar a%t)oritati4e and aggre((i4e tag( (%c) a( You(ll -ust ha8e to 0ait and see# 0on(t +ouO and I don(t kno0 the ans0er# do IO F0+G Gi8e. T)e &or- Gi8e &e it i( ()ared, =)ile Gi8e it &e i( Briti() Engli(). F00O .ro8ide. T)e &or- That $ro8ided us 0ith an e3cuse i( ()ared, =)ile That $ro8ided us an e3cuse i( A-erican Engli(). F0JG Enou"h. T)e &or- The+(re rich enou"h to retire i( ()ared, =)ile The+(re rich enou"h that the+ can retire i( -ainl* A-erican Engli(). F0SG A"ree# a$$ro3i&ate# $rotest. T)e &or-( The+ a"reed to the $lan and The+ a"reed on the $lan are ()ared, =)ile The+ a"reed the $lan i( Briti() Engli(). That a$$ro3i&ates to the truth i( -ainl* Briti() Engli(), =)ile That a$$ro3i&ates the truth i( A-erican Engli(). The+ $rotested their innocence and The+ $rotested a"ainst5at the 8erdict are ()aredE The+ $rotested the 8erdict i( A-erican Engli(). F0NG Ti&e e3$ressions. T)e &or- ;onda+ to Frida+ inclusi8e i( ()ared, =)ile t)e (*n5 on*-o%( ;onda+ throu"h Frida+ i( A-erican Engli(). ;onda+ throu"h to Frida+ i( Briti() Engli(), and -a* /e a-/ig%o%( a( to =)et)er !rida* it(el& i( incl%ded. T)e &or-( a 0eek fro& toda+ and a 0eek fro& Frida+ are ()ared, =)ile a 0eek toda+# a 0eek on Frida+# Frida+ 0eek are Briti() Engli(). T)e &or- half $ast si3 i( ()ared, and coe<i(t( =it) t)e in&or-al Briti() Engli() half si3. T)e %(e o& $ast in ti-e e<2re((ion( FGH $ast A# NaO ,uarter $ast AG i( ()aredE t)e corre(2onding %(e o& after FGH after A# NaO ,uarter after AG i( -ainl* A-erican Engli(). T)e &orten N&inutesO to si3 i( ()ared, =)ile ten N&inutesO of si3 i( A-erican Engli(). F0QG Go# co&e. T)e &or-( Go and see5Co&e and see 0hat +ou ha8e done are ()ared, =)ile Go see5Co&e see 0hat +ou ha8e done are A-erican Engli(). F0DG 2ne. T)e &or- If one does one(s %est# one 0ill succeed i( ()ared and tend( to /e &or-al in /ot) 4arietie(, =)ile If one does his %est# he 0ill succeed i( A-erican Engli() Fand %nder attac' /* &e-ini(t( and ot)er( a( (e<i(t %(ageG. F07G Grou$ nouns. S%c) a collecti4e %(age a( The "o8ern&ent is di8ided i( ()ared, =)ile The "o8ern&ent are di8ided, e-2)a(i8ing t)e -e-/er( o& t)e gro%2, i( -ainl* Briti() Engli(). F0$G Collocations. T)ere are -an* di&&erence( o& idio-. T)e collocation( "o to church5school5colle"e and %e at church5school5colle"e are ()ared, /%t "o to uni8ersit+5%e at 76
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uni8ersit+ and "o to hos$ital5%e in hos$ital are Briti() Engli(), A-erican Engli() re>%iring the a( in "o to the uni8ersit+. !or-( li'e in a -u%ilant &ood are ()ared, /%t in -u%ilant &ood i( Briti() Engli(). T)e e<2re((ion( on offer and in future are Briti() Engli(), t)e &or-er t)e e>%i4alent o& t)e ()ared %ein" offered, t)e latter o& t)e ()ared fro& no0 on5fro& then on. T)e &or- in the future i( ()ared. T)e &or- do a deal i( Briti() and &ake a deal i( A-erican Engli(). Take a decision i( -ainl* Briti() Engli(), t)o%g) &ake a decision i( ()ared. See&s5Looks like a "ood deal i( ()ared, /%t See&s5Looks a "ood deal i( -ainl* Briti() Engli(). ;e&%ers of i( ()aredE &e&%ershi$ of i( Briti() Engli()E &e&%ershi$ in i( A-erican Engli(). )ocabulary and idioms A( =it) di&&erence( in (2elling, le<ical di&&erence( can /e di4ided into t)e e<cl%(i4e F(%c) a( Briti() Engli() 0indscreen, A-erican Engli() 0indshieldG, and t)e non5e<cl%(i4e. T)e non5 e<cl%(i4e di&&erence( can /e di4ided into t)o(e in =)ic) t)e ()ared 4ariant coe<i(t( =it) an e<cl%(i4e %(age F(%c) a( ()ared editorial, Briti() Engli() leaderE ()ared autu&n, A-erican Engli() fallG, and t)o(e in =)ic) a ()ared 4ariant coe<i(t( =it) /ot) a Briti() 4ariant and an A-erican 4ariant F()ared socket, Briti() $o0er $oint, A-erican outletG. S*(te-ic di&&erence( in 4oca/%lar* are d%e to t=o &actor(? (o%rce and (%/9ect. A-erican and Briti() Engli() dra= on di&&erent (o%rce( &or certain =ord(, e(2eciall* in in&or-al (t*le(, A-erican Engli() dra=ing &or e<a-2le on S2ani() /eca%(e o& it( a((ociation( =it) Latin A-erica, Briti() Engli() dra=ing &or e<a-2le on Hind%(tani /eca%(e o& it( long connection =it) India. T)e* )a4e al(o de4elo2ed di&&erence( in (o-e (%/9ect( -ore t)an ot)er(. In area( o& tec)nolog* t)at de4elo2ed /e&ore t)e E%ro2ean (ettle-ent o& A-erica, (%c) a( (ailing, di&&erence( are (-allE in t)o(e de4elo2ed in t)e 0"t) cent%r*, (%c) a( rail and a%to-oti4e tran(2ort, t)e* are -%c) greater, /%t in J+ t) cent%r* tec)nolog*, (%c) a( a4iation, t)e* are &e=. In t)e 4oca/%lar* o& co-2%ting, A-erican (2elling( are %(ed in Briti() Engli(), (%c) a( $ro"ra&, disk, =)ile Briti() Engli() $ro"ra&&in" i( %(ed in A-erican Engli(). A-erican and Briti() Engli() (o-eti-e( )a4e (lig)tl* di&&erent idio-(, (%c) a(?
Briti() Engli() a ho&e fro& ho&e lea8e 0ell alone a stor& in a teacu$ %lo0 tru&$et one(s o0n
A-erican Engli() a ho&e a0a+ fro& ho&e lea8e 0ell enou"h alone a te&$est in a teacu$5tea$ot %lo0 one(s o0n horn 77
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s0ee$ under the car$et
s0ee$ under the ru"
DIALECT IN A0ST"ALIA Introduction T)e Engli() o& A%(tralia i( con(idered to /e regionall* %ni&or-, =it) no (%/5dialect(. It( )o-ogeneit* re(%lted &ro- t)e -ainl* Briti() origin o& t)e 2o2%lation, t)e a/(ence o& encla4e( Fe<ce2t &or t)e no= di(2er(ed Corni() -ining co--%nitie( o& So%t) A%(traliaG, and -o/ilit* ca%(ed /* t)e gold r%()e( and (%c) (ea(onal occ%2ation( a( ()earing and cane5c%tting. In recent *ear(, (o-e regional 4ariation )a( /een o/(er4ed, e(2eciall* in 4oca/%lar*? &or e<a-2le, a red5 ('inned (a%(age -a* /e a $olon+ in Ke(tern A%(tralia and a frit4 in So%t) A%(tralia. Australian English It )a( t)e ()ort &or- A%(E and i( t)e Engli() lang%age a( %(ed in A%(tralia. It )a( a ()ort )i(tor*, re&lecting a little -ore t)an J++ *ear( o& E%ro2ean (ettle-ent, and an e4en ()orter 2eriod o& recognition a( a national 4ariet*, t)e ter- /eing &ir(t recorded in 0"N+. It i( onl* (ince t)en t)at &eat%re( o& A%(tralian Engli() )a4e /een regarded a( di(tincti4el* and 2ro2erl* A%(tralian, in(tead o& a( e4idence o& colonial decline &ro- t)e nor-( o& t)e Standard Engli() o& England. %ac-ground Initiall*, and %ni>%el*, a -a9orit* o& t)e Briti() colonie( in A%(tralia =ere 2enal. A( t)e* e<2anded and a( &ree colonie( =ere de4elo2ed, i--igrant( %(ing lang%age( ot)er t)an Engli() =ere in(igni&icant. elation( =it) t)e A/origine( =ere generall* 2oor and a&ter an initial inta'e o& =ord( &ro- t)eir lang%age( F(%c) a( %oo&eran", din"o, kan"aroo# koala# kooka%urra# 0o&%atG =ere not enco%raging e<ten(i4e /orro=ing. T)e (ettler( =ere al-o(t all Anglo5Celtic and geogra2)ical i(olation =a( o& great i-2ortance. T)e 2reocc%2ation( o& t)e coloni(t( =ere t)e di(co4er* and e<2loration o& a ne= land, ric) in e<otic &lora and &a%na, and 2a(toral occ%2ation( (%c) a( rai(ing ()ee2 and cattle in circ%-(tance( 4a(tl* di&&erent &ro- Ht)e Old Co%ntr*H. In t)e late J+t) cent%r*, )o=e4er, A%(tralian( are 2redo-inantl* %r/an and increa(ingl* -%ltic%lt%ral. T)e -a9or area( o& le<ical gro=t) are international, a( in co-2%ting and (%r&ing, >%ite o22o(ed to t)e (it%ation in t)e 0"t) cent%r*. 78
ENGLISH DIALECTS
ronunciation T)e -o(t -ar'ed &eat%re o& t)e A%(tralian accent i( it( )o-ogeneit*, =it) no regional di&&erence( a( -ar'ed a( t)o(e in Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli(), t)o%g) recent (t%die( )a4e a((ociated 2artic%lar 2)onological c)aracteri(tic( =it) (tate ca2ital(. T)ere i(, )o=e4er, a (ocial contin%%- in =)ic) t)ree 4arietie( are generall* recogni8ed? /road Australian, General Australian, and Culti8ated Australian. O& t)e(e, C%lti4ated A%(tralian -o(t clo(el* a22roac)e( Briti() P and Broad A%(tralian ()o=( -o(t di(tincti4e regional &eat%re(. It i( generall* a((%-ed t)at t)e A%(tralian accent deri4e( &ro- t)e -i<ing o& Briti() and Iri() accent( in t)e earl* *ear( o& (ettle-ent. Ho=e4er, alt)o%g) -o(t con4ict( and ot)er (ettler( ca-e &roLondon, t)e Midland(, and Ireland, t)e in&l%ence o& t)e original accent( cannot /e concl%(i4el* >%anti&ied. T)e 2re(ent (2ectr%- =a( 2ro/a/l* e(ta/li()ed /* t)e earl* 0"t) cent%r*. T)e -a9or &eat%re( o& A%(tralian Engli() 2ron%nciation are? F0G It i( non5r)otic. FJG It( intonation i( &latter t)an t)at o& P. FSG S2eec) r)*t)-( are (lo=, (tre(( /eing -ore e4enl* (2aced t)an in P. FNG Con(onant( do not di&&er (igni&icantl* &ro- t)o(e in P. FQG .o=el( are in general clo(er and -ore &rontal t)an in P, =it) RiR and R%R a( in tea, t0o di2)t)ongi8ed to RAiR and RA%R re(2ecti4el*. FDG T)e 4o=el in can(t dance -a* /e R@R or RaR. F7G T)e (c)=a i( -ore &re>%entl* %(ed t)an in P, re2lacing RiR in %naccented 2o(ition(, a( in %o3es, dances# darkest# 8el8et# acid. F$G So-e di2)t)ong( ()i&t, to=ard( Ri/, a( in hi"h# 0ide. F"G S2ea'er( =)o(e &ir(t lang%age i( not Engli() or =)o )a4e a /iling%al /ac'gro%nd FA/original, i--igrantG o&ten %(e (o%nd( and a 2ron%nciation in&l%enced /* t)e 2attern( o& t)e &ir(t or ot)er lang%age. F0+G T)e na-e o& t)e letter h i( o&ten 2rono%nced H)aitc)H /* (2ea'er( =)oll* or 2artl* o& Iri() Cat)olic /ac'gro%nd. !rammar and vocabulary T)ere are no (*ntactic &eat%re( t)at di(ting%i() (tandard A%(tralian Engli() &ro- (tandard Briti() Engli(), or indeed an* -a9or non5(tandard &eat%re( not al(o &o%nd in Britain, /%t t)ere are -an* di(tincti4e =ord( and 2)ra(e(. Ho=e4er, alt)o%g) A%(tralian Engli() )a( added (o-e 0+,+++ ite-( to t)e lang%age, &e= )a4e /eco-e internationall* acti4e. 79 P ReiR to=ard( RiR, a( in Australia# da+# &ate, and RaiR
ENGLISH DIALECTS
T)e large(t de-and &or ne= =ord( )a( concerned &lora and &a%na, and 2redo-inant occ%2ation( li'e (toc'5rai(ing )a4e al(o re>%ired ne= ter-(. Beca%(e o& t)i(, A%(traliani(-( are 2redo-inantl* na-ing =ord(? 5 5 (ingle no%n( F&ul"a an acacia, &ullock -ining re&%(e, &uster a ro%nd5%2 o& li4e(toc'G, co-2o%nd( F%lack ca&$ an A/original (ettle-ent, %lack tracker an A/original e-2lo*ed /* t)e 2olice to trac' do=n -i((ing 2er(on(, %lack 8el8et A/original =o-en a( (e<%al o/9ect(, red1%ack a (2ider, redfin a &i(), red "u& a e%cal*2tG, 5 no%n( %(ed attri/%ti4el* Fcon8ict colon+ a 2enal colon*, con8ict ser8ant or con8ict sla8e a con4ict a((igned a( a (er4antG. The $enal settle&ents. T)e &ir(t (ettle-ent( =ere 2enal colonie( and %ntil 0$D$, =)en tran(2ortation cea(ed, a 4oca/%lar* (i-ilar to t)at in a (la4e (ociet* de(cri/ed t)e li&e o& t)e con4ict(. A -a9or di(tinction =a( -aintained /et=een %ond and free, a( in free e&i"rant# free nati8e# free la%ourer# free ser8ant, and t)e di(tinction /et=een free and freed. T)e (ettle-ent( =ere 2o2%lated in 2art /* con4ict( and t)e attendant -ilitar* &orce(, in 2art /* &ree (ettler(. T)o%g) con4ict( =)o )ad (er4ed t)eir (entence( or o/tained 2ardon( F'no=n &ro- 0$JJ a( e&anci$istsG /eca-e &ree in t)eir o=n e*e( and t)o(e o& t)e la=, t)e* o&ten )ad di&&ic%lt* e(ca25 ing t)e (tig-a o& (er4it%de and o/tained onl* a -ea(%re o& &reedo-, /eing 'no=n /* t)e e3clusi8es or e3clusionists a( free con8icts or freed &en. Stock1raisin". At t)e (a-e ti-e, t)e land =a( e<2lored and o2ened %2 &or (ettle-ent and t)e (toc'5rai(ing ind%(tr* =a( de4elo2ing. S,uatters F(toc'5rai(er( or gra8ier( occ%2*ing large tract( o& Cro=n land %nder lea(e or licenceG -o4ed inland &ro- t)e li&its of location Ft)e &rontier o& (ettle-entG into t)e %ack countr+ or %ack of %e+ond in (earc) o& land (%ita/le &or runs Ftract( o& gra8ing landG or stations Franc)e(G. T)e* loo'ed &or o$en land F&ree &ro- &ore(t or %ndergro=t)G, (ee'ing o$en forest or o$en $lains, and %(ing =ord( li'e %rush Fden(e nat%ral 4egetationG, %ush Ft)e di(tincti4e A%(tralian nat%ral 4egetationG, &allee or &ul"a F&or-( o& nat%ral 4egetation gi4ing t)eir na-e to t)eir )a/itatG, and scru% Fgenerall*, 2oor 4egetationG to de(cri/e &eat%re( o& an %n&a-iliar en4iron-ent. T)e (toc' ind%(tr* e-2lo*ed o8erseers or su$erintendents F/ot) con4ict ter-(G, stock&en, and rousea%outs Fgeneral )and(G. Dro8ers tra4elled (toc' long di(tance( o8erland, t)e original o8erlanders dri4ing (toc' &ro- Ne= So%t) Kale( to So%t) A%(tralia. T)e i-2ortance o& ()ee2 in o2ening %2 t)e co%ntr* and e(ta/li()ing a &rontier (ociet* =a( (%c) t)at t)e occ%2ational 4oca/%larie( o& dro4ing and ()earing &ig%re largel* in A%(tralian literat%re. The "oldfields. ,old =a( di(co4ered in t)e 0$Q+(, leading to -o4e-ent /et=een t)e Cali&ornian, A%(tralian, and Ne= Lealand gold&ield(. 7ushes F&ir(t %(ed o& t)e (%dden e(ca2e o& a n%-/er o& con4ict( and t)en o& t)e (%dden -o4e-ent o& a n%-/er o& -iner( to a 2artic%lar 2lace or 80
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"oldfieldG &ollo=ed =)en a $ros$ector F"old1finder# "old1hunter# "old1seekerG -ade a find and e(ta/li()ed a clai-. A n%-/er o& -ining ter-( originated in A%(tralia, /%t -an* are ()ared =it) ot)er 4arietie( o& Engli(), and t)e i-2ortance o& t)e di(co4er* o& gold, and o& t)e r%()e( t)at &ollo=ed, lie( in t)e -o/ilit* it enco%raged and t)e e&&ect o& t)i( on t)e )o-ogeneit* o& t)e accent. Collo,uialis&s. A gro=ing (en(e o& national identit* =a( &o(tered /* in4ol4e-ent in t)e !ir(t Korld Kar. T)e line /et=een &or-al and in&or-al %(age i( 2er)a2( le(( rigidl* dra=n in A%(tralia t)an el(e=)ere, collo>%iali(-( /eing -ore generall* acce2ted t)an in Britain. In in&or-al %(age, t)e (%&&i<e( 5ie or 5+ and 5o or 5oh are &reel* attac)ed to ()ort /a(e =ord( Frou"hie a tric', tinnie a can o& /eer, %ottle1oh a /ottle -erc)ant, $lonko an addict o& $lonk or c)ea2 =ine, s&oko a =or' /rea'G and cli22ing( FAussie an A%(tralian, ar8o an a&ternoon, %ar%ie a /ar/ec%e, Chriss+ C)ri(t-a(, co&$o =or'er(H co-2en(ation, derro a derelict or do=n5and5o%t, reffo a re&%geeG. +inds of Australianism In ter-( o& origin and (tr%ct%re, A%(traliani(-( &all into (i< categorie(? F0G Kord( &ro- A/original lang%age(? 5 %oo&eran" W a t)ro=ing =ea2on, 5 corro%oree M a cere-onial dance, 5 -ackeroo W a trainee &ar- -anager, 5 kan"aroo W a large )o22ing -ar(%2ial, kooka%urra W a 'ind o& /ird, 0o&%at W a /%rro=ing -ar(%2ial. FJG E<ten(ion( o& 2re5e<i(ting (en(e(? 5 %ush W nat%ral 4egetation, or r%ral a( o22o(ed to %r/an li&e, 5 station W a garri(on, colonial o%t2o(t, tract o& gra8ing land, ranc). FSG Ne= co-2o%nd(? 5 %ush&an W (o-eone ('illed in tra4er(ing t)e /%(), 5 %ushran"er W an ar-ed /anditE 5 con8ict o8erseer W a con4ict a22ointed to (%2er4i(e ot)er con4ict(, 5 con8ict $olice W con4ict( a22ointed a( 2oliceE 5 cattle5shee$ station W (tation &or rai(ing cattle or ()ee2, 5 station %lack W an A/original e-2lo*ed on a (tationE 5 stock a"ent W (o-eone /%*ing and (elling li4e(toc', 5 stock&an W (o-eone e-2lo*ed to tend li4e(toc'. 81
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FNG Ne= &i<ed 2)ra(e(? %lack %rea&, %lack s0anE colonial ale# colonial to%acco; nati8e $lu&# nati8e $otato; red ash# red cedar; 0hite %o3# 0hite cockatoo; 0ild %anana# 0ild s$inach. FQG Coinage(? 5 e&anci$ist W a &reed con4ict, 5 "o slo0 W a &or- o& ind%(trial 2rote(t in =)ic) e-2lo*ee( =or' to r%le Fno= internationalG, 5 0oo$10oo$s re-ote co%ntr*. FDG Kord( =it) greater c%rrenc* in A%(tralia t)an el(e=)ere incl%ding ne= a22lication( o& =ord( &ro- Briti() regional dialect(? 5 dinku& relia/le, gen%ine, 5 dunn+ a 2ri4*, 5 larrikin a )ooligan, 5 0o0ser a 'ill9o*S0. Style and usage In general, 2rinted Engli() i( -%c) t)e (a-e a( el(e=)ere. T)e o&&icial (t*le g%ide i( t)e A%(tralian ,o4ern-ent Printing Ser4iceC( St+le ;anual for Authors# Editors and .rinters, &ir(t 2%/li()ed in 0"DD. T)e -an%al =a( intended to (et (tandard( &or go4ern-ent 2%/lication(, /%t i( =idel* %(ed and )a( recei4ed in2%t &ro- t)e co--%nit* in general t)ro%g) t)e Mac>%arie St+le Councils! An in&or-al g%ide i( Ste2)en M%rra*5S-it)H( 7i"ht 9ordsB A Guide to sa"e in Australia F.i'ing, 0"$7, re4i(ed edition 0"$"G. K)ere Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli() (2elling nor-( di&&er, Briti() Engli() i( 2re&erred? honour /%t La%or t)e na-e o& t)e 2olitical 2art*, centre# licence. T)e 5ise (2elling, a( in realise, i( generall* 2re&erred to 5i4e. Strine and stereoty'ing A%(tralian %(age )a( attracted co-ic (tereot*2ing. T)e ter- strine re&er( to a 'ind o& (tage A%(tralian in =)ic) 4o=el( are di(torted and (*lla/le( red%ced, a( in strine it(el&, colla2(ing t)e &o%r (*lla/le( o& Australian to one, and in E&&a Chisit, a 9o'e na-e deri4ed &ro- Ho0 &uch is itO T)e %(age o& t)e co-edian Barr* H%-2)rie( F/.0"SNG, created /* e<aggerating certain &eat%re( o& 2ron%nciation, deli4er*, or 4oca/%lar*, re&lect( a long5(tanding de&erence to Briti() Engli() -odel( co-/ined =it) a ne=5&o%nd and li4el* recognition o& national identit*. H%-2)rie(H %(e o& Engli() )a( contri/%ted /ot) to collo>%ial idio- and a =ide(2read 2erce2tion o& A%(tralian Engli() a( ca(%al and 4%lgar. Hi( c)aracter( incl%de Da-e Edna E4erage FA4er5 ageG, a (%/%r/an Mel/o%rne )o%(e=i&e t%rned -ega(tar, Sir Le( Patter(on, an A%(tralian Hc%lt%ral
S0
(o-eone =)o -a'e( it di&&ic%lt &or ot)er 2eo2le to en9o* t)e-(el4e(
82
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a-/a((adorH, and Barr* McVen8ie, an ocker F%nc%lt%red A%(tralian -aleG in a co-ic (tri2 in t)e Briti() (atirical -aga8ine .ri8ate E+e. Social matters Until recentl*, A%(tralia =a( deter-inedl* a((i-ilationi(t. Alt)o%g) i--igrant lang%age( (%c) a( ,ree' and Italian are no= accorded t)e (tat%( o& co&&unit+ lan"ua"es, and /iling%ali(i( acti4el* enco%raged /* t)e go4ern-ent, t)e i-2act o& t)e(e lang%age( on A%(tralian Engli() )a( /een negligi/le. T=o i((%e( c%rrentl* do-inate t)e ling%i(tic (cene? ;ulticulturalis&. T)e arri4al o& i--igrant( Flocall* 'no=n a( &i"rantsG i( (lo=l* con4erting a )o-ogeneo%( Anglo5Celtic (ociet* into a -%ltiling%al, -%ltic%lt%ral (ociet* t)at i( -ore or le(( tolerant o& di&&erence. A recent de4elo2-ent )a( /een t)e 2%/lication o& a National .olic+ on Lan"ua"es FU. Lo Bianco, 0"$7G, a re2ort co--i((ioned /* t)e Co--on=ealt) De2art-ent o& Ed%cation in 0"$D, a 'e* doc%-ent &or &ederal and (tate initiati4e( to i-2ro4e t)e teac)ing o& Engli() a( a &ir(t and a (econd lang%age, 2ro-ote /iling%ali(-, e(2eciall* in t)o(e =)o(e onl* lang%age i( Engli(), and 2re(er4e and &o(ter t)e teac)ing o& co--%nit* lang%age(, incl%ding A/original lang%age(. I-2ortant al(o )a( /een t)e increa(ed 2ro-inence o& A/original Engli() =it)in t)e (2ectr%- acce((i/le to t)e a4erage A%(tralian. A&erican# /ritish# and Ne0 Cealand influence. De(2ite a ne=5&o%nd (en(e o& inde2endence Fincl%ding t)e e<2ort o& A%(tralian &il-( and tele4i(ion (erie(G, A%(tralian Engli() i( (%/9ect to t)e -edia5/orne in&l%ence( o& Briti() Engli() and A-erican Engli(). In general, /eca%(e o& traditional tie(, t)ere i( le(( re(i(tance to Briti() Engli() t)an to A-erican Engli(), 2artic%larl* in 2ron%nciation and (2elling. Alt)o%g) it i( 0,J++ -ile( a=a*, Ne= Lealand i( con(idered to /e a clo(e geogra2)ical, c%lt%ral, and ling%i(tic neig)/o%r. T)e con(tant -o4e-ent o& la/o%r /et=een t)e t=o co%ntrie( en(%re( contin%ing e<c)ange and ()aring o& &eat%re( =it) Ne= Lealand Engli(). Aboriginal English T)i( tec)nical na-e i( gi4en to a contin%%- o& 4arietie( o& Engli(), ranging /et=een (tandard A%(tralian Engli() and creole(, ac>%ired and %(ed /* A/original A%(tralian( and o&ten re&erred to /* t)eir (2ea'er( a( %lackfella En"lish or %lackfella talk. In (o-e 2art( o& A%(tralia, t)e tran(ition &ro- a traditional lang%age to A/original Engli() )a( occ%rred =it)in &o%r generation( in t)e J+t) cent%r*. It i( %(ed /* A/origine( /ot) a-ong t)e-(el4e( and =it) non5 A/origine(. Mo(t 4arietie( are intelligi/le to (2ea'er( o& (tandard A%(tralian Engli(), t)o%g) certain nor-( &or t)e %(e o& lang%age are 4er* di&&erent F&or e<a-2le, direct >%e(tion( are not t*2icall* %(ed to elicit in&or-ationG, and t)ere are con(idera/le di&&erence( in gra--ar and 83
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2)onolog*. So-e o& t)e &eat%re( o& A/original Engli() are ()ared /* non5(tandard 4arietie( aro%nd t)e =orld, (%c) a( t)e %(e o& 2a(t and 2artici2ial &or-( o& certain 4er/( F%ran", not %rou"htG, and do%/le negati4e( FHe hasn(t "ot no to+sG. Ot)er( are -ore c)aracteri(tic o& creole(, (%c) a( t)e non5occ%rrence o& t)e co2%la F His na&e :ohn, not His na&e is :ohnG and lac' o& 2l%ral -ar'ing =it) 5s Ft0o %ird, not t0o %irdsG. In area( =)ere (2ea'er( (till %(e traditional lang%age( (%c) a( Karl2iri and Pit9ant9at9ara, t)eir Engli() o&ten di(2la*( &eat%re( /orro=ed &ro- t)e-? &or e<a-2le, in 2)onolog*, a&&ricate( and &ricati4e( alternate =it) 2alatal(, a( in t-icken Fc)ic'enG. T)ere are al(o le<ical di&&erence(, incl%ding =ord( /orro=ed &ro- (%c) lang%age(, and di(tincti4e %(e( o& Engli() =ord(? "rann+ can /e %(ed in t)e So%t)5Ke(t to re&er to an* -ale or &e-ale relati4e o& a 2er(onH( grand52arent(H generation. So-e =ord( can /e %(ed =it) a di&&erent gra--atical &%nction? "ro0 u$ and "ro0l -a* /e %(ed tran(iti4el*, a( in ;+ &other "re0 &e u$, and She "ro0led hi&. Alt)o%g) t)e 4ariet* i( generall* (tig-ati8ed /* =)ite A%(tralian (ociet*, it o&ten &%nction( a( a (*-/ol o& A/original identit*. Australian languages So-e J++ A/original lang%age( =ere (2o'en in A%(tralia =)en Briti() (ettler( arri4ed in t)e later 0$t) cent%r*. A/o%t Q+ are no= e<tinct, 0++ are d*ing, and (o-e Q+ are in acti4e &ir(t5 lang%age %(e, e(2eciall* along t)e nort) coa(t o& =e(tern and central A%(tralia, on Ca2e Yor', and in t)e =e(tern and central interior, t)at i(, in 2lace( re-ote &ro- -a9or 2o2%lation centre(. T)ere are (e4eral t)o%(and (2ea'er( o& dialect( o& t)e 9estern Desert Lan"ua"e Ft)e /e(t5'no=n o& =)ic) i( Pit9ant9at9araG and o& Aranda, aro%nd Alice S2ring(. T)ere are -an* -ore (2ea'er( o& Vriol and Torre( Strait Creole. Engli() i( t)e &ir(t and onl* lang%age o& (o-e $S_ o& A%(traliaH( 0D- 2eo2le. Minorit* lang%age( d%ring t)e 0"t) cent%r* incl%ded C)ine(e in gold&ield co--%nitie(, ,er-an in a L%t)eran (ettle-ent in So%t) A%(tralia, and ,aelic and Kel() in r%ral &a-ilie(. Non5Briti() i--igration increa(ed greatl* a&ter t)e Second Korld Kar and -%ltiling%ali(- )a( /een enco%raged (ince t)e 0"7+(. I--igrant lang%age( (2o'en /* -ore t)an 0++,+++ 2eo2le are Fin decrea(ing orderG Italian, ,ree', C)ine(e, Ara/ic, and ,er-an. Australian 'idgin A general na-e %(ed &or contact 4arietie( o& Engli(), e(2eciall* /et=een A/origine( and E%ro2ean (ettler( &ro- t)e late 0$t) cent%r*, =)ic) (2read &ro- S*dne* to ot)er (ettle-ent(, i( A%(tralian 2idgin. One o& t)e -o(t i-2ortant, 2idgin Engli() in \%een(land Fal(o 'no=n a( )ueensland Canefields En"lish and )ueensland 'anaka En"lishG =a( %(ed on t)e (%gar 2lantation( c.0$D+50"0+. It a22ear( to de(cend &ro- Ne0 South 9ales $id"in, an earl* contact 84
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lang%age ta'en nort) /* e<2lorer(, con4ict(, and (ettler(, and (2o'en -ainl* /* Melane(ian indent%red la/o%rer( rat)er t)an /* A/origine(. Mo(t ret%rned to t)eir )o-e land( /* 0"0+ and t)e 2idgin c%rrentl* e<i(t( onl* in &rag-entar* &or- a-ong t)e elderl*. Ho=e4er, it )ad a great in&l%ence on t)e (%/(e>%ent de4elo2-ent o& ;elanesian .id"in En"lish! Ot)er 4arietie( incl%de 'riol, in t)e Nort)ern Territor* and 2art( o& Ke(tern A%(tralia, and Torres Strait /roken, t)e Torre( Strait I(land(. +riol It date( &ro- -id5J+t) cent%r* and i( an ada2tation o& creole, al(o called 7o$er 7i8er Creole5'riol# 7o$er .id"in. It i( an Engli()5/a(ed creole (2o'en -ainl* in nort)ern A%(tralia, &ro- \%een(land, acro(( t)e Bar'l* Ta/leland( and o2er i4er Ba(in t)ro%g)o%t -%c) o& t)e to2 )al& o& t)e Nort)ern Territor* and into t)e Vi-/erle*( o& Ke(tern A%(tralia. A contact lang%age /et=een A/origine( and o%t(ide gro%2(, it i( no= %(ed in o4er 0++ A/original co--%nitie( /* -ore t)an J+,+++ 2eo2le, at lea(t )al& o& =)o- )a4e it a( t)eir 2ri-ar* lang%age. Vriol i( a contin%%- o& 4arietie(, &ro- he%i 'riol F)ea4* creole? t)e /a(ilectG to lait 'riol Flig)t creole? acrolectG. S2ea'er( o& )e/i are -o(tl* -ot)er5tong%e (2ea'er( o& an A/original lang%age =)o %(e Vriol a( a (econd lang%age. E<tre-e lait Vriol incl%de( 4irt%all* all t)e contra(t( o& -ain(trea- Engli(). A =ord in Vriol -a* )a4e (e4eral di&&erent 2ron%nciation(? $olice&an -a* /e %ali-i&an F/a(ilectG, %li-i&an F-e(olectG, $lis&an FacrolectG. Mo(t o& t)e 4oca/%lar* i( &ro- Engli(), in (o-e ca(e( =it) -eaning( altered to 2arallel t)e (e-antic range o& e>%i4alent =ord( in A/original lang%age(? kuk0an F&ro- Bcoo'ed oneHG -ean( ri$e a( =ell a( cooked. T)ere are al(o (o-e A/original =ord(? &unan"a a 2er(on o& E%ro2ean de(cent. T)e gra--ar o& Vriol ()are( (o-e &eat%re( =it) Engli()5/a(ed 2idgin( and creole( in t)e Paci&ic? F0G T)e &or- o& t)e tran(iti4e -ar'er on 4er/( i( Xi&51u&, a( in kili& to )it, kuku& to coo'. Co-2are To' Pi(in kili&# kuki&! FJG T)e %(e o& %in a( a co-2leti4e a%<iliar*? Ai %in rid det %uk I )a4e read t)e /oo'. Mo(t o& t)e li-ited Vriol -or2)olog* i( a((ociated =it) t)e 4er/ and t)ere are &i4e 2re2o(ition( =)ic) indicate gra--atical relation(? %lon"a F&ro- H/elongHG, a( in Ai%in "i%it i& &ani %lon"a da"a I ga4e )i- (o-e -one* &or &oodE lon"a F&ro- HlongHG, a( in I&%in %o"i lon"a ri%a He (=a- in t)e ri4er. Ot)er 2re2o(ition( incl%de fo &or, fro& &ro-, "arra& =it), a( in? 2lu%at %in ka&an fro& de+a T)e* ca-e &ro- t)ereE Dei%in ha&%a"a& &i fo da"a T)e* 2e(tered -e &or &oodE ;ela%at kaan "o "arra& +u&o% Ke cannot go =it) *o% 2eo2le. Vriol )a( a di(tinct ort)ogra2)* and a gro=ing literat%re. In 0"7Q, a (c)ool in Ba-*ili, 85
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=)ere Vriol i( a -a9or lang%age, =a( 2er-itted to introd%ce it a( t)e lang%age o& 2re5(c)ool in(tr%ction. In 0"7", 2er-i((ion =a( (o%g)t and o/tained &ro- t)e Nort)ern Territor* De2art-ent o& Ed%cation &or t)e introd%ction o& a /iling%al 2rogra--e, de(2ite o22o(ition &rot)o(e =)o did not con(ider Vriol a real lang%age. Dutch and French! A &e= na-e( (%r4i4e a( a record o& D%tc) and !renc) e<2loration, gi4en /* t)e e<2lorer( t)e-(el4e( or later in t)eir )ono%r. T)e original na-e o& t)e continent, Ne0 Holland, re-ained in %(e in t)e earl* 0"t) cent%r* and (%r4i4e( in it( Latin &or- No8a Hollandia in (cienti&ic no-enclat%re and (%c) 2o2%lar na-e( a( Ne0 Holland hone+eater. Ot)er na-e( gi4en /* t)e D%tc) incl%de >an Die&en(s Land Flater na-ed Ta(-ania a&ter A/el Ta(-anG, Groote E+landt Fin t)e ,%l& o& Car2entariaG, and 7ottnest Island Fo&& t)e =e(t coa(tG. Na-e( co--e-orating t)e D%tc) 4i(it( incl%de Arnhe& Land Fa&ter one o& Car(ten(8H( 4e((el(G and Dirk Harto" Island Fa&ter t)e (ea-anG. Na-e( gi4en /* !renc) e<2lorer( incl%de Huon 7i8er Fa&ter H%on de Ver-adecG, D(Entrecasteau3 Channel Fa&ter t)e e<2lorerG, and Fre+cinet .eninsula Fa&ter t)e e<2lorerG, all in Ta(-ania. Ot)er na-e( li'e La .erouse Fa S*dne* (%/%r/G co--e-orate e<2lorer(. En"lish1 E<i(ting Briti() na-e( &or 2eo2le and 2lace( =ere &reel* a22lied in t)e ne= conte<t. Na-e( =ere gi4en? F0G In )ono%r o& 2eo2le 2ro-inent in Britain? Adelaide a&ter Killia- I.H( \%een, ;el%ourne a&ter t)e Pri-e Mini(ter at t)e ti-e o& it( &o%ndation, Ho%art a&ter t)e Secretar* o& State &or Kar and t)e Colonie(, 9ellin"ton a&ter t)e D%'e o& Kellington, ;oreton /a+ a&ter t)e Earl o& Morton, Pre(ident o& t)e o*al Societ*. FJG To co--e-orate 2eo2le 2ro-inent in A%(tralia? /ris%ane a&ter t)e go4ernor, Ca&$%ellto0n a&ter t)e &a-il* na-e o& t)e =i&e o& ,o4ernor Mac>%arie, Lake E+re a&ter t)e e<2lorer, A+ers 7ock a&ter a 2re-ier o& So%t) A%(tralia, Lake .edder a&ter a C)ie& U%(tice o& Ta(-ania, 7e+nella a&ter Uo)n e*nell, =)o )ad e(ta/li()ed a 4ine*ard near/*. FSG Beca%(e o& (o-e a((ociation, real or &ancied, =it) a 2lace in England F;or$eth# Ne0castle# 9indsorG, Scotland FAr&idale, Eildon 9eir# .erthG, or, le(( &re>%entl*, Ireland and Kale(. FNG Kit) re&erence to 2eo2le and 2lace( el(e=)ere? A%(traliaH( )ig)e(t -o%ntain, ;ount 'osciusko, na-ed /* t)e e<2lorer Str8elec'i a&ter t)e Poli() 2atriot. T)e (igni&icance o& -an* na-e( i( %ncertain. FQG De(cri2ti4e na-e( 2roli&erated a( t)e co%ntr* =a( (ettled. T)e* are eit)er &ig%rati4e FGlass House ;ountains# ;ount Dro&edar+# .i"eon House ;ountain? all gi4en /* t)e e<2lorer Ua-e( Coo' in 077+G, indicate a do-inant c)aracteri(tic F/ald Hill# Four ;ile /ore# 'an"aroo Flat# 2ne Tree Hill# Sand+ CreekG, or record an e4ent FDinner Creek# ;istake Creek# ;ount 86
ENGLISH DIALECTS
;iser+G. Man* (%c) na-e( =ere gi4en locall*, leading to d%2lication? Sand+ Creek occ%r( (o-e N++ ti-e(.
Australian 'lace$names T)ere are (o-e N -illion 2lace5na-e( in A%(tralia. T)e* re&lect t)e 2eo2ling o& t)e co%ntr* and are -ainl* A/original or Engli() in origin. T)ere are t)ree -ain t*2e(? 5 /orro=ing(, 5 tran(&erred %(e( o& e<i(ting Briti() na-e(, and 5 de(cri2ti4e co-2o%nd(. A%ori"inal! T)e greater n%-/er o& 2lace5na-e( i( A/original in origin? recorded /* e<2lorer(, e(2eciall* &ro- t)e 0$J+( on=ard, /%t t)e -a9orit* /orro=ed /* (ettler(. Mo(t %nder=ent c)ange /eca%(e t)e (o%nd( =ere )eard i-2reci(el* and =ere Anglici8ed in tran(cri2tion. Kord( =)ic) =ere not 2lace5na-e( )a4e al(o /een gi4en a( (%c) F /un+i$ a -*t)ical ani-al, 9allaroo a 'ind o& -ar(%2ialG, and na-e( o& ani-al( li'e din"o Fa dog do-e(ticated /* t)e A/origine(G and 0ar1 ri"al Fa =ild dogG are %(ed in n%-ero%( co-2o%nd(. A/original 2lace5na-e( are -o(tl* 2ol*(*lla/ic? Indooroo$ill+# ;urru&%id"ee# 9ollon"on"# 9ooloon"a%%a! Man* end in 4o=el( F/o""a%ri# Gunnedah# ;eri&%ula# TantanoolaG, and a n%-/er are red%2licati4e FGoonoo Goonoo# Til%a Til%a# 9a""a 9a""a# 9o+ 9o+ G. T)eir -eaning( are o&ten %ncertain? Can%erra, t)e na-e o& t)e ca2ital, i( anecdotall* (aid to -ean Ko-anH( Brea(t( Fa&ter a 2air o& )ill(G or Meeting Place.
Dialect in Ne. 2ealand T)ere )a4e /een (o-e clai-( t)at certain =ord( occ%r onl* in certain region(. In Otago and So%t)land, a )olida* )o-e i( a cri%, el(e=)ere a %ach. T)e =ord( chi$# $ottle# $unnet &or a container &or (tra=/errie(, and half1G# fla"on# $eter &or a -ea(%re o& /eer, -a* /e re(tricted to 2artic%lar 2lace(. So-e =ord( o& Scotti() origin, (%c) a( ashet a -eat5di() F&ro- !renc) assietteG are recorded onl* in Otago and So%t)land. Couch "rass# t)e ter- in t)e Nort) I(land, i( li'el* to /e called t0itch in t)e So%t) I(land. So-e clai- t)at a &e= =ord(, (%c) a( cri% a -inerH( l%nc), a c%t l%nc), and scun"e a -i(erl* 2er(on, are %(ed onl* on t)e Ke(t Coa(t o& t)e So%t) I(land, /%t &%rt)er in4e(tigation i( needed to 4eri&* (%c) (tate-ent(. De(2ite t)e &act t)at -an* Ne= Lealander( &eel t)at t)ere are regional di&&erence( in 2ron%nciation F%(%all* di(c%((ed in ter-( o& dra0lin" and cli$$ed tonesG, t)e onl* (%c) di&5 &erence =)ic) can /e relia/l* traced i( t)e %(e o& t)e Southland %urr, t)e 2ron%nciation o& RrR in 87
ENGLISH DIALECTS
=ord( li'e car# far& in a ()rin'ing area o& r%ral So%t)land. T)ere i( a degree o& -i<ing o& Engli() =it) Maori, e(2eciall* a-ong t)e Maori 2o2%lation, /%t t)i( 2ro/a/l* ()o%ld not /e co%nted a( a (e2arate dialect a( (%c). T)e di(tinct 4ariet* co--onl* called ;aori En"lish i( not (2o'en /* all Maori( or e<cl%(i4el* /* Maori(. It( -ain &eat%re( are 2)onological rat)er t)an le<ical, incl%ding 4oice >%alit* and tendenc* to (*lla/le ti-ing.
DIALECT IN SO0T& A3"ICA
Introduction T)e %(age o& nati4e (2ea'er( o& Engli() in So%t) A&rica 4arie( -ore /* cla(( t)an region. In addition, Engli() i( t)e ling%a &ranca o& -an* -illion( &or =)o- it i( not t)e -ot)er tong%e, =it) t)e re(%lt t)at it e<i(t( in -an* &or-(? &or e<a-2le, t)e 2ron%nciation o& (2ea'er( o& A&ri5 'aan( Engli() ()ade( &ro- near5 P to A&ri'aan(, de2ending on ed%cation, e<2erience, and r%ral or %r/an %2/ringing. In co%ntr* (c)ool(, 2eo2le o& an* race are rarel* ta%g)t /* a nati4e (2ea'er, =it) t)e re(%lt t)at t)e* retain or ac>%ire (econd5lang%age c)aracteri(tic(. T)i( i( 2artic%larl* t)e ca(e &or t)e Colo%red co--%nit*, %r/an and r%ral, &or -an* o& =)o- Engli() i(, a( it =ere, a (econd &ir(t lang%age. T)o(e =)o %(e it in t)e =or'2lace -a* %(e anot)er lang%age =it) c)ildren, older relati4e(, and in collo>%ial (it%ation(E -an* Colo%red teac)er( =)o, =)ene4er 2o((i/le %(e Engli() /eca%(e it i( t)e 2re(tige lang%age, do not ac>%ire an*t)ing clo(e to it( 2re(tige dialect. T)e o2ening o& t)e 2ri4ate (c)ool( to all race( in t)e la(t decade( or -ore )a( gi4en t)e c)ildren o& =ealt)* Blac', Colo%red, and Indian &a-ilie( acce(( to t)i( dialect, /%t &e= ot)er(, incl%ding t)e -a9orit* o& K)ite(, )a4e t)e (a-e o22ort%nit*. Engli() in So%t) A&rica i( (2o'en in -an* =a*( /* &ar -ore non5nati4e t)an nati4e (2ea'er(E =)ile it i( (tretc)ing t)e terdialect to incl%de t)e 4arietie( t)e* %(e, it i( i-2o((i/le in (%c) a (ociet* to di(regard t)e-. Afri-aans English It i( t)e Engli() %(ed a( a (econd lang%age in So%t) A&rica and Na-i/ia /* (2ea'er( o& A&ri'aan(. It i( generall* r)otic, c)aracteri8ed /* a trilled or rolled r. It al(o )a( (c)=a =)ere P )a( t)e 4o=el RAR in (%c) =ord( a( $in and sit FR2AnR and R(AtRG, a (o%nd regarded a( t)e c)aracteri(tic So%t) A&rican 4o=el, =it) a 4ar*ing in&l%ence on So%t) A&rican Engli(). Initial and -edial R)R i( o&ten 4oiced, and gi4e( t)e i-2re((ion o& /eing dro22ed, (o t)at red hair -a* /e )eard a( Hred airH. Con4er(el*, t)ere i( o&ten an intr%(i4e a(2irate /et=een 4o=el(, a( in Hcre5 )a*tionH &or creation and H)i5)a*t%(H &or hiatus. Be&ore R9%R, a( in +ou, t)e intr%(i4e R)R i( 88
ENGLISH DIALECTS
2alatali8ed a( in Engli() hu"e, =)ile hu"e i( o&ten rendered a( H*oodgeH. !inal 4oiced con(onant( tend to /e de4oiced? Hdo'H &or do", H2iece((H &or $ieces. Beca%(e A&ri'aan( 4er/( are not -ar'ed &or t)ird52er(on (ing%lar, con&%(ion o& concord i( co--on, incl%ding in t)e -edia, 2artic%larl* =it) is5are# has5ha8e# does5do. #(e o& 2re2o(ition( i( al(o in&l%enced /* A&ri'aan(? He(s %+ the house Fat t)e )o%(eG, She(s not here on the &o&ent Fat t)e -o-entG, The+(re 0aitin" on their results F&or t)eir re(%lt(G. Man* e<2re((ion( are carried o4er &ro- A&ri'aan(? HI rode Fdro4eG all o4er to=n loo'ing &or -* ()oe( /%t didnHt &ind it Fco-2are dit, t)e A&ri'aan( inani-ate 2rono%n &or Ht)e-HG. Mo(t &re>%entl* )eard i( t)e 2)ra(e Is itO, &ro- A&ri'aan( Is ditO F eall*O I( t)at (oO Are t)e*O, etc.G. So-e A&ri'aan(5deri4ed e<2re((ion( )a4e /een a((i-ilated into So%t) A&rican Engli(), (%c) a( He(s la4+ to "et u$ HeH( too la8* to get %2, The tree is ca$a%le to 0ithstand frost T)e tree i( ca2a/le o& =it)(tanding &ro(t, He far&s 0ith 0ine "ra$es He gro=( gra2e( &or =ine, and The 8illa"e %oasts 0ith %eautiful 8ine+ards T)e 4illage /oa(t( /ea%ti&%l 4ine*ard(. South African English )a( t)e ()ort &or-( SAE# SAfrE. It i( t)e Engli() lang%age a( %(ed in t)e e2%/lic o& So%t) A&rica, t)e &ir(t lang%age o& c. 0+_ Fa/o%t J.7-G o& t)e total 2o2%lation o& t)e e2%/lic o& So%t) A&rica and it( 2re(ent /lac' H)o-eland(H. A/o%t t=o5t)ird( o& t)i( 0+_ are =)ite, and -o(t o& t)e re(t Indian or HColo%redH F-i<ed A&rican and E%ro2ean de(centG. To a (-all /%t i-2ortant A&rican elite, Engli() i( a H(econd &ir(t lang%ageH, and it i( (2o'en &l%entl* /* -an* A&ri'aner(. A( a ling%a &ranca, it i( %(ed =it) 4ar*ing degree( o& 2ro&icienc* /* -illion( =)o(e -ot)er tong%e i( not Engli(). #ntil 0""N, =it) A&ri'aan(, it =a( one o& t)e t=o 2rinci2al o&&icial lang%age(E in t)at *ear, nine /lac' A&rican lang%age( /eca-e o&&icial. So%t) A&rican Engli() i( di(ting%i()ed &ro- /ot) A&ri'aan( Engli() and /lac' (econd5lang%age 4arietie(. &istory T)e D%tc) (ettle-ent at t)e Ca2e date( &ro- 0DQJ. K)en t)e Briti() (ei8ed t)e colon* in 07"Q, t)e* -o4ed into a long5e(ta/li()ed D%tc)5(2ea'ing co--%nit* =it) it( o=n c%lt%re, ad-ini(tration, and 2attern( o& relation()i2 =it) t)e /lac' and V)oi(an 2eo2le( o& t)e (%/continent. T)e D%tc) co--%nit* =a( alread* diglo((ic, &or e<a-2le %(ing (tandard D%tc) &or religio%( and go4ern-ental 2%r2o(e( and local 4arietie( 'no=n 4ario%(l* a( Ca$e Dutch# colonial Dutch# South African Dutch, or (i-2l* the taal FHt)e lang%ageHG a( dialect( o& H)eart) and )o-eH. T)e(e =ere later, /et=een 0$7Q and 0"JQ, (tandardi8ed a( A&ri'aan(. Since t)e end o& t)e 0$t) cent%r*, -an* (2ea'er( o& Engli() in (o%t)ern A&rica )a4e /een in clo(e contact =it) D%tc)RA&ri'aan( 2eo2le F=it) -an* inter-arriage(G, and le(( clo(el* =it) (2ea'er( o& Bant% and V)oi(an lang%age(. Co-2etent /iling%al( F&or e<a-2le, in Engli() and D%tc), or M)o(a and Engli()G )a4e /een n%-ero%( and in&l%ential, and condition( )a4e &a4o%red co-2le< code5-i<5 89
ENGLISH DIALECTS
ing and code5(=itc)ing. T)ere i( al(o a large /od* o& 2%/li()ed Engli() =riting( /* non5Engli() a%t)or( ranging &ro- t)e T(=ana Sol Plaat9e to t)e A&ri'aner Andre Brin'. ronunciation F0G SAE i( t*2icall* nonr)otic, /%t -a* /eco-e r)otic or 2artiall* (o in (2ea'er( (trongl* in&l%enced /* A&ri'aan( Engli(). T)e(e -a* )a4e &inal 2o(t4ocalic RrR and a -edial RrR a( trill or ta2. Ling%i(t( )a4e o/(er4ed an initial o/(tr%ent F&ricati4eG RrR, in (%c) 2)ra(e( a( red# red rose, in older (2ea'er( in t)e Ea(tern Ca2e. FJG .ariation( in accent de2end %(%all* on ed%cation, (ocial cla((, do-icile Fr%ral or %r/anG, and acco--odation to (2ea'er( o& 4arietie( di&&erent &ro- oneH( o=n. FSG Con(er4ati4e -iddle5cla(( accent( re-ain clo(e to P, t)o%g) t*2icall* =it) t)e P %it# $in to a 2o(ition lo=ering and retraction Fin certain 2)onetic conte<t(G o& t)e 4o=el in t)an /ac'. FNG Pro-inent &eat%re( o& H/roaderH accent( incl%de t)e &ollo=ing rendering(? 5 T)e 4o=el o& P tra$ a( Htre2H FA&ri'aan(RD%tc) and t)e (o%t)ern Bant% lang%age( lac'5 ing a 4o=el o& t)e tra$ >%alit*GE 5 T)e long /ac' 4o=el o& P car in a )ig)er and -ore ro%nded 4er(ion a( in t)e (tereot*2e H2or' t)e carHE 5 di2)t)ong red%ction( a( in fair hair a( R&e? )e?R, and t)e 4o=el o& P $rice in a glidele(( or nearl* glidele(( 4er(ion, (o t)at kite -a* re(e-/le cart. FQG In a cla(( o& loan=ord( &ro- A&ri'aan(, (%c) a( t)e inter9ection "a FR<aRG e<2re((ing di(g%(t, and "edoente F&%((, /%(tleG, -o(t (2ea'er( %(e a /orro=ed 4elar or 2alatal &ricati4e li'e t)e (o%nd in Scotti() Engli() loch. In anot)er loan cla((, o& =ord( (%c) a( %akkie Flig)t deli4er* 4anG and $a$ F2orridgeG, t)ere i( a 4o=el /et=een t)o(e o& P %ut and hot. T)e 2reci(e e<tent o& A&ri'aan( in&l%ence on t)e (o%nd (*(te- and ot)er a(2ect( o& SAE i( a -atter o& contro4er(*. In -an* ca(e(, (%c) a( t)e 4o=el o& t)e tra$ cla((, t)ere (ee- to )a4e /een con4ergent in&l%ence( &ro- Engli() (ettler dialect(, D%tc)RA&ri'aan(, and in (o-e ca(e( A&rican lang%age(. !rammar
a22roac)ing t)at o& (c)=a RAR, in 4ar*ing degree(. T)e 4o=el o& P "oose i( o&ten central rat)er
T)e (*nta< o& &or-al SAE i( clo(e to t)at o& t)e international (tandard. Collo>%ial SAE,
)o=e4er, )a( -an* &eat%re(, (%c) a(? F0G Sentence initiator( (%c) a( a&&ir-ati4e no, a( in Ho0 are +ouT 1No# I(& fine, 2ro/a/l* &ro- D%tc)RA&ri'aan(, and t)e e-2)atic aikona a( in Aikona fish FHNo &i() toda*HG, o& Ng%ni FBant%G origin. T)e co--on in&or-al 2)ra(e -a 0ell no fine F*e( =ell no &ineG )a( /een ado2ted 90
ENGLISH DIALECTS
in (olid =ritten &or- a( an a&&ectionate e<2re((ion o& ridic%le F-a0ellnofineG &or /road SAE %(age, and )a( (er4ed to na-e a So%t) A&rican tele4i(ion 2rogra--e. FJG T)e (%&&i<ed 2)ra(e and the&, a( in 9e sa0 /ill+ and the& in to0n FHBill* and t)e ot)er(HG, a &or- &o%nd al(o in Cari//ean 4arietie(. FSG /us+ a( a 2rogre((i4e -ar'er =it) (tati4e 4er/(, a( in 9e 0ere %us+ 0aitin" for hi&, and o&ten =it) a non5ani-ate (%/9ect, a( in The rinder$est 0as %us+ deci&atin" their herds. FNG T)e all52%r2o(e re(2on(e is itO, a( in She had a %a%+ last 0eek!1Is itO, )eard al(o in Singa2ore and Mala*(ia, /%t clo(el* 2arallel in %(e to A&ri'aan( Is ditO FQG E<ten(i4e %(e o& A&ri'aan( H-odal ad4er/(H, (%c) a( so&&er FH9%(tHG in 9e 0ere so&&er standin" around! )ocabulary SAE )a( /orro=ed &reel*. A ro%g) e(ti-ate o& (o%rce lang%age( &or di(tincti4el* So%t) A&rican =ord( i(? D%tc)RA&ri'aan( Q+_, Engli() S+_, A&rican lang%age( 0+_, ot)er lang%age( 0+_. T)e -o(t recent *ear( ()o= an increa(ing 2ro2ortion o& ite-( o& Engli() or A&rican5 lang%age origin. Mo(t o& t)e SAE ite-( /e(t 'no=n internationall*, (%c) a( Afrikaner# %oer# trek, and 8eld, are o& D%tc)RA&ri'aan( origin. An e<ce2tion i( concentration ca&$, coined /* t)e Briti() d%ring t)e (econd Anglo5Boer Kar. In -o(t do-ain(, (%c) a( land(ca2e and to2ogra2)*, t)ere i( li'el* to /e? F0G A )ig) 2ro2ortion o& Hco--on =ord(H /orro=ed directl* &ro- D%tc)RA&ri'aan(, (%c) a( drift &ord F07"QG, kloof dee2 4alle* or ra4ine F07S0G, land a c%lti4ated (tretc), %(%all* &enced F&ro- Ca2e D%tc)G, and 8eld o2en co%ntr* F0$SQG. FJG A n%-/er o& HEngli()H ite-( tran(lated or 2artiall* tran(lated &ro- D%tc) or A&ri'aan(, (%c) a( %ack8eld /ac' co%ntr*, o%t/ac', &ro- D%tc) achter8eld! FSG So-e =ord( o& Engli() origin t)at )a4e ac>%ired ne= (en(e(, (%c) a( location, originall*, a( in A%(tralia, an area allocated to =)ite (ettler(, later Ha di(trict (et a(ide &or Blac'(H, and (till later Ha (egregated %r/an area &or Blac'(H, t*2icall* =it) (trongl* %n&a4o%ra/le connotation( Fa( in Ht)e %(%al -e((, t)e location, o& (ac'ing and 2ara&&in tin(H? Dan Uaco/(onG. In t)i( (en(e, location )a( largel* gi4en =a* to t)e e>%all* e%2)e-i(tic to0nshi$. FNG A (2rin'ling o& ite-( o& A&rican5lang%age origin? &or e<a-2le, karroo (e-i5de(ert FV)oi, 077DG, don"a an eroded =aterco%r(e, %(%all* dr* FNg%niG. FQG A &e= =ord( re&lecting So%t) A&ricaH( co(-o2olitani(-, 2a(t and 2re(ent, (%c) a( kraal an A&rican or V)oi')oi 4illage, an enclo(%re &or cattle F2ro/a/l* &ro- Port%g%e(e curral? co-2are S2ani() corralG. Mo(t to2ic area( re&lect t)e =ide range o& 2eo2le( and c%lt%re( o& 2a(t and 2re(ent5da* 91
ENGLISH DIALECTS
So%t) A&rica. T)%(, a-ong tree( are t)e &lo=ering keur%oo& FSo%t) A&rican D%tc), 07S0G, t)e )ard=ood( stink0ood and +ello00ood Ftran(lating D%tc) stinkhout and "eolhoutG and sil8er tree, an Engli() coinage dating &ro- earl* tra4eller(H acco%nt( o& t)e Ca2e FD%tc)? 0itte%o&e =)ite tree(G. A-ong li4ing creat%re( are t)e antelo2e( eland FD%tc)? el'G, kudu F2ro/a/l* V)oi(anG, i&$ala FL%l%G, and tsse%e FT(=anaG. H%-an t*2e( range &ro- t)e $redikant or do&inee FD%tc)RA&ri'aan(? -ini(ter o& t)e D%tc) e&or-ed C)%rc)G t)ro%g) t)e san"o&a FNg%ni? di4inerG to t)e ducktails FTedd* /o*(G o& t)e (treet( o& t)e 0"D+(. Arte&act( range &ro- t)e traditional kaross FV)oi(an 4ia A&ri'aan(? ('in /lan'etG t)ro%g) t)e Ca$e cart F-i(tran(lating A&ri'aan( ka$kar )ooded cartG to t)e =ide(2read %akkie F&ro- A&ri'aan(? /a(in or ot)er containerG, a lig)t tr%c', no= a (*-/ol o& 4irile o2en5air li&e. Li>%or range( &ro- traditional Ng%ni tsh0ala /re=ed =it) -alted grain or -ai8e F&or-erl* 'affir %eer, no= o&ten sor"hu& %eerG to t)e &or-ida/le &a&$oer, a /rand* di(tilled &ro2eac)e( and ot)er (o&t &r%it(, 2ro-inent in t)e &iction o& H. C. Bo(-an and no= t)e &oc%( o& a c%lt o& it( o=n, 2o((i/l* na-ed a&ter t)e Sot)o c)ie& Ma-2%r%. ;aho"FaG i( /rand* a( (er4ed in to=n()i2 ()e/een( F-an* no= legali8ed a( ta8ernsG and 2o((i/l* &ro- Engli() &aho"an+. !ood( incl%de %oere0ors FA&ri'aan(? /oer (a%(ageG, a centre2iece o& a %raai8leis FA&5 ri'aan(? /ar/ec%eG, and sosaties Fc%rried 'e/a/(, 2ro/a/l* &ro- Mala*G. At o%tdoor 2artie(, t)e &ocal di() -a* /e $ot-iekos FA&ri'aan(G, a (te= =it) ingredient( to ta(te, -ade in a t)ree5legged 2ot o4er an o2en &ire. A&rican to=n()i2 c%lt%re )a( generated an enor-o%( 4oca/%lar* t)at incl%de( &atch%o3 a (-all (tandardi8ed d=elling, s$ot a ()e/een or ta4ern, %oere FH/oer(HG t)e 2olice, and tsotsi an A&rican (treet t)%g Fo& %ncertain originG. M%c) o& t)e 4a(t go4ern-ent 4oca/%lar* o& a2art)eid re-ain( in %(e, (%c) a( "rou$ area an area (et a2art &or a 2artic%lar racial gro%2, and resettle&ent, (o-eti-e( &orci/le, o& 2eo2le into (%c) area(. H e(i(tance 4oca/%lar*H incl%de( t)e rall*ing cr* A&andla Fn"a0ethuG HPo=er Fi( o%r(GH, &ro- Ng%ni, and t)e -ore recent >i8ac, 2er)a2( &ro- Port%g%e(e5(2ea'ing Mo8a-/i>%e, co&rade in t)e (2eciali8ed (en(e o& H2olitical acti4i(t, %(%all* *o%ngH F/%t al(o a( in Co&rade Slo8o or Co&rade ;%ekiG, and necklace Fe<ec%tion /* igniting a 2etrol5&illed t*re )%ng ro%nd t)e 4icti-H( nec'G. T=o ite-( o& (2ecial intere(t are &uti and larne+. T)e &ir(t, &ro- L%l%, originall* de(ignated traditional A&rican -edicine( and ot)er re-edie(, /%t )a( 2a((ed into general =)ite collo>%ial %(e a( in The $har&acist "a8e &e a s$ecial &uti for this! Lahnee, o& %n'no=n origin, a22eared &ir(t in Indian Engli() in general collo>%ial %(e, %(%all* a( larne+, -eaning H(-art, 2retentio%(H, a( in a hell of a larne+ 0eddin". South African Indian English )a( t)e ()ort &or- SAIE. Engli() a( %(ed /* So%t) A&rican( o& Indian /ac'gro%nd. In t)e 2ro4ince o& Natal, =)ere t)e -a9orit* o& Indian So%t) 92
ENGLISH DIALECTS
A&rican( li4e, SAIE i( t)e &ir(t lang%age o& -o(t %nder N+. T)e old lang%age(, c)ie&l* ,%9arati, Hindi, Ta-il, Tel%g%, and #rd%, are in 4ario%( (tage( o& o/(ole(cence, 0S+ *ear( a&ter t)e &ir(t i--igration( %nder indent%re()i2 in 0$D+. SAIE i( not generall* recogni8ed a( a 4ariet* in it( o=n rig)t, and in ed%cational circle( i( (tig-ati8ed a( 2oor Engli(). It i( a contin%%- &ro- t)e lo=52re(tige /a(ilect o& older 2eo2le =it) little ed%cation to an acrolect %(ed /* (o-e *o%nger ed%cated (2ea'er( t)at di&&er( little &rogeneral So%t) A&rican Engli(). Bet=een t)e(e e<tre-e( i( t)e -e(olect, t)e %(age o& t)e -a9orit*. Indian in&l%ence i( a22arent in t)e (*lla/le5ti-ing o& in&or-al (2eec), retro&le<ion o& Rt, dR, e(2eciall* at t)e end( o& (*lla/le( Fa( in %ut and %udG, and t)e re2lace-ent o& R6, 7R /* Rt, dR. Parata<i(SJ i( o&ten &a4o%red o4er )*2ota<i( FI 0ent to Derek1Derek filled that for& in1he sent it G, to2icali8ation i( %(ed &or e-2)a(i( F2nl+ asth&a I hadG, and t)e =ord order o& t)e Indian lang%age( i( (o-eti-e( %(ed, a( =)en 'in()i2 title( &ollo= 2ro2er na-e( F :ohnn+ ncle# ;eena AuntieG and relati4e cla%(e( 2recede t)e )ead no%n o& t)e -ain cla%(e F You can(t %eat >i-a+(s $lanted to&atoes? Yo% canHt /eat t)e to-atoe( =)ic) .i9a* 2lant(G. So-e le<ical (i-ilaritie( =it) Indian Engli() (%gge(t t)e 0" t) cent%r* in&l%ence o& teac)er( &ro- India? cousin1%rother a -ale &ir(t co%(in, further1studies )ig)er ed%cation, and t)e co-2o%nd( %utter1%read /read and /%tter, curr+1rice c%rr* and rice. S%c) (i-ilaritie( are not eno%g) to (%gge(t a (i-2le 2roce(( in =)ic) t)e Engli() o& t)e (%/continent =a( tran(2lanted to Natal. Alt)o%g) t)e n%-/er o& acrolectal (2ea'er( i( increa(ing, t)ere are &e= (ign( o& -erging =it) general So%t) A&rican Engli(), 2artl* /eca%(e o& 2a(t 2olicie( o& (egregation in )o%(ing and ed%cation.
SOUT !S"!# $#%&"S
T)e ()ort &or- i( SAE or, to /e -ore 2reci(e and di&&erentiate &ro- So%t) A&rican Engli(), SAsEE it re&er( to t)e Engli() lang%age a( %(ed in Banglade(), B)%tan, India, t)e Maldi4e(, Ne2al, Pa'i(tan, and Sri Lan'a. T)e co-/ined 2o2%lation( o& t)e(e co%ntrie(, e(ti-ated at 0,N++ -illion in t)e *ear J+++, con(tit%te al-o(t a >%arter o& t)e )%-an race. Engli() i( t)eir -ain lin'
SJ
2lacing toget)er 2)ra(e(, cla%(e( and (entence(, o&ten =it)o%t con9%nction(, o&ten =it) and# %ut# so, and =it) -ini-al or no %(e o& (%/ordination
93
ENGLISH DIALECTS
lang%age, largel* a( a re(%lt o& Briti() co--ercial, colonial, and ed%cational in&l%ence (ince t)e 07t) cent%r*. Onl* Ne2al, B)%tan, and t)e Maldi4e( re-ained o%t(ide t)e Briti() a9. All So%t) A(ian co%ntrie( are ling%i(ticall* and c%lt%rall* di4er(e, =it) t=o -a9or lang%age &a-ilie(, Dra4idian and Indo5Ar*an, a ()ared c%lt%ral and 2olitical )i(tor*, co--on literar* and &ol' tradition(, and all5enco-2a((ing (trata o& San('rit, Per(ian, and Engli() in lang%age and literat%re. In 0D++, Eli8a/et) I granted a c)arter to London -erc)ant(, gi4ing t)e- a -ono2ol* o& trade =it) HEa(t IndiaH. T)e Ea(t India Co-2an* (lo=l* e<2anded it( in&l%ence in t)e Indian (%/continent, gaining control o4er t)e greater 2art o& it /* 0$Q", =)en it =a( re2laced /* direct Briti() r%le. T)ree &actor( o2erated in &a4o%r o& t)e (2read o& Engli()? 5 5 5 T)e =or' o& C)ri(tian -i((ionarie(E A de-and &ro- local leader( &or ed%cation in Engli(), to /ene&it &ro- Ke(tern 'no=ledgeE and A deci(ion /* t)e go4ern-ent o& India to -a'e Engli() t)e o&&icial -edi%- o& ed%cation. Alt)o%g) t)e -i((ionarie( did not ac)ie4e t)e )o2ed5&or -a(( con4er(ion( o& Hind%( and M%(li-(, t)eir net=or' o& Engli()5-edi%- (c)ool( )ad a great i-2act and re-ain( intact and (%cce((&%l Ft)o%g) largel* (ec%lari8edG.
!ig. 7 Ma2 o& India F===.lonel*2lanet.co-R-a2()ell(Rindianh(%/continentRindiaRindia.)t-G In 0$SQ, Lord Maca%la* =rote t)e Min%te t)at led to t)e %(e o& Engli() a( t)e lang%age o& ed%cation. T)e Min%te di4ided t)e Ad-ini(tration and t)at di4i(ion and contro4er(* )a( 94
ENGLISH DIALECTS
contin%ed into t)e 2o(t5inde2endent 2eriod o& So%t) A(ian ed%cation and lang%age 2olicie(. Maca%la*H( -ain o22onent, H. T. Prince2, con(idered t)e Min%te H)a(t* and indi(creetH, and -an* So%t) A(ian( /elie4e t)at )e =a( rig)t. T)e 2olitical -a2 o& t)e (%/continent )a( c)anged dra(ticall*, /%t not t)e lang%age 2olic*. Be&ore t)e Min%te, eac) Indian (tate )ad it( o=n 2olic* &or lang%age in ed%cation? Hindi5#rd%, San('rit, and Per(ian =ere t)e lang%age( o& =ider co--%nication, and Hind%(, M%(li-(, and B%dd)i(t( generall* (ent t)eir c)ildren to t)eir re(2ecti4e (cri2t%ral (c)ool(E a&ter=ard(, ed%cation in Engli() =a(, e4en in C)ri(tian (c)ool(, increa(ingl* (ec%lar and general, t)o%g) =it) a /ia( to=ard( Engli() literat%re and E%ro2ean c%lt%re. In 0$Q7, t)e t)ree Engli()5-edi%- %ni4er(itie( o& Bo-/a*, Calc%tta, and Madra( =ere (et %2. T)e ne= 2olic* e-2)a(i8ed t)e %(e o& 4ernac%lar lang%age( in(tead o& San('rit and Ara/ic, and indicated t)at Engli() ()o%ld /e ta%g)t onl* =)ere t)ere =a( a de-and &or it. Engli() contin%ed a( an i-2ortant co-2onent o& ed%cation, ad-ini(tration and la=, a( =ell a( a-ong t)e ed%cated elite acro(( ling%i(tic and 2olitical /o%ndarie( %ntil 0"N7, =)en t)e Briti() le&t India. T)e di&&%(ion and i-2act o& t)e lang%age )a( not a/ated (ince t)enE i& an*t)ing, in it( locali8ed &or-(, t)e (2read o& Engli() )a( increa(ed /ot) in it( &%nctional range and (ocietal de2t). T)ere i( a general ed%cated So%t) A(ian 4ariet* o& Engli() %(ed &or 2an5 regional and international 2%r2o(e(. It( -ain c)aracteri(tic( in all t)e co%ntrie( are t)o(e o& ed%cated Indian Engli(), =it) (o-e national 4ariation(. It( %(e i( in&l%enced /* t)ree &actor(? 5 5 5 Le4el o& ed%cation and 2ro&icienc*E T)e %(erH( &ir(t or do-inant lang%age Fand t)e c)aracteri(tic( o& t)e lang%age &a-il* to =)ic) it /elong(GE Et)nic, religio%(, or ot)er /ac'gro%nd. T)ere i( in e&&ect a contin%%- &ro- ed%cated SAE Ft)e acrolectG t)ro%g) (%c) -e(olectal 4arietie( a( An"lo1Indian En"lish# /a%u En"lish# /ur"her En"lish, etc., to t)e /a(ilect(, (%c) a( t)e /ro'en Engli() o& (treet 4endor( and /eggar( F/earer En"lish# /o30allah En"lish# /utler En"lish, etc.G. South$East Asian English It i( t)e Engli() a( %(ed in So%t)5Ea(t A(ia and &all( into t=o /road t*2e(? 5 Second5lang%age 4arietie( in co%ntrie( t)at =ere &or-erl* colonie( or 2rotectorate( o& an Engli()5(2ea'ing 2o=er FBritain in t)e ca(e o& Br%nei, Mala*(ia, and Singa2oreE t)e #nited State( in t)e ca(e o& t)e P)ili22ine(GE 5 !oreign5lang%age 4arietie( in Ca-/odiaRVa-2%c)ea, Indone(ia, Lao(, T)ailand, and .ietna-. In t)e &ir(t gro%2, (t%dent( in Engli()5-edi%- (c)ool( =ere not onl* ta%g)t Engli() /%t 95
ENGLISH DIALECTS
learned ot)er (%/9ect( t)ro%g) itE t)e* =ere e<2ected to %(e Engli() in t)e 2la*gro%nd, and t)ere =ere o&ten 2enaltie( &or %(ing an*t)ing el(e. S%c) ed%cation /egan =it) t)e e(ta/li()-ent o& t)e Penang !ree Sc)ool in 0$0D and t)e Singa2ore !ree Sc)ool in 0$JS. Engli()5-edi%- ed%cation =a( t)e 2at) to /etter52aid e-2lo*-ent and, in (o-e ca(e(, to )ig)er ed%cation leading to t)e 2ro&e((ion(. A( a con(e>%ence, Engli() /eca-e a 2re(tige lang%age a-ong t)e elite. T)e greater t)e (2read o& Engli() and t)e -ore &%nction( &or =)ic) it co%ld /e %(ed, t)e -ore it /eca-e indi5 geni8ed. T)i( i( -o(t a22arent in Singa2ore =)ere, (ince 0"$7, Engli() )a( /een t)e (ole -edi%- o& ed%cation, and t)ere are no= nati4e (2ea'er( o& Singa2orean Engli(). In &or-al (it%ation(, t)e Engli() o& ed%cated Singa2orean( i( di(ting%i()a/le -ainl* /* accent, /%t in -ore in&or-al (it%ation( an inno4ati4e %(e o& =ord( i( noticea/le, (%c) a( loan( &ro- C)ine(e and Mala* and -odi&ication( in t)e -eaning o& Engli() =ord(. ,ra--atical (tr%ct%re ()o=( t)e in&l%ence o& local lang%age(, e(2eciall* C)ine(e dialect(. Mala*(ia, a (i-ilar t*2e o& Engli() de4elo2ed. In colonial ti-e(, -o(t o& (t%dent( at Engli()5-edi%- (c)ool( =ere C)ine(e, /%t (ince inde2endence in t)e 0"Q+( Mala*5-edi%- ed%cation )a( increa(ed and Mala* )a( /eco-e /* &ar t)e -ain -edi%- in 2ri-ar* (c)ool( and t)e onl* -edi%- in (econdar* (c)ool(. Engli() re-ain( an i-2ortant co-2%l(or* (%/9ect /%t it( &%nction( )a4e greatl* di-ini()ed. Br%nei )a( a /iling%al Mala* Engli() ed%cation 2olic*, earlier 2ri-ar*5(c)ool cla((e( /eginning =it) Mala* alone, t)en an increa(ing %(e o& Engli() %ntil in t)e (enior (econdar* (c)ool Engli() i( t)e -edi%- &or $+_ o& cla(( ti-e. Engli()5-edi%- ed%cation /egan in t)e P)ili22ine( in 0"+0 a&ter t)e arri4al (o-e QN+ A-erican teac)er(, not long a&ter t)e de&eat /* t)e #nited State( o& t)e &or-er colonial 2o=er, S2ain. Engli() =a( -ade t)e lang%age o& ed%cation and =it) =ider %(e /eca-e indigeni8ed /* t)e incl%(ion o& 4oca/%lar* &ro- local lang%age(, ada2tation o& Engli() =ord( to (%it local need(, and t)e -odi&ication o& 2ron%nciation and gra--ar to 2rod%ce a di(tincti4el* P)ili22ine Engli(). Engli() =a( ado2ted &or ne=(2a2er( and -aga8ine(, t)e -edia, and literar* 2%r2o(e(. 5 A&ter inde2endence in 0"ND, t)e national lang%age Tagalog Flater called Pili2inoG =a( -ade an o&&icial lang%age along Engli() and S2ani(). Kit) increa(ing nationali(-, t)e role o& Engli() di-ini()ed and in 0"7N a /iling%al ed%cation 2olic* =a( i-2le-ented, =it) Engli() (c)ool (%/9ect at 2ri-ar* le4el /%t a( t)e -edi%- &or (cience and -at)e-atic( (econdar* le4el. At tertiar* in(tit%tion( it re-ain( t)e -ain -edi%- o& in(tr%ction. In t)e &oreign5lang%age co%ntrie(, Engli() )a( great i-2ortance a( an A(ian and international ling%a &ranca, in to%ri(-, a reading lang%age &or tec)nical (%/9ect( and a to'en o& -odernit*. CONCL0SION T)e Engli() lang%age i( t)e -odern tra4eller(C co-2anion, =)ere4er t)e* go, no -atter 96
ENGLISH DIALECTS
=)*. T)e -ain t)ing one )a( to 'ee2 in -ind i( t)at t)eir Engli() ()o%ld /e %nder(tood and t)%( t)e -e((age con4e*ed. Dialect( e<i(t and are a( di4er(e a( t)e 2eo2le =)o (2ea' t)e- and are (2read all o4er t)e =orld, /%t t)e* are -ainl* %(ed a-ong &a-il* and &riend(, at a local or regional le4el, and according to e4er*/od*C( need( o& co--%nication or e<2re((ion o& t)e (el&.
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Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

()ort en4iron-ent( t)e o%tco-e i( an i5li'e

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

a (-all ani-al (i-ilar to a li8ard t)at -o(tl* li4e( in =ater FtritonG

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

a 2rinci2le or /elie& t)at i( con(idered to /e old5&a()ioned and no longer i-2ortant

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole

Dialect, Pidgin and Creole