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HIGHWAY RESEARCH

JOURNAL
Volume 5 No. 1 January - June 2012
* PAVEMENT
* TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
* BRIDGE ENGINEERING
* GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS
(All Rights Reserved. No part of this Publication shall be reproduced, translated or
transmitted in any form or by any means without the permission of the
Indian Roads Congress)
Edited and Published by the Secretary,
IRC Highway Research Board, New Delhi-110 011
Printed at India Offset Press, A-1, Mayapuri Industrial Area, New Delhi-110 064

13500 copies
Members
MEMBERS OF IRC HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD
(2012-2014)
1. The Director General (Road Development) &
Special Secretary to the Govt. of India
(Shri C. Kandasamy)
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Transport Bhawan, 1, Parliament Street,
NEW DELHI 110 001
[in the event of DG(RD) not in position,
the President, IRC will function]
Chairman
2. The Secretary General
(Shri Arun Kumar Sharma)
Indian Roads Congress,
Kama Koti Marg,
Sector 6, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi 110 022
Secretary
3. The President, IRC
(Shri P.N. Jain)
Chief Engineer (NH) and AS,
R&B Deptt. Govt. of Gujarat,
14, Bandhusamaj Society,
Nr. Panchsheel Bus Stand,
Usmanpura,
AHMEDABAD 380 013
4. The Director
(Dr. S. Gangopadhyay)
CSIRCentral Road Research Institute,
P.O. CRRI, Delhi-Mathura Road,
NEW DELHI 110 020
5. The Additional Director General-I
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Transport Bhawan, 1, Parliament Street,
NEW DELHI 110 001
6. The Additional Director General-II
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Transport Bhawan, 1, Parliament Street,
NEW DELHI 110 001
7. The Director General Border Roads
Seema Sadak Bhawan,
Ring Road, Delhi Cantt.,
NEW DELHI 110 010
8. The Member (Technical)
National Highways Authority of India,
Plot No.G-5 & 6, Dwarka,
NEW DELHI 110 075
9. The Director (Technical)
(Dr. I.K. Pateriya)
National Rural Roads Development Agency,
NBCC Tower, 5th Floor, Bhikaji Cama Place,
NEW DELHI 110 066
10. The Director
Indian Academy of Highway Engineers,
A-5, Institutional Area,
Sector 62, NH-24 Bypass,
NOIDA 201 301 (U.P.)
11. The Engineer-in-Chief
(Shri Mahesh Kumar)
Haryana Public Works (B&R) Department
Nirman Sadan, Plot No. 1, Dakshin Marg,
Sector-33A,
CHANDIGARH (Haryana)
12. The Chief Engineer (NH),
(Shri R.P. Singh)
Punjab P.W.D. B&R Branch,
Nirman Bhawan,
Block-C, Mini Secretariat,
PATIALA-147 001 (Punjab)
13. The Chief Engineer (NH),
(Shri B.P. Chauhan)
PWD Rajasthan,
J AIPUR-302 006 (Rajasthan)
14. The Chief Engineer (NH)
R&B Deptt.,
Block No.14, 1st Floor, New Sachivalaya,
GANDHINAGAR-382 010 (Gujarat)
15. The Chief Engineer (NH)
Public Works Region,
Konkan Bhawan,
NAVI MUMBAI-400 614 (Maharashtra)
16. The Engineer-in-Chief (R&B), Admn. & NH
(Shri K. Siva Reddy)
R&B Department, Errummanzil,
HYDERABAD 500 082 (Andhra Pradesh)
17. The Chief Engineer (NH),
(Shri M. Bhagat)
Road Construction Deptt.,
Engineering Hostel, HEC, Dhurwa,
RANCHI-834 004 (J harkhand)
18. The Engineer-in-Chief-cum-Secretary
to the Govt. of Odisha
(Shri Subhendu Kumar Ray)
Works Department, Odisha Secretariat,
BHUBANESWAR 751 001 (Odisha)
19. The Chief Engineer (NH),
P.W.D. (Roads),
Barik Compound, Opposite State Library,
SHILLONG-793 001 (Meghalaya)
20. The Chief Engineer,
(N.H. Works) Assam,
Chandmari,
GUWAHATI-781 003(Assam)
21. Thiru R. Rajaraman
Chief Engineer,
Quality Assurance and Research,
76, Sardar Patel Road, Opp. Raj Bhavan,
Chennai 600 025 (Tamil Nadu)
22. The J oint Director
Kerala Highway Research Institute,
PWD Kariyavattom,
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM 695 581
(Kerala)
23. The J oint Director (Roads)
(Shri M.K. Sheth)
Gujarat Engineering Research Institute (GERI),
Race Course,
VADODARA 390 007 (Gujarat)
24. The Director General
(Shri D.D. Bhide)
Design, Training, Hydrology, Research & Safety
(DTHRS),
Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute
(MERI), Dindori Road,
NASHIK 422 004 (Maharashtra)
25. The Director,
UPPWD Research Institute and
Quality Promotion Organisation,
Nirman Bhawan, 96, M.G. Marg,
LUCKNOW-226 001 (UP)
26. Dr. S.S. Jain
Professor of Civil Engineering,
Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
ROORKEE 247 667 (Uttarakhand)
27. Prof. A. Veeraragavan
Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
CHENNAI 600 036 (Tamil Nadu)
28. Dr. P.K. Sarkar
Professor, Deptt. of Transport Planning,
School of Planning & Architecture,
E-799, C.R. Park,
NEW DELHI 110 019
29. Prof. L.S. Ramchandra
Head,
Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
KHARAGPUR-721 302 (West Bengal)
30. Dr. Animesh Das
Associate Professor,
Deptt. of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
KANPUR-208 016 (Uttar Pradesh)
31. The Chief Executive Offcer
(Shri S. B. Vasava)
Gujarat State Rural Road Development Agency
(GSRRDA),
2nd foor, Nirman Bhavan, Sector 10-A,
GANDHINAGAR 382 010 (Gujarat)
32. The Chief Operating Offcer
(Shri Mahesh M. Hiremath)
Karnataka Rural Road Development Agency,
Nirman Bhavan, I I Floor, KSCC Building,
Rajajinagar Ist Block, Dr. Rajkumar Road,
BANAGLORE-560 010 (Karanataka)
33. The Chief Engineer
(Shri C. P. Tongden)
Rural Management & Development Department,
Tashiling, Secretariate,
GANGTOK (Sikkim)
34. The Chief Executive Offcer
(Shri Ranjit Kumar Majumder)
Tripura Rural Road Development Agency
(TRRDA) & J S PWD Urban Development,
3rd Floor of Khadya Bhavan,
Pandit Nehru Complex,
AGARTALA-799 006 Tripura (W)
35. The Chief Engineer
(Shri K. K. Srivastava)
Uttarakhand Rural Roads Agency,
Opp. I. T. Park, Shastradhara Road,
DEHRADUN- 248 001 (Uttarakhand)
36. The Director
(Shri G. Dinshaw)
Central Institute of Road Transport,
Post Box No. 1897, Bhosari, Pune-Nasik Road,
PUNE 411 026 (Maharashtra)
37. Prof. P.K. Sikdar
(Former Director, CRRI),
President, Intercontinental Consultants &
Technocrats (ICT) Pvt. Ltd.,
A-9, Green Park,
NEW DELHI 110 016
38. Shri R.S. Sharma
J t. Managing Director,
Consulting Engineers Group Limited,
C-478, 2nd Floor, Block-C, Vikas Puri,
NEW DELHI-110 018
39. Shri A.K. Banerjee
Director (Technical),
Scott Wilson India Pvt. Ltd.,
B-210, Second Floor, CR Park,
NEW DELHI 110 019
40. Major V.C. Verma
Executive Director - Marketing,
Oriental Structural Engineers Pvt. Ltd.,
21, Commercial Complex,
Malcha Marg, Diplomatic Enclave,
NEW DELHI 110 021
41. Shri M.M. Khan
Vice-President,
Gammon India Ltd.,
Library Tech., Gammon House,
Veer Savarkar Marg, Prabhadevi,
MUMBAI 400 025
42. Shri U. Jayakodi
Director (Technical),
BSCPL Infrastructure Ltd., M. No. 8-2-502/1/A,
J IVI Towers, Road No. 7, Banjara Hills,
HYDERABAD 500 034
43. Shri S.C. Sharma
DG (RD) & AS (Retd.), MORTH,
175, Vigyapan Lok,
15, Mayur Vihar Phase-I Extn.,
(Near Samachar Aptt.),
DELHI 110 091
44. Shri N.K. Sinha
DG(RD) & SS (Retd.), MORTH,
G-1365, Ground Floor,
Chitranjan Park,
NEW DELHI 110 019
45. Shri P.L. Bongirwar
Advisor, L&T,
B/1102, Pataliputra CHS,
Near Four Bunglow Signal,
Andheri (E),
MUMBAI 400 053
46. Shri G. Sharan
DG (RD) & Special Secretary (Retd.),
MOSRT&H,
17, Nalanda Apartments,
Vikaspuri,
NEW DELHI 110 018
47. Shri Subhash Patel
(Past President, IRC),
Former Secretary, R&B Department,
GANDHINAGAR (Gujarat)
48. Shri V. Velayutham
DG (RD) & Special Secretary (Retd.),
MOSRT&H,
Flat No. 4, Nalanda Apartment, D-Block,
Vikaspuri,
NEW DELHI 110 018
49. Prof. P.K. Sikdar
(Former Director, CRRI),
President, Intercontinental Consultants
&Technocrats (ICT) Pvt. Ltd.,
A-8, Green Park,
NEW DELHI 110 016
50. Shri A.D. Narain
Former DG (RD) &
Addl. Secretary, MOST,
B-186, Sector 26,
NOIDA 201 301 (U.P.)
51. Shri R. K. Jain
Former Chief Engineer, Haryana PWD,
H.No. 452, Sector-14,
SONIPAT 131 001 (Haryana)
52. Dr. B. P. Bagish
C-2, 2013,
VasantKunj,
NEW DELHI 110 070
Co-opted Members
[upto Mid-term Council Meeting to be held at Kohima (Nagaland) in 2012]
CONTENTS
PAVEMENT Page
Lab Study on Chemical and Rheological Changes in Modifed Binders 1
Praveen Kumar, M.R. Maurya, Manoj Gupta & Maninder Singh
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Infuence of Socio-Demographic Attributes in Travel Mode Selection for 15
Single Day Excursion Trips
Harikrishna M., Rajat Rastogi & Daya Purushothaman
Headway Analysis at Signalised Intersections With and Without Countdown Timer 33
M.S. Harshitha, Sonu Agarwal & Lelitha Vanajakshi
Modifcation of Websters Delay Formula Using Modifed Saturation Flow Model 41
for Non-Lane Based Heterogeneous Traffc Conditions
N.G. Raval & P.J. Gundaliya
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
Dynamic Amplifcation Factors for Highway Bridge Design A Review of International 49
Codal Provisions
S. Arun, Devdas Menon & A. Mehar Prasad
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
A Laboratory Study of Construction and Demolition Waste for Use in Road Works 57
U.K. Guru Vittal, Farhat Azad, J. Ganesh, Binod Kumar & Sudhir Mathur
WRITTEN COMMENTS ON THE PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THIS
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL ARE INVITED AND MAY BE SENT
AT hrb@irc.org.in BEFORE 31
ST
JULY, 2012
The opinions and conclusions in this Journal are those of the
Authors and not of the IRC Highway Research Board
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 1
1 INTRODUCTION
India is a very vast country, having widely varying climate,
terrain, construction materials and mixed traffc both in terms
of loads and volume. The fexible roads constitute about
98 per cent of the total roads network. Most of the roads
develop distress conditions, like, raveling, undulations,
rutting, cracking, bleeding, shoving and potholing of
bituminous surfacing. A factor which causes further concern
in India, is very high and very low pavement temperatures
in some parts of the country. The road structures have
deteriorated rapidly than expected due to increase in traffc
density, axle loading and tyre pressure and an insuffcient
degree of maintenance. Road performance is determined by
properties of bitumen as the bitumen is the continuous phase
and only deformable component. Bitumen as a binding
material and in protective coatings plays a key role in the
performance related properties of bitumen mixes. Bitumen,
from crude oil distillation processes, is a complex polymeric
mixture of chemical compounds. Traditional bituminous
binders have various limitations to cope with the excessive
overloading and increasingly severe climatic conditions,
which lead to important stress related problems.
Binder modification is a major breakthrough and the
continuous research and is aiming to produce new binders
with better rheological and mechanical characteristics
which allow the manufacturing and application of road
bituminous mixes with higher performance. Increased
traffc factors, such as, heavier loads, higher traffc volume
and higher tyre pressure demand higher performance
pavements. The purpose of bitumen modifcation using
polymers and rubbers is to achieve desired engineering
properties, such as, increased shear modulus and reduced
plastic fow at high temperatures and increased resistance
to thermal fracture at low temperatures.
1.1 Dynamic Rheological Properties of Bitumen
Dynamic rheological properties refer to responses of a
material to periodically varying strains or stresses. The
Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) is used for determination
of the rheological properties of bitumen in a wide range
of temperature. The parameters for characterization of
the bitumen are complex modulus (G*), storage modulus
(G), loss modulus (G) and phase angle (). Phase angle
measures the viscoelastic character of the bitumen. A purely
viscous liquid and an ideal elastic solid demonstrate of
90 and 0, respectively. The viscoelastic parameters of
bitumen are functions of temperature and frequency, which
may be modifed by the addition of polymers.
1.2 Chemical Properties
Modifers used for bitumen modifcation are normally
polymeric materials, which have different structures, such
as, atactic, isotactic and syndiotactic. These structures
LAB STUDY ON CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL
CHANGES IN MODIFIED BINDERS
PRAVEEN KUMAR*, M.R. MAURYA**, MANOJ GUPTA*** & MANINDER SINGH ****
ABSTRACT
The challenge in physical property characterization is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily characterize key asphalt
binder parameters and how these parameters change throughout the life of an HMA pavement. In India, the methods for rheological
characterization of bituminous binders are inadequate to characterize the bitumen. Hence a complete rheological study and characterization
of bitumen using dynamic shear rheometer would be helpful. Also there is limited insight about the chemistry of modifed bitumen.
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA), a plastomer; Linear Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS), an elastomer and Crumb Rubber (CR) were used
in the present study. The changes in rheological and chemical properties of 60/70 and 80/100 grades bitumen modifed with different
percentage of CR, EVA and SBS (2 to 8 per cent) were studied. The rheological properties of the bituminous binders in terms of their
complex modulus (G*), stiffness and overall resistance to deformation, storage modulus (G), binder elasticity, loss modulus (G),
viscous behaviour and phase angle(), viscoelastic behaviour were measured. Testing was performed at temperatures ranging from 46C
to 82C in increments of 6C at a frequency of 10 rad/sec. The chemistry was studied using infrared spectroscopy.
* Professor & Coordinator, Transportation Engg. Group, Civil Engg. Deptt.
IIT Roorkee.
** Professor, Chemistry Deptt.
*** M. Tech. Student, Civil Engg. Deptt.
**** Research Scholar, Civil Engg. Deptt.
}
2 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
KUMAR, MAURYA, GUPTA & SINGH ON
give characteristic features in spectroscopy analysis. Thus,
spectroscopy techniques are highly useful in identifying the
structure and functional groups present in polymeric materials.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Wahhab and Amri (1991) evaluated the effects of reclaimed
rubber particles from scrap tyres in the preparation of local
asphaltic concrete mixes. The results show that the softening
point of the binder increases with increasing rubber content.
Panda and Mazumdar (1997) developed and evaluated a
bituminous paving binder containing reclaimed PE and used
LDPE for modifcation of bitumen. It was observed that the
penetration, ductility and the specifc gravity of the modifed
binder decreases, while the softening point and viscosity are
increased. The temperature susceptibility of the modifed
binder is also improved. Mehndiratta and Chandra (2000)
studied bitumen modifed with CR and EVA and reported
that properties, like, low temperature ductility, elastic
recovery, water and temperature susceptibility, viscosity
and marshall stability improved by adding modifers to
bitumen. Yousefi (2002) incorporated non-vulcanized
rubbers into bitumen. The resulting range of blends showed
higher and intermediate performance compared to the base
bitumen. Lepe et al. (2003) found that mixing of polymers
into bitumen has important consequences on engineering
properties of bituminous binders. Singh K.L. (2006) studied
the changes of rheological properties of 60/70 and 80/100
grades bitumen modified with different percentage of
CR, EVA and SBS (3 to 9 per cent) using dynamic shear
rheometer. Lu and Issacson (1997, 1999) investigated the
effects of polymer content and bitumen type on viscosity
characteristics of SBS modifed bitumen. Airey (2003)
concluded that increase in SBS content leads to decrease
in penetration and increase in softening point. Gonzalez
et.al. (2004) concluded that viscous properties of bitumen
at high temperature are improved by adding recycled EVA
copolymer. Lougheed and Papagiannakis (1996) explained
that addition of 3-18 per cent CR results in increase in
viscosity from 1.3 to 12 times compare to unmodifed
asphalt. Ageing or hardening of bituminous binder occurs
during mixing and laydown process and during service.
The Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT), ASTM D 1754 and the
Rolling Film Oven Test (RTFOT), ASTM D 2872 are the
existing ageing methods.
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
The earlier physical tests to evaluate viscous properties
of bitumen were empirically derived tests. Now, the
rheological properties of the binders are measured in terms
of complex modulus, G* (stiffness and overall resistance
to deformation), storage modulus, G (elastic behaviour of
binder), loss modulus, G (viscous behaviour), and phase
angle, (viscoelastic properties).
3.1 Materials
3.1.1 Bitumen : Two grades of bitumen, 60/70 and 80/100
were used for the present study. Their physical properties
described as per IS:73-2006 are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Physical Properties of 60/70 and
80/100 Bitumen
Test 60/70 80/100
Penetration at 25C (0.1mm, 100g, 5s) 65 89
Softening Point, C 48 42
Ductility at 27C, cm 100+ 100+
Specifc Gravity 1.01 0.998
Flash Point,C 285 310
3.1.2 Modifiers : Crumb Rubber (CR) and two types
of polymers, Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) and Styrene
Butadiene Styrene (SBS) were used in this study. CR is
material locally available and material passing through
1.18 mm IS sieve and retained on 200 micron IS sieve was
used. The natural rubber, carbon black and ash contents in
CR were 35 per cent, 32 per cent and 7 per cent, respectively
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) copolymer, available as
pellets 4 to 5 mm in diameter supplied by KLJ Polymers,
New Delhi was used. Styrene Butadiene Styrene (SBS)
polymer used was powdered Finaprene 503 supplied by
ATOFINA. Finaprene 503, a linear SBS polymer contains
31 per cent styrene. The rubberized bitumen binder was
prepared in the laboratory at blending temperature of
180C (Navarro et al., 2004) and blending time of 60 min
(J eong et al., 2010). High shear type mixture was used for
the blending purpose (Mohamed, 2009). Three different
concentrations of crumb rubber were prepared by frst
heating the bitumen to 180C. Upon reaching 180C, a
weighted amount of rubber (3,5 and 8 per cent by weight of
bitumen binder) were slowly added to the original bitumen
while mixing at 180C using the propeller blade mixer at a
blending speed of 200 rpm for blending times of 1h.
In preparing the modifed binders, about 500 g of the
bitumen was heated to fuid condition in a 1.5 litre capacity
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 3
LAB STUDY ON CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MODIFIED BINDERS
metal container. The mixing was performed in the laboratory
using an oven ftted with a mechanical stirrer and rotated at
1550 rpm for mixing the bitumen and modifiers. For
preparation of EVA blends, bitumen was heated to a
temperature of 170C. As the bitumen attained a temperature
of 170C, the different EVA polymer contents by mass
(2 to 8 per cent) were added to the bitumen and vigorously
agitated. The temperature was maintained between 175C
to 180C and mixing was then continued for 80-90 min. For
SBS blends, bitumen was heated to a temperature of 170C
and the appropriate quantity of SBS copolymer was added.
The temperature was maintained between 175C to 180C.
The contents were gradually stirred for about 55 min. The
modifed bitumen was cooled to room temperature and
suitably stored for testing.
3.1.3 Testing : Brookfeld Viscometer (ASTM D4402):
It was used for determining the kinematic viscosities of
the samples at 135
o
C for 5 min. at 20 rpm. The rotational
viscosity was determined by measuring the torque required
to maintain a constant rotational speed of 20 rpm of a
cylindrical spindle submerged in bitumen maintained at the
test temperature through thermosel. The torque is directly
related to binder viscosity, the test parameters were given
and results were obtained using the Rheocalc32 software.
Dynamic Shear Rheometer: SR 5 Asphalt Rheometer was
used for measuring the dynamic rheological properties,
as per guidelines prescribed in AASHTO TP5-1994. The
basic principle of DSR is shown in Fig.1. The binder is
sandwiched between two parallel plates, one is fxed and
other oscillates. When torque is applied to oscillating
plate, it starts from A and moves to point B and then back
to A, then to C and then again back to A. This comprises
one cycle of oscillation. DSR measures Complex modulus
and phase angles at the desired temperature and frequency
of loading. The 25 mm parallel plate geometry was used
for testing of neat and TFOT samples and measurements
were taken in temperature range from 46C to 70C in an
increment of 6C. The 8 mm plates were used for testing
the PAV aged samples in temperature range from 13C to
40C in an increment of 9C. All the binders were tested
at a frequency of 10 rad/s.
Ageing: Ageing of the binders was performed by two
methods, Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT, ASTM D1754) and
Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV, ASTM D6521), respectively.
For TFOT the samples are placed on a rotating disc for 5 hr
at 163C. For long term ageing, PAV was used. The samples
of TFOT are subjected to a pressure of 2.10.1 MPa and
100C temperature for 20 h10 min. PAV samples were then
vaccum degassed using Vaccum Degassing Oven.



























A
A
B
C
A
A
Applied Stress
or Strain
Fixed Plate
Oscillating
Plate
Bitumen
Time
1 cycle
Figure 4.1: Dynamic Shear Rheometer Operation
B C
Water Bath
Fig. 1 Dynamic Shear Rheometer Operation
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Due to limitation of space at some places only the data for
either one (60/70 or 80/100) has been provided.
4.1 Physical Properties
PMB 40 grade of modifed binders are obtained by adding
2 to 8 per cent SBS and EVA to 60/70 bitumen. But in the
case of 80/100 bitumen modifed with EVA, it was found to
be PMB 70 grade at 2 per cent while 5 and 8 per cent was
in the group of PMB 40 grade. For CR modifed binder, it
is of CRMB 50 grade when 2 to 5 per cent CR is added to
80/100 bitumen grade, however, it is of CRMB 55 grade
with increase in CR percentage to 8.
4.1.1 Penetration Test Results : Table 2 represents the
results of penetration test. The penetration values are
decreasing signifcantly for 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen
mixed with CR, EVA and SBS and this variation is more in
80/100 modifed bitumen. It is observed that the penetration
value decreases as the concentration of modifer increases.
Further, the bitumen modifed with EVA seems to be more
4 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
KUMAR, MAURYA, GUPTA & SINGH ON
effective in the penetration values as compared to CR and
SBS modifers for 60/70 and 80/100 grades of bitumen.
The modifed bitumen shows the characteristic similar to
VG 30 and VG 40 grade bitumen in penetration.
4.1.2 Softening Point Test Results : The softening point
increases with increase in percentage of modifers as the
bitumen becomes increasingly viscous. The effect of SBS
on softening point is much more than that of EVA and CR
as shown in Table 2. The softening point for 60/70 and
80/100 bitumen increases to more than 70C by addition
of 8 per cent EVA and 5 per cent and 8 per cent SBS and
should not be used in road construction, but may be used
as a roofng material.
4.1.3 Elastic Recovery Results : The elastic recovery
increases with increasing in percentage of modifiers.
However, in case of bitumen modifed with EVA, it slightly
increases after 5 per cent. Elastic recovery values for neat
binders are very low as compared to modifed bitumen. The
elastic recovery for 60/70 grade bitumen modifed with
CR is more than that of 80/100 grade bitumen modifed
with CR. However, elastic recovery of 80/100 grade
binder is more than 60/70 binder in case of EVA and SBS
modifcation. It is clearly shown in Fig. 2 that the bitumen
modifed with SBS gives the maximum elastic recovery
than that of bitumen modifed with CR and EVA.

Fig. 2 Effect on Elastic Recovery with Different Percentage of Modifers
4.1.4 Viscosity Results
The results achieved in centipoise cP (g/cm.s)
were divided by density (specifc gravity) to arrive at
kinematic viscosity in centistrokes cSt (cm
2
/sec) as per
requirement of IS:1206 (Part III)-1978. The variation in
viscosity with varying percentage of modifers at 135C
is shown in Fig 3.

Fig. 3 Effect on Viscosity with Different Percentage of Modifers
4.2 Ageing Effect on Modifed Binders
The physical properties undergo a change after subjecting
samples to ageing.
4.2.1 Changes in Penetration and Softening Point : The
penetration and softening point values before and after short
term ageing carried out in TFOT at different percentage
of CR, EVA and SBS are shown in Table 2. As expected,
following the ageing process, higher softening points as
well as lower penetration values are found.
Table 2 Changes in Penetration and Softening Point
Values Before and After Ageing
Binder
Penetration
Value Before
Ageing,
dmm
Penetration
Value After
Ageing,
dmm
Softening
Point Value
Before
Ageing, C
Softening
Point
Value After
Ageing, C
60/70 65 58 48.5 51
60/70+CR2% 59 39 52.5 56
60/70+CR5 56 38 57 60
60/70+CR8 50 36.5 59 62.5
60/70+EVA2 45 33.5 63 67.5
60/70+EVA5 41 32 70 74
60/70+EVA8 34 26 74 77.5
60/70+SBS2 50 42 65 68
60/70+SBS5 43 37.5 75 79
60/70+SBS8 36 30 83 85.5
80/100 91 82 44 48.5
80/100+CR2 66 47 46 50
.... Contd.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 5
LAB STUDY ON CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MODIFIED BINDERS
80/100+CR5 59 42.5 53 56.5
80/100+CR8 53 40 55 59.5
80/100+EVA2 61 48 57 60.5
80/100+EVA5 50 38.5 65 69.5
80/100+EVA8 44 33 70 72.5
80/100+SBS2 68 48.5 59 63.5
80/100+SBS5 55 45.5 67 70
80/100+SBS8 47 41 79 82.5
4.2.2 Loss in Weight : The loss of volatile fractions
contributes to the difference in weights between original
and aged sample. The maximum loss in weight should
be 1 per cent as per IRC: SP: 53:2002. From Fig. 4, it is
observed that there are greater variations in the values after
the modifcation is 5 per cent or more.

Fig. 4 Variations in Percentage Loss in Weight After Short Term Ageing
4.3 Rheological Properties of Modifed Binders
Bitumen rheology can broadly be represented by two main
viscoelastic parameters: complex modulus and phase angle
which changes with temperature and loading time. Complex
modulus represents stiffness, whilst phase angle is normally
used to demonstrate the viscoelastic response of bituminous
materials. Purely viscous and perfectly elastic materials will
have phase angles of 90 and 0, respectively. Therefore,
higher values of phase angle indicate a tendency towards
more viscous behaviour, whilst lower values indicate more
elastic response. The complex modulus (G*) and phase
angle () defne the resistance to deformation of the binder
in the viscoelastic region. In Indian specifcations (IS:
15462:2004), the complex modulus is determined at 10 rad/s
and at temperatures varying from 35C to 85C.
For unmodifed bitumen, elastic behaviour (lower phase
angle) is generally associated with high stiffness and
increased brittleness; while the viscous response (higher
phase angle) refects high ductility and low stiffness. The
shear modulus (G*/sin ) is an indicator of stiffness or
resistance of binder to deformation under load at specifed
temperature.
4.3.1 Relationship between Complex Modulus, Shear
Modulus and Phase Angle with Temperature : The complex
modulus (G*) and phase angle () versus temperature at
10 rad/s, and variation in shear modulus with temperature
for 60/70 grade of bitumen modifed with CR, EVA and SBS
are shown in Table 3. As may be seen, complex modulus of
the modifed binders is higher as compared to neat bitumen.
Complex modulus decreases with increase in temperature
and increases with increase in percentage of modifer. The
improved elasticity between the hard grade bitumen (60/70)
and soft grade bitumen (80/100) is also different for the
same percentage of modifer.
The phase angle increases with increase in temperature
and decreases with increase in percentage of modifer
contents. The phase angle of modifed binder is lower than
that of neat bitumen illustrating improved elastic response.
Whereas the phase angles of the two base bitumen approach
90 and, therefore, predominantly viscous behaviour; with
increasing temperatures, the modifer signifcantly improves
the elastic response of the modifed binders. This increase
in elastic response at high temperatures can be attributed
to the viscosity of the base bitumen being low enough to
allow the elastic network of the polymer to infuence the
mechanical properties of the modifed binders.
Rutting of bituminous pavements is the most prevalent
problem in India. It is useful to determine the stiffness of
the bitumen at 60C so that it can specify its minimum
stiffness to ensure adequate resistance to rutting during
summer. The parameter, shear modulus (G*/sin ) is a
measure of stiffness of the binder which is also used as
an indicator for rutting resistance in the current superpave
specifcations. The rutting resistance of the binder increases
with increase in the percentage of modifer. The rutting
resistance increases by nearly three times with addition of
2 per cent SBS in 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen at 58C. By
addition of 2 per cent EVA with 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen,
the rutting resistance is increased by more than four times.
However, the increment in rutting resistance is less than
two times in case of 80/100 bitumen modifed even with
5 per cent CR. EVA modifed binder has shown higher
rutting resistance value than SBS and CR modifed binders
at the same percentage of modifer. Therefore, EVA binder
is suggested to use in the area of heavy traffc and at high
temperatures.
6 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
KUMAR, MAURYA, GUPTA & SINGH ON
Table 3 Variation of Rheological Parameters with Temperature
Bituminous
Binder
Temperature
(C)
Complex
Modulus (G*)
(kPa)
Shear Modulus
(G*/sin) (kPa)
Loss Modulus
(G* sin) (kPa)
Storage
Modulus
(G*cos) (kPa)
Phase Angle
() ()
60/70
46 4.933 4.951 4.909 0.446 84.8
58 2.698 2.702 2.694 0.146 88.8
70 0.805 0.806 0.804 0.000 92.1
60/70 +2%CR
46 7.452 7.578 7.324 1.354 79.5
58 4.952 5.015 4.889 0.786 80.8
70 1.432 1.446 1.417 0.202 81.9
60/70 +5%CR
46 9.755 10.149 9.376 2.692 73.9
58 5.963 6.112 5.817 1.311 77.3
70 1.582 1.605 1.558 0.269 80.2
60/70 +8%CR
46 10.589 11.261 9.956 3.604 70.1
58 7.834 8.162 7.518 2.201 73.6
70 2.423 2.449 2.397 0.353 81.6
60/70 +2%EVA
46 24.325 25.614 23.103 7.621 71.7
58 13.648 14.091 13.219 3.394 75.6
70 2.742 2.766 2.723 0.376 82.1
60/70 +5%EVA
46 38.715 42.952 34.896 16.764 64.3
58 21.136 22.26 20.068 6.633 71.7
70 5.123 5.282 4.968 1.248 75.4
60/70 +8%EVA
46 87.982 125.637 61.612 62.8 44.4
58 48.217 62.29 37.322 30.526 58.7
70 8.859 10.639 7.376 4.906 56.4
70 3.153 3.278 3.032 0.863 74.1
60/70 +2%SBS
46 14.815 15.515 14.146 4.40 72.7
58 8.62 8.789 8.453 1.686 78.7
70 2.06 2.065 2.054 0.151 85.8
60/70 +5%SBS
46 19.369 21.328 17.589 8.109 65.2
58 11.338 12.254 10.49 4.302 67.7
70 3.694 3.826 3.566 0.962 74.9
60/70 +8%SBS
46 18.906 21.705 16.467 9.286 60.5
58 14.443 16.231 12.851 6.59 62.8
70 7.35 7.944 6.8 2.789 67.7
4.3.2 Relationship between Loss Modulus and Storage
Modulus with Temperature : Loss modulus (G) is
associated with viscous effects and storage modulus (G)
provides information on the elastic responses of binder. The
binder should have a large value of storage modulus (G) at
high temperatures for deformation resistance, because G
measures the binder elasticity. Decrease in elasticity of the
binder at low temperatures facilitates in avoiding cracking
by dissipating the absorbed energy, but high elasticity is
convenient at high temperatures to avoid viscous fow of
the binder. The loss modulus (G) and storage modulus
(G) of modifed binders at different temperatures are shown
in Figs. 5-7. As the temperature increases both loss and
storage moduli decrease. The variation in loss modulus
and storage modulus is more at lower temperature than
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 7
LAB STUDY ON CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MODIFIED BINDERS
at higher temperature. The CR modifed binder shows a
predominantly viscous behaviour (G>G) in the whole
temperature range from 46 to 70C.
Bitumen modifed with EVA, indicates that 8 per cent
percentage of EVA shows fully elastic behaviour of binder
at temperature lower than 52C, but with 2 per cent and
5 per cent of EVA it indicates viscous behaviour of binder
as dominated by loss modulus as shown in Fig. 6. It is also
observed that loss modulus is dominated at all temperatures
for SBS modifed binders as shown in Fig. 7. The EVA
modifed binder has higher loss and storage moduli as
compared to CR and SBS modifed binders. Therefore,
the EVA modified binder will cause cracking at low
temperatures. Thus, from these results it can be seen that the
viscoelastic properties of binder depends on temperature,
bitumen grade and polymer content.

Fig 5. Relationship of G and G with Temperature for CR Modifed Bitumen

Fig 6. Relationship of G and G with Temperature for EVA Modifed Bitumen

Fig 7. Relationship of G and G with Temperature for SBS Modifed Bitumen
4.3.3 Rheology of Modifed Binders after Short Term
Ageing : Ageing of bitumen occurs by chemical and/
or physical changes during the construction stage
and throughout its service life. The process is usually
accompanied by loss of volatiles and hardening of the
binder, which in turn infuences the deterioration of the
asphalt pavement. Ageing of the binders was performed
using TFOT and PAV in the present study. The shear
modulus after short term ageing of bitumen at different
temperatures is shown in Table 4. As can be seen from
Table 5, there is a constant increase in complex modulus,
G*, with increase in percentage modification after
ageing the unmodifed and modifed bitumen. There
is also a regular decrease of the phase angle, , over
the temperature domain after ageing. The variations in
complex modulus after TFOT ageing is shown in Table 5.
The result of ageing is an increase in complex modulus
G*, which indicates the hardening of the bitumen. The
decrease in phase angle indicates an increase in the
elastic behaviour of the bitumen. The rutting resistance
as expected, is found to increase with increase in
the percentage of modifer after TFOT Ageing. Also,
G*/sin varies almost linearly with temperature. The
60/70 modified binders have shown higher rutting
resistance value than 80/100 modifed binders at the
same percentage of modifer. Therefore, 60/70 binder
can benefcially be used in the areas of heavy traffc and
at high temperatures.
Table 4 Shear Modulus After Short Term Ageing
%
Modifer
G*/sin for 60/70
Bitumen (kPa)
G*/sin for 80/100
Bitumen (kPa)
at 46C at 52C at 58C at 46C at 52C at 58C
0.0 10.45 9.34 4.3 8.77 8.88 3.48
CR 2 19.19 13.55 6.56 16.82 12.38 5.76
CR 5 24.56 14.32 9.43 21.22 13.62 6.81
CR 8 26.62 19.06 14.21 23.2 17.77 11.89
EVA 2 55.35 37.99 21.31 55.67 32.45 18.52
EVA 5 85.96 68.76 32.44 82.78 65.25 29.25
EVA 8 181.9 118.34 75.67 128.9 113.91 55.64
SBS 2 34.78 24.5 13.89 34.21 22.56 9.4
SBS 5 44.78 29.89 17.87 39.54 27.15 15.99
SBS 8 56.99 43.65 25.35 53.32 37.92 24.87
8 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
KUMAR, MAURYA, GUPTA & SINGH ON
Table 5 Complex Modulus After Short Term Ageing
%
Modifer
G* for 60/70
Bitumen (kPa)
G* for 80/100
Bitumen (kPa)
at 46C at 52C at 58C at 46C at 52C at 58C
0.0 9.93 6.42 3.24 6.99 4.58 2.46
CR 2 15.32 10.9 5.21 12.11 7.34 4.33
CR 5 20.13 9.34 7.76 14.54 8.62 4.45
CR 8 21.81 15.31 10.95 17.86 12.03 7.22
EVA 2 44.46 32.67 17.7 46.45 27.85 12.34
EVA 5 79.35 51.46 26.62 63.78 40.33 19.76
EVA 8 167.3 97.31 61.9 96.45 72.28 36.43
SBS 2 29.18 19.81 10.11 27.41 17.76 7.54
SBS 5 36.81 25.87 13.83 31.87 19.34 9.96
SBS 8 45.3 35.47 18.77 38.78 21.43 11.75
4.3.4 Rheology of Modified Binders after Short Term
Ageing : The rheological properties of PAV aged samples
modifed with varying percentages of modifer were tested
at temperatures ranging from 13C to 40C. The values of
complex modulus corresponding to temperature are shown
in Table 6. An increase in the value of complex modulus
with an increase in the amount of modifer is seen. The
increase in G* after long term ageing is understandably
greater than that after TFOT ageing due to the prolonged
ageing process in the PAV.
Table 6 Complex Modulus after PAV Ageing
Bituminous
Binder + Modifer
Complex Modulus G*(kPa)
at 13C 22C 31C 40C
60/70 1894 1244 717 395
60/70+2% CR 2216 1689 1043 591
60/70+5% CR 2981 2018 1566 711
60/70+8% CR 3831 2397 1884 858
60/70+2% EVA 3798 1804 1299 788
60/70+5% EVA 6176 3823 1947 1094
60/70+8% EVA 9712 5410 2843 1694
60/70+2% SBS 3620 1784 1220 669
60/70+5% SBS 5483 3662 1889 837
60/70+8% SBS 7841 5251 2466 1134
80/100 1670 1098 540 220
80/100+2% CR 2040 1448 678 311
80/100+5% CR 2572 1688 1143 665
80/100+8% CR 2767 1972 1368 701
80/100+2% EVA 3504 1568 946 599
80/100+5% EVA 4989 2832 1431 880
80/100+8% EVA 7932 4378 2135 1213
80/100+2% SBS 3114 1590 833 476
80/100+5% SBS 4244 1931 1181 772
80/100+8% SBS 5771 3883 2186 971
4.4 Relationship between G*/sin and Test
Temperature
The performance based SHRP specifcations have suggested
different grades of bituminous binders on the basis of
G*/sin . As per the specifcations, to assure adequate
performance at the hot-mix plant and during laying, the
value for G*/sin , of the original unaged binder must be
greater than 1.0 kPa. From results, it can be clearly seen
that the values of shear modulus are as per the specifcation
values for all temperatures of 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen
except higher temperatures (i.e.>64C) meet the criterion.
To evaluate asphalts ability to resist rutting, the aged residue
must have a value of G*/sin , greater than 2.2 kPa at the
service environments highest temperature. From the values
of G*/sin stated in Table 4, it is observed that both 60/70
and 80/100 bitumen just meet the specifcations at lower
percentage of modifcation and higher temperatures.
The 60/70 and 80/100 grade bitumen attain the value of
1.0 kPa at a temperature of 67C and 62.5C before ageing
and a value of 2.2 kPa at a temperature of 63.5C and
60.5C after ageing, respectively. Therefore, performance
grades of 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen are PG 64 and PG 58,
respectively. Similarly, performance grades of modifed
binders were determined and these are given in Table 7.
Table 7 Performance Grade of Different Polymer
Modifed Bitumen
Binder
Type
Polymer
Content
(%)
PMB
Grade
as per
IRC SP :
53-2002
Temperature
corresponding to (C) Performance
Grade as
per SHRP
Specifcations
G*/sin
= 1kPa
(Original
Binders)
G*/sin =
2.2 kPa
(Aged
Binders)
60/70 - - 67 63.5 PG 64
CR
2 50 72 65.5 PG 64
5 55 74 69.5 PG 70
8 55 80 72 PG 70
EVA
2 40 74.5 76 PG 70
5 40 76.5 80 PG 76
8 40 84 88.5 PG 82
.... Contd.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 9
LAB STUDY ON CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MODIFIED BINDERS
SBS
2 40 70 72 PG 70
5 40 73 79 PG 70
8 40 77 83.5 PG 76
80/100 - - 62.5 60.5 PG 58
CR
2 50 66 64.5 PG 64
5 50 68 66 PG 64
8 55 72 68.5 PG 64
EVA
2 70 71.5 74 PG 70
5 40 76 79 PG 76
8 40 81.5 85.5 PG 76
SBS
2 70 68 68.5 PG 64
5 70 72.5 74 PG 70
8 40 74.5 78.5 PG 70
EVA modified with 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen with
5 per cent polymer content were meeting the specifcation
requirements of PG 76. However, SBS modifed binder
with the same percentage above are satisfying the PG 70
requirements. For CR modifed with 60/70 and 80/100
bitumen with 5 per cent crumb rubber are meeting the
PG 70 and PG 64 requirements, respectively. There is no
change in PG requirements if the percentage of crumb
rubber is increased also. Therefore, 5 per cent seems to be
optimum modifer for CR modifed binders.
4.5 Optimum Percentage of Polymers and Crumb
Rubber
The percentage of polymer and crumb rubber is optimized
generally on the basis of empirical tests as per Indian
specifcations. The requirement of penetration, softening
point and ductility is satisfed at 2 per cent of EVA and SBS
as per IRC: SP: 53-2002 and IS : 15462-2004. In the case of
CRMB, it is satisfed at 5 per cent. There was an increase
in the G*/sin parameter for unmodifed binder when the
polymer was mixed. The optimum dose of the modifer was
found to be 5 per cent of CR, 2 per cent EVA and 2 per cent
SBS for 60/70 grade bitumen on the basis of performance
grade 70. The performance grade PG 70 was selected for
optimization of polymer content as the properties obtained
at this percentage are very close to PMB 70 grade and
CRMB 55 defned in IRC : SP : 53-2002 specifcations for
Indian conditions.
4.6 Chemical Analysis
In general while observing the modifed samples, it was
seen that SBS has mixed homogenously with bitumen to
form the true solution. However, EVA was found to form
a colloidal type solution with some focculates on top. CR
formed suspension with some sediment at the bottom in the
container and required agitation for complete mixing.
4.6.1 Infra Red Spectroscopy (IR) : The IR spectra
were recorded on a Nicolet NEXUS Aligent 1100 FT-IR
spectrometer. The plot of IR tests on X-axis gives wave
number i.e frequency of light radiations and Y-axis gives
information about radiation transmitted.
4.6.1.1 Neat Bitumen (60/70 & 80/100) : As bitumen
contains a mix of asphaltenes and maltenes, all characteristics
bands have been observed in the IR spectrum of bitumen
as shown in Fig. 8. For example, the band at 1633 cm
-1
is the characteristics of (C=O)/ (NH), the band at
1550 cm
-1
is the characteristics of (C=C) of benzene, the
band at ca. 700 cm
-1
is the characteristics of the (CH)
(rocking) and the band at ca. 3400 cm
-1
is the characteristics
of (OH).
4000 3000 2000 1000
2933
609
1464
1453
2924
1633
728
A
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
Wave number (cm
-1
)
Bitumen 60/70
Bitumen 80/100

Fig. 8 IR Spectrum of Neat Bitumen
4.6.1.2 CR Modified Bitumen : IR spectrum of CR
modified bitumen as shown in Fig. 9 exhibits major
characteristic bands due to CH
2
at 1460 cm
-1
and between
the ranges 2850 to 2910 cm
-1
. In addition, three medium
intensity bands at ca. 3400, 1617 and 750 cm
-1
were also
observed which are characteristic bands observed in case
of bitumen also.
The shift of 1633 cm
-1
band due to (C=O)/ (NH)
or 1600 cm
-1
due to (CC) to 1617 cm
-1
suggests the
bonding between CR and bitumen. The mixing of these two
materials were done at 170
o
C during preparation stage and
at 14 ton pressure during IR pellet formation stage, forced
the two materials to mix homogeneously to give covalent
bonding between these two. The IR spectrum of aged CR
modifed samples shows that aged sample retains all the
characteristics IR bands suggesting the retaining of covalent
10 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
KUMAR, MAURYA, GUPTA & SINGH ON
bonding between CR and bitumen and hence shows the
stability and durability of the modifed binder.
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
1356
2924
3437
1593
2849
1454
715
A
r
b
i
t
r
a
t
r
y

u
n
i
t
Wave number (cm
-1
)
P 80 CR 2
P 80 CR 5
P 80 CR 8

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
1371
3437
2920
2849
1454
1463
1593
805
1454
A
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
Wave number (cm
-1
)
80 CR 2
80 CR 5
80 CR 8

Fig. 9 IR Spectrum of CR Modifed Bitumen After Ageing (left)
and Before Aged
4.6.1.3 EVA Modifed Bitumen : IR spectrum of EVA
modifed bitumen as shown in Fig. 10 exhibits major
characteristic bands due to CH
2
at ca. 1450 cm
-1
and
between the ranges 2850 to 2910 cm
-1
. In addition, three
medium intensity bands were also observed.
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
715
1443
2920
1602
2840
A
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
Wave number(cm
-1
)
80 EVA 2
80 EVA 5
80 EVA 8

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
1377
1602
696
2840
2929
1454
A
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
Wave number(cm
-1
)
P 80 EVA 2
P 80 EVA 5
P 80 EVA 8

Fig. 10 IR Spectrum of EVA Modifed Bitumen (left)
Before and (right) After Aged
The band at ca. 3430 cm
-1
indicates presence of (OH),
at 1610 cm
-1
(C=O)/ (NH) and at 750 cm
-1
is due to
(CH) (rocking).These bands are characteristic bands
observed in case of bitumen also. The bands observed in
case of aged modifed samples indicate slight shifting of
ca. 750 cm
-1
band due to (CH) (rocking) to ca. 700 cm
-1
.
The IR spectrum of aged EVA modifed samples shows that
aged sample retains all the characteristics IR bands.
4.6.1.4 SBS Modifed Bitumen : IR spectrum of SBS
modified bitumen as shown in Fig. 11 exhibits major
characteristic bands due to CH
2
at ca. 1450 cm
-1
and
between the ranges 2840 to 2920 cm
-1
. In addition, four
medium intensity bands were also observed. The band at ca.
3420 cm
-1
indicates the presence of (OH), at 1650 cm
-1

due to (C=C) of CH
2
= CH
2
, at ca. 1490 cm
-1
is due to the
ring breathing mode of benzene and at ca. 850 cm
-1
due to
(CH) (rocking).These observed bands are characteristic
observed in case of bitumen and SBS also.
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
1338
1462
3420
2844
1659
2916
A
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

U
n
i
t
Wave number(cm
-1
)
80 SBS 2
80 SBS 5
80 SBS 8

HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 11
LAB STUDY ON CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MODIFIED BINDERS
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
741
1377
1462
2846
2924
3460
A
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

u
n
i
t
Wave number(cm
-1
)
P 80 SBS 2
P 80 SBS 5
P 80 SBS 8

Fig. 11 IR Spectrum of SBS Modifed Bitumen (left) Before
and (right) After Aged
The bands observed in case of aged modifed samples
indicate slight shifting of ca. 850 cm
-1
band due to (CH)
(rocking) to ca. 741 cm
-1
and of ca. 1490 cm
-1
due to ring
breathing mode to ca. 1390 cm
-1
. However, the IR spectrum
of aged SBS modifed samples retains all the characteristics
IR bands, suggesting the retaining of proper covalent
bonding between SBS and bitumen and hence shows the
stability and durability of the modifed binder.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The study has a limited scope because only two grades of
bitumen were used. Different bitumen reacts chemically in
different manner with polymers. The following conclusions
are drawn based on the results obtained in the study:
The physical properties of bitumen, such as
penetration, softening point and elastic recovery are
improved with addition of the polymers and crumb
rubber. EVA modifed binder gives lower penetration
value. SBS modifed binder gives higher softening
point and better elastic recovery than EVA and CR
modifed binders.
The Indian specifications (IRC: SP: 53-2002
and IS 15462: 2004) specify different grades of
modifed binders based on empirical tests and are
generally unable to quantify the unique rheological
characteristics of polymer modified bitumen.
Therefore, it is suggested that rheological property
such as G*/sin should be used for development of
the performance grades as per SHRP specifcations.
Maximum phase angle such as 75C can also be
used to ensure adequate elasticity in the modifed
binder.
Complex modulus (G*), shear modulus (G*/sin ) and
loss modulus (G*sin ) are found to be in important
roles to characterize the rheological properties and
predict performance of modifed bitumen at high
temperature.
Following the ageing process, higher softening
points as well as lower penetration values are
found. The loss of volatile fractions contributes to
the difference in weights between original and aged
sample. Greater loss in weight is seen for PAV aged
samples as compared to the TFOT aged samples.
The complex modulus of the modifed binders is
higher as compared to neat bitumen. The phase
angle values clearly illustrate the improved elastic
response (reduced ) of the modified binders
compared to their respective base bitumen.
There is a constant increase in complex modulus,
G*, with increase in percentage modifcation after
ageing the 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen. There is
also a regular decrease of the phase angle, , over
the temperature domain after ageing. The complex
modulus increases with increase in percentage of
modifer and decreases with increase in temperature.
However, phase angle decreases with increase in
percentage of modifer and increases with increase
in temperature.
Neat bitumens lost their elasticity at 70C as their
phase angle is more than 90. However, all the
modifed binders still display considerable elasticity
at this temperature. The value of complex modulus
at 46C increased 1.5 and 1.6 times by adding
2 per cent CR to 60/70 and 80/100 bitumen
respectively. By addition of 2 per cent SBS with
60/70 and 80/100 bitumens the value of complex
modulus are increased 2.9 and 3.5 times respectively
at 46C while with the same percentage of EVA it
increases 5 and 6.3 times.
The parameter shear modulus (G*/sin ) as expected
is found to increase with increase in the percentage
of modifer after TFOT ageing. G*/sin varies
almost linearly at higher temperature of 58C. Also
60/70 modifed binders have shown higher rutting
resistance value than 80/100 modifed binders at
12 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
KUMAR, MAURYA, GUPTA & SINGH ON
the same percentage of modifer. Therefore, 60/70
binder can beneficially be used in the areas of
heavy traffc and at high temperatures. The rutting
resistance of the binder increases with increase in
the percentage of modifer. EVA modifed binders
were found to have higher rutting resistance to
deformation under loading as compared to CR and
SBS modifed binders at high temperature.
The EVA modifed binder has higher loss and storage
moduli as compared to CR and SBS modified
binders. Therefore, the EVA modifed binder will
cause cracking at low temperatures.
CRMB is the cheapest binder available in India.
However, its rheological behaviour is not very
consistent. But, its elastic recovery is more as
compared to EVA. So, it can be used in low cost
roads with more percentages as compared to SBS
and EVA. However, due precaution is to be taken for
continuously mixing using mechanical stirrer during
transportation and maintaining the temperature
otherwise it may prove to be inferior than even neat
unmodifed binder. .
In the present study, the value of G* (complex
modulus), G*/sin (shear modulus) and G*sin
(loss modulus) for EVA binders are found to be
higher than SBS and CR modified binders. So
EVA modifed binders can be used in very high
temperature and heavy traffc areas but it cannot be
used at lower temperature as its ductility value is
less. SBS modifed binders can be used in all climatic
conditions of low as well as high temperature (all
places of India). CR modified binders will be
suitable for moderately high temperature zone with
continuously mixing using mechanical stirrer during
transportation and maintaining the temperature.
After long term ageing, an increase in the value of
complex modulus with an increase in the amount
of modifer is seen. The increase in G* after long
term ageing is understandably greater than that after
TFOT ageing due to the prolonged ageing process
in the PAV.
From the relationships of G*/sin with test
temperature before and after ageing, the 60/70
and 80/100 penetration bitumens meet the PG 58
specifcation requirements of SHRP (G*/sin = 1.0
kPa for unaged and 2.2 kPa for short aged binder).
The optimum dose of the SBS and EVA was found
to be 2 per cent and of CR as 5 per cent on the basis
of performance grade 70.
The binders modifed with polymers will certainly
nominal increase in the initial cost of construction
but will prove to be economical if the life cycle cost
is taken into consideration by providing better and
long lasting roads.
5.1 Based on Chemical Analysis
The following conclusions are drawn based on the results
obtained in the study:
SBS mixed homogenously with bitumen to form the
true solution. EVA formed a colloidal solution with
some focculates on top while CR formed suspension
with some sediment at the bottom in the container.
Infrared analysis of modifed bitumen indicates
retaining of covalent bonding between modifer and
bitumen. This suggests the stability and durability of
modifed binders to sustain climatic changes during
its course of life.
The spectral analysis results suggest that SBS is the
best material amongst three for bitumen modifcation
to enhance the chemical properties during service
life.
REFERENCES
1. Airey, G.D. and Brown S.F. (1998), Rheological Performance
of Aged Polymer Modifed Bitumens, Journal of the Association
of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol 67, pp 66-94.
2. Airey, G.D. (2003), Rheological Properties of Styrene Butadiene
Styrene Polymer Modifed Road Bitumens, Fuel, Vol 82, pp
1709-1719.
3. Ewing G. W. (1982), Instrumental Methods of Chemical
Analysis, Fifth Edition, pp 429-438.
4. Gonzalez, O., Munoz, M.E., Santamaria, A., Garcia, M.G,
Navarro, F.J . and Partal, P. (2004), Rheology and Stability of
Bitumen/EVA Blends European Polymer Journal, Vol 40, pp
2365-2372.
5. Jeong KD, Lee SJ, Amirkhanian SN, KimKW (2010), Interaction
of Crumb Rubber Modifed Asphalt Binder, Constr. Build. Mater.,
24: 824-831.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 13
LAB STUDY ON CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL CHANGES IN MODIFIED BINDERS
6. Lepe A.P., Boza F.J .M., Gallegos C., Gonzalez O., Muzoz M.E.,
Santamari A. (2003), Infuence of the Processing Conditions on
the Rheological Behaviour of Polymer Modifed Bitumen, Fuel
82, pp1339-1348.
7. Lougheed, T. J ., and Papagiannakis, A.T., (1996), Viscosity
Characteristics of Rubber-Modified Asphalts, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp 153-
203-156.
8. Lu, X. and Isacsson, U. (1997), Infuence of Styrene-Butadiene-
Styrene Polymer Modifcation on Bitumen Viscosity, Fuel, Vol
77, No.14-15, pp 1353-1359.
9. Lu, X., Isacsson, U. and Ekblad, J . (1999), Phase Separation of
SBS Polymer Modifed Bitumens, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, Vol 11, No. 1, pp 51-57.
10. Mehndiratta H.C. and Chandra S. (2000), Investigation on
Bituminous Mixes with Blended Modifers, Journal of Institution
of Engineers, India, Vol 81, pp 115-119.
11. Navarro FJ , Paratal P, Martinez BF, Gallegos C (2004), Thermo
Rheological Behaviour and Storage Stability of Ground Tire
Rubber Modifed Bitumen, Fuel, 83: 2041-2049.
12. Mohamed and Husaini Omar, (2009), Rheological Properties of
Crumb Rubber Modifed Bitumen Containing Antioxidant, The
Arabian J ournal for Science and Engineering, Vol 34, Number
1B.
13. Panda M. and Mazumdar M. (1997), Development and
Evaluation of a Bituminous Paving Binder Containing Reclaimed
Polyethylene, Indian Highways, IRC, Vol 25, pp 11-21.
14. Read J. and Whiteoak D., The Shell Bitumen Handbook, Fifth
Edition, Thomas Telford, pp 29-45.
15. Singh K. L., (2006), Rheological Behaviour of Bituminous
Binders for Indian Conditions, Ph.D. Thesis, Transportation
Engineering Section, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT
Roorkee, pp 21-230.
16. Solomon E.I., Lever A.B.P., (1999), Inorganic Electronic
Structure and Spectroscopy, Vol II- Applications and Case
Studies, pp 533-574.
17. Wahhab, H.A.A. and Amri, G.A. (1991), Laboratory Evaluation
of Reclaimed Rubber Asphaltic Concrete Mixes, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol 3, No. 3, pp 189-
203.
18. Yousef A.A., (2002), Rubber Modifed Bitumen, Iranian
Polymer J ournal, Vol 11, No.5, pp 303-309.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 15
1 LEISURE TRAVEL IN INDIA
India has been a country of tourism interest and destination
since old times for the tourists around the world. The
size of the country is vast and its unique socio-cultural
and eco-diversityprovides ample leisure opportunities
to domestic tourists also. There has been an increase
in the number of domestic tourists from approximately
160 million domestic visits in 1997 to 740 million in 2010.
The Ministry of Tourisms vision is to achieve a level of
760 million domestic tourist visits by the year 2011, the
end of the 11
th
Plan at an annual average growth of 12 per
cent. There has also been an increase in foreign tourist
arrivals to India from 2.48 million in 1999 to an estimated
14.72 million in 2010, with a consequent increase in foreign
exchange earnings from ` 12,951 crores in 1999 to ` 64,889
crores in 2010 (Tourism Statistics
1
). Moreover, the National
Policy on Tourism, 2002 (National Tourism Policy
2
), aims to
position tourism as a major engine of economic growth and
to focus on domestic tourism as a major driver to tourism
growth, with increased thrust on conservation of resources
and ecotourism initiatives.
The trips made by tourists are termed as leisure trips.
Broadly, these can be defined as trips undertaken for
purposes other than for work, education, shopping, etc, and
are non-mandatory in nature. The classifcation of leisure
activities, are given in Table 1. A single day excursion trip
can be defned as a leisure trip undertaken for the purpose
of outdoor informal recreation or a day out, which does
not involve an over-night stay at the location visited.
Majority of the studies have studied behaviour of daily
commuters in urban areas, especially in India, with very
little emphasis given to leisure trips and travellers. As per
Guiver et al.
3
, leisure travel differs signifcantly from utility
travel in terms of degree of discretion involved in decisions,
like, whether to travel or not, when to travel, where to travel
and how to travel. They observed that most of the travellers
chose the mode of travel before deciding, where to go,
whereby projecting modes as a separate market with little
or no interchangeability. The choice of a particular mode
was found to be infuenced by factors, like, attributes of
the available alternatives, characteristics of the decision
maker, and the interaction between the two (Gitelson and
Kerstetter
4
). The infuence of trip makers and travel mode
related variables on mode choices, as well as, on the choice
of destination for leisure trips have also been studied by
Reece
5
and Sung et al.
6
. The problem of unobservable or
latent variables in mode choice models have been discussed
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL
MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
HARIKRISHNA M.*, RAJAT RASTOGI** & DAYA PURUSHOTHAMAN***
ABSTRACT
This Paper explores the infuence of socio-demographic characteristics of leisure travellers on their mode choice decisions for single-day
excursion trips. The mode chosen for a trip is infuenced by both quantitative and qualitative attributes of the traveller as well as of the
mode. Data pertaining to the personal and trip characteristics of the travellers was collected at two leisure trip locations in Kozhikode
district of Kerala state, India. The infuence of socio-demographic variables, like, age, occupation, household income, group size
and household size on choice of travel mode was studied using cross classifcation analysis. All these variables were found causing a
trend in the selection of travel modes. Discrete probability distributions were ftted to the infuencing variables. In general, negative
binomial and Poisson distributions were found ftting well, and varied as per mode chosen. A multinomial logistic regression model
was developed incorporating the above variables to study their effect on mode choices. It indicated that annual household income and
group size signifcantly infuenced the choice of a mode. Quantifcation of attitudinal data indicated that personal vehicle users attached
higher importance to comfort and convenience, taxi users attached importance to travel time and reliability, while bus users considered
travel cost and, noise and dust as signifcant attitudinal variables.
* Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247 667, and Assistant
Professor in Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala 673 601.
** Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247 667.
*** Former Post Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode,
Kerala 673 601.
}
16 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARIKRISHNA, RASTOGI & PURUSHOTHAMAN ON
Table 1 Classifcation of Leisure Activities
Activity Facility
Outdoor sport and recreation Sports pitches/ courts, golf course, bowling greens, stadia, marinas, ski slopes,
race tracks, etc
Indoor sport and recreation Swimming pools, sports halls, gymnasia, ice rinks, leisure centres, etc
Outdoor informal recreation Play spaces, parks, beaches, lakes and rivers
Countryside recreation Country parks, national parks, picnic sites, trails/ cycle paths, etc
Cultural recreation Theatres, concert halls, art centres/ galleries, museums
Entertainment Public halls, pavilions, cinemas, bowling, night-clubs, etc
Domestic activity Play centres, allotments, day centres, community halls, etc
Gambling Bingo halls, casinos
Social recreation Pubs, restaurants, dance clubs
Spectating Football, cricket, rugby, tennis, greyhound/horse racing
Days out Various destinations including formal attractions such as theme parks, heritage
attractions, etc
Tourism and holidays Hotels, holiday camps, camp sites, caravan parks, conference centres, etc
Source: http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/planningandbuilding/pdf/148901.pdf, accessed on 11
th
January 2012
by J ohansson et al.
7
. It was found that the causes for
individuals latent preferences were the individuals age,
income and gender,children in a household, and education
and house tenure; in-vehicle travel time and travel costs
were signifcant in modal choices; fexibility and comfort
were important factors; and safety was insignifcant. The
issue of how an individuals socio-economic characteristics,
values and attitudes could explain the holiday impact has
been explored by Bohler et al.
8
. The study recommended
further research that concerns environmental consequences
of holiday mobility and the need for changes in individual
behaviour. Anable et al.
9
examined the relative importance
that people attach to various instrumental and affective
journey attributes, when travelling either for work or for
leisure trips. The instrumental factors considered were cost,
fexibility, etc and non-instrumental or affective factors
were stress, excitement, pleasure, boredom etc. It was
observed that, in the case of work trips, instrumental factors
such as fexibility, convenience, cost and predictability
were perceived to be important. Higher importance was
accorded to instrumental factors, especially convenience,
than to affective factors. In case of leisure travel, almost
equal importance was accorded to both types of factors.
The factors were fexibility, convenience, cost, relaxation,
freedom and no stress. The relationships between vacation
factors and socio-demographic and travelling characteristics
have been studied by Heung et al.
10
. The vacation factors
were classifed as push and pull factors (Dann
11
). Push
factors included cognitive processes and travel motivations
like socialisation, adventure seeking etc, whereas, pull
factors were tangible and intangible cues of a specifc
destination that drove travellers to realise their needs from
a particular travel experience. The survey of J apanese
leisure travellers indicated that they perceived enjoying
holidays as the most important travel motive,with the
lowest importance given to motive visiting friends and
relatives. Signifcant relationship between vacation factors,
socio-demographic and trip characteristics of the traveller
was established.
From the above mentioned studies, it could be concluded
that:
(a) Mode choice analysis, the third step in the
conventional transportation planning process, is
an important component in a travellers decision
making process;
(b) Socio-demographic attributes of travellers have a
signifcant bearing on the choice of a mode for the trip.
(c) Attitudinal and behavioural indicator variables can
be used to explain the latent variables infuencing
travel behaviour;
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 17
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
(d) Instrumental and affective factors infuence leisure
trips to a considerable extent;
(e) There is a greater need for research on decision
making sequence and choice sets pertaining to
leisure travel.
In this study, a cross- classifcation analysis is undertaken
to understand the infuence of socio-demographic factors on
mode choices pertaining to single day excursion (leisure)
trips in India.This is specifc to frst two points as mentioned
above. The study area is defned and a brief outline of data
collection questionnaire is presented. This is followed by
a discussion on infuence of socio-demographic variables,
in selection of travel modes. Statistical examination of the
same is also carried out. In addition, an attitudinal analysis
of qualitative attributes infuencing mode choice decision
of travellers is also presented.
2 STUDY AREA AND SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
The study was conducted at two leisure locations in the
Kozhikode district of Kerala state, situated on the southwest
coast of India. The district is 38.25 per cent urbanized, as
per the 2001 census. The Kozhikode district has a total
geographical area of 23,444 sq.kms and the population
density is 1,228 per sq.kms (http://www.kkd.kerala.gov.in/
home.htm)
12
. The study locations are chosen so as to fulfll
the following criteria:
(a) It should be a place, where all people with different
socio-demographic profles make a visit, and
(b) It should be accessible to the people by available
travel modes.
The study locations selected were Thusharagiri Waterfalls
and Kappad beach, both well known recreational areas
in Kozhikode. Thusharagiri waterfall lies 50 kms east of
Kozhikode city. The Chalippuzha river at this place diverges
into three water falls creating a snowy spray, which gives
the name, Thusharagiri. It is well connected to Kozhikode
and Wayanad districts of Kerala by road transport. The State
owned transport buses provide bus services to this location.
The sandy beach at Kappad is one of the famous beaches of
Kerala, due its historical background and charming beauty.
It is located at a distance of 16 km from the Kozhikode town
and it is at Kappad, where the famous Portuguese sailor,
Vasco da Gama arrived in India in the year 1498. Fig. 1
shows the location of Kozhikode district and the two leisure
places. Fig. 2 (a) and (b) gives a view of the two leisure
places selected for the study.
A questionnaire was designed to collect information
about behaviour of single day excursion traveller to the
two locations (shown in Appendix A). The questionnaire
included questions related to transportation service
attributes, such as, travel time and travel cost, and
qualitative attributes, such as, comfort, convenience,
reliability, and dust and noise; trip makers attributes,
like, age, gender, marital status, occupation and
education; and household attributes, like, family, size,
vehicle ownership and income. Comfort in a mode is
defned in terms of privacy of traveller, availability of
seat, journey with minimum jerks and without tension,
and protection from rain. Convenience is defned as a
state of quality of being easy to use. A mode is said to be
convenient, if it is available when the passenger requires,
avoids long walk both at origin and destination and when
better facilities are provided at the shelter. Reliability
is defned in terms of service quality. If a mode has
less likelihood of breakdown, reaches the destination
in time, is regular in schedules and causes minimum
delays during the journey, then that mode is considered as
reliable. Unlike the above attributes, combined noise and
dust is a negative attribute. In order to make it positive
one, it is defned as minimum disturbance that is caused
due to vehicle horn, vehicle vibrations, friction between
wheels and pavement and dust.
A pilot study was conducted at both the study locations
to standardise the questionnaire. Ninety samples were
collected. It was observed that the respondents showed
reluctance in revealing the exact age and income. Hence,
these questions were modifed by making classifcation
groups for age and household income. The level of
importance of selected attributes i.e., travel time, travel
cost, comfort, convenience, reliability, and dust and noise
was obtained on a rating scale comprising of fve levels
(1 to 5), namely not extremely important, not important,
immaterial, important and extremely important
respectively.

Fig.1 Location of Two Study Places

18 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARIKRISHNA, RASTOGI & PURUSHOTHAMAN ON

2(a) Thusharagiri Waterfalls 2 (b) Kappad Beach
Fig. 2 Study Places
3 SAMPLE SIZE
The sample size required for the analysis was estimated
using the following formula:
ss =
Z
2
- p - (1 -p)
C
2


... Eqn.(1)
Where,
SS = Sample size required
Z = Z value i.e. normal variate (e.g. 1.96 for 95 per cent
confdence level),
p = Percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal,
C = Confidence interval, expressed as decimal
(e.g., 0.05 =5).
From the annual tourism statistics published by the
Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala
13
, the
number of domestic tourist visits to Kerala was 66,42,941,
out of which 5,70,832 visits were made to Kozhikode
district. Since, the exact data regarding the number of
domestic tourist visits to Kappad and Thusharagiri were not
available, it was assumed that 5,70,832 visits were made to
the two leisure locations. This accounted for 8.6 per cent
of the total tourist visits in Kerala. Therefore, on taking,
p =0.086, C =0.05 and Z = 1.96 for 95 per cent confdence
interval, the Sample Size (SS) came out to be 120. On the
whole, 500 samples were collected for analysis, the size was
increased to adequately capture the travellers, who were
opting for various modes in different proportions.
4 INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC
VARIABLES
The identifcation of the infuence of socio-demographic
variables ontravel mode choices was carried out using
cross-classification analysis. The influence of five
socio-demographic variables namely, trip makers age,
occupation, household size, annual household income
and size of the group were studied. Cross classifcation of
the data was done for such examination. These are now
discussed in successive sections.
4.1 Age of Tourists
Table 2 gives the distribution of mode choices made by
the tourists who are classifed by age. In case of a group,
the age of decision maker was considered. Five age groups
namely children and young (<18 years), young adults (18-
25 years), adults (25-45 years), older adults (45-60 years)
and the senior citizens or elderly (above 60 years) were
considered.
Table 2 Mode Chosen in Different Age Groups
Age Group Bus Taxi Own Vehicle Total
Children/Young 27 11 4 42
Young Adult 89 47 33 169
Adult 107 48 60 215
Older Adult 21 16 14 51
Elderly 11 8 4 23
Total 255 130 115 500
It was observed that almost 50 per cent of the respondents
travelled by bus. It was the main mode of travel across all
age groups, varying between 41and 64 per cent, lowest in
older adults and highest in children. A good connectivity by
state transport bus and cost economics might have induced
such travel pattern. The next major travel mode chosen
was taxi, except by adults who showed liking towards own
vehicle. Older adults showed almost equal liking for taxi
and own vehicle. Taxis and own vehicles are used for around
one-quarter of the overall trips studied. This is contrary
to the normal belief that leisure trip makers mostly use
their own vehicle for a single day excursion trip. Personal
comfort and personal enjoyment during leisure travel might
have offset the higher cost of travel by taxi as compared to
own vehicle, thus causing relatively more travel by taxi.
Highest leisure trips were made by adults (43 per cent),
followed by young adults (34 per cent). Elderly travellers
made only 5 per cent of such trips. Taxi was preferred more
by elderly and older adults (31-35 per cent) and least by
adults (22 per cent). Own vehicle was preferred by adults
and older adults (27-28 per cent) and least by children
(10 per cent) and elderly (17 per cent).
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 19
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
4.2 Occupation of Tourists
Table 3 presents travel mode distribution by occupation of
the trip makers. The occupation categories considered were
unemployed, government employed, private employed,
business, student and retired. 76 data sets were discarded
because of incomplete information. Higher preference to bus
was given by students (64 per cent), followed by business
class respondents and retired persons (51-50 per cent). Least
preference to bus was given by respondents in government
occupation. Taxi was highly preferred by retired persons
(40 per cent), followed by respondents in private
organisation and unemployed (35-32 per cent). Nearly half
of the respondents in government organisations preferred
own vehicle for single day excursion trips. Retired persons
(10 per cent) and students (16 per cent) preferred it the
least.Students made more trips (36 per cent) as compared to
other categories of the trip makers. They were followed by
private employed respondents (28 per cent). Retired persons
made only 2 per cent of the trips and unemployed made
9 per cent trips. Respondents in government organisations
and involved in business were found making 12-13 per cent
trips each. Out of those who used bus as a most preferred
travel mode, the students share was 46 per cent and
share of persons in private organisations was 23 per cent.
Similarly, out of total taxi trips, 39 per cent were made by
private employed respondents and 29 per cent by students.
Similarly, out of total own vehicle trips, 28 per cent were
made by private employed respondents and 23 per cent
each were made by government employed respondents
and students.
Table 3 Mode Chosen by Respondents
with Different Occupation
Occupation Bus Taxi Own Vehicle Total
Unemployed 17 12 8 37
Government 15 10 24 49
Private 48 42 30 120
Business 29 9 19 57
Student 96 31 24 151
Retired 5 4 1 10
Total 210 108 106 424
The categorisation of trip makers by occupation brings
out their behaviour quite clearly. More trips by students
probably indicate that this is their most preferred way
of relaxing. Lower share of elderly and unemployed in
such travel indicates that these are not a priority for these
groups. This may be due to fnancial constraints. Out of
the earning categories, respondents employed in private
organisations made more leisure trips, almost 2 to 2.5
times of trips made by respondents involved in business
or employed in government organisations. This may be
due to their relatively better economic standing. 56 per
cent bus trips were shared by non-earning respondents and
their sharein taxi trips was 44 per cent and 31 per cent in
own vehicle trips.
4.3 Annual Household Income
The trip makers were also categorised based on annual
household income into fve different categories namely;
` 50,000 and below, `50,000-`1,50,000, `1,50,000
`3,00,000, `3,00,000 `5,00,000 and greater than `5,00,000
(based on Fifth Pay Commission Scales). Table 4 gives
the distribution of the trip makers based on their annual
household income and the mode chosen for the trip.
Distinct trend could be observed in the chosen modes
by trip makers belonging to different income categories.
Bus was used more, 75 per cent by trip makers having
annual household income upto `50,000, and 48 per cent
in income group `50,001 `1,50,000. On the whole, these
two categories constitute 81 per cent of the bus trips.
Trip makers in household income range of `1,50,000 to
`3,00,000 preferred bus and own vehicle almost equally
(39-34 per cent), whereas, those in the income group
`3,00,000 to `5,00,000 preferred taxi and own vehicle
(37-39 per cent). The obvious choice in household income
range above `5,00,000 was for own vehicle (74 per cent).
Almost 50 per cent bus trips were made by respondents in
income group less than and equal to `50,000. No bus trips
were made in income group above `5,00,000. Out of the
overall taxi trips, 38 per cent were made by respondents in
income group `50,001 `1,50,000. Taxi trips by respondents
in income group less than and equal to ` 50,000 and income
group `1,50,001 `3,00,000 were 28 per cent and 22 per
cent respectively. In case of own vehicle trips, 31 per cent
to 34 per cent trips were made by respondents in lower
middle income group, 13 per cent in middle income group
and 15 per cent in upper income group. The distribution
of trip makers with reference to their annual household
income indicates predominant usage of bus in lower and
lower middle income groups. As the household income level
rises, there is a prevalent shift towards own vehicle. In the
20 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARIKRISHNA, RASTOGI & PURUSHOTHAMAN ON
upper middle income group,preference is shifted towards
using own vehicle for leisure trips. However, the middle
income groups gave almost equal importance to bus and
own vehicle.
The categorisation of trip makers by their household income
clearly demarcates the change in trend of choosing a travel
mode if the division of households is done based on their
household income level. It indicates that respondents can
be categorised in three income groups, namely lower
income, middle income (again having 3 categories) and
high income group.
Table 4 Mode Chosen in Different
Household Income Categories
Annual Household
Income (`1000) Bus Taxi
Own
Vehicle Total
<=50 126 33 8 167
50.1 150 80 49 39 168
150.1 300 40 28 36 104
300.1 500 9 14 15 38
>500 0 6 17 23
Total 255 130 115 500
4.4 Group Size
The number of people in a group, which undertakes the trip,
could have an infuence on the type of mode chosen for the
trip. As the average size of a family in India is 4.8 (www.
nhfsindia.org
14
), a set of 6 or more persons is considered
as a group. It is observed that certain groups behave more
or less similarly and hence they are clubbed together from
analysis point of view. Table 5 gives the distribution of
single day excursion trip makers and the travel modes used
by these groups.
Table 5 Mode Chosen by Different Group Sizes
Group size Bus Taxi Own
Vehicle
Total
6 or 7 81 38 31 150
8 14 27 5 46
9 or 10 22 13 1 36
11 6 7 3 16
12 or 13 1 5 0 6
14 or 15 2 1 0 3
Above 15 0 6 0 6
Total 126 97 40 263
Out of the total trips made using own vehicle, almost
78 per cent trips were made by respondent group size of
6 or 7. It was not preferred, if the group size increased
above 8. In case of total bus trips, around 64 per cent trips
were made by group size 6 or 7, 11 per cent by group size
8 and 17 per cent by group size 9 or 10. Thereafter, the use
of bus reduced sharply. Group size 9 or 10 mainly relied
on bus and taxi mode. Taxi was used in 39 per cent of the
taxi based trips by group size of 6 or 7, 28 per cent trips by
group size of 8 and in 13 per cent trips by group size 9 or
10. Group sizes above 12, in general, rely mainly on taxi
travel to such locations.
The above examination indicated that group size also play
an important role in the selection of mode for short leisure
trips. Trip makers in the group size of up to 7 preferred
bus as their travel mode in little more than half of the trips
made by them, while travellers in groups of size 11 onwards
showed preference towards taxi as their travel mode. Group
sizes of 8, 9,10 and 11 represent the transition condition
between choosing bus or taxi as a travel mode for single
day excursion trip. The use of own vehicle for single day
excursion trip was not found suitable, if the size of group
increased beyond 7. It is inferred that the travel mode
selection is based on the trade-off between economy of
travel and convenience.
4.5 Household Size
Apart from group size, respondents were also categorised
into household size 1 to 5.The distribution of the travellers
choices with respect to the household size is given in Table
6. The data set does not include students and unemployed
respondents, who have come in a group of 2 or above, as
this would not result in unique household size.
Table 6 Mode Chosen by Respondents of
Different Household sizes
Household
Size
Bus Taxi
Own
Vehicle
Total
1 7 2 2 11
2 19 9 8 36
3 44 22 30 96
4 41 25 23 89
5 16 21 10 47
Total 127 79 73 279
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 21
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
It was observed that among the families of different
household sizes, 46 per cent preferred bus, while 26-28 per
cent preferred taxi or own vehicle. It was also observed that
as the size of the household increased from 1 to 5, the share
of bus reduced from 64 per cent to 34 per cent. In case of
own vehicle, the share initially increased from 18 per cent to
31 per cent with increase in household size upto 3 and then
reduced back to 21 per cent. Above household size 3, the
share of taxi increased from 23 per cent to 45 per cent.
Among bus users, major share was found to be of household
size 3 and 4 (35 per cent-32 per cent). The same was true
for own vehicle usage, the share being 41 per cent-32
per cent for household size 3 and 4, respectively. In case
of taxi, the major share came from household size 3 to 5
(each ranging between 27 per cent-32 per cent). Staunch
preference to bus was observed by leisure trip travellers with
household size upto 4. Smaller size households showed a
marked preference to bus over taxi and own vehicle. In case
of travellers having household sizes 3 and 4, although bus
continued to be the most preferred mode, its mode shares
decreased. In case of household size 5, taxi users dominate
the mode share.
5 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-
DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
5.1 Fitting Distributions
The variables, such as, age of the trip decision maker, annual
household income, group size and household size were
identifed as those infuencing the choice of a travel mode for
a single day excursion trip. These variables were considered
as random variables. Set of ranges for the variables were
identifed along with data points falling in each range. For
the present study, various probability density functions
were examined for ranges of random variables. Discrete
probability distributions, like, binomial, geometric, uniform,
negative binomial, Bernoulli etc., were considered. It was
observed that all the density function plots were skewed
at the tail ends. The best ftting probability distributions,
their parameters and test statistic are given in Table 7. The
parameter n and p refers to the number of failures until
the experiment is stopped and the success probability in
each experiment, respectively. The parameter in Poisson
distribution is a positive real number, which is equal to the
expected number of occurrences during the given interval.
The best ftting probability distribution is identifed based
on Anderson-Darling (A-D) test statistic. The A-D test is
based on the squared difference between the observed
distribution function and empirical distribution function
considered (Peng et al.,
15
). Further, the A-D test statistic
gives more weight to the tails of the distribution and is a
more sensitive test (Law
16
). The A-D test statistic assesses
whether a sample comes from a specifed distribution. The
A-D test statistic, A
n
2
is the weighted average of the squared
differences [

]
2
, where Fn(x) is the probability
distribution function of the data and

is the probability
distribution function of the hypothesised distribution. The
test statistic was compared against the critical values of the
theoretical distribution.
It can be observed from the statistics presented in the Table
7 that negative binomial function got ft in for age across
all the travel modes. This indicates that for the various mode
users, as the age increases, the probability of choosing that
particular mode decreases. Similarly, geometric distribution
function got ft for variable income for bus and taxi
modes, which indicates that as the income level rises, the
patronage of that particular mode decreases. Negative
binomial distribution had a good ft in case of income for
own-vehicle. Poisson probability distribution function was
found ftting for variable group size with travel mode bus
and own-vehicle, whereas, binomial function was found
ftting well for taxi. In case of household size, Poisson
distribution was found ftting well across all travel modes,
which indicates that there is more possibility of people to
choose a particular mode.
Table 7 Best Fitting Probability Distributions
Mode Random Variable
Probability Distribution
Function
Parameter/s A-D Test Statistics
Bus
Age Negative Binomial n=7 p=0.15937 17.417
Income Geometric p=7.1910E-6 21.166
Group Size Poisson =7.127 19.05
Household Size Poisson =3.5986 14.971
22 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARIKRISHNA, RASTOGI & PURUSHOTHAMAN ON
The results of the likelihood ratio tests of the model related
to earning and non-earning members are given in Table 8
and Table 9, respectively. The results indicate that income
and group size were signifcant factors infuencing choice of
mode for single day excursion trips. The Pseudo R-square
values of the model for earning group were obtained as Cox
and Snell-0.373, Nagelkerke 0.423 and McFadden-0.219.
The Pseudo R-square values of the model for non-earning
group were obtained as Cox and Snell-0.452, Nagelkerke
0.533 and McFadden-0.319. These indicate that probably
more factors play a role in the mode choice selection (as
noted by Gitelson and Kerstetter
4
, Reece
5
, and Sung et
al.,
17
).The model would improve with the inclusion of
system variables such as travel time, travel cost, as well as
attitudinal variables such as comfort, convenience, safety
and reliability.
Table 8 Likelihood Ratio Test Results for
Earning Group of Travellers
Effect
Model Fitting
Criteria
Likelihood Ratio
Tests
-2 Log
Likelihood of
Reduced Model
Chi-
Square df Sig.
Intercept 2.645E2 0.000 0 .
Age 269.683 5.173 6 0.522
Group size 333.679 69.169 10 0.000
Annual Household
Income
322.285 57.775 8 0.000
5.2 Development of a Multinomial Logistic Regression
Model
Logistic regression model was developed to evaluate the
relative infuence of the variables, namely; age, household
income and group size on the choice of a travel mode.
Household size was not considered in the development of
logistic model as it is a part of the group size that visits a
leisure location. Logistic regression applies the principle
of maximum likelihood in the estimation of odds of
choosing a mode with respect to a reference mode. Here,
taxi is considered as the reference mode. Two models were
developed, one for the earning group of travellers and
another for non-earning group of travellers comprising of
students and unemployed. This allows the comparison of
groups with reference to income.
For earning group of travellers, age was coded in increasing
order of age groups as 18-25 years, 25-45 years, 45-
60 years and greater than 60 years. The variable, annual
household income was coded in fve categories as 1 to 5,
representing increase in income as already mentioned in
section 4.3. Group size was considered in six categories,
with group sizes 1 and 2 together, 3, 4, 5, 6and 7 together,
and above 7 being coded from 1 to 6, respectively. For
non-earning group of travellers, age was coded in four
categories namely 18 years and less, 18-25 years, 25-
45 years and greater than 45 years. The variable annual
household income was coded in four categories as less than
`50000, `50000 - `1.50 lakhs, `1.5 - `3.00 lakhs and
above `3 lakhs. The coding for group size for the non-
earning group was same as that for earning group.
Taxi
Age Negative Binomial n=6 p=0.14154 9.9393
Income Geometric p=4.4520E-6
6.6149
Group Size Binomial n=35 p=0.23492 6.2058
Household Size Poisson =3.8966 10.252
Own Vehicle
Age Negative Binomial n=10 p=0.21005 15.817
Income Negative Binomial n=2 p=6.2422E-6 4.6158
Group Size Poisson =7.1628 7.3658
Household Size Poisson =3.7349 9.9008
* Critical value of A-D test statistic at 99 per cent confdence level is 3.9074.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 23
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
Table 9 Likelihood Ratio Test Results for
Non-earning Group of Travellers
Effect
Model Fitting
Criteria
Likelihood Ratio
Tests
-2 Log
Likelihood of
Reduced Model
Chi-
Square df Sig.
Intercept 1.434E2 0.000 0 .
Age 153.162 9.773 6 0.135
Group size 179.717 36.329 10 0.000
Annual Household
Income
230.864 87.476 6 0.000
The parameter estimates of the logistic regression model
for earning and non-earning group of travellers are given
in Table 10 and Table 11, respectively. It was observed that
age had a positive infuence on the choice of bus as a travel
mode as compared to taxi by the non-earning group. But in
case of earning groups, bus had a positive infuence only
in the adult category, implying that rest of the earning age
groups are more likely to use taxi. In case of own vehicle
users, the trend was observed to be more or less opposite
to that compared to bus use. In the case of earning group,
own vehicle was more preferred than taxi by all age groups.
Non-earning groups of age up to 25 years were found to
be inclined towards taxi use and the adults were found to
prefer own vehicle. Group size was found to have a positive
infuence on the use of bus as travel mode upto group size
of fve members for earning group, and across all group
sizes in the non-earning group. Similarly, for use of own
vehicle, positive infuence was observed across all group
sizes indicating preference above taxi. Comparison of bus
and own-vehicle usage indicated higher propensity of use
of own vehicle compared to bus. But in case of non-earning
group, the use of own vehicle was preferred upto group
size 3, after which taxi was given higher preference. The
effect of income was found to be positive on usage of bus as
compared to taxi across all the income categories of earning
and non-earning groups. However, it was found that taxi was
more preferred compared to own vehicle by both earning
and non-earning groups. This again substantiate that own
vehicle may not be the most preferred mode of travel for
single-day excursion trips.
Table 10 Parameter Estimates of Logistic Regression Model for Earning Group
Mode- Bus Coeffcient Value Standard Error
Mode- Own
Vehicle
Coeffcient Value Standard Error
Intercept 18.891 0.817 Intercept 2.672 1.416
[Age=1] 0.529 0.632 [Age =1] 0.489 0.776
[Age =2] 0.107 0.582 [Age =2] 0.982 0.719
[Age =3] 0.071 0.663 [Age =3] 0.488 0.800
[Age =4] 0b . [Age =4] 0b .
[Group size=1] 3.227 0.811 [Group size =1] 5.325 1.272
[Group size =2] 1.513 0.573 [Group size =2] 3.806 1.153
[Group size =3] 0.369 0.523 [Group size =3] 3.525 1.084
[Group size =4] 1.135 0.493 [Group size =4] 3.125 1.116
[Group size =5] 0.209 0.454 [Group size =5] 2.046 1.098
[Group size =6] 0b . [Group size =6] 0b .
[Income=1] 19.373 0.595 [Income=1] 2.469 0.899
[Income =2] 18.292 0.587 [Income=2] 1.073 0.781
[Income =3] 18.472 0.653 [Income =3] 0.670 0.814
[Income =4] 18.454 0.000 [Income =4] 0.886 0.907
[Income =5] 0b . [Income =5] 0b .
Note: b This parameter is set to zero as it is redundant
24 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARIKRISHNA, RASTOGI & PURUSHOTHAMAN ON
Table 11 Parameter Estimates of Logistic Regression Model for Non-Earning Group
Mode- Bus Coeffcient value Standard Error Mode- Own
vehicle
Coeffcient value Standard Error
Intercept 5.164 1.634 Intercept 1.268 1.945
[Age=1] 0.584 1.065 [Age =1] 1.327 1.779
[Age =2] 0.228 .962 [Age =2] 0.094 1.553
[Age =3] 1.598 1.100 [Age =3] 1.026 1.618
[Age =4] 0b . [Age =4] 0b .
[Group size=1] 1.897 0.928 [Group size =1] 2.883 1.247
[Group size =2] 1.509 0.714 [Group size =2] 0.852 1.030
[Group size =3] 3.195 0.867 [Group size =3] 0.466 1.269
[Group size =4] 1.364 0.694 [Group size =4] 0.349 1.084
[Group size =5] 1.912 0.709 [Group size =5] 1.687 1.295
[Group size =6] 0b . [Group size =6] 0b .
[Income=1] 5.220 1.270 [Income =1] 2.937 1.213
[Income =2] 4.192 1.198 [Income =2] 4.126 1.296
[Income =3] 3.208 1.186 [Income =3] 1.372 0.869
[Income =4] 0b . [Income =4] 0b .
Note: b This parameter is set to zero as it is redundant
5.3 Quantifcation of Importance Scores
To improve and augment the existing infrastructure as well
as transport facilities to the leisure locations, the attitudinal
variables were quantifed. The attitude of the traveller
towards travel attributes such as travel time, travel cost,
comfort, convenience, reliability and dust and noise were
recorded in the questionnaire. The respondents were asked
to indicate the importance they give to these factors while
deciding about the leisure trip. The levels of importance
were considered on a 5-point rating scale in an increasing
numerical scaleranging from extremely unimportant,
not important, immaterial, importanttoextremely
important. In order to quantify the attitudinal data, the
Scaling Theory of Successive Categories, proposed by
Thurstone in 1928 (Maurin
18
) was used. The assumption
made in the analysis was that the distribution of responses
to astimulus was normal on the psychological continuum
(Purushothaman
19
).
The computation of the relative weights was done using the
procedure described by the following steps:
Step 1: The categories of the data were arranged as
columns (say m columns) and the questions
as rows (say n rows). In this case, the columns
refer to the five point scale of extremely
unimportant, not important, immaterial,
important and extremely important and the
rows are the travel attributes, such as, travel time,
travel cost, comfort, convenience, reliability and
dust and noise. The total number of travellers
who gave a particular score to a particular
attribute was flled in the appropriate cell of
format to produce a matrix like structure.
Step 2: Each of the values were then expressed as a
fraction of the row total. Then cumulative of the
values was calculated, as one moves from point
scale of 1 to 5.
Step 3: Considering the values in the table as leftward
area of the standard normal distribution curve,
the z-values for the corresponding cell values
were obtained and recorded as a new n (m-1)
table, which was called as z
ij
array.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 25
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
Step 4: For each row i of the z
ij
array, the row average

was computed and for each column of z


ij
array,
the column average was also computed. Let the
column averages be called as b
j
s. The grand
average X of all the values in z
ij
array was also
computed.
Step 5: Compute (b
j
X) for each column.
Step 6: Compute
X
-
= (h
j
- X)
2
j=(m-1)
j=1

.
Step 7: For each row, compute
Y
|
= (z
|j
- z
|
)
2
j=(m-1)
j=1

Step 8: For each row, compute square root of X*/Y
i
. This
value corresponding to each attribute was then
expressed as a fraction of the total for all the
attributes.
One set of sample calculation showing the step by step
procedure for computation of importance scores is shown
in Appendix B. Table 12 gives the relative weights attributed
to various qualitative attributes based on the above analysis.
It was observed from the results that bus travellers attach
more importance to travel cost, followed by dust and
noise. People who used taxi as their mode attached more
importance to travel time, as well as, to reliability of the
mode. It is a known fact that comfort and convenience will
be lower in bus and travel time will be higher than taxi.
The main difference is the reliability which is relatively
low in case of bus when compared to taxi. People who
chose their own vehicle rated comfort and convenience as
more important. Rest of the variables were found to have
negligible weights indicating strong affnity to own-vehicle
as a travel mode to a leisure location. It also indicates that
in comparison to comfort and convenience offered by own
vehicle, the other attributes are immaterial.
Table 12 Quantifcation of Attitudinal Variables
Attributes Bus Taxi Own
vehicle
Travel Time 0.1498 0.1840 0.0460
Travel Cost 0.1970 0.1321 0.0253
Comfort 0.1544 0.1785 0.4247
Convenience 0.1623 0.1640 0.4427
Reliability 0.1598 0.1838 0.0314
Dust & Noise 0.1768 0.1575 0.0298
6 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
The major fndings of the study are listed below:
(i) Majority of the single day excursionists are found
to use bus as their travel mode, contrary to the
popular belief that personal vehicle is preferred for
excursion trips to nearby areas of the city. Its share
decreases with an increase in household income, and
for household size 5 and above.
(ii) In consonance with the social norms in India,
children and elderly are usually accompanied with
other adult members of the household for single day
excursion trips.
(iii) The share of non-earning sections of the society in
such leisure travel is less, indicating that excursion
travel is not a priority for such groups. Their major
choice of mode is bus.
(iv) The share of private employed respondents is
found to be more when compared with business or
government employed sections, which is indicative
of the relative economic status.
(v) Higher income groups gave more importance to
privacy, which is indicated by higher use of own
vehicle for leisure trips.
(vi) Group size is found to infuence mode selection, with
trip makers of group size up to 7 preferring bus as their
travel mode,while, those with group size above 11
showing higher preference to taxi as their travel mode.
The analysis indicated that there is a need to make bus more
attractive to users in different age groups. A shift to bus can
be stimulated by keeping some seats reserved for children
and elderly. Better bus facilities and frequency may attract
leisure trip makers in the adult category. Increase in cost of
parking at leisure location may deter the adults from using
their own vehicle. There is also a need to evolve policies
for inducing shift from taxi to bus in case of respondents
working in private organisations; and from own vehicle
to bus in case of respondents in government organisations
and those involved in business. The choices of groups can
also be looked in the same respect. Groups, when travelling
to a leisure location want to travel together so that they
can enjoy their time as per their will. This is not possible
while travelling by bus because of possible disturbance to
comfort of co-passengers. One possibility of improving
public transport patronage is to operate small size buses
26 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARIKRISHNA, RASTOGI & PURUSHOTHAMAN ON
to such leisure locations, especially during weekends or
during vacation, so that big groups can avail dedicated
bus service.
The travel mode preferences were observed to be infuenced
by the household income. Travellers were found categorised
in their travel mode choices. It indicates that patronage to
public transport like state transport bus can be improved
if bus services and facilities are improved to meet their
desires and satisfaction. The quantifcation of attitudinal
variables clearly indicated the characteristics of different
travel modes. Own vehicle is mostly used due to the level
of comfort it provides and its convenience of use. When
moving as a group, or especially as a family, these two
variables are more important than other travel attributes.
These two factors are found substantial in case of taxi
use and better than for bus. Travel attributes, like, travel
time and reliability are to be given due consideration for
busservices. Better services and facilities in a bus may
improve the comfort level. Convenience can be improved
by providing better access to leisure location from various
spatially dispersed locations in a city. Cleanliness of bus
interiors and proper design of bus can reduce dust and noise.
The main aspect to be considered is reliability wherein
punctual bus services needs to be assured so that people
feel assured of having a reliable bus service.
It can be fnally concluded that leisure trips account for a
substantial number of domestic trips and it is pertinent that
the variables infuencing the choice of mode are identifed to
provide proper understanding of the mode choice behaviour
of single-day leisure travellers. The attitudinal variables,
which are major infuencing factors for leisure travellers
should be incorporated into the modelling process to give
a better insight into the decision making process of such
leisure travellers.
REFERENCES
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Tourism, Government of India, New Delhi, India,1-17.
2. National Tourism Policy, 2002(2002), Ministry of Tourism,
Government of India, New Delhi, India 1-30.
3. Guiver, J ., Lumsdon, L. and Weston, R., (2008), Traffic
Reduction at Visitor Attractions: The Case of Hadrians Wall,
J ournal of Transport Geography, Vol. 16, Elsevier Ltd, 142-
150.
4. Gitelson, R.J . and Kerstetter, D.L. (1990) The Relationship
Between Socio demographic Variables, Benefts Sought and
Subsequent Vacation Behaviour, Journal of Travel Research,
Volume 24, Sage Publications, 24-29.
5. Reece, W.S. (2003) Demographics of Hawaii Leisure Travel,
J ournal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, Volume 27, Sage
Publications, 185-199.
6. Sung, H.H., Morrison, A.M., Hong, G-S, and OLeary, J.T.
(2001), The Effects of Household and Trip Characteristics on
Trip- Types: A Consumer Behavioral Approach for Segmenting
the U.S. Domestic Travel Market, Journal of Hospitality and
Travel Research, Vol. 25, Sage Publications, 46-67.
7. J ohansson, M.V., Heldt, T. and J ohansson, P. (2006), The
Effects of Attitudes and Personality Traits on Mode Choice,
Transportation Research - Part A (40), Elsevier Ltd, 507- 525.
8. Bohler, S., Grischkat, S. and Haustein, S. (2006), Encouraging
Environmentally Sustainable Holiday Travel, Transportation
Research -Part A, Volume 40, Elsevier Ltd, 652- 670.
9. Anable, J . and Gatersleben, B.(2005), All Work and No Play?
The Role of Instrumental and Affective Factors in Work and
Leisure Journeys by Different Travel Modes, Transportation
Research Part A, Volume 39, Elsevier Ltd, 163-181.
10. Heung, V.C.S., Qu, H. and Chu, R., (2001), The Relationship
Between Vacation Factors and Socio- Demographic and Traveling
Characteristics: The Case of Japanese Leisure Travellers,
Tourism Management, Vol. 22, Elsevier Science Ltd., 259-
269.
11. Dann, G.M.S., (1981), Tourism Motivation: An Appraisal,
Annals of Tourism Research, Volume 8, Part 2, Elsevier Ltd.,
187-219.
12. http://www.kkd.kerala.gov.in/home.htm, accessed on 11
th
January
2012.
13. Kerala Tourism Development Corporation (2007) Tourism
Statistics, Website: http://www.keralatourism.org/touriststatistics.
php, Accessed on 9
th
J anuary 2012.
14. www.nhfsindia.org (Accessed J anuary 15, 2010).
15. Peng, G., Lilly, E. and Company, (2004), Testing Normality
of Data Using SAS, Proceedings of PHARMASUG 2004
Pharmaceutical Industry SAS Users Group, San Diego, May
23-26.
16. Law, A. (2008), Simulation Modeling and Analysis,
Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York, 4
th
Edition,
275-381.
17. Sung, H.H., Morrison, A.M., Hong, G-S, and OLeary, J.T.
(2001), The Effects of Household and Trip Characteristics on
Trip- Types: A Consumer Behavioral Approach for Segmenting
the U.S. Domestic Travel Market, Journal of Hospitality and
Travel Research, Vol. 25, Sage Publications, 46-67.
18. Maurin, M., (1998), A Measurement Method for Ordered
Category Scales, Proceedings of Sensoral 98, Montpellier,
National Institute for Research on Transport and Safety, France,
1-10.
19. Purushothaman, D.,(2009), Mode Choice Analysis for Leisure
Trips, Unpublished M.Tech Thesis Submitted to Department
of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut,
Kozhikode, India.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 27
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
APPENDIX A
SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Calicut
MODE CHOICE ANALYSIS FOR LEISURE TRIPS
This study is taken up to understand the preferences of trip makers, who undertake the trips for engaging in leisure activities,
which infuences the choice of a mode for travel. This study is taken up by the Post Graduate students of the \Traffc and
Transportation Planning Programme. It is hereby assured that the data collected would be kept confdential and would be
utilized for academic purposes only. In case you need to contact us, kindly contact at 0495-2286208.
Sample NoDate & Day of Survey.. Interviewer...............
It is requested that as much information may please be provided for the questions that follow. We thank you for
the support and regret the inconvenience caused to you, if any, in this regard.
HOUSEHOLD AND PERSONAL INFORMATION
Kindly fll the information as desired or tick the appropriate box, wherever required.
1. Place of Residence ________________________________________________________________
2. No of Persons in the Family _________________________________________________________
3. No. of Persons Employed in the Family _________________________________________________________
4. Gender:
Male/Female
5. Marital Status:
Married/Single
6. Age: (Tick the appropriate group)
<18 years; 18-25 years; 25-45 years; 45-60 years; >60 years
7. Education:
SSLC (Std X) Plus Two Diploma Degree Higher Education
(specify)
Other (Specify)
8. Occupation:
Unemployed
Government-
Employed:
Executive
Middle level
Lower level
Pvt.
Employed:
Executive
Middle level
Lower level
Own
Business
House wife Student Retired Others
9. Vehicle Ownership:
Car Two wheeler Others( Specify)
28 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARIKRISHNA, RASTOGI & PURUSHOTHAMAN ON
10. Annual Family Income (Rs.):
50,000 and below / 50,000- Rs 1, 50,000 / 1, 50,000 3, 00,000 / 3, 00,000 5, 00,000 / >5 Lakhs.
TRAVEL INFORMATION
Kindly provide information related to the leisure travel undertaken by you and your family in the past three months
(preferably).
11. Place of Leisure Activity: _________________________________________________________
12. Location From Nearest City Centre _________________________________________________________
13. Starting Place of the Journey
14. No. of Persons Accompanying You
15. In case Bus is Used as a Travel Mode, the Distance of the Bus Station from the Starting Place
a) Access mode used to reach the bus station
b) Time taken to reach bus station (min)
c) Money spent to reach the bus station (Rs)
16. Mode Used (Own vehicle / Bus / Taxi) Alternate Mode
Travel Time (min)
Travel Cost (Rs)
Own Vehicle/Bus/Taxi Own Vehicle/Bus/Taxi
Reasons for Choosing the
Current Travel Mode:
Travel Time
Travel Cost
Comfort of Travel
Speed
Frequency of Service
Convenience in Use
Others (If any Specify)
Reasons for not choosing the
alternate travel mode
Reasons for not choosing the
alternate travel mode
17. If Traveled by Bus, Tick the Class of Travel Used for Leisure Travel Between Origin and Final Place.
Ordinary Or di nar y
Limited Stop
Or di nar y
Town -Town
Fast
Passenger
Express Super Fast Deluxe Super
Deluxe
Video
Coach A/C
18. If Traveled by Own Vehicle or Car Taxi, then the Type of Travel Comfort Preferred During Your Visit: AC / Non-AC
19. Preferred Travel Alternative, if not Using the Current Travel Mode: Bus / Private car / Car taxi
QUALITATIVE RESPONSES
20. How much importance do you give to the factors listed below while deciding about the leisure trip to be made with your
family members or going on a leisure trip? The responses are listed in ascending order of their importance opposite
each factor and you are requested to tick in an appropriate box against each of the factor.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 29
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
Attributes Extremely not
Important
Not Important Immaterial Important Extremely
Important
Cost of Travel
Travel Time
Reliability
Comfort
Convenience
Dust & Noise
Beautiful
Scenery
21. How much importance do you give to the factors listed below while deciding about the leisure trip to be made with your
family members or going on a leisure trip? The responses are listed in ascending order of their importance opposite
each factor and you are requested to tick in an appropriate box against each of the factor.
1. Highly Unsatisfactory 2 .Unsatisfactory 3. Undecided 4.Satisfactory 5. Highly Satisfactory
Attributes Satisfaction Scale
Bus Taxi Own vehicle
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Cost of Travel
Travel Time
Reliability
Comfort
Convenience
Dust & Noise
Beautiful
Scenery
30 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARIKRISHNA, RASTOGI & PURUSHOTHAMAN ON
APPENDIX B
SAMPLE CALCULATION FOR
QUANTIFICATION OF IMPORTANCE SCORES
Step 1

Extremely Not
Important
Not
Important Immaterial Important
Extremely
Important Total
Time 58 68 22 48 59 255
Cost 8 10 16 96 125 255
Comfort 54 46 50 60 45 255
Convenience 59 46 74 42 34 255
Reliability 45 48 65 56 41 255
Dust & Noise 63 67 74 35 16 255
Step 2
Time 0.2275 0.2667 0.0863 0.1882 0.2314 1.0000
Cost 0.0314 0.0392 0.0627 0.3765 0.4902 1.0000
Comfort 0.2118 0.1804 0.1961 0.2353 0.1765 1.0000
Convenience 0.2314 0.1804 0.2902 0.1647 0.1333 1.0000
Reliability 0.1765 0.1882 0.2549 0.2196 0.1608 1.0000
Dust & Noise 0.2471 0.2627 0.2902 0.1373 0.0627 1.0000
Time 0.2275 0.4941 0.5804 0.7686 1.0000
Cost 0.0314 0.0706 0.1333 0.5098 1.0000
Comfort 0.2118 0.3922 0.5882 0.8235 1.0000
Convenience 0.2314 0.4118 0.7020 0.8667 1.0000
Reliability 0.1765 0.3647 0.6196 0.8392 1.0000
Dust & Noise 0.2471 0.5098 0.8000 0.9373 1.0000
Steps 3 & 4
j1 j2 j3 j4 Row average
i1 Time 0.6000 2.5400 4.2000 4.7200 3.0150
i2 Cost 0.0700 0.1800 0.3400 4.0200 1.1525
i3 Comfort 0.5600 1.2400 4.2000 4.9200 2.7300
i4 Convenience 0.6200 1.3500 4.5200 5.1100 2.9000
i5 Reliability 0.4500 1.1000 4.2900 4.9800 2.7050
i6 Dust & Noise 0.6700 4.0100 4.8400 5.5200 3.7600
bj Column average 0.4950 1.7367 3.7317 4.8783 X =2.7104
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 31
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ATTRIBUTES IN TRAVEL MODE SELECTION FOR SINGLE DAY EXCURSION TRIPS
Steps 5 & 6
j1 j2 j3 j4 Row average
i1 Time 0.6000 2.5400 4.2000 4.7200 3.0150
i2 Cost 0.0700 0.1800 0.3400 4.0200 1.1525
i3 Comfort 0.5600 1.2400 4.2000 4.9200 2.7300
i4 Convenience 0.6200 1.3500 4.5200 5.1100 2.9000
i5 Reliability 0.4500 1.1000 4.2900 4.9800 2.7050
i6 Dust & Noise 0.6700 4.0100 4.8400 5.5200 3.7600
bj Column average 0.4950 1.7367 3.7317 4.8783 X =2.7104
bj-x -2.2154 -0.9738 1.0213 2.1679 -2.2154
(bj-x)2 4.9081 0.9482 1.0430 4.6999 4.9081

X
-
= (b
]
-X)
2
]=(m-1)
]=1
11.5991
Step 7
(z
ij
- z
j
)
j1 j2 j3 j4
i1 Time -2.4150 -0.4750 1.1850 1.7050
i2 Cost -1.0825 -0.9725 -0.8125 2.8675
i3 Comfort -2.1700 -1.4900 1.4700 2.1900
i4 Convenience -2.2800 -1.5500 1.6200 2.2100
i5 Reliability -2.2550 -1.6050 1.5850 2.2750
i6 Dust & Noise -3.0900 0.2500 1.0800 1.7600
(zij - zj)
2
j1 j2 j3 j4 Yi
i1 Time -2.4150 -0.4750 1.1850 1.7050
16.3691
i2 Cost -1.0825 -0.9725 -0.8125 2.8675
12.4499
i3 Comfort -2.1700 -1.4900 1.4700 2.1900 15.8860
i4 Convenience -2.2800 -1.5500 1.6200 2.2100 15.1094
i5 Reliability -2.2550 -1.6050 1.5850 2.2750 15.3489
i6 Dust & Noise -3.0900 0.2500 1.0800 1.7600 13.8746
Step 8
Attribute
(X*/ Yi ) Importance score
Time 0.7086 0.1498
Cost 0.9317 0.1970
Comfort 0.7301 0.1544
Convenience 0.7677 0.1623
Reliability 0.7557 0.1598
Dust & Noise 0.8360 0.1768
Total 4.7298 1.0000
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 33
1 INTRODUCTION
In traffc terminology, headway can be represented in
two different ways, as space headway, and time headway.
Specifcally, time interval between passage of successive
vehicles moving in the same lane as the same points of
successive vehicles pass a reference point on road, is known
as time headway. In traffc engineering, it is a decisive factor
controlling the longitudinal distribution of vehicles. With
respect to the queue discharge at signals, frst headway is
defned as the time elapsed between start of green and the
time the frst vehicle crosses the reference line, second
headway is the time between frst and second vehicles
crossing the reference line etc.
In the earlier studies, it was reported that the frst waiting
driver will usually take more time to react to the red-to-green
change before releasing the brake and start accelerating.
Following drivers will also incur some reaction time, which
will be shorter with every subsequent driver in the line since
the reaction times overlap. Finally, headways tend to level
out to the minimum headway value. This generally occurs
when vehicles have fully accelerated by the time they reach
the curb line. It is reported that this leveling off begins
with the fourth or ffth headway. Fig. 1 represents this ideal
change in headway and the suggested value of constant
headway after it levels out is 1.9 sec (Highway Capacity
Manual, 2000). However, these observations were based
on studies mainly conducted under homogeneous and lane
disciplined traffc conditions. Obviously, these results may
not hold true under heterogeneous and less lane disciplined
traffic conditions, such as, the one existing in India.
However, reported studies in this area of discharge headway
under heterogeneous traffc conditions are minimal.

Fig. 1 Headway Variation at Start of Green
Traffc conditions in India, and many of the developing
countries, differ from their western counter parts mainly
in the composition and lack of lane discipline. Under such
conditions, different genres of vehicles widely varying
HEADWAY ANALYSIS AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS
WITH AND WITHOUT COUNTDOWN TIMER
M. S. HARSHITHA*, SONU AGARWAL** & LELITHA VANAJAKSHI***
ABSTRACT
Discharge time headway, defned as time elapsed between consecutive vehicles as they get discharged from a queue, is an important
parameter in the analysis of signalized intersections. Reported studies in this area so far observed the discharge headway to be high at
the start of green for frst few vehicles, and stabilize to a minimum value by 4
th
or 5
th
vehicle in queue, which continue till end of the
queue. However, these studies were analyzing data from homogeneous traffc conditions, which may not hold good for heterogeneous
traffc conditions, such as, the one existing in India. Also, most of the intersections in India have signals facilitated with countdown
timers, indicating the time remaining for change of signal phase, which is also expected to affect queue discharge characteristics. This
Paper quantitatively analyses the changes in discharge headway characteristics, in the presence and absence of countdown timers under
heterogeneous traffc conditions and compare the results against the standard discharge headway distribution. The analysis was carried
out using data collected from selected intersection in Chennai, India, by videographic technique. The results indicate that the conventional
headway distribution is followed in the case of no timer, with the exception of having increased headway values towards the end of
queue. However, with the presence of timer the discharge headway remains constant throughout, which is around the stabilized minimum
discharge headway of the no timer case. Thus, the results indicate that the presence of timers considerably reduces the initial losses and
delays, leading to a more effcient intersection. These observations will be useful for practicing engineers to design the signals and to
decide on the requirement of countdown timers.
* Undergraduate Student, National Institute of Technology Calicut.
** Undergraduate Student, National Institute of Technology Rourkela.
*** Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai 600 036, India
34 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARSHITHA, AGARWAL & LELITHA ON
in their size, accelerating abilities, and performance
capabilities share same lanes of the road. This disparity in
static and dynamic characteristics of vehicles will affect the
queuing and discharge characteristics. In addition, variations
in dimensions of vehicles end up in wide bodied vehicles
occupying full lane width, while small vehicles traveling
side by side as well as in between the bigger vehicles. These
situations create complexity in measurement and non-
compatibility in analysis of headway values. In addition,
signal countdown timer, which continuously display the time
remaining for each phase of cycle, including changes from
green to amber, amber to red and red to green, is becoming
popular in traffc congested Asian Cities, including India.
The presence of timers also can affect the queue discharge
at intersections, as drivers have prior knowledge about the
time of start of green and red. Thus, countdown timers
could infuence start-up lost time, discharge headways and
the saturation fow rate. The present study concentrates on
the discharge headway characteristics, since that will give
an insight into the parameters, like, initial time losses and
saturation fow.
Obviously, the traditionally accepted distribution of
discharge headway with initial losses for the frst few
vehicles resulting in an increased headway, which gradually
levels off to an optimum or minimum value by 4
th
or 5
th

vehicle may not hold good for the above discussed traffc
conditions, particularly with timers in place. Owing to
the diffculty in measuring headway from mixed traffc,
not many studies are reported from heterogeneous traffc
conditions analyzing discharge headway at signalized
intersections and its variation with presence of timers.
Limited reported studies in this area compared the
characteristics from two different intersections, one with
and one without timer, which could not lead to exhaustive
conclusions (Sharma et al. 2007). The present study
addresses these issues by collecting and analyzing discharge
headways from the same signalized intersection, with and
without timer, under heterogeneous traffc conditions,
taking Chennai as a representative city. The aims of the
study are to analyse the distribution of discharge headway at
signals to verify whether they follow the standard trend and
also to study the effect of countdown timers on discharge
headway distribution. A quantitative analysis of headway
variation in the presence and absence of signal timers is
carried out, and the results are compared against the classic
headway distribution. Also, it presents numerical analysis
of headway of classifed traffc fow, pertaining to two-
wheelers and cars. The data is compatible for comparative
studies, in all respects, as both sets of data, one with timer
and the other without timer, are collected from the same
intersection under similar traffc conditions.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Over the past several years, many researchers have
reported their studies on headway distribution at signalized
intersections. Some of the relevant and recent studies in
this area are enlisted below. Many of the earlier studies
agreed with the observation of the initial headway values
to be high at start of green and leveling off after 4
th
or 5
th

vehicle, and are listed in HCM 2000. Recent studies in
this area showed that distribution of departure headway
at each position in a queue, approximately follow a
certain log-normal distribution and corresponding mean
value levels out gradually (J in et al., 2009). Variation of
discharge headway based on vehicle type, traffc conditions,
intersectional properties, etc. were reported in several
studies, some of which are discussed below. In one such
study, it was reported that discharge headway change with
the type of vehicle being followed and little variation
was found with changes in overall traffc fow and road
type (Brackstone et al., 2009). Lu (1984) analysed the
protected and unprotected left-turn vehicles at signalized
intersections and showed that smaller vehicles require only
smaller discharge headways. The study also reported that
left-turn vehicles had lower discharge headway values
than the other vehicles. Studies conducted in Bangkok by
Limanond, et al. (2009) reported that countdown timers
had a signifcant impact on the start-up lost time, reducing
it by 1-1.92 sec per cycle. However, effect of timer on
saturation headway was found to be trivial. The study used
two days data one day with timer and the other without
timer. Chiou and Chang (2010) investigated the effects of
Green Signal Countdown Display (GSCD) and Red Signal
Countdown Display (RSCD) on driver behaviour and in
turn on intersection safety and effciency. Results showed
that RSCD enhanced intersection effciency and was clearly
less controversial and more benefcial than GSCD. Tong and
Hung (2002) proposed a neural network (NN) approach to
simulate the queued vehicle discharge headway. Studies
conducted by Ayres, et al. (2001), showed that even during
rush hour traffc, the time headway between vehicles varies
between 1 and 2 sec for a range of traffc speeds. Sharma et
al. (2009) reported similar analysis on the effect of timers
on headway values. However, the data used were from two
different intersections, one with and one without timer,
making it diffcult to conclude that the changes in headway
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 35
HEADWAY ANALYSIS AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS WITH AND WITHOUT COUNTDOWN TIMER
distribution is purely the effect of timers. Ibrahim et al.
(2008) analysed the impact of timer on queue discharge
patterns using data from three intersections with signal
timers and three intersections without signal timers. The
results showed the mean headways for the frst six vehicles
in the queue at the intersections with countdown timers
were less than the mean headways of the corresponding six
positions at the intersections without countdown timers. The
study concluded that the countdown timer had a signifcant
effect on the discharge headway of the frst six vehicles in
the queue, though there was no corresponding statistical
analysis used to prove the fndings.
Also, it can be seen that over the years, studies showed a
gradual reduction in start-up lost time with more aggressive
driving habits and better acceleration performance of
vehicles. However, very few studies concentrated on
heterogeneous traffc conditions. In the area of impact of
countdown timers on queue discharge patterns, studies
are scarce, focus on one geographic area, had only limited
data, or analysed data from different intersections. This
highlights a need for additional studies to investigate the
signal countdown impact in detail, and perhaps the need to
perform similar studies in different geographical areas with
more sample size and data being collected from the same
intersection, with and without timer. In the present study
these limitations are addressed by studying the headway
variation at signalized intersections under heterogeneous
traffc conditions. Also, the study evaluates the effect of
countdown timers on headway and presents a quantitative
analysis for the same in a systematic way. A representative
intersection is selected in Chennai, India and data were
collected with and without timer, from the same location
for a total of 10 days.
3 DATA COLLECTION AND EXTRACTION
With respect to data collection, selection of site having a
signalized intersection with added facility of countdown
timer, was of prime importance. Collecting data for
headway measurement is challenging as requirement of
collecting data on signal indication and corresponding
traffic movement simultaneously becomes mandatory.
Hence, videographic technique was adopted and the
recording was carried out from a vantage point with two
cameras, one for capturing the signal head and the other
facing the corresponding traffc. Since, the time intervals of
interest are of few seconds, it was needed to synchronise the
two cameras. This was achieved by using special adaptors
which connect both the cameras to the same laptop and
synchronise their timing. Thus, live recording from both
video cameras needed to be synchronized and brought
into the laptop, and was achieved with the assistance of
specialised hardware and software. The laptop used screen
capture software to time stamp and record the live feed.
Sample screen shots are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Screen Shot of Data Collected Using Synchronized Video Setting
Data were collected from the same intersection with and
without timer, each for 5 days, during the same time periods.
After the reconnaissance survey, appropriate location for the
study was selected based on availability and permission to
use the vantage point. The study intersection selected for the
present study is a signalized intersection at Kotturpuram on
Gandhi Mandapam Road, Chennai, India. This intersection
has four legs with a total of four lanes for through traffc
with a constant cycle time of 105 sec. The North bound
through movement was selected for the present study. It had
60 sec red, 39 sec green and 6 sec amber during the data
collection period. A suitable vantage point was selected, at
the intersection from where the signal indication and the
corresponding traffc fow could be simultaneously captured
using video. The classifed as well as total fow observed
for all the days are summarised in Table 1.
Extraction of headway data, in general, stipulates the need
for fner details, as small time intervals are involved in
the high speed discharge of vehicles at the start of green.
Additional challenges are posed by the heterogeneity and
lack of lane discipline existing under Indian conditions.
Moreover, to avoid the error posed due to parallel
movement of vehicles in different lanes, only vehicles
following one behind the other were included in the data
extraction. Also, to incorporate the effect of heterogeneity,
classifed discharge headways were noted down. In this
study, the following vehicle was assumed to be decisive in
the headway estimation and hence the classifcation was
dependent on the following vehicle type. Thus, the headway
was measured as the time elapsed between consecutive
36 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARSHITHA, AGARWAL & LELITHA ON
vehicles, as their rear ends cross the reference line, which
includes the characteristics of the following vehicle. The
usual reference point selected in such studies will be the
curb line of the leg under consideration. However, under
Indian scenario, many smaller vehicles cross the curb line
and stop during the red interval. Hence, the reference line
in this study was selected much ahead of the curb line, more
towards the center of the intersection. The headways were
extracted till the end of queue clearance for each cycle. For
effcient extraction of these data, a program in Matlab was
developed to acquire a database of time headways of each
vehicle type separately, for every green cycle.
Table 1 Data Summary
Day Time Timer
Number of Vehicles
Total
no. of
Vehicles
Two
Wheeler
Auto Car Bus
Day1/Day6
Mon
11AM-
12PM
Timer 1529 307 1085 30 2951
11AM-
12PM
No
Timer
1703 315 1021 37 3076
Day2/Day7
Tues
11AM-
12PM
Timer 1325 278 953 32 2588
11AM-
12PM
No
Timer
1226 247 810 33 2316
Day3/Day8
Wed
11AM-
12PM
Timer 1513 277 1005 32 2827
11AM-
12PM
No
Timer
1013 221 750 40 2024
Day4/Day9
Thur
11AM-
12PM
Timer 1395 306 876 42 2619
11AM-
12PM
No
Timer
1474 327 876 45 2722
Day5/
Day10
Fri
11AM-
12PM
Timer 1514 270 995 38 2817
11AM-
12PM
No
Timer
1384 321 854 37 2596
4 DATA ANALYSIS AND METHODOLOGY
The data extracted from the collected videos were analysed
from two perceptions: (a) to check whether the data
variation agree with the standard headway variation and (b)
to study the effect of timer on headway distribution. Each
of these, were further studied by concentrating separately
on unclassifed and classifed traffc. Unclassifed study
involved the time headways of all motorized vehicles
while the classified study concentrated on two major
classes, namely cars and two-wheelers. This approach was
justifable as the proportion of other two types, namely;
autorickshas and buses, represented a meager percentage
of net traffc volume, providing inadequate data points
and hence were not included in the detailed analysis.
Fig. 3 shows a pie chart of percentage distribution of vehicle
types in the collected data.

Fig. 3 Pie Chart Showing Traffc Composition
To start with, the average discharge headway per vehicle
was plotted against green signal time for unclassifed
and classifed conditions separately to compare with the
traditional headway distribution as discussed below.
Unclassifed headway analysis: The average discharge
headway per vehicle against queue clearance time for
the unclassifed data, both with and without timer cases,
were plotted separately intending to (a) compare with the
traditional headway distribution and (b) study the effect of
timer on the discharge headway and are shown in Fig. 4.


Fig. 4 Comparison of Discharge Time Headway With and Without Timer
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 37
HEADWAY ANALYSIS AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS WITH AND WITHOUT COUNTDOWN TIMER
It can be seen from Fig. 4 that the headway distribution
under both with and without timer case differs from the
classic distribution that is followed based on homogeneous
conditions. In the case of without timer, the curves clearly
show three distinctive zones: (i) starting zone (ii) middle
zone and (iii) ending zone. Starting zone representing
frontage of queue recorded high values for discharge
headways, which may be mainly due to response and
accelerating time losses. Middle zone showed the values
stabilizing to an optimum value followed by an end zone
showing an increasing trend. This third regime, which is not
part of the standard headway distribution, could be due to
ambiguous knowledge that drivers acquire about left-over
time in green signal phase, resulting in apprehensions to
stop or to proceed. This unconventional trend is reported
in HCM for longer green time signals, with greens more
than 40 sec. The intersection under study has a green time of
40 sec, which may also be the reason for this trend in
discharge headway. However, the magnitude of the
headways in the ending zones are lower than that of
corresponding starting zones, which may be because end
zones deals with post accelerated vehicles and do not
include accelerating losses. The observed values of the
time headways in starting zone lie in range of 2 to 3 sec
and optimizes in the middle zone to 1.2 to 2 sec, followed
by value of 1.5 to 2.5 sec in the third zone.
In the case of with timer conditions, the trend was observed
to be completely different from the classical distribution. It
was seen that the start up loss was completely saved and the
discharge headway started at the minimal value from the
start of green and was in the range of 1.5 to 2.2 sec. This
may be explained because the timers provide drivers prior
knowledge about time of onset of green. Hence, vehicles/
drivers accumulated in queue will be alert and ready before
the actual start of green, eliminating subsequent time losses.
Time headways of middle zones are observed to fall in same
range as that of no timer case. This demonstrates that the
saturation headway value at a signalized intersection is
not changed due to the presence of timers. The end zone
also was not very evident showing all vehicles traveling
with minimum headway throughout the green, when
timer information is available. This may be because exact
knowledge about the time left for green to end makes the
drivers more aware about the risk and reduces rash behavior
towards the end of green. Overall, it was observed that the
headway distribution under both with and without timer
cases differ from the classic distribution and the timers
affect the headway distribution.


Fig. 5 Average Discharge Headway with and without Timer
Fig. 5 shows the average headway combining all days
(average line in Fig. 4) with the corresponding data points.
Functional forms for both with and without timer cases were
explored. It can be seen that in the case of without timer, a
polynomial form was the best ft and for the without timer
case the trend was linear indicating the minimum headway
maintained from beginning to end of queued vehicles.
In order to estimate the magnitude of variation in the
headway values due to the presence of timers, statistical
analysis of the data was also performed. Comparison of
means and variances were carried out using Z test and F test
to check whether there is any statistically signifcant change
in the values. The results are shown in Table 2.
The results confrmed the change in headway values due to
the presence of countdown timers in the starting zone. It can
be seen that the mean headway values of starting zones of
without timer condition, is signifcantly different from its
counterpart values of with timer conditions, when checked
at the 95 per cent confdence interval. On the other hand,
middle zone and end zone have reported no statistically
signifcant difference between headways of both cases.
One plausible explanation for this observation could be as
follows: In the case of with timer, prior knowledge about
green signal starting results in drastic reduction in headway
38 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
HARSHITHA, AGARWAL & LELITHA ON
values of starting zones, due to removal of reaction time and
start up losses, which is considerably large in magnitude.
Since middle zones and end zones have post accelerated
headway values, they lack such radical reduction.
Table 2 Results of Statistical Analysis of Headway Values
Start Zone Middle End
Mean
Without
timer 2.11 1.42 1.51
With timer 1.72 1.49 1.48
Std Dev.
Without
timer 1.122 0.608 0.635
With timer 0.841 0.656 0.665
Sample
Size
Without
timer 304 367 114
With timer 280 277 114
Test for
Mean
Z-calc 4.776360745 -1.38327538 0.34836115
signifcant not signifcant not signifcant
Test for
Variance
F-calc 1.779892292 1.164127424 1.096720193
signifcant not signifcant not signifcant
Classifed headway analysis: Similar analysis was carried
out for classifed cases of two-wheelers and cars. Fig. 6
show sample graphs of with and without timer cases of
two-wheelers for all days. Similar trend were observed
for cars too.
H
e
a
d
w
a
y
/
v
e
h
i
c
l
e
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
0 5 10 1
Gre
Without
15 20
een time (sec
timer TW
y = 0.002
25
cs)
2x
2
0.104x + 1
R = 0.475
30
day1
day2
day3
day4
day5
average
1.657
35
H
e
a
d
w
a
y
/
v
e
h
i
c
l
e
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
0 5 110 15
Gre
With ti
20
een time (sec
imer TW
y = 0.0
25 30
cs)
000x
2
0.035x +
R = 0.304
0 35
day1
day2
day3
day4
day5
averag
+ 1.100
40
ge
Fig. 6 Comparison of Discharge Time Headway of Two-Wheelers
With and Without Timer
From the Fig. 6, it can be seen that the trends observed in
the case of unclassifed vehicles continue here as well. In the
case of without timer, there are three distinct zones. Time
headway values in starting zone, lie in range of 1.5 to 2.3 sec
for two-wheelers (corresponding values for cars were in the
range of 2.3 to 3.4 sec). This is justifable as two-wheelers
have greater accelerating capacities, in comparison to cars.
Also, two-wheelers tend to occupy the front of the queue
much ahead of the stop line and hence may need lesser time
to reach the observation point.
The wider range of headway values is observed for cars may
be due to the presence of numerous classes of cars, differing
in their dimensions, braking efficiencies, accelerating
capacities, etc. It can be observed that the headway values
of unclassifed data in starting zone, are mostly comparable
to that of two-wheelers. This emphasizes the presence of
large number of two-wheelers at the starting of queue,
which is a common scenario under heterogeneous and less
lane disciplined traffc fow. Additionally, starting zones in
all cases of analysis are seen to occupy quarter length of
green signal time. In the middle zones, saturation headway
values of two-wheelers lie in the range of 0.5 to 0.8 sec.
Corresponding values for cars were observed in the range
of 1.2 to 1.8 sec. As expected, cars have higher headway
values compared to two wheelers. Here, it can be observed
that the mixed traffc headway values in middle zone, are
inclined to that of cars, indicating higher percentage of
cars in the middle of the queue. Ending zones of classifed
traffc fow, also bear similar headway values as unclassifed
traffc fow, with values ranging between 0.8 to 1.4 sec for
two-wheelers and 1.2 to 2 sec for cars.
For with timer conditions, as in the case of unclassifed data,
fatter curves in all zones are observed for both the types.
Discussions mentioned in unclassifed traffc fow for no
timer cases hold true for classifed analysis as well. Time
headways, in starting zones, experienced a drastic fall to
0.9 to 1.2 sec for two-wheelers, while it reduced to 2.1 to
2.5 sec for cars. Reduction in the start up lost time due to
countdown timers explains this trend. As before, middle
zones have saturation headway values, comparable to the
without timer conditions, ranging in 0.8 to 1.1 sec for two-
wheelers and 1.5 to 1.8 sec for cars. Similar to unclassifed
traffc fow, headways of end zones of both vehicle types
have faced a fall with respect to the corresponding end
zones of no timer conditions.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 39
HEADWAY ANALYSIS AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS WITH AND WITHOUT COUNTDOWN TIMER
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Discharge headway is the time elapsed between consecutive
vehicles as they get discharged from a queue at signals.
The studies reported from homogeneous traffc conditions,
observed the discharge headway to be high at start of green
for frst few vehicles, and stabilize to minimum value by 4
th

or 5
th
vehicle in queue, which continue till the end of queue.
However, this may not be true under the heterogeneous
and less lane disciplined traffc conditions that exist in
developing countries, like, India. Moreover, signal count
down timers displaying the remaining time for signal
phase changes, are gaining popularity in many countries,
including India. The presence of timers is expected to affect
the discharge headway characteristics. Only limited studies
discussed these issues with systematically collected data
from same location by considering with and without timer
scenarios for multiple days, to draw reliable conclusions in
this regard. In this Paper, a systematic study at a selected
signalized intersection in Chennai, India, with and without
timer, was executed to analyse two aspects : (a)whether
the discharge headway distribution of heterogeneous
traffc follow the classic model of headway distribution of
homogeneous fow and (b) to study the effect of timer on
discharge headway.
Initial analysis on the distribution of discharge headway
against the classic representation of initial high value
followed by a stabilized zone with minimum headway was
carried out by plotting the headway values against green
time. It was observed that under heterogeneous traffc
conditions, this trend was followed with an additional
ending zone of increased headway values. This is attributed
to the dilemma the drivers feel towards the end of green
expecting a change in signal phase, which leads to the
uncertainty on whether to stop or proceed. Also, it may be
due to the longer green time of 40 sec. Also the minimum
headway observed is in the range of 1.2 to 2 sec, which
is slightly lower than the existing HCM value of 1.9 sec.
Separate analysis was carried out for classifed headway,
concentrating on two types, namely, cars and two-wheelers,
which composed the major proportion of traffc volume,
which also agreed to the three regime trend observed with
the unclassifed data.
Effect of timer on headway distribution was analyzed,
separately for unclassifed and classifed cases. It was found
that the timer removes the starting and ending zones and
showed a leveled and reduced headway from the start to
the end of the queue. About 1 to 2 sec reduction in headway
values in the starting zone was observed due to the presence
of timers, which will result in the benefcial impact of
increased discharge rate of the queue. Middle zones share
comparable values in both cases, emphasizing no change
in discharge rate with respect to countdown timers. The
increased end zone also is removed here making the
headway in the range of 1 to 2 sec throughout. Statistical
analysis was carried out to check whether the differences
in headway due to the timer are statistically signifcant and
showed a signifcant reduction in the starting zone. These
observations were true for the classifed analysis of two-
wheelers and cars, as well. Thus, timers at intersections
can lead to benefcial impact on increased discharge rate
of the queue. However, this study could not probe into a
quantitative analysis of time headways of autos and HMVs,
owing to inadequate data.
Overall, the results of the study emphasize the differing
discharge headway distribution under heterogeneous
and less lane disciplined traffic in comparison to the
homogeneous one. Also, it was observed that the presence
of timers reduces the initial losses and delays leading to a
positive effect of higher effciency due to the presence of
timers. Data from more intersections under different time of
the day need to be analysed to confrm these fndings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support provided by
Ministry of Urban Development through project No.
K-14011/28/2007-UT.
REFERENCES
1. Ayres, T. J ., Li, L., Schleuning, D. and Young, D., Preferred
Time-Headway of Highway Drivers, IEEE Intelligent
Transportation Systems Conference Proceedings, Oakland, USA,
2001.
2. Brackstone, M., Waterson, B. and McDonald, M., Determinants
of Following Headway in Congested Traffc, Transportation
Research Part F, 12, 2009, pp. 131142.
3. Chiou, Y. and Chang, C., Driver Responses to Green and Red
Vehicular Signal Countdown Displays: Safety and Effciency
Aspects, Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42, 2010, pp.1057-
1065.
4. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) - Special Report 209,
Transportation Research Board, Washington D.C., 2000.
5. Ibrahim, M. R., Karim M. R. and Kidwai, F. A., 2008. The
Effect of Digital Count-Down Display on Signalized J unction
Performance, American Journal of Applied Sciences, 5, 479-
482.
40 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
6. J in, X., Zhang, Y., Wang, F., Li, L., Yao, D., Su, Y. and Wei, Z.,
Departure Headways at Signalized Intersections: A Log-Normal
Distribution Model Approach, Transportation Research Part C,
17, 2009, pp.318327.
7. Limanond, T., Suebpong, C. and Roubtonglang, N., Effects
of Countdown Timers on Queue Discharge Characteristics of
through Movement at A Signalized Intersection, Transportation
Research Part C 17, 2009, pp.662-671.
8. Lu, Y. J . A Study of Left-Turning Maneuver Time for Signalized
Intersections, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Vol. 5410,
1984, pp.117-126.
9. Sharma, A., Vanajakshi, L. and Rao, N., Effect of Phase
Countdown Timers on Queue Discharge Characteristics Under
Heterogeneous Traffc Conditions, Transportation Research
Record J ournal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 2130,
Transportation Research Board of the National Academies,
Washington, D.C., 2009, pp. 93100.
10. Tong H.Y. and Hung W.T., Neural Network Modeling of
Vehicle Discharge Headway at Signalized Intersection: Model
Descriptions and Results, Transportation Research Part- A, 36,
2002, pp.17-40.
HARSHITHA, AGARWAL & LELITHA ON
HEADWAY ANALYSIS AT SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS WITH AND WITHOUT COUNTDOWN TIMER
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 41
1 INTRODUCTION
The growth of traffc in the road network of large cities in
developing countries, like, India is a serious concern from
the traffc engineers point of view. The rapid growth of
vehicular traffc in the past has imposed heavy loads on the
urban street system. The authorities of cities are considering
the introduction of modern traffc control techniques to
reduce the problems of congestion, air pollution, noise
pollution and road accidents. Parking control, improving
intersection geometrics, optimizing signal cycle time on
intersection, design of coordinated signalized intersection
etc. are a few techniques of traffc controlling.
For isolated signalized intersections, proper signal phasing
and cycle time are very important to allow safe crossing of
vehicular as well as pedestrian traffc fow and to over all
delay. Arrival rate of vehicles, saturation fow rate, delay
and pedestrian fow are the major factors infuencing the
design of optimum cycle length. In the developed countries,
various methods and models have been developed to
measure the saturation fow rate, delays and optimum
cycle length, where more or less homogeneous traffc is
fowing with lane discipline. While in developing country,
like, India, heterogeneous traffc, these methods can not
be effectively used. Hence, it is necessary to develop the
saturation fow model as well as delay model, which works
well in case of heterogonous traffc condition.
2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objectives of present study are:
(i) To develop saturation fow model considering width
& vehicle composition criteria for non-lane based
heterogeneous traffc condition.
(ii) To modify the Websters delay formula under non-
lane based heterogeneous traffc condition.
3 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION FLOW
CHARACTERISTICS
Fig. 1 presents some fundamental attributes of fow at
signalized intersection. The diagram represents a simple
situation of one-way approach to signalized intersection
having two phases in the cycle.
MODIFICATION OF WEBSTERS DELAY FORMULA USING
MODIFIED SATURATION FLOW MODEL FOR NON-LANE
BASED HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC CONDITION
N.G. RAVAL* & P. J. GUNDALIYA**
ABSTRACT
Traffc in India consists of both motorized and non-motorized vehicles, as in many other developing countries. The static and dynamic
characteristics of the different vehicle vary widely even within the same class. Also, the lack of lane discipline and unrestricted mixing
of the various types of vehicle in the same right of way makes the traffc stream heterogeneous in nature. The equation of saturation
fow, developed in developed countries, do not take into account the non-lane based traffc conditions prevalent in India. Hence, it is
necessary to develop the saturation fow model for non lane based heterogonous traffc condition. However, many researchers worked
out different methods and till it is required to come out an acceptable methodology to fnd out saturation fow.
Delay is one of the most important performance measures of signalized intersection. Various models including Websters classical
delay formula have been developed in countries with car dominated traffc stream to estimate average delay per vehicle at signalized
intersections. Websters classical delay formula under developed countries where the road traffc condition is homogeneous based and
consequently the formula may not estimate delays accurately under heterogeneous traffc condition. It is necessary to modify Websters
delay formula to make it usable under non-lane based heterogeneous traffc. In the present study, feld delay for each approach is worked
out for developing delay model. The modifcation is carried out in the Websters classical delay formula to suit the feld condition.
Traffc data were collected manually at three signalized intersection of Ahmedabad city. Model for saturation fow is also developed
based on width and traffc composition criteria. However, the models are required to test & validate considering large number of data
for road condition.
* PG Student, L.D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad.
** Asstt. Professor, L.E. College, Morbi.
42 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
RAVAL & GUNDALIYA ON

Fig. 1 Fundamental Attributes of Flow at Signalized Intersection
The diagram is divided into three parts. The frst part shows
a time-space plot of vehicles on the northbound approach to
the intersection. Intervals for the signal cycle are indicated
in the diagram. In Fig. 1, it is defned that veh#0 is passing
the intersection in the amber time period. While veh#1,
veh#2, veh#3 , veh#4 and veh#5 have arrived at intersection
within red time of approach. These vehicles will have to
stop for the certain time period. The time duration for which
these vehicles are in the queue is the delay period for the
respective vehicles. Veh#3, Veh#4 and Veh#5 are two-
wheelers which cross the intersection without following
any queue due to maneuvering and its size. Veh#3 overtake
Veh#2 and move ahead towards intersection. Veh#6 has
to stop for the time of clearing a queue. Veh#7 has a zero
delay at the intersection. These vehicles have a less delay
compared to veh#1, veh#2, veh#3, veh#4 and veh#5. The
second part repeats the timing interval, and labels various
time interval of interest with the symbols. The third part is
an idealized plot of fow rate passed the stop line, indicating
the saturation fow. When the green period commences
a certain time elapses, while vehicles are accelerating to
normal running speed, but after few seconds the queue
discharges at a more or less constant rate, called the
saturation fow. If there is a queue at the end of the green
period, some vehicles will make use of the amber period to
cross the intersection. In these circumstances, traffc moves
on both green and amber period signals but the discharge
rate is less than the saturation fow both at the beginning
and at the end of the right of way period.
4 DATA COLLECTION
Data are collected manually during the period of August
2009. All signals are pre-timed signals. The traffc data
are recorded for about 120 min for each approach. All
intersections comprise both motorized and non-motorized
vehicle. In this study, for analysis purpose vehicles have
been grouped into fve classes:
(i) Car
(ii) Bus / Truck
(iii) Two-wheelers
(iv) Autorickshaw
(v) Bicycle
As the traffc survey is conducted during day time, trucks
are not available as they are not allowed to enter within the
city area at this time period.
5 PASSENGER CAR UNIT (PCU)
The unrestricted mixing of various classes of vehicles along
a road creates many problems to the traffc engineers and
planners. One type of vehicles in the traffc stream cannot
be considered equivalent to any other type, as there is
large differences in their vehicular and fow characteristics
(J usto and Tuladhar, 1984). The space of the carriage way
is shared by vehicles depending upon their size, speed,
headway and lateral gap maintained by them. The non-
uniformity in the static and dynamic characteristics of the
vehicles is normally taken into account by converting all
vehicles in terms of common unit. The most accepted one
such unit is passenger car unit. PCU values suggested by
Indian Roads Congress for signalized intersections are used
in the analysis.
6 SATURATION FLOW
Several models are developed over the years for fnding
saturation fow. Amongst the most notable of these is the
Webster model. For initial design of signal timings, various
models are available. Some of them are shown below:
(i) Webster Model
S =525 x W
where, S =Saturation flow (PCU/ hr); W =Width of
approach road in meter
(ii) Sarna and Malhotra (1967)
S =431.7 x W +103.5
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 43
MODIFICATION OF WEBSTERS DELAY FORMULA USING MODIFIED SATURATION FLOW MODEL FOR
NON-LANE BASED HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC CONDITION
(iii) Bhattachrya & Bhattacharya (1982)
S =490 x W - 360
(iv) Chandra (1994)
S =293 x W +1241
(v) IRC : 93 Method:
S=525 * W
(for width greater than 5.5 m)
6.1 Saturation Flow Measurement
It is calculated either in PCU/hour or Vehicles/hour. In this
study saturation period, which is defned as the period,
when a stable moving queue has been crossing the stop
line and movement wise classifed traffc volume has been
conducted for the whole approach as vehicle does not move
in a disciplined way. The observation point is normally stop
line (desired position to stop). Start of the green is noted
down. Conventional stop watch is used to measure time in
seconds. Saturation fow ends when the rear axle of the last
vehicle from a queue crosses the stop line. During this time
period, different types of vehicles count is done for each
movement (Left turn, through and right turn separately).
Table 1 shows the traffc data collected for fnding saturation
fow on the study approach. Traffc data are collected
manually on the intersections under study. Data are also
collected for approach width 4 m and 7m from the other
intersection.
Table 1 Saturation Flow of Traffic on the Study
Approach to the Signalized Intersection
C
y
c
l
e

N
u
m
b
e
r
R
o
a
d

w
i
d
t
h

i
n

m
G
r
e
e
n

T
i
m
e

i
n

S
e
c
Number of Vehicles Crossing the Stop
Signal Line During Saturated Green
Time
B
u
s
A
u
t
o

C
a
r
T
w
o

B
i
c
y
c
l
e
F
l
o
w
,

v
e
h
/
s
e
c
P
C
U

/

S
e
c
1 9 26 1 13 11 60 10 3.7 1.9
2 9 46 2 12 23 98 15 3.3 1.6
3 9 41 2 10 18 78 10 2.9 1.5
4 9 38 2 6 20 117 10 4.1 1.9
5 9 35 2 9 17 99 15 4.1 1.9
6 9 34 0 5 16 78 18 3.4 1.5
7 9 38 1 15 14 90 10 3.4 1.7
8 9 34 1 9 14 72 10 3.1 1.5
9 9 35 1 12 15 65 14 3.1 1.5
10 9 38 0 12 20 75 10 3.1 1.6
11 9 55 0 25 21 124 11 3.3 1.6
12 7 24 0 6 10 40 10 2.8 1.3
13 7 24 0 9 10 36 7 2.6 1.4
14 7 23 0 8 10 34 10 2.6 1.4
15 7 25 1 10 5 38 12 2.6 1.3
16 7 24 1 5 6 48 10 2.9 1.3
17 7 23 1 7 6 40 5 2.6 1.3
18 7 24 2 5 6 44 7 2.7 1.3
19 6 20 1 2 8 28 2 2.1 1.1
20 6 20 1 1 9 32 1 2.2 1.2
21 6 22 1 6 7 27 4 2.0 1.1
22 4 20 1 3 3 20 2 1.5 0.8
23 4 22 0 4 5 24 2 1.6 1.8
24 4 20 0 4 2 28 4 1.9 0.8
6.2 Composition of Vehicular Traffc:
Following vehicles composition is observed during morning
peak period for the various intersections. Table 2 shows the
vehicle composition at various intersection of the study area.
Table 2 Composition of Vehicular Traffc
at Various Intersection
S
l
.

N
o
A
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
T
W
B
u
s
A
u
t
o
C
a
r
c
y
c
l
e
Pallav Intersection
1 North 73% 2% 7% 9% 9%
2 South 59% 2% 13% 22% 4%
3 East 71% 1% 9% 17% 2%
4 West 65% 2% 21% 8% 4%
Akhbarnagar Intersection
1 North 65% 2% 13% 19% 1%
2 South 58% 3% 13% 24% 2%
3 East 67% 2% 24% 5% 2%
4 West 65% 2% 20% 10% 3%
Pragatinagar Intersection
1 North 63% 3% 16% 15% 3%
2 South 67% 2% 13% 15% 3%
3 East 82% 3% 7% 5% 3%
4 West 78% 3% 7% 7% 5%
44 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
RAVAL & GUNDALIYA ON
It is observed from Table 4 that percentage of motorized
two-wheelers is more than the other category of vehicles.
Percentage of Two-wheelers varies from 58 per cent to
82 per cent of total vehicles available on the approach.
Other types of Non-motorized vehicles are less than
1 per cent, so it is not included in the analysis.
Table 3 shows the observed traffc signal data collected
manually for various intersections under study.
Table 3 Observed Traffc Signal Data
of Various Intersection
Direction
Width in
Meter
Cycle Time
in Seconds
Green Time
in Seconds
Pallav Intersection
North 9 190 45
South 9 190 54
East 8 190 21
West 8 190 48
Akhbarnagar Intersection
North 9 230 60
South 9 230 72
East 12 230 35
West 12 230 50
Pragatinagar Intersection
North 9 100 18
South 9 100 32
East 6 100 18
West 6 100 14
It is observed that Cycle time of the Akhbarnagar
intersection is more due to high traffc density. Width of
the east and west approach is more than north and south
approach.
7 DEVELOPMENT OF SATURATION FLOW
MODEL
Following Models are developed for estimation of
saturation fow for heterogeneous traffc fow for Indian
condition using regression analysis.
Model 1: (SFMW)
Saturation Flow Model Width Approach
S =626W +268 ... ... Eqn.1
Model 2: (SFMC)
Saturation Flow Model Traffc Composition Approach
S =647W+709tw+270b+702au- 1568car- 1552bic ...Eqn. 2
where,
W = Width of road in m; tw =Proportion of two-wheeler
in percentage; b =Proportion of buses in percentage;
au =Proportion of auto rickshaw in percentage; car =
Proportion of car in percentage; bic =Proportion of bicycle
in percentage; S = Saturation fow in PCU / hour.
Fig. 2 shows the trend of Saturation fow with proportion of
cars. Saturation fow decreases with increases of proportion
of cars in the study area. Saturation fow decreases because
of delay due to Maneuvering in cars is more compared to
two-wheelers.

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Percentage of Cars
S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n

F
l
o
w

(
P
C
U
/
H
o
u
r
)
Saturation Flow
Fig. 2 Trend of Saturation Flow with Proportion of Cars
Table 4 shows the comparison of observed saturation fow
and model output. Saturation Flow calculated using SFMW
and SFMC are tabulated as under.
Table 4 Comparison of Observed Saturation
Flow & Model Output
Sl
No.
W
i
d
t
h

i
n

m
Observed
Saturation
Flow
Saturation
Flow using
SFMW
Saturation
Flow using
SFMC
1 9 6036 5902 6114
2 9 5964 5902 5930
3 8 5360 5276 5478
4 8 5580 5276 5602
5 9 5857 5902 6067
6 9 5833 5902 5926
7 12 8010 7780 8303
8 12 7875 7780 8167
9 9 6036 5902 6102
10 9 6353 5902 6112
11 6 4142 4024 4395
12 6 4084 4024 4300
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 45
MODIFICATION OF WEBSTERS DELAY FORMULA USING MODIFIED SATURATION FLOW MODEL FOR
NON-LANE BASED HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC CONDITION
It is found that observed saturation fow is very much close
to model output.
The statistical analysis is carried out for validation. F test
is carried out for the observed results at a confdence level
of 95 per cent.
Summary of Statistics for Model:
R =0.995
R square =0.990
Adjusted R square =0.990
The value of observed F is found higher than the critical
value. Hence, the model is weak for statistical support.
More excessive data is to be collected for strengthening
the model for statistical validation.
8 FIELD MEASUREMENT OF DELAY
Field measurement of delay is done at three intersection
approaches. HCM procedure is followed to calculate feld
delay.
In this method, the numbers of vehicles in queue are
recorded at regular interval of 15 sec. It is to be continued
for the red period. Number of vehicles stopped in the 15 sec
interval is counted and recorded for the red period. Delay
of the vehicles for each 15 sec interval is calculated. The
summation of the all vehicles stopped during red period is
done. A total vehicle stopped during red period is counted.
Average delay per vehicle is worked out.
9 MODELS FOR DELAY ANALYSIS
Numbers of Models are developed for finding delay
analysis. Followings are the important models available
for fnding out delay analysis.
(i) Webster Model :
Average delay per vehicle,
) 5 2 (
3
1
2
2 2
65 . 0
) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 2
) 1 (

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

= x
q
c
x q
x
x
c
d

... Eqn. 3
Where,
d =average delay per vehicle on the particular arm of the
intersection; C =cycle time; =proportion of the cycle
which is effectively green for the phase under consideration
(i.e. g/c); q = fow; s = saturation fow; x =the degree
of saturation. This is the ratio of the actual fow to the
maximum fow which can be passed through the intersection
from this arm, and is given by x = q/s
(ii) HCM 2000 Method:
Uniform Delay,
C g X Min
C g C
d
/ ) , 1 ( 1
) / 1 ( 50 . 0
2
1



... Eqn. 4
Where,
d
1
=uniform control delay assuming uniform arrivals, s/
veh; C =cycle length, cycle length used in pretimed signal
control, or average cycle length for actuated control; g =
effective green time for lane group, greentime used in
pretimed signal control, or average lane group effective
green time for actuated control; X =v/c ratio or degree of
saturation for lane group.
Incremental Delay,
(

+ + =
cT
kIX
X X T d
8
) 1 ( ) 1 ( 900
2
2

... Eqn. 5
Where,
d
2
=incremental delay to account for the effect of random
and over saturation queues, adjusted for the duration of
the analysis period and the type of signal control. This
delay component assumes that there is no residual demand
for the lane group at the start of the analysis period, s/
veh; T =duration of analysis period, h; K =incremental
delay factor that is dependent on controller settings; I =
upstream fltering/metering adjustment factor; c =lane
group capacity in veh/h, and; X =lane group v/c ratio, or
degree of saturation.
d= d
1
PF + d
2
+ d
3
... Eqn. 6
Where,
d =control delay per vehicle, s/veh; d
1
=uniform control
delay assuming uniform arrivals, s/veh; PF =uniform
delay progression adjustment factor which accounts for
the effects of signal progression; d
2
=incremental delay
to account for the effect of random and over saturation
queues, adjusted for the duration of the analysis period and
the type of signal control. This delay component assumes
that there is no residual demand for the lane group at the
46 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
RAVAL & GUNDALIYA ON
start of the analysis period, s/veh, and; d
3
=supplemental
delay to account for over saturation queues that may have
existed prior to the analysis period, s/veh.
(iii) Md. Shamsul Hoque & Md. Asif Imran:
They have provided the following equation for fnding out
the delay at intersection.
adj
x q
x
x
c
d

) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 2
) 1 (
2 2


... Eqn. 7
pnmv x q
x q
x
x
c
d 3608 . 0 32 . 37 04 . 46 93 . 46
) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 2
) 1 (
2 2


Eqn.8
where,
q =Vehicle arrival rate (PCU/Sec); x =Degree of Saturation;
pnmv = Percentage NMV in traffc
These models do not give correct value of delay for
heterogonous traffc condition. Hence, these models can
be modifed to suit the feld traffc condition.
(iv) Akceliks Model :
Akcelik and Rouphail have proposed delay model for
signalized intersections that is suitable for variable demand
condition. They explained application of general delay
model by using different delay defnitions, i.e. the average
delays for vehicles arriving in the peak, non peak and
post peak over saturation and total fow periods. Average
delay experienced by vehicles during the peak fow period
is given by:
CpTp
Xo Xp k
Xp Xp Tp g c d
) ( 8
2 ) 1 ( ) 1 [( 900 ) ( 5 . 0



(for Xp >1.0) ... Eqn. 9
CpTp
Xo Xp k
Xp Xp Tp
uXp
u C
d
) ( 8
) 1 ( ) 1 [( 900
1
) 1 ( 5 . 0
2
2


(for Xo <Xp <1.0) ... Eqn. 10
uXp
u C
d

1
) 1 ( 5 . 0
2

(forXp<=Xo) ... Eqn. 11
where,
Tp = duration of the peak fow period in hour; C =cycle
time in sec; g =effective green time in sec; u =g /c;
q
p
=average arrival flow rate in peak flow period
(veh/hr); Cp =peak period capacity =
C
Sg 3600

; S =saturation
fow rate (veh/sec of green); Xo =degree of saturation =
600
67 . 0
Sg

; K =delay parameter = 1.22(Sg) 0.22; Xp
=
Cp
q
p

These models do not give the correct value of delay in case
of over saturation period for the present study area.
10 MODIFICATION OF WEBSTERS DELAY
MODEL
Websters classical delay formula has been developed in
countries with car dominated traffc stream to estimate
average delay per vehicle at signalized intersections.
Websters classical delay formula has been used in
developed countries situation where the road traffic
condition is homogeneous and formula does not estimate
delays accurately under heterogeneous traffc condition. As
a result, it is necessary to modify Websters delay formula
to make it usable under non-lane based heterogeneous
traffc condition.
The modifcation of Websters delay formula under non lane
based heterogeneous traffc condition can be accomplished
by adding an empirical adjustment term with the sum of
frst and second terms, which has been calibrated based on
the feld observations of delays.
) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 2
) 1 (
2 2
x q
x
x
c
d adj



... Eqn. 12
In the Eqn. 12, d is the actual delay observed in the feld. If
the left hand side of the Eqn. 12 is taken as the dependent
variable, it needs to be regressed against a set of independent
variables.
10.1 Development of Model
In the present study, Websters classical delay formula
is modifed, so that it can be used in the non-lane based
heterogeneous traffc condition of Indian cities. To achieve
this, the frst and second terms of the formula will be kept
as it is, because they represent the uniform and random
component of delay and derived solely from queuing
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 47
MODIFICATION OF WEBSTERS DELAY FORMULA USING MODIFIED SATURATION FLOW MODEL FOR
NON-LANE BASED HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC CONDITION
theory. The third term, which is only for adjustment as per
heterogeneous condition has to be replaced with a quantity
calibrated from feld observations. In the modifed formula,
with the frst and second terms, additive adjustment term is
introduced to best ft the local traffc condition. In the model,
this adjustment taken as dependent variable and regressed
against independent variables, which were originally
present in the adjustment term for Websters classical delay
formula. In addition, the percentage of two-wheelers, which
is more in non lane based heterogeneous traffc condition,
also be taken as an independent variable. The model along
with its mathematical form is as follows:
55 . 26 35 . 32 98 . 3 6 . 7 057 . 0 82 . 7 tw x c Q adj


Eqn.13
where,
adj =Adjustment term for the model; Q =Vehicle arrival
rate (PCU/sec); c =Cycle time is seconds; x =Degree
of Saturation; =Effective green ratio; tw =Percentage
two-wheelers.
The Modified Websters Delay Formula is as shown
below :
55 . 26 35 . 32 98 . 3 6 . 7 057 . 0 82 . 7
) 1 ( 2 ) 1 ( 2
) 1 (
2 2

tw x c Q
x q
x
x
c
d



Eqn.14
Table 5 Comparison of Observed Control
Delay & Model Output
Sl No.
Observed
Control Delay,
Sec
Output in
Sec using
Developed
Model
Output in Sec
using Webster
Model
1 75 76 58
2 65 65 52
3 90 88 76
4 90 88 77
5 40 39 26
6 42 41 33
7 44 43 35
8 48 45 38
9 90 88 70
10 102 100 86
11 75 75 62
12 97 98 81
It is observed from Table 5 that Developed model gives the
value very closed to the observed value of control delay. It
is observed that the feld calculated delays are signifcantly
different from those calculated by Websters classical delay
formula. The modifcation of Websters classical delay
formula is done to cope with the heterogeneous traffc
condition of the India only.
The statistical analysis is carried out for validation. F test is
carried out for the observed results at a level of confdence
of 95 per cent.
Summary of Model :
R =0.986
R square =0.972
Adjusted R square =0.945
The value of observed F is found higher than the critical
value. The model is weak for statistical support. Hence,
more excessive data is to be collected for strengthening the
model for statistical validation.
11 CONCLUSIONS
Followings are the important conclusions that are drawn
from the present study.
(i) HCM 2000 suggests measurement of saturation
fow should start after 10 sec of green initiation,
which is considered as start up lost time. From the
present study, it was found that auto rickshaws and
motor cycle fnd way in between heavy vehicles and
try to come near stop line. Most of the times these
vehicles cross stop line before green starts. During
red period large number of vehicles accumulates
near stop line. This causes to discharge large amount
of traffc during initial 10 sec. Hence, it is suggested
that count for measurement of saturation fow should
start after 3 sec of green initiation for non lane based
traffc condition.
(ii) Regression model developed to estimate saturation
fow shows good correlation with feld values. The
SFMW can be used to estimate saturation fow at
any intersections knowing approach width.
(iii) The developed model SFMC of saturation fow gives
the value in PCU/hr considering width and vehicle
composition of intersection. It gives the satisfactory
results nearer to the feld observations.
48 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
RAVAL & GUNDALIYA ON MODIFICATION OF WEBSTERS DELAY FORMULA
USING MODIFIED SATURATION FLOW MODEL FOR NON-LANE BASED HETEROGENEOUS TRAFFIC CONDITION
(iv) Modifcation is made in the Websters delay equation
to suit the local heterogeneous traffc condition.
(v) It is observed that proportion of two-wheelers is
more in the traffc, so it is included in the adjustment
factor in the delays formula.
(vi) The regression model developed for saturation fow
is based on traffc condition of Ahmedabad city,
which is assumed to be similar to other parts of India.
This developed model may be applied in other cities
of India and checked for its usefulness.
(vii) Saturation flow depends on various factors. In
present study all intersections are selected having
almost fat surface. Saturation fow is also affected
by parking facility near intersection. All these factors
need to be studied and to develop new model taking
into account maximum possible variables.
(viii) Recommended model of Saturation flow must
be verifed by applying it in the other cities. In
present study analysis has been carried out for
three intersection approaches only. Similar analysis
should be carried out for large number of intersection
approaches.
(ix) It is recommended to use greater number of
observational cycles including greater number of
intersections for model calibration.
(x) Besides Websters delay model, other delay models
should also be modifed under the different traffc
condition of Indian cities to estimate delays for
oversaturated conditions.
REFERENCES
1. Chakroborty Partha & Das Animesh, Principles of Transportation
Engineering, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2005.
2. Cheng DingXing, Messer Carroll J., Tian Zong Z. & Liu Juanyu, -
Modifcation of Websters Minimum Delay Cycle Length Equation
Based on HCM 2000, A Paper submitted to the Transportation
Research Board, Annual meeting in Washington, D.C. 2003.
3. Guidelines on Design and Installation of Road Traffc Signals,
IRC : 93-1985 Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 1985.
4. Hoque Md. Shamsul & A, Md. Imran Asif, - Modifcation of
Websters Delay Formula Under Non-Lane Based Heterogeneous
Road Traffc Condition, Journal of Civil Engineering, IEB,
2007.
5. J usto, C.E.G. & Tuldhar, S.B.S. (1984). Passenger Car Unit
Values for Urban Roads. Journal of Indian Roads Congress,
Vol. 45(1), New Delhi, India.
6. Kadiyali, L.R. (2009), Principles and Practice of Highway
Engineering, Khanna Publishers, Nath Market, Nai Sarak, Delhi,
India.
7. Saxena, S.C. (1989), Traffc Planning and Design, Dhanpat
Rai Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
8. Webster, F.V. (1958), Traffc Signal Settings, Road Research
Technical Paper No. 39, Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne,
England.
9. Dave, H.K. (2005), I ntersection Improvement through
Signal Coordination A Case Study of Anjalee Elisbridge, A
Dissertation at L. D. College of Engineering, Ahmedabad.
10. Bhattacharya, P.G. & Bhattacharya, A.K. (1982), Observation
and Analysis of Saturation Flow Through Signalized Intersection
in Calcutta Indian Highways, Vol. 10(4), Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi, PP 11-33.
11. Chandra, S. (1994), Development of Capacity Analysis
Procedure for Urban Intersection, Ph. D. Thesis, University Of
Roorkee, Roorkee, India.
12. Sarna, A.C. & Malhotra, S.K. (1969), Traffic Delays at
Signalized Intersections, Road Reaserch Paper No. 107, CRRI,
New Delhi.
13. Varia, H.R. (1995), Optimization of Signal Cycle Time and its
Implication on Delay and other Operational Parameters A
Dissertation of Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 49
1 INTRODUCTION
These Dynamic effects are a complex phenomenon
involving a variety of bridge and vehicle parameters. The
most critical ones are the bridge and vehicle dynamic
properties, speed of travel, road surface conditions on
bridge deck and approach portion. The frequency content
and magnitude of dynamic wheel loads of vehicles are
closely related to the vehicle speed, pavement roughness
and vehicle suspension properties. This renders a proper
quantifcation of the dynamic effects diffcult.
Traditionally, these dynamic effects are accounted for
in bridge design by simply scaling the required bridge
response quantities (bending moments and shear forces) by
a quantity called Dynamic Amplifcation Factor (DAF).
This enhancement, expressed as a fraction of the static
response to account for additional dynamic effects is
sometimes referred to as Impact Factor (IF) or Dynamic
Load Allowance (DLA). The DAF is defned as the ratio
of maximum total response (including dynamic effects) at
a critical bridge section to the maximum static response at
the same section, while IF or DLA =DAF 1. A proper
quantifcation of DAF involves consideration of various
inter-related and uncertain parameters mentioned earlier.
This Paper reviews the DAF provisions in various important
bridge design codes and also the basis for some of those
provisions. The topic assumes signifcance especially when
there is growing evidence from various reported feld tests
suggesting that the current DAF provisions in various
international standards are highly conservative so long as
good road surface conditions prevail
1
. At the same time,
it needs to be mentioned that occasional very high values
of DAF exceeding the current design provisions have also
been reported
2
.
2 DAF PROVISIONS IN BRIDGE DESIGN
CODES
The traditional approach has been to relate DAF to bridge
span, with an inverse relationship between the two. This
is refected in IRC Specifcations
3
, AASHTO Standard
Specifcations
4
, J apanese Bridge Design Code J RA
5
, etc. At
the same time, provisions refecting the dependence of DAF
on the fundamental frequency of bridge deck were followed
by early Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC
1979, 1983), Swiss SIA 160 (1988) and Australian Bridge
Design Code (Austroads 1992)
6
. Recognizing the infuence
of other signifcant parameters and the drive to keep the
procedures simple, the more recent OHBDC (1991)
5
made
the DAF provisions dependent on the axle number. The limit
state format AASHTO LRFD
7
specifes a constant value
for dynamic allowance. A compilation of these provisions
is summarized in Table 1. It may be noted that while IRC,
J RA and French Codes specify separate DAF for steel and
concrete bridges, the more recent Codes like, AASHTO,
Euro Code, Austroads, etc., avoid distinction between
bridge materials for DAF provisions.
The fundamental frequency dependent DAF provisions
seem to have a physical backing since it is observed
that large amplitude vibrations occur mostly when the
vehicle critical frequencies (body bounce or axle hop)
DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTORS FOR HIGHWAY
BRIDGE DESIGN A REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL CODAL PROVISIONS
S. ARUN*, DEVDAS MENON** & A. MEHAR PRASAD**
ABSTRACT
Dynamic effects induced by moving vehicles are accounted for in the design of highway bridges by scaling the static effects by a
Dynamic Amplifcation Factor (DAF) or increasing by a fraction called Impact Factor (IF). A proper quantifcation of this factor is
very diffcult and most of the early bridge design codes had specifed DAF (or IF) as a function of either the span or the fundamental
frequency of the bridge deck. A more recent trend is to specify this factor as a function of vehicle axle numbers or simply as a constant.
This Paper reviews the impact factor provisions in various international bridge design Codes. The basis for some of these provisions, as
well as critical comparison of these provisions with those of the current IRC provisions, is also included. The results show that there is
a wide variability in the provisions in current bridge design codes and points a need to arrive at more appropriate expressions suitable
for Indian highway bridges.
* Research Scholar
** Professor
Deptt. of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai, India
}
50 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
ARUN, MENON & PRASAD ON
Table 1 DAF Provisions for Straight Bridge Decks in Various International Bridge Codes
Sl No. Specifcations Amplifcation Factors (DAF or IF/DLA)
I. Span Dependent Amplifcation Factor Provisions
1
AASHTO - Standard Specifcations 1996
4
(GVW of Design Truck =320 kN)
15.24
IF=
L+38.1

;
IF
0.3
L=Span in m
2.
AASHTO LRFD 2006
7
GVW of Design Truck =320 kN
IF = 0.33 for main fexural members
IF =0.15 for fatigue and fracture
IF =0.75 for deck joints
3 J RA 1996 (J apan Road Association )
5
Steel Bridge
20
;
( 50)
I
L
=
+
L
in m
For Truck and Lane loading
R.C Bridge
7
;
( 20)
I
L
=
+
for Lane loading
R.C Bridge
20
;
( 50)
I
L
=
+
for Truck loading
PSC Bridge
10
;
( 25)
I
L
=
+
for Lane loading
PSC Bridge
20
;
( 50)
I
L
=
+
for Truck loading
4. French Cahier des Prescriptions Communes
(1973)
8
0.64
;
(1 0.2 )
I
L
=
+
for Concrete Structures
0.80
;
(1 0.2 )
I
L
=
+
for Steel and Composite Structures
5. West German DIN 1072 (1967)
8
0.4 0.008 ( ) I L L in m =
6. Italy- Code 384 (1962)
8
2
(100 )
;
100(250 )
L
I
L

0; I =
for span (L) in excess of 100 m
7 Euro Code EN1991-2 (2003)
9
Moment DAF =1.7; for L 5 m
Moment DAF =1.4; for L 15 m
A linear transition of DAF for span range 5 to 15 m
DAF for Shear force =1.4; for L 5 m
=1.2; for L 25 m
A linear transition of DAF for span range 5 to 25 m
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 51
DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTORS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN A REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL CODAL PROVISIONS
8. IRC : 6 (2000)
3
Class A or Class B loading
Bridge type IF
Reinforced
Concrete Bridges
0.5; I =
for L 3 m
4.5
;
(6 )
I
L
=
+
3 L 45
0.088; I =
for L>45 m
Steel Bridges
0.545; I =
for L 3 m
9
;
(13.5 )
I
L
=
+
3 L 45
0.154; I =
for L>45 m
Class AA and Class 70 R
For Spans less than 9 m for both Steel
and RC Bridges
Vehicle type
IF
Tracked vehicles
0.25; I =
for L 5 m. and
linearly reducing to 0.1 for spans
of 9 m
Wheeled vehicles
0.25; I =
For Spans greater than 9 m RC Bridges
Tracked vehicles
0.10; I =
L 40 m
4.5
;
(6 )
I
L
=
+
40 L 45 m
0.088; I =
for L>45 m
Wheeled vehicle
0.25; I =
L 12 m
4.5
;
(6 )
I
L
=
+
12 L 45
0.088; I =
L 45 m
For Spans greater than 9 m Steel Bridges
Tracked vehicle
0.10; I =
for all spans
Wheeled vehicle
0.25; I =
L 23 m
9
;
(13.5 )
I
L
=
+
23 L 45 m
0.154; I =
L >45 m
52 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
ARUN, MENON & PRASAD ON
match the bridge fundamental frequency and the critical
vehicle frequencies are excited by the combined effect
of road surface unevenness and vehicle speed. The span
dependent DAF provisions are attributable to the result
of simplifcation of procedure by which the fundamental
frequency determination of bridges can be avoided
5
.At
the same time, from the comprehensive bridge testing
conducted by EMPA
11
, it can be seen that there is a strong
correlation between the bridge span and fundamental
frequency. Based on this, various simple expressions have
been proposed
11
relating span and frequency for bridges
with various support conditions. Literature shows that a
direct relationship between the bridge span and DAF could
not be established
12,13
. Despite this, various bridge codes
II. Frequency Dependent Amplifcation Factor Provisions
1.
Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code
OHBDC (1979)
6
GVW of Design Truck =740 kN
Bridge fundamental
frequency, f
1
(Hz)
DLA
f
1
1 0.3
2.5 f
1
4.5 0.45
f
1
6 0.3
With a linear transition of DLA in the frequency range
(1, 2.5) and (4.5,6)
2.
Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code
OHBDC (1983)
6
GVW of Design Truck =740 kN
Bridge fundamental
frequency, f
1
(Hz)
DLA
f
1
1 0.2
2.5 f
1
4.5 0.4
f
1
6 0.25
With a linear transition of DLA in the frequency range
(1, 2.5) and (4.5,6)
3.
Australian Standards Austroads (1992)
6
Load Class A 160- Single Axle (for local effects)
Load Class M 1600 4 axle group with each group
of 360 kN (for Simulating Moving Traffc)
DLA =0.3 for load class A 160
Bridge frequency, f
1
(Hz) DLA
f
1
1 0.2
2.5 f
1
4.5 0.4
f
1
6 0.25
With a linear transition of DAF in the frequency range
(1, 2.5) and (4.5,6)
III. Axle Number Dependent and Constant Amplifcation Factor Provisions
1.
Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code OHBDC
(1991)
5,6
GVW of Design Truck =740 kN
No of Axles DLA
1 0.4
2 0.3
3 or more 0.25
2. Swiss SIA
6
160 (1989) DLA =0.8; constant for all Bridge frequencies
3.
Trilateral Design and Analysis Group (2005)
10
- A
Design Code jointly developed by the U.S, U.K,
and Germany
Bending moment and shear force DAF =1.2 for all
Spans.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 53
DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTORS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN A REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL CODAL PROVISIONS
prescribe a decreasing DAF with increasing span. This may
be attributed to two reasons:
(i) An increase in span shifts the bridge from the critical
frequency range, thus reducing the vulnerability to
increased dynamic response.
(ii) For bridges with medium to long spans, multiple
axles and multiple vehicles govern the design and it
is highly unlikely that all the wheel loads exert the
maximum load effect simultaneously. Also, it is clear
from recent numerical and feld investigations
14,15

that DAF reduces with increasing static effects.
The same logic applies to the OHBDC (1991)
provisions where a decreasing DAF with increasing
axle numbers was followed. This also indicates that
short span bridges are more critical from a vehicle
induced vibration point of view. Moreover, in the
case of short span bridges, it is also observed that
the local effect caused by a single axle or axle group
is likely to be more critical rather than that of the
entire vehicle (s) on the bridge deck.
AASHTO Guide Specifcations for horizontally curved
highway bridges
16
give DAF provisions for horizontally
curved I girder bridges as well as box girder bridges. This
is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Impact Factors for Horizontally
Curved I Girder Bridges
16
Quantity IF*
Reactions and Shear forces 0.3
Moments in longitudinal girders 0.25
Torsional moments in longitudinal girders 0.4
Moments in slab 0.2
Bimoments in longitudinal girders 0.25
Forces and moments in diaphragms 0.25
Defections 0.25
* Subject to the following conditions:
o 15.24 m L 60.96 m
o 60.96 m R
c
304.8 m
o Vehicle speed 112 km/h
o Number of continuous spans 2
o Vehicle to bridge weight ratio 0.6
The conditions stated at the end of Table 2 may be attributed
to the parameter range selected in the numerical study by
Schelling et.al
17
, which in turn formed the basis of AASHTO
Guide provisions. The code recommends dynamic analysis
if the above parameter range is exceeded.
3 DAF FOR BRIDGE ASSESSMENT
The uncertainties associated with various parameters
contributing to dynamic increments are less in the case of
assessment of an existing bridge compared to that of a bridge
at design stage. This is refected in the DAF provisions for
assessment in AASHTO Guide Specifcations, shown in
Table 3.
Table 3 Impact Factors for Bridge Assessment
16
Quality of Wearing Surface IF
Good No repair required 0.1
Fair Minor defciency, item still functioning as
designed
0.1
Poor Major defciency, item in need of repair to
continue functioning as designed
0.2
Critical Item no longer functioning as designed 0.3
4 BASIS OF CODE PROVISIONS
AASHTO Standard Specifcations of 1931 - an outcome
of a joint committee of AASHTO and American Railway
Engineering Association (AREA), fundamentally based
on the works done by AREA on railway bridges - formed
the basis of span dependent DAF provisions of various
international bridge codes
5
. AASHTO LRFD provisions
were based on feld test data as well as numerical simulations
done by Hwang and Nowak
14
, while the AASHTO Guide
Specifcations for horizontally curved bridges were also
based on the numerical simulation studies done by Schelling
et al.
17
.
The bridge fundamental frequency dependent provisions
of OHBDC 1979 and 1983 were the result of a series of
feld tests performed on 52 highway bridges in Ontario by
Wright and Green from 1956 to 1957, 11 highway bridges
by Csagoly, Campbell and Agarwal from 1969 to 1971
and on 27 bridges of various confgurations by Billing and
Green in 1980
5
. The major observation from these tests
was that the maximum DAF obtained (ranged from 30 to
85 per cent) were observed for bridges with fundamental
frequencies in the range 2 to 5 Hz. This was again confrmed
54 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
ARUN, MENON & PRASAD ON
by the feld tests conducted on 226 highway bridges in
Switzerland by Cantieni in 1983 and 1984
11,12
which
indeed formed the basis of Swiss SIA 160 1988
6
. Hence,
it was concluded that very high dynamic amplifcations
are as a result of frequency matching between the bridge
fundamental frequency and the vehicle bounce frequency.
This fnding was later reinforced by the DIVINE project
(Dynamic Interaction between Vehicle and Infrastructure
Experiments)
18
, which undertook a comprehensive testing
of trucks, pavements and bridges. It is reported that the
modifcations to the 1991 edition of OHBDC were made
acknowledging the fact that amplifcation factor reduces
as vehicle weight increases, the weight of OHBDC design
truck being 740 kN. Based on the extensive database of feld
studies conducted by Ontario Ministry of Transportation and
Communication (OMTC), it was concluded that a value of
0.2 for DAF would be supportable even for the frequency
sensitive range of 2 to 5 Hz. However, there was a reluctance
to reduce the values below 0.25 and hence was fxed as the
DAF for the case of three or more axles
5
. However, it is
to be acknowledged that the above provisions are for the
case of generally smooth surface conditions. Recognizing
the infuence of adverse surface roughness, the OHBDC
commentary recommneds an increase in DAF from 0.4 to
0.5 in locations (one-tenth of span) of badly maintained
expansion joints
6
. The code also insists on a 6 m long
approach slab for reducing the infuence of initial vehicle
vibrations before entering the bridge.
Early loading standard of UK, BS 153: 1954 had a bulit in
allowance for impact of 0.25 in the normal loading of Type
HA, which was to be applied to the load of any one axle
of one vehicle or any single pair of adjacent wheels of two
vehicles travelling abreast, which induces the maximum
static effects. At the same time, no allowance for dynamic
effects was given to the abnormal load Type HB based on
the assumption that the speed of travel of heavy vehicles
it represents will be low. The DAF provision remained
unchanged when the limit state code BS 5400 was frst
introduced in 1978. Acknowledging the signifcance of
road surface conditions, there was a drastic increase in DAF
provision from 0.25 to 0.8 when the HA type loading was
revised for the case of bridges with spans less than 50 m in
1988. The factor of 0.8 was adopted as the extreme value
of impact obtained from the measurement of dynamic loads
under the rear wheels of two axle rigid truck traversing
30 motorway bridges, the tests being conducted by the
Transportation Road Research Laboratory
19
(TRRL) UK.
DAF provisions of Euro code
9
, included in the live load
models, were based on numerical simulations with assumed
roughness values for carriage way surface. For spans greater
than 15 m, an average roughness was taken, whereas for
spans less than 15 m the roughness was represented by a
30 mm thick wooden plank
19
.
Regarding the basis of IF provisions in IRC 6:2000, it
seems little systematic research has been performed and
the current impact factor provisions were adopted from the
then existed French code which considered the infuence of
vehicle to bridge weight ratio
20
.
5 VARI OUS CODE PROVI SI ONS A
COMPARISON
A comparison of various span dependent DAF provisions
for RC and steel bridges in various design codes is made
in Figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 3 compares the span dependent IRC
and more recent Euro code provisions with the frequency
dependent provisions of OHBDC:1983, Swiss SIA
160:1988 and Austroads: 1992. The span to frequency
transformation was made making use of the following
empirical relationship proposed by RILEM committee
based on feld tests performed on more than 200 European
bridges
13
.

0.9
82 f L

=
(Eqn... 1)
with L and f representing the bridge span and fundamental
frequency, respectively.
5.1 Salient Observations
From Figs. 1 and 2, it is seen that though the philosophy
for accounting the dynamic effects remain the same, there
are considerable variations in DAF provisions in various
bridge design codes. For single lane effects, the recent
Euro code provisions for moment amplifcation factors
refect the highest values for both steel as well as concrete
bridges. At the same time the Euro code provisions refects
the general trend of decreasing DAF with increasing static
effects as can be observed for the case with provisions
for two lane bridges. The Euro code DAF values for
moment amplifcation are found to be almost twice the
corresponding values prescribed for shear except for the
span range of 5 to 15 m.
For the case of short span bridges, the current IRC DAF
provisions for both concrete and steel bridges seem to be
conservative compared to other code provisions, except
for the latest Euro code provisions for single lane traffc.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 55
DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTORS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN A REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL CODAL PROVISIONS
This seems to be critical as the fundamental frequency
characteristics of such bridges falls in the axle hop
frequency range of heavy trucks and are shown to exhibit
large dynamic responses during various reported feld
investigations
18
.

Fig. 1 Comparison of Impact Factor Provisions for RC Bridges

Fig. 2 Comparison of Impact Factor Provisions for Steel Bridges.

Fig. 3 Comparison of Impact Factor Provisions for Military Vehicles

Fig. 4 Comparison of Various Frequency Dependent DAF Provisions
in Bridge Codes
The low values of impact factor for IRC class AA and
70 R loading (military vehicles) seem to be appropriate,
acknowledging the low dynamic effects that may be
imparted by the slow movement as well as heavy GVW
of these vehicles.
Comparison of IRC and Euro code provisions with
the various frequency dependent provisions (Fig. 4)
reveal some interesting features. Though, it is widely
acknowledged that bridges with fundamental frequencies
in the critical frequency range of 2 to 5 Hz are more
vulnerable to vehicle induced vibrations, the current IRC
and Euro code provisions are the lowest for this frequency
range. At the same time as per the span frequency
correlation from Eqn. 1, the approximate span range
corresponding to this frequency happens to be 22 to 85
m. For this span range, the critical static loading scenario
involves the presence of multiple vehicles, which may
in turn reduce the magnitude of DAF due to increase in
static effects as well as the dynamic effects from different
vehicles getting partly compensated. Further study is
needed to confirm the influence of multiple vehicle
presence in single as well as two lanes to confrm this.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Though the philosophy of accounting for dynamic effects
due to moving vehicles remains the same, the various
International Codes seem to disagree on the magnitude of
dynamic amplifcation. This is especially signifcant for
bridges with fundamental frequencies in the range 2 to 5
Hz, where a large discrepancy between the span dependent
and frequency dependent provisions is observed. Again,
this frequency range happens to be applicable for bridges
in the medium to large span range for which occurrence of
multiple vehicles over the span governs the design. Further
systematic analysis involving multiple vehicles is needed
to get a more realistic picture of vehicle induced dynamic
effects for such bridges.
The current DAF provisions for short span bridges too
needs verifcation as many recent feld investigations
18

have reported large DAF values especially for the case of
bridges with average to low quality road profles on bridge
deck as well as approaches. Also, the current IRC DAF
provisions for bridges in such span range are less compared
to various recent design codes, especially for the case of
single lane traffc. Further investigations are required to
obtain a more realistic picture of dynamics of such bridges
56 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
under the infuence of simultaneous excitation produced by
critical vehicles on two lanes.
Regarding Indian scenario, it seems no systematic study has
been carried out to establish the adequacy of current IRC
provisions. Also, there is a need to develop separate impact
factor provisions for fatigue, especially for the analysis of
steel and composite bridges. This may be done taking into
consideration the prevailing traffc characteristics. Specifc
account of the infuence of road surface roughness and
multiple vehicle presence effects need to be made.
Factors, like gross vehicle weight, vehicle suspension
characteristics, road surface conditions, etc are found to
have a signifcant infuence on bridge dynamic response.
It is very diffcult to quantify such factors at the bridge
design stage. Hence, a suffcient level of conservatism in
impact factor in design provisions is desirable. But for the
assessment of existing bridges, this level of conservatism is
unwarranted as most of the parameters, such as, prevailing
traffc and road profle conditions may be known and the
use of design DAF for assessment purposes may lead
to over estimation of true demand. Hence, a separate
DAF specifcally for assessment purposes may also be
developed.
REFERENCES
1. OBrien, E.J., Rattigan, P., Gonzalez, A., Dowling, J., and Znidaric,
A. (2009), Characteristic Dynamic Traffic Load Effects in
Bridges, Engineering Structures, 31, pp. 1607 1612.
2. Heywood, R., Roberts, W. and Boully, G. (2001), Dynamic
Response of Bridges, Paper No. 2731, Transportation Research
Record.
3. IRC:6 2000 Standard Specifcations and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges. Section II. Loads and Stresses. The Indian Roads
Congress. New Delhi. 2000.
4. AASHTO, Standard Specifcations for Highway Bridges, The
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Offcials, Washington, D.C. (1996).
5. NCHRP Synthesis, Dynamic Impact Factors for Bridges,
Transportation Research Board, NRC, National Academy Press,
Washington D.C. 1998.
6. OConnor C. and Shaw P.A., Bridge Loads: An International
Perspective, Taylor & Francis Group London 2000.
7. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifcations, The American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Offcials,
Washington, D.C. (2007).
8. Bridge Loadings Round the World, Transport Communications
Monthly Review, Dec 1965, pp 95 135.
9. EN 1991-2 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures- Traffc Loads
on Bridges. European Committee for Standardization. Brussels.
2003.
10. Trilateral Design and Test Code for Military Bridging and Gap-
Crossing Equipment, The Defence Technical Information Centre
Publication. url: http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/.
11. Cantieni, R., Dynamic Load Tests on Highway Bridges in
Switzerland- 60 years experience of EMPA, Report No.211,
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Testing and Research,
EMPA, Switzerland 1983.
12. Cantieni, R., Dynamic Behavior of Highway Bridges Under
Passage of Heavy Bridges, Report No.220, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Material Testing and Research, EMPA,
Switzerland 1992.
13. Chaallal, O. and Shahawy, M., Experimental Evaluation of
Dynamic Amplifcation for Evaluation of Bridge Performance,
Technical Report No. ETS. DRSR.98.11, University of Quebec,
Canada. 1998
14. Hwang, E.S. and Nowak, A.S. (1991), Simulation of Dynamic
Load for Bridges, ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 117
(5), pp. 1413 1433.
15. Kim, S. and Nowak, A.S. (1997) Load Distribution and
Impact Factors for I girder Bridges, ASCE J ournal of Bridge
Engineering, 2 (3), pp. 97 104.
16. AASHTO, Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved
Highway Bridges, The American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Offcials, Washington, D.C. (1993)
17. Schelling, D.R., N.H. Galdos, and M.A. Sahin, Evaluation of
Impact Factors for Horizontally Curved Steel Box Bridges,
J ournal of Structural Engineering, Vol.118, No.11(1992) pp
3203 3221.
18. DIVINE. (1998), Dynamic Interaction Between Vehicles and
Infrastructure Experiment, Technical Report DSTI/DOT/RTR/
IR6 (98)1, OECD, France.
19. Dawe, P. Traffic Loading on Highway Bridges Research
Perspectives, (1st ed.), Thomas Telford, London 2003.
20. IRC Papers 109 & 112 Standard Specifcations and Code of
Practice for Road Bridges, Section I & II (Explanatory Notes &
Discussions) 1946.
21. ASCE Committee on Loads and Forces on Bridges, Bridge
Loading: Research Needed Journal of Structural Division, Proc.,
ASCE, Vol. 107, No. ST 7 (1981) pp.1161 1213
ARUN, MENON & PRASAD ON
DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTORS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN A REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL CODAL PROVISIONS
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 57
1 INTRODUCTION
Construction & Demolition wastes consist of the
materials generated during the construction, renovation
and demolition of buildings and other structures. C&D
waste constitutes one of the largest waste streams in the
world. Management of C&D waste is a major concern due
to increasing quantum of demolition rubble, continuing
shortage of dumping sites, increase in transportation and
disposal cost and above all growing concern about pollution
and environmental degradation. Demolition of Pucca and
Semi-Pucca buildings, on an average generates about 500
and 300 kg of waste per sq.m, respectively. C&D wastes
thus consist of materials, which had been originally used
for construction.
Large quantum of bricks and masonry arise as waste during
demolition. These are generally mixed with concrete, tiles
and other construction materials. Concrete appears in
two forms in the waste. Structural elements of building
have reinforced concrete, while foundations have mass
non-reinforced concrete. Metal waste is generated during
demolition in the form of pipes, conduits, and light sheet
material used in ventilation system, wires, and sanitary
fttings and as reinforcement in the concrete. Metals are
recovered and recycled by re-melting. Timber recovered
in good condition from beams, window frames, doors,
partitions and other fttings can be reused. Even then a large
quantity of remaining C&D waste is generally dumped in
landfll sites of our country. Management of such huge
quantity of waste puts enormous pressure on solid waste
management system. The growing population of our cities
and requirement of land for other uses has reduced the
availability of land for waste disposal. It is mainly due to
lack of awareness of the recycling techniques in our country
that C&D wastes have not been effectively utilised. To
effectively use C&D waste in road works, frst requirement
would be to characterise the material in terms of its physical
and engineering properties.
2 PREPARATION OF C&D WASTE SAMPLES
FOR LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
CRRI team visited two C&D waste dumping yards in Delhi
and examined the type of C&D waste available at these
locations. C&D waste dumped at these locations mainly
consisted of demolished building rubble having particles of
different sizes Big sized chunks as well as fnely crushed
material were found to have been mixed (Fig. 1). So it was
decided to crush and sieve the sample to make it suitable
for laboratory investigations. One truckload of C&D waste
(about 6 tons) was collected from C&D waste dumping yard
and the material was got crushed from an aggregate crushing
plant in Delhi-Haryana border. The crushed C&D waste was
sieved using mechanical sieving screens available at the
aggregate crushing plant and separated into three fractions
as given below:
(a) C&D waste coarse aggregate particles passing 20
mm sieve and retained on 6.3 mm sieve (Comprising
about 42 per cent of the material crushed)
A LABORATORY STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION
WASTE FOR USE IN ROAD WORKS
U.K. GURU VITTAL*, FARHAT AZAD*, J. GANESH*, BINOD KUMAR* & SUDHIR MATHUR**
ABSTRACT
Use of Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste aggregates in road works is a widely accepted practice in many countries, like,
Denmark, USA, UK, France, J apan, etc. But unfortunately its usage for road construction is negligible in India. Delhi city produces
about 3000 tonnes of construction and demolition waste every day. Re-utilisation or recycling is an important strategy for management
of such waste. Recycling of aggregate material from construction and demolition waste can help to reduce the demand-supply gap
for aggregates, conserve depleting sources of good quality stone aggregates and decrease environmental degradation due to quarrying
activities. To evolve more avenues for utilisation of C&D waste in the area of road construction, CSIR Central Road Research Institute
(CRRI), New Delhi carried out a Feasibility Study on Use of Construction & Demolition (C&D) Waste in Road Works. In this study,
a detailed laboratory investigation was done on C&D samples collected from Delhi and it was found that C&D waste can be used in
different forms in road works. Salient details of this study are presented in this Paper.
* Scientist
CSIR - Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi 110 025.
** Head, Geotechnical Engg. Division}
58 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
VITTAL, AZAD, GANESH, KUMAR & MATHUR ON
(b) C&D waste aggregate J eera size particles (6.3
mm nominal size About 30 per cent of crushed
material)
(c) Powdered C&D Waste (About 28 per cent of crushed
material)
These samples are shown in Figs. 2 to 4.
3 CHARACTERISATION OF C&D WASTES
Examination of C&D aggregate sample after crushing
(passing 20 mm and retained on 6.3 mm) showed that
typically, it consisted of about 22 per cent (by weight) of
cement mortar/tile pieces, 14 per cent (by weight) were
brick pieces and the rest, i.e., 64 per cent consisted of stone
aggregates (Delhi quartzite). The chemical composition
of C&D wastes showed that silica (about 82 per cent) and
alumina (about 6 per cent) are the main components and
pH value was about 9.78. C&D aggregate samples were
then subjected to various tests as per relevant IS codes of
practice.
3.1 Physical Properties of C&D Aggregates
The specific gravity of C&D waste aggregates was
found to be 2.30, which is lesser than specifc gravity
of conventional hard stone aggregates used in road
construction. Generally specifc gravity of aggregates
used in road works varies from 2.60 to 2.85. Lower value
of specifc gravity of C&D waste aggregates indicates
lower strength of C&D aggregates and it may probably
be attributed to presence of brickbats, which are porous.
When C&D waste aggregates are further crushed to
either J eera size (less than 6.3 mm) or powder form, the
specifc gravity of such a material increases to about
2.67.
Fig. 1 C&D Waste at the Dumping Yard
Fig. 2 C&D Waste Aggregates
(20 mm to 6.3 mm size)
Fig. 3 C&D Waste J eera Size Aggregates
(6.3 mm nominal size)
Fig. 4 Powdered C&D Waste
Water absorption of C&D aggregates was found to be
about 4.50 per cent, higher than 2 per cent limiting value
as specifed by MORTH for many of the road works. Stone
aggregates having water absorption upto 4 per cent have
been used in base course construction. However such
porous aggregates require higher quantity of bitumen when
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 59
A LABORATORY STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE FOR USE IN ROAD WORKS
used in bituminous layers. Further it was noted that water
absorption of J eera size C&D particles as well as powdered
C&D waste was quite high, at about 13 to 14.8 per cent.
This may be because while crushing, all most all brick
particles tend to get powdered when compared to stone
aggregates. This higher quantity of brick particles in J eera
size aggregates and C&D waste powder would contribute
to increase in water absorption.
Particle size distribution curves of different C&D waste
fractions are shown in Fig. 5.The sieve analysis test showed
that powdered C&D waste comprises of sand size particles
with very low fnes content (low percentage of particles
fner than 75 micron sieve). C
u
and C
c
value of powdered
C&D waste were found to be 6.4 and 1.0, respectively.
Thus this material can be classifed as SW as per Unifed
Soil Classifcation (IS Classifcation) and A-2-4 type as
per HRB classifcation.
0
20
40
60
80
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Paricle size in mm
P
e
r
c
e
n
t


f
i
n
e
r

Fig. 5 Particle Size Distribution of C&D Waste
3.2 Engineering Properties of C&D Waste Aggregates
The test results relating to engineering properties of C&D
waste aggregates are presented in Table 1. From Table
1, it may be seen that unit weight of aggregates in loose
and compacted state were found to be 1280 and 1650 kg/
m
3
. This value is considerably lower than unit weight of
conventional hard stone aggregates. The aggregate crushing
value of C&D aggregates was found to be 37 per cent. Ten
per cent fnes value of C&D aggregates was determined
separately for stone chips, brickbats, mortar pieces as well
as representative C&D sample (comprising of all these
fractions). MORTH has specifed a limit of 50 kN on ten
per cent fnes value for aggregates to be used in GSB. C&D
waste sample (combined sample) marginally fails to meet
this criterion, with its ten per cent fnes value being 45 kN.
As expected, ten per cent fnes value of brickbats and mortar
pieces are very much on the lower side (Table 1).
Table 1 Engineering Properties of C&D Waste
Aggregates (20 mm to 6.3 mm)
Property Test
Result
Permissible
Limits as per
MORTH
Unit weight (C&D aggregates)
- Loose state (kg/m3)
Compacted state (kg/m3)
1280
1650
-
Aggregate crushing value (%) 37 -
Aggregate impact value (%) 33 30% (Max)
Ten per cent fnes value
(C&D Waste aggregate
Representative sample)
45 kN 50kN(Max)
Ten per cent fnes value
(C&D Waste comprising of
stone chips only)
98 kN
-
Ten per cent fnes value
(C&D Waste comprising of
mortar pieces only)
24 kN
-
Ten per cent fnes value
(C&D Waste aggregate
comprising of brick bats only)
25 kN
-
Soundness (%) 1.6 12% (Max)
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) of C&D aggregate sample
was found to be 33 per cent. Generally for aggregates to
be used in road construction, AIV should be less than 30
per cent. Hence, C&D waste aggregates can be considered
as a marginal material. The higher value of AIV may be
attributed to presence of brickbats and mortar pieces in C&D
waste aggregates. To further study the AIV characteristics
of these materials, C&D waste was segregated into stone
chips, brickbats and mortar pieces and AIV test was carried
out separately on these individual samples. AIV tests on
soft aggregates can be carried out as per IS : 5640. The test
procedure as per this code, stipulates that sample passing
12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve should be
immersed in water for 3 days before subjecting it to impact
test. Accordingly all the three samples were immersed in
water for three days and tested. To further study the effect
of soaking on AIV results, C&D aggregates soaked in water
for 24 hours as well as oven dry aggregates were tested. The
results of these AIV tests are given in Table 2. From these
results it can be seen that brickbats and mortar pieces have
60 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
VITTAL, AZAD, GANESH, KUMAR & MATHUR ON
a high aggregate impact value in dry state itself. Soaking
in water further degrades such aggregates and marginally
increases the AIV. The stone chips in C&D waste mainly
comprise of Delhi Quartzite and hence they have aggregate
impact value of about 26 per cent in dry state, which
increases to 29.3 per cent after 3 days of soaking.
Table 2 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) of
C&D Waste Constituents
Constituents Testing
Condition
AIV
(%)
Permissible
limits
as per
MORTH
Stone Chips
in C&D
Aggregate
3 days of soaking 29.3
1 day soaking 28.6
Dry 26.0
30% (Max)
Brick bats
in C&D
Aggregates
3 days of soaking 46.4
1 day soaking 45.0
Dry 42.2
Mortar pieces
in C&D
Aggregates
3 days of soaking 46.5
1 day soaking 45.2
Dry 51.3
Soundness test was conducted to determine the resistance to
disintegration of aggregates by using saturated solution of
sodium sulphate. This test furnishes information helpful for
judging the soundness of aggregates subjected to weathering
action. The test indicated a weight loss of 1.6 per cent after
5 cycles of alternate immersion in the Na2SO4 solution
and drying. As per the IS: 383, weight loss after 5 cycles
should not exceed 12 per cent. Thus, it can be inferred
that the C&D waste aggregates satisfy the soundness test
requirement.
3.3 Engineering Properties of Powdered C&D Waste
The density of compacted layer is one of the important
factors, which controls strength properties. From the results
tabulated in Table 3, it may be noted that standard proctor
compaction test conducted on C&D waste powder yielded
MDD value as 1.75 gm/cc and OMC as 12.5 per cent.
Modifed proctor compaction test conducted on the same
material showed MDD to be 1.93 gm/cc and OMC to be
10.5 per cent. The density and water content relationship
curves obtained were found to be relatively fat. The MDD
values obtained are comparable to MDD values of soil
particles of similar gradation.
Table 3 Engineering Properties of
Powdered C&D Waste
Property Value
Modifed Proctor compaction Test
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (gm/cc)
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) (%)
1.93
10.5
Standard Proctor compaction Test
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (gm/cc)
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) (%)
1.75
12.5
California Bearing Ratio (Soaked), (%) 74
Direct Shear Test -
Angle of internal friction ()
Cohesion (c)
50
0
6 kN/m
2
Liquid limit (%) 31.0
Plasticity index Non Plastic
Permeability (cm/sec) 1.86 X 10
-4
Powdered C&D waste was found to be non-plastic in nature
and hence could not be rolled into threads to determine its
plastic limit. The coeffcient of permeability of powdered
C&D waste was found to be 1.86x10
-4
cm/sec (Table 3).
This value of permeability indicates that it is a free draining
material and has potential for its utilisation in sub-base
layer. Powdered C&D waste was found to be having a high
angle of internal friction equal to 500. California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) of powdered C&D waste compacted to MDD
and tested after four days of soaking, was found to be as
high as 74 per cent.
4 FEASIBILITY OF USING C&D WASTES IN
ROAD WORKS
For road works in our country, machinery requirements
and methodology for road construction using conventional
materials has been given in IRC/MORTH Specifcations.
Adoption of C&D waste in road works would be easier in
case a similar methodology is adopted.
4.1 C&D Waste for Embankment Construction
C&D waste has potential for use as embankment fill
material as it meets MORTH criteria for density and
plasticity of fll material. However, the maximum size of the
material in the fll shall ordinarily not exceed 75 mm when
placed in the embankment. C&D waste in unprocessed
form normally contain particles bigger than this size. So
it would be necessary to crush it so that maximum size of
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 61
A LABORATORY STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE FOR USE IN ROAD WORKS
the particle is lesser than the specifed limit. Since C&D
waste is a non-plastic material, embankments constructed
using C&D waste would be prone for erosion. Hence, it
is suggested that side slopes of embankments constructed
using C&D waste should be protected against erosion by
providing a good earth cover, in a manner similar to fy
ash embankments.
4.2 C&D Waste for Sub-base Construction
Powdered C&D waste is a free draining material and
possesses good CBR value. However, the gradation of
powdered C&D waste does not satisfy the gradation for GSB
material specifed by MORTH. By adopting mechanical
stabilisation techniques and mixing C&D waste aggregates
and powdered waste, it would be possible to obtain desired
gradation. In case of material under investigation, it was
found that, by mixing in a ratio of 50:31:19 (C&D Powder:
J eera size aggregates: 20 mm to 6.3 mm C&D Aggregate)
the resulting material would have a gradation conforming to
GSB Grading III as per MORTH Specifcations. However,
since ten per cent fnes value of the C&D waste is not
meeting the specifcation requirements, its usage may be
restricted to lower half of the sub-base or for low traffc
volume roads on trial basis.
4.3 C&D Waste for Stabilised Base Course
Construction
The base course of fexible pavements normally consists
of either WBM or WMM. C&D waste being a marginal
material, stabilisation technique using cement can be
adopted for its usage in base course. To study the feasibility
of C&D Waste usage in base course, mechanically
stabilised C&D waste mix (in the ratio of 50:31:19 C&D
Powder:J eera size aggregates: 20 mm to 6.3 mm C&D
Aggregate) was stabilised using cement and Unconfned
Compressive Strength (UCS) tests were conducted on the
stabilised mix. Results of the tests conducted on cement
stabilised C&D waste are given in Table 4.
Table 4 UCS of Cement Stabilised C&D Waste Mix
Unconfned
Compressive
Strength
(UCS) Test
Curing Period
UCS of
C&D
Waste Mix
+ 3%
cement
(kg/cm
2
)
UCS of
C&D
Waste Mix
+ 5%
cement
(kg/cm
2
)
UCS of
C&D
Waste Mix
+ 7%
cement
(kg/cm
2
)
3 days curing 11.35 11.53 13.19
14 days curing 14.00 26.62 31.80
28 days curing 22.21 32.06 44.34
In case of rural roads as per IRC specifcations, unconfned
compressive strength of cement stabilised material at 14 days
should not be less than 17.5 kg/cm
2
. C&D waste mix with 5
per cent cement (modifed Proctor test) meets this criterion.
4.4 Feasibility of Using C&D Wastes in Bituminous
Layers
Aggregates, like, crushed stone and stone dust constitute
about 94 per cent by weight of bituminous mix. The
performance of the bituminous mix is governed by
aggregate quality, which in turn is a function of mineral
composition, surface texture and chemistry, amount and
type of deleterious matter, size and shape of particles,
durability characteristics, etc. Characterisation of C&D
aggregates showed that water absorption and AIV of these
aggregates are higher than the specifed limits for its use
in bituminous layers. C&D aggregates contain brickbats,
mortar pieces as well as tile particles. Such particles bring
down aggregate impact value and also increase the water
absorption. In case C&D wastes are used for bituminous
wearing course, failure may occur due to stripping because
of high water absorption. Hence, use of C&D aggregates
in bituminous wearing/binder courses is not advisable. So
it was decided to determine the feasibility of using C&D
waste aggregates in bituminous macadam (BM). However,
laboratory mixes of BM prepared using C&D waste showed
that bitumen requirement was on much higher side and also
coating was not proper, implying that C&D waste aggregate
usage in bituminous layers is not feasible.
4.5 Feasibility of Using C&D Wastes in Cement
Concrete Pavement
Concrete basically is a mix of two components aggregates
and binder paste. The paste comprises of mainly cement
and water. Tests were conducted to investigate the potential
of using C&D waste in concrete as partial replacement of
coarse aggregate. C&D waste was used in pavement quality
concrete (PQC) as well as in Dry Lean Concrete (DLC)
mixes in the form of coarse aggregates and its infuence
on strength properties was investigated. To investigate
the effect of C&D waste on the properties of hardened
pavement quality concrete, M 40 grade of concrete designed
using Portland Pozzolana Cement (IS 1489 Part 1) and
locally available aggregates (Delhi Quartzite) was adopted.
In case of PQC, cement content was kept as 420 kg/m
3
and
water/cement ratio was kept as 0.44 in all the mixes tested.
For evaluating compressive and tensile strength, concrete
62 HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012
VITTAL, AZAD, GANESH, KUMAR & MATHUR ON
mixtures containing 20, 40 and 60 per cent of crushed stone
coarse aggregate (Delhi Quartzite) replaced by C&D waste
aggregates were prepared. Compressive strength results
of PQC mixtures at 7 and 28 days are given in Table 5. It
can be seen that, admixing C&D waste aggregates in PQC
leads to decrease in 28 days compressive strength by about
12 per cent, when 60 per cent of conventional hard stone
aggregates has been replaced by C&D waste aggregates.
Table 5 Compressive Strength of PQC
Prepared With C&D Aggregates
Mix
Designation
C&D
Aggregate
Percentage
Compressive Strength
(MPa)
7 Days 28 Days
Conventional
concrete
Nil 28.2 39.5
C&D 20 20 26.3 36.2
C&D 40 40 25.9 35.6
C&D 60 60 24.6 34.7
Flexural strength of PQC mixes was obtained by testing
concrete beam specimens of size 100 mm x 100 mm x
500 mm. Beam specimens were tested under third point
loading system in Universal Testing Machine. Results of
these tests are given in Table 6. These results also show
marginal decrease in fexural strength.
Table 6 Flexural Strength of PQC Prepared
With C&D Aggregates
Mix
Designation
C&D
Aggregate
Percentage
Compressive strength
(MPa)
7 Days 28 Days
Conventional
concrete
Nil 3.5 4.4
C&D 20 20 3.3 4.3
C&D 40 40 3.0 4.0
C&D 60 60 2.9 3.8
Table 7 Compressive Strength of DLC Prepared
With C&D Waste Aggregates
Mix
Designation
C&D
Aggregate
Percentage
Compressive Strength
(MPa)
7 Days 28 Days
Conventional
concrete
Nil 13.5 18.2
C&D 10 10 13.0 17.3
C&D 30 30 11.1 16.3
C&D 50 50 9.9 13.1
In case of dry lean concrete, DLC mix of 10 MPa strength
at 7 days was adopted. Cement content in DLC was kept
at 150 kg/m
3
of concrete. Compressive strength results of
DLC mixes with different C&D content are given in Table
7. It is observed that, decrease in compressive strength of
DLC mix is comparatively more than pavement quality
concrete.
5. CONCLUSIONS
C&D waste is a marginal material having some of its strength
properties slightly lesser than the specifed limits as per
IRC/MORTH. However, at the same time, it is non-plastic,
permeable and its strength can be improved by stabilisation.
Hence, C&D waste can be adopted for road construction
in different forms. The major conclusions drawn from the
laboratory investigations are given below:
(a) Crushed C&D waste can be utilised as a fll material
for construction of embankment. The side slopes
of such embankments should be protected against
surface erosion. C&D Waste after crushing can be
used for subgrade construction.
(b) Mechanically stabilised C&D waste mixture can be
used for sub-base layer. However, C&D waste has a
marginally lower ten per cent fnes value and hence
it may be used in lower half of sub-base course or
for low traffc volume roads on a trial basis.
(c) Mechanically stabilised C&D waste mix (mixture
of C&D waste aggregates and C&D waste powder)
admixed with about 5 per cent of cement can be used
for base course construction.
HIGHWAY RESEARCH JOURNAL, JANUARY JUNE 2012 63
A LABORATORY STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE FOR USE IN ROAD WORKS
(d) Usage of C&D waste for bituminous wearing courses
is not advocated. The tests conducted for using
C&D waste aggregates in bituminous macadam
showed higher requirement of bitumen and coating
of the C&D aggregates with bitumen was not
satisfactory.
(e) C&D aggregates can be used for partial replacement
of conventional hard stone aggregates used for
rigid pavement construction. Laboratory tests
showed a decrease of about 12 to 28 per cent of
compressive strength of concrete mix. Hence, while
designing concrete pavement using C&D waste
aggregates, proper mix design using the available
C&D waste aggregates and conventional hard stone
aggregates is to be carried out and replacement of
conventional aggregates by C&D waste aggregates
can be restricted to about 35 per cent of conventional
aggregates.
(f) C&D Waste is heterogeneous in nature. It comprises
of materials, like, stone aggregates, tile pieces, brick
bats, cement concrete, cement mortar, etc. While
preparing the samples for laboratory feasibility
study, the collected C&D waste was crushed and
sieved in aggregate crushing plants. This process
ensures that instead of chunks of varying size, C&D
waste comprised of material of uniform gradation
and such processed material was readily usable.
However still, the properties of C&D waste material
depends upon its relative percentage composition of
stone aggregates, brick bats, mortar pieces, etc and
generalisations for the entire C&D waste material
based on test results reported in this Paper cannot be
made. Each deposit of the C&D waste before usage
needs to be characterised.
6 SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDIES
From the visual observations carried out at C&D waste
dumping yards, it was noted that ensuring uniformity in
the properties of C&D waste aggregates is very diffcult.
However, even in natural aggregate deposits/ stone quarries
also; there would not be uniformity in the properties of the
material available in the entire quarry. The properties of
the material in the same quarry vary and material from two
different quarries will be having entirely different properties.
Such variations are to be taken care by proper sampling and
testing of the material at frequencies mentioned in MORTH/
MORD Specifcations. In case of C&D wastes also regular
testing of the material is to be carried out when it is used
for construction. Since C&D waste is a new material, to
begin with, testing frequency on C&D waste material can
be kept same as conventional material, but additional studies
are required to properly determine variability in properties
of such materials. To further substantiate the laboratory
feasibility study, there is also need to take up construction
of test road sections using C&D waste and observing its
performance under actual feld conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge Shri P. K.
Khandelwal, Superintending Engineer, Municipal
Corporation of Delhi and his team for sponsoring this
study. Our thanks are also due to IL & FS Ecosmart Ltd
for providing technical support and valuable inputs during
this work. Our colleague Dr. N. K. S. Pundhir carried out
experiments related to bituminous mixes. Our grateful
thanks are due to him. This Paper has been published with
the kind permission of Dr. S. Gangopadhyay, Director,
CSIR - CRRI.
REFERENCES
1. Utilisation of Waste from Construction Industry, Technical
Report Published by TI FAC, Department of Science &
Technology, Government of India, New Delhi.
2. Landfll Concern Overfowing with Problems Article in
Hindustan Times News Paper, New Delhi (5.5.2007).
3. Dr.A.Ramakrishna, Indian Construction Industry Challenges
and Opportunities, Fourteenth ICI Lecture at Nagpur, Indian
Concrete J ournal, Bulletin 62, J an-Mar 1998.
4. Chandra Dinesh, Gupta R.L, J ain.S.K and Bhise.N.N, Solid
Waste Utilisation An Eco-Friendly Solution, Indian Journal
of Environmental Protection, Vol 17, No 3, Mar 1997.
5. Sherwood.P.T, Alternative Materials in Road Construction,
Thomas Telford Publications, London, U.K, 1995.
6. Recycling of Demolished Concrete and Masonry,
Report of Technical Committee 37-DRC, RILEM, Edited by
Hansen.T.C., 1992.
7. BIS Codes 1498, 2720, 5640 and 2386.
8. MORTH, Specifcations for Road and Bridge Works, Published
by Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
9. http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/sqg/c&d-rpt.pdf.

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