10/10/2013

Industrial Electronics Lab Assignment

Contents: Cathode Ray oscilloscope. Series and parallel combination of resistors. AC Signal Generator.

Salahuddin Arif
(2011-ME-08)

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument.

CATHODE RAY TUBE:

The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in following figure.

ELECTRON GUN: The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. DEFLECTING PLATES: Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented to give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. FLOURESCENT SCREEN: Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted.

 C.R.O. Operation: Typical front-panel controls

1. ON OFF SWITCH: It is used to on or off the CRO. 2. INTENSITY KNOB: This is the intensity control connected to the grid G to control the beam intensity and hence the brightness of the screen spot. Dont run the intensity too high, just bright enough for clear visibility. 3. FOCUS KNOB: allows you to obtain a clearly defined line on the screen. 4. POSITION KNOB: It allows you to adjust the vertical position of the waveform on the screen. (There is one of these for each channel). 5. AMPLITUDE KNOB: It is a control of the Y (i.e. vertical) amplitude of the signal on the screen. (There is one of these for each channel). 6. AC/DC SWITCH: This should be left in the DC position unless you cannot get a signal onscreen otherwise. (There is one of these for each channel). 7. ADD SWITCH: This allows you to display both input channels separately or to combine them into one. 8. +/- SWITCH: This allows you to invert the B channel on the display. 9. CHANNEL A INPUT 10. CHANNEL B INPUT 11. X POSITION: These allow you to adjust the horizontal position of the signals on the screen. 12. LEVEL KNOB: This allows you to determine the trigger level; i.e. the point of the waveform at which the ramp voltage will begin in time base mode. 13. ms/s KNOB: This defines the multiplication factor for the horizontal scale in time base mode. 14. TIME KNOB: This selector controls the frequency at which the beam sweeps horizontally across the screen in time base mode, as well as whether the oscilloscope is in time base mode or x-y mode. This switch has the following positions: (a) X VIA A In this position, an external signal connected to input A is used in place of the internally generated ramp. (This is also known as x-y mode.) (b) .5, 1, 2, 5, etc. Here the internally generated ramp voltage will repeat such that each large (cm) horizontal division corresponds to .5, 1, 2, 5, etc. ms. or s depending on the multiplier and magnitude settings.

 CRO Operation
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown below in Fig. In general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is by the vertical amplifier and applied to the vertical deflection plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the saw-tooth wave form. The saw-tooth wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional provisions signal are made for applying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.

APPLICATIONS of CRO: SWEEP GENERATOR:

The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator is that of a saw-tooth wave as shown in Fig. Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a)
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(b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG):
This is a continuous graph of a patients heartbeat. It works by recording the electrical voltages in the heart. It can help in the monitoring of a patient as well as in the diagnosis of certain problems with the heart.

OTHERS:
Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, and telecommunications industry. General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as analysing an automotive ignition. Some computer sound software allows the sound being listened to be displayed on the screen as by an oscilloscope.

Reading the colour code for Resistors

Resistor:
A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit. The value of resistance is marked on the body of the resistor in the form of bands of different colours.

The 3 or 4-band code:

To distinguish left from right there is a gap between the C and D bands.

Band A is first significant figure of component value (left side) Band B is the second significant figure (Some precision resistors have a third significant figure, and thus five bands.) Band C is the decimal multiplier. Band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means 20%)

The 5-band code:

The 5 band code is used for marking high quality, precision resistors with 2%, 1% or lowertolerances. The rules are similar to the previous system; the only difference is the number of digit bands. The first 3 bands will represent the value, the 4th band will be the multiplier and the 5th stripe will give us the tolerance.

Examples:
Four band code:

Green, blue, red, with silver tolerance of 10%.

tolerance band: 56 x 100 = 5.6kohms, with a

Five band code: Blue, brown, white, brown, (6.19K ohms), with a red tolerance band: 619 x 10 =6190 ohms tolerance of 2%.

Series and parallel combination of resistors

Series Circuit:
Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled. The current in a series circuit goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in a series connection carry the same current. There is only one path in a series circuit in which the current can flow. A series circuit's main disadvantage or advantage, depending on its intended role in a product's overall design, is that because there is only one path in which its current can flow, opening or breaking a series circuit at any point causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop operating.

Current
In a series circuit the current is the same for all elements.

Resistors
The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances:

Parallel Circuit:
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If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference (voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in magnitude, and they also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit components connected in parallel. The total current is the sum of the currents through the individual components, in accordance with Kirchhoffs current law.

Voltage
In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same for all elements.

To find the total resistance of all components, add the

reciprocals of the resistances

of each

component and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total resistance will always be less than the value of the smallest resistance:

For only two resistors, the unreciprocated expression is reasonably simple:

This simplifies expressions that would otherwise become complicated by expansion of the terms. For instance, the expression refers to 3 resistors in parallel, while the expanded expression is

AC Signal Generator
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of
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frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the Sine Square Triangular Sawtooth

These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot.

Working:
Simple function generators usually generate triangular waveform whose frequency can be controlled smoothly as well as in steps. This triangular wave is used as the basis for all of its other outputs. The triangular wave is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained. Sawtooth waves can be produced by charging the capacitor slowly, using a current, but using a diode over the current source to discharge quickly - the polarity of the diode changes the polarity of the resulting sawtooth, i.e. slow rise and fast fall, or fast rise and slow fall.

Specifications:
Produces sine, square, triangular, sawtooth (ramp), and pulse output. Arbitrary waveform generators can produce waves of any shape. It can generate a wide range of frequencies.
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 Frequency stability of 0.1 percent per hour for analog generators or 500 ppm for a digital generator. AM or FM modulation may be supported. Output amplitude up to 10 V peak-to-peak. Amplitude can be modified, usually by a calibrated attenuator with decade steps and continuous adjustment within each decade. Some generators provide a DC offset voltage, e.g. adjustable between -5V to +5V. An output impedance of 50 .