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Mechanical model: mass m on a spring characterized by a spring constant k Elastic restoring force Fs = kx is balanced according to Newton's second law Fs = ma
mx = kx mx + kx = 0
acceleration
x + 0 x = 0 where
0 =
k m
We will show that such system oscillates with amplitude A and angular frequency 0 .
Basic facts about second order linear differential equations: 1. Solutions x = x (t; C1 , C2 ) will have two constants dependent on initial conditions 2. If x1 (t ) is a solution then Cx1 (t ) is also a solution. 3. If x1 (t ) and x2 (t ) are solutions then x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) as well as any linear combination C1 x1 (t ) + C2 x2 (t ) is also a solution. To solve the equation of motion
x + 0 x = 0
2
we multiply both sides by 2 x 2 xx = 2 0 xx which allows us to immediately carry out the first integration:
x 2 = 0 x 2 + C
2 2
We determine the first integration constant C by observing that at a full "swing", the oscillator position is equal to its amplitude, x=A, and its velocity is zero (turning point of 2 oscillation) x = 0 . Thus C = 0 A2 and the equation to be integrated further becomes: x 2 = 0 ( A2 x 2 ) Separation of variables gives
2
dx A2 x 2
= 0 dt
2 exp( t ) + 0 2 exp( t ) = 0
from which it is immediately clear that
2 = 0 2
and thus
= i 0 where i = 1
2
09-723 Proximal Probe Techniques Thus the general solution has to be of the form x = A1 exp( +i0t ) + A2 exp( i 0t ) (remember: we need two constants). Recall Euler's formula
e i = cos i sin
Since A1 and A2 are complex quantities, they may be inconvenient to use, and it is more informative to write the solution as: x = A exp[i (0t + )] = A cos(0t + ) + iA sin(0t + )
Energy considerations
Consider solution x = A sin( 0t + ) The velocity v is equal to x = A0 cos(0t + ) and thus the kinetic energy
1 2 1 2 mx = mA2 0 cos 2 ( 0t + ) = K 0 cos 2 (0t + ) 2 2 where the maximum kinetic energy is equal to K= K0 = 1 1 2 mA2 0 = kA2 2 2
The potential energy work done by applied force displacing the system from 0 to x
U ( x ) = kx dx =
0 x
1 2 kx 2
Substituting x
U ( x) =
The average values over one oscillation period are calculated using the definition
t
1 2 f = f (t )dt t2 t1 t1 Thus:
T T
U =
Udt U
0 T
sin 2 (0t + ) T
dt
0
1 1 = U 0 = kA2 2 2
and
K = 1 1 K 0 = kA2 . 2 2
In conclusion, the average values of kinetic and potential energy per oscillation cycle are equal to
U = K = 1 E 2
This time, we introduce the additional force, which will dissipate the energy. Fd = bv = bx The equation of motion gains one more term:
Denote:
b k 2 , 0 = 2m m
2
x = 2 exp( t )
exp( t )[ 2 + 2 + 0 ] = 0 since
exp( t ) 0
2 + 2 + 0 2 = 0 1 = + 2 + 02 2 = 2 + 02
x (t ) = A1 exp( 1t ) + A2 exp(2t ) x (t ) = exp( t )[ A1 exp( +t 2 0 ) + A2 exp( t 2 0 )] Depending on the sign of the expression under the root, there are three possible cases: Underdamped 2 0 2 < 0 1 and 2 are imaginary: oscillating solutions. Overdamped 2 0 2 > 0 1 and 2 are both real Critically damped 2 = 02
2 2
Underdamped oscillator
1 = 0 2 2 =
x (t ) = exp( t )[ A1 exp(i1t ) + A2 exp(i1t )] which recalling Euler's formula becomes x (t ) = exp( t ) [i ( A1 A2 )sin(1t ) + ( A1 + A2 ) cos(1t )] Substitute i ( A1 A2 ) = B and A1 + A2 = C x (t ) = exp( t ) [ B sin(1t ) + C cos(1t )] Introduce A = B 2 + C 2 and tan( ) = x (t ) = A exp( t ) cos(1t + ) Damped oscillator moves at "frequency" smaller than undamped:
C B
2 1 = 0 = 0 1 2 0 For small damping expand in binomial series and retain only the first two terms 2 2 + .....) (1 ) 1 = 0 (1 0 2 2 20 2 0 and for small damping 0 and 1 0
2 2
Critically damped
1 = 2 =
Solution x (t ) = ( A1 + A2 ) exp( t ) = ( B1 ) exp( t ) This is not a general solution (it contains just one constant). We can show that if x (t ) = exp( t ) than x (t ) = t exp( t ) is also a solution. Substitute 6
x (t ) = (1 t )( ) exp( t ) exp( t ) = ( 2t 2 ) exp( t ) [ 2t 2 + 2 (1 t ) + o t ]exp( t ) = 0 [(o 2 )t ]exp( t ) = 0 Always satisfied. Thus the general solution for a critically damped oscillator is: x (t ) = ( B1 + B2t ) exp( t ) Overdamped
2 2
2 0 2 < 2
x (t ) = exp( t )[ A1 exp( 2t ) + A2 exp( 2t )] Energy considerations Total energy:
E (t ) = E (0) + W f
work performed by friction
Frictional force: f = bx = bv Wf =
0
t
cos(1t + )] 1 Assume that the system is lightly damped ( 1 ), so we can neglect the second term. 1
x (t ) = 1 A exp( t )[ sin(1t + ) +
Then:
E (t ) = 1 2 A exp( 2 t )[m 1 sin 2 (1t + ) + k cos 2 (1t + )] 2
The initial energy 1 E0 = kA2 2 and thus E (t ) = E0 exp( 2 t ) (notice that the energy decays twice as fast as amplitude!) The characteristic decay time (E decreases to E/e)
E0 = E0 exp( 2 ) e 2 = 1 1 2m m = = = 2 2b b
Quality factor energy stored in the oscillator energy dissipated in one time period
Q = 2
Define P = power loss = rate of energy dissipation 2 since one time period T1 = 1 the denominator can be written as 2 PT1 = P 1 Thus
Q = 2 E 2 P 1
Since
1 - time necessary to complete 1 radian of oscillation, we can redefine Q as 1 energy stored in the oscillator Q= average energy dissipated per radian
For a lightly damped oscillator Q can be calculated as follows: E (t ) = E0 exp( 2 t ) dE = 2 E dt Thus the energy dissipated in time t will be equal to
dE t = 2 E t dT 1 If we choose t = (time necessary to complete 1 radian) 1 E = Q=
E E = = 1 E 2 E / 1 2
Net force
Fnet = Fs + F f + Fd
restoring elastic force dissipative friction force driving force
where: Fs = kx ; F f = bx Fnet = mx mx + bx + kx = Fd assume harmonic driving force Fd = F0 cos( t + 0 ) mx + bx + kx = F0 cos( t + 0 ) This is an inhomogeneous 2-nd order linear differential equation. Its solution is the sum of two parts, according to the following theorem: If Xi is a particular solution of an inhomogeneous differential equation, and Xn is a solution of a complementary homogeneous equation, then X(t)=Xi(t)+Xh(t) is a general solution. 9
From our previous considerations, the solution of the complementary homogeneous equation is given by one of the three equivalent forms: xh (t ) = exp( t ) [ A1 exp( +i1t ) + A2 exp( i1t )] xh (t ) = exp( t ) [ B sin(1t ) + C cos(1t )] xh (t ) = Ah exp( t ) cos(1t + h ) For an inhomogeneous equation, let's postulate the following particular solution xi (t ) = A cos( t ) and focus on the sign solution. xi (t ) = A cos( t ) xi (t ) = A sin( t )
xi (t ) = A 2 cos( t ) Upon substitution mA 2 cos( t ) bA sin( t ) + kA cos( t ) = F0 cos( t )
thus mA 2 [cos t cos + sin t sin ] bA [sin t cos cos t sin ] + kA [cos t cos + sin t sin ] = = F0 cos( t ) This can be regrouped as cos t[ mA 2 cos + bA sin + kA cos ] sin t[ mA 2 sin bA cos + kA sin ] = F0 cos( t ) + 0 sin( t ) Since the cos( t ) and sin( t ) coefficients on both sides of the equation have to be equal, we obtain the system of two equations:
10
tan =
thus sin =
cos =
2 ( 0 2 ) 2 + 4 2 2
2
02 2
( 0 2 ) 2 + 4 2 2
2
xi (t ) =
F0 / m
2 0
+ 4
2
cos( t )
where
= tan 1
2 0 2 2
x (t ) = xh (t ) + xi (t ) = Ah exp( t ) cos(1t + h ) +
transient term
F0 / m
2 0
+ 4
2
cos( t )
11
The amplitude of the particular solution reaches maximum when the driving force is equal to
= r = 02 2 2
On resonance, the phase shift = 2 Far below resonance r , 0 Far above resonance r ,
Energy resonance
x (t ) = A cos( t ) v = x (t ) = A sin( t ) 1 1 K (t ) = mv 2 = m 2 A2 sin 2 ( t ) 2 2 1 1 U (t ) = kx 2 = kA2 cos2 ( t ) 2 2 1 2 A [m 2 sin 2 ( t ) + k cos2 ( t )] 2 Recall that per period: 1 cos 2 ( t ) = sin 2 ( t ) = 2 Substitute A ( ) to K(t) E (t ) = K (t ) + U ( t ) =
K (t ) =
F0 / m 2 1 m 2 sin 2 ( t ) 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 + 4
K (t ) =
1 F0 2 4 m 2 2 2 + 4 2 2 0
d K (t ) = 0 for = 0 d
12
since U (t ) =
2 + 0 20
2 02 = ( 0 )( + 0 ) 20 ( 0 )
E ( ) = 1 F0 1 8 m ( 0 )2 + 2
Lorentzian
2
Maximum at = 0 1 F0 1 8 m 2 The energy is equal of its value at ( 0 )2 = 2 or 0 = Resonance peak width at half height E ( 0 ) =
= 2 Recall from previous considerations that Q= 0 2 This is the basis for determining Q from the energy resonance peak width: Q=
2
0 .
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