The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0025-17 7.

htm

!"##$%T #$&$'#!( )$*$+,-.$%T

/m0act of color on mar1eting

)e0artment of 'dministrative &tudies3 "niversit2 of 4inni0eg3 4inni0eg3 !anada
'bstract
-ur0ose 5 !olor is ubi6uitous and is a source of information. -eo0le ma1e u0 their minds within 70 seconds of their initial interactions with either 0eo0le or 0roducts. 'bout 82-70 0ercent of the assessment is based on colors alone. &o3 0rudent use of colors can contribute not onl2 to differentiating 0roducts from com0etitors3 but also to influencing moods and feelings 5 0ositivel2 or negativel2 5 and therefore3 to attitude towards certain 0roducts. 9iven that our moods and feelings are unstable and that colors 0la2 roles in forming attitude3 it is im0ortant that managers understand the im0ortance of colors in mar1eting. The stud2 is designed to contribute to the debate. )esign/methodolog2/a00roach 5 This article reviews the literature relating to color 0s2cholog2 in the context of mar1eting3 highlights inconsistencies and controversies surrounding the color 0s2cholog23 and3 examines the im0act of colors on mar1eting. :indings 5 :indings of the stud2 are that managers can use colors to increase or decrease a00etite3 enhance mood3 calm down customers3 and3 reduce 0erce0tion of waiting time3 among others. #esearch limitations/im0lications 5 The direction for future research and limitations of the stud2 are 0resented. ,riginalit2/value 5 #eviews the literature relating to color 0s2cholog2 in the context of mar1eting. ;e2words information !olour3 +ight3 .ar1eting

/m0act of color on mar1eting

&at2endra &ingh

7C?
#eceived .arch 2008 #evised .arch 2008 'cce0ted .arch 2008

-a0er t20e #esearch 0a0er

<ac1ground to color and light !olor is light carried on wavelengths absorbed b2 the e2es that the brain converts into colors that we see. +ight can be decom0osed into a s0ectrum of six distinct colors= red3 orange3 2ellow3 green3 blue3 and violet. The red has the longest wavelength whereas the violet the shortest. 'n object a00earing 2ellow absorbs all of the colors in the s0ectrum exce0t the 2ellow light. This unabsorbed light is reflected bac1 from the object into the e2es from where it travels to the brain where it is inter0reted as 2ellow. The e2es are com0rised of cones and rods that allow us to see color and light3 res0ectivel2. There are three t20es of cones= t20e / is associated with blue3 t20e // with green3 and3 t20e /// with red >(arrington and .ac1ie3 177?@. ,ther colors are combination of these three colors. -s2chologists have classified colors as warm >red and 2ellow@ and cool >blue and green@ colors. (owever3 the distinction between warm and cool colors is relativeA for exam0le3 when red and 2ellow are 0aired together3 2ellow is considered warmer than red. 4hite3 blac13 and gra2 are considered neutral colors. <ecause color ex0eriences .anagement )ecision *ol. %o. 83 2008 var2 from individual to individual3 it is not 0ossible to 1now how another 0erson 00. 7C?-7C7 ex0eriences color. ,ne 0ersonBs ex0erience of a shade of red can be 0erceived q $merald 9rou0 -ublishing +imited 0025-17 7 differentl2 from another 0erson. ),/ 10.110C/002517 081087???2 #ods detect light that is necessar2 for colors to exist. +ight affects the 0erce0tion of colors. 4hether it is the color of walls in a restaurant or retail stores or merel2 the color

.) 38

7C

of 0ac1aging on a 0roduct3 it is usuall2 electrical lighting that allows colors to be seen. $lectrical lighting has two major forms= incandescent and fluorescent lightings. /ncandescent lightings enhance the warm colors while giving a 0oor a00earance to cool colors. (alogen is a s0ecial form of incandescent lighting. :luorescent lightings account for a00roximatel2 87 0ercent of lightings used worldwide >*eitch3 2001@3 but it lac1s the warm colors of the s0ectrum. 'lthough3 it enhances blue and green3 it ma1es red3 orange3 and 2ellow a00ear dull. (owever3 a s0ecial t20e of fluorescent lighting called Dfull-s0ectrumE enhances all the colors of the s0ectrum >*eitch3 2001@. -ro0onents of the use of full-s0ectrum fluorescent lighting believe that it contributes to develo0ing human cognitive abilities. &tudies have attem0ted to lin1 lightings with memor23 mood and cognitive abilities and found inconsistent results >;neF3 2001A *eitch3 2001@. #egardless of lightingsB direct effect on cognitive abilities3 it contributes to determining color a00earance. !olor controvers2 &cientific findings on color theor2 a00ear to be as contentious as the research on lightingBs effects. !onventional 0s2chologists dismiss an2 role of color in influencing human 0ersonalit23 2et 0s2chiatrists use color tests in conjunction with other tests to determine 0ersonalit2. 4hile 0h2siological res0onses to colors are 0art of the human ex0erience3 the evidence lin1ing s0ecific colors to s0ecific res0onses is inconclusive >;aiser3 17C @. !olors and health !olors have been lin1ed to health for centuries. 'ncient $g20tian doctors bathed 0atients in colors of light to heal ailments. This trend has re-emerged as a branch of new age medicine3 0romoting the healing abilities of colors. /t is believed that red energiFes the liver3 scarlet increases blood 0ressure3 0ur0le lowers blood 0ressure3 orange strengthens lungs and increases calcium metabolism3 green activates s2m0athetic nervous s2stem3 and3 2ellow energiFes the alimentar2 tract. ;ido >2000@ suggested that blue stimulated the s2m0athetic nervous s2stem the most and the red and green the least. This s2stem is res0onsible for heartbeat3 blood 0ressure and 0ers0iration. These findings a00ear to contradict the generall2 acce0ted influences of colors on bod23 e.g. the red is associated with increasing metabolic state3 and the blue with calmness and relaxation. !olors and culture !olor is related to culture and religion. /n a cross-cultural stud23 4iegersma and *an der $lst >17CC@ found that blue was the most 0referred color in general across cultures. ,range is the most sacred color in (indu religion in /ndia3 but the %dembo in Gambia do not even ac1nowledge orange as a color >Te1tronix3 17CC@. .uslims view green as a sacred color. :or !elts3 green was also sacred enough to be included in wedding ceremonies until the !hristian church introduced the white color. /n /nuit communities3 white is so im0ortant that it has 17 words to describe it3 each with different meaning. #ed and white is a combination used for ritual decorations in .elanesia and for re0resenting the &acred (eart of the !atholic !hurch in .exico >Te1tronix3 17CC@. 'nd3 blac1 alwa2s had a negative connotation associated with it3 dating bac1 to 2?00 <! .

!olors and emotions !olors affect different 0eo0le in different wa2s. !imbalo et al. >177C@ tested association between colors and emotions3 and designated 2ellow3 orange3 and blue as ha002 colors3 and red3 blac1 and brown as sad colors. These emotions >ha002 vs sad@ were similar across age grou0s >second and third grade@ and had the same t20es of instilled emotions about s0ecific colors. ;otler >177?@ indicated that atmos0herics noises3 siFes3 sha0es3 scents and colors could hel0 create attention3 conve2 messages3 and create feelings that might increase 0urchase 0robabilit2. The effects of such atmos0herics have been demonstrated to influence emotional res0onses and behavioral intentions >'l0ert and 'l0ert3 17C8@. 'lthough3 color is related to feelings about retail environment ><elliFFi et al.3 17C?@3 it also affects distraction >9erard3 1757@ and influences anxiet2 >Hacobs and &uess3 1775@. !olors and gender There are differences in the 0erce0tion of colors between genders. ;houw >2002@ found that men were more tolerant of gra23 white or blac1 than women3 and that women reacted to the combinations of red and blue more fre6uentl23 and got confused and distracted more than men. /t was also found that the combination of red and blue was the most 0referred color b2 adults. These results suggest that there are gender differences in the 0erce0tion of color. True3 the subjectBs im0ressions of color seemed to be more subtle and effected not just b2 the coolness or warmness of the color 0alette3 but also b2 the calibration of value3 chroma3 and contrast used in the interiors >;houw3 2002@. '00lication of color in mar1eting !olors a00ear to be contentious. The absence of conclusive scientific results relating to color has given rise to several s0eculations. There have been some advances in the research3 although it came from com0anies in the color consultation industr2. 'lthough their nature of ex0eriments is not scientific3 the results seem to be in general agreement among mar1eters. :ollowing are some of the a00lications in mar1eting. !olors and restaurants The red color stimulates a00etite because of its effect on our metabolism3 ma1ing red a 0o0ular color choice among fast-food restaurants. The 2ellow color is also em0lo2ed b2 fast-food moguls to hijac1 customersB interests 5 the2 gain customersB attention3 increase their a00etite3 and encourage them to eat. This is the best wa2 for fast-food com0anies to generate sales. <2 contrast3 formal restaurants use blue color to calm and relax their customers. This comforting state is ex0ected to increase the li1elihood of the customers lingering longer. +onger sta2s ma2 corres0ond to larger meals3 more wine3 coffee3 or desserts3 andA therefore3 more sales. This is an im0ortant strateg2 for formal restaurants to increase their sales. 'lthough blue is lin1ed to a calm state >;ido3 2000@3 its excessive use can be an a00etite su00ressantI /ndeed3 such an outcome is not desirable b2 formal restaurants. (owever3 a 0articular t20e of restaurant could3 to some extent3 benefit from the a00etite su00ressant strateg2 5 all-2ou-can-eat st2le restaurants that offer buffet at a flat rate. /n such an instance3 using the color clue could save the restaurant owner mone2 if 0atrons did not eat as muchA instead of generating increased sales3 the owner benefits from lowered costs. The result is the same 5

/m0act of color on mar1eting

7C5

.) 38

increasing the bottom line. (owever3 this strateg2 to be effective3 other as0ects of the restaurant must be a00ealing3 e.g. good service3 food 6ualit23 surrounding3 etc. !olors and waiting time !olors influence the 0erce0tion of the 0assage of time. Time seems to 0ass slowl2 and objects seem larger and heavier under a red light. ,n the contrar23 time seems to 0ass 6uite 6uic1l2 and objects seem smaller and lighter under blue light. !asinos ta1e advantage of this 0rinci0le 5 the2 use red color lighting to get their customers excited while ma1ing them feel that the2 are not wasting a lot of time in the casino. !olors and brands !olors evo1e brands. 4hether it is (eine1enBs distinct green label3 !oca-colaBs red3 &hellBs 2ellow3 or !adbur2Bs 0ur0le3 all have different color values to different consumers. The high im0ortance 0laced on color is an ac1nowledgment of manufacturersB understanding that color has strong emotional loading3 able to 0rom0t a swifter res0onse to 0ac1aging than either the written wor1 or imager2 >Tutssel3 2000@. (olograms and metallic colored 0ac1aging on !olgate tooth0astes entice consumers to choose their tooth0aste over -roctor J 9ambleBs. !olors and trend 4ith the 0assage of time3 0eo0le change 0references for colors. +i1e fashion 0undits 0redict fashion trends3 color consultants 0redict and set color trends b2 ta1ing into account the idios2ncrasies of various segments of the 0o0ulation. The2 develo0 shortand long-term color forecasts so mar1eting managers could match the trend and adjust color of their 0roductsB 0ac1aging3 maximiFing the li1elihood that their 0roducts will be 0referred based on the color of the 0roduct3 ever2thing being e6ual. /ndeed3 manufacturers ma2 benefit from the 0rediction of color ex0erts when choosing a color for their 0roductsB 0ac1aging. 'lthough the 0rediction is more an art than a science3 0allet 0undits have a strong influence on the emerging 0o0ular 0references for colors. !onclusion !olors are controversial. &ome feel that human res0onses to colors are stable3 therefore a00licable to ever2one3 whereas others disagree3 asserting that res0onses and 0references to colors var2 across culture3 gender3 and3 age3 among others. 4hat can be demonstrated in meaningful scientific studies can be contradicted b2 the unverifiable research conducted b2 industr2 color consultants. &o3 the im0lication for mar1eting managers is that the2 should be aware of the 0erceived im0ortance of colors and their inter0retation in a 0articular geogra0hic area. -ac1aging and store wall colors can drasticall2 affect their sales. .anagers have an o0tion of ex0loiting these differences to their advantage while la2ing out design for their stores. )e0ending u0on their target audience >e.g. gender-s0ecific stores3 1ids store3 etc.@3 the2 should choose colors for 0roducts or for interior decoration of their stores. #esearch relating to choice of colors should be conducted and concluded before launching a 0roduct3 as the wrong color choice can have negative im0act on the image of the 0roduct and the com0an2. 9lobal managers need to recogniFe that the different meanings associated with s0ecific colors ma2 facilitate multi-segment mar1eting o00ortunities. /n addition3 managers3 who 0romote the countr2-of-origin of their 0roduct3 ma2 benefit b2 using the association of

7C8

0articulars for s0ecific countries3 e.g. !hinese and :rench manufacturers can use red and 0ur0le colors on their 0roducts3 res0ectivel2. /t a00ears that colors lend credence to the generall2 acce0ted confidence in the 0s2chological mar1eting of items. )ining out is becoming more a means of social gathering than eating >;ulman3 2001@. 4ith more and more 0eo0le fre6uenting restaurants and the subse6uent rise in the number of restaurants to cater for this increased demand3 owners are not onl2 loo1ing for wa2s to differentiate their restaurant from the crowd3 but also to ca0italiFe on the use of colors to increase 0rofitabilit2. -rudent use of colors in restaurateurs on the walls or car0ets should increase food sales. 'lthough3 no direct evidence that s0ecific restaurants using s0ecific colors increased sales was documented3 it might be generaliFed that de0ending on the t20e of restaurant >fast-food vs formal dining@3 careful color choice can influence customersB 0atronage to the restaurants. #ed and 2ellow attract attention and stimulate the a00etite while blue and green calm customers and encourage leisurel2 dinning. /n addition3 buffet-st2le restaurants ma2 wish to rel2 on blue because it ma2 act as a00etite su00ressant. /t is ex0ected that shrin1ing territorial barriers and advances in communications >the internet@ should facilitate homogeniFation of use of colors across the globeA however3 the extent to which the cultural or geogra0hic color standard will be universall2 ado0ted de0ends on the new generation of 0eo0le. 4ith the accessibilit2 and the desirabilit2 of 'merican entertainment >television@ across the globe3 it a00ears that the %orth 'merican 0references and associations of color will 0revail. The colors are ex0ected to ma1e an im0act in the first decade of the twent2-first centur23 with the strong em0hasis on the blue color. 'n arra2 of neutral colors >gra23 tau0e and 0ale brown@ should accom0an2 blue. /n addition3 soft 0ale colors li1e a6ua3 which re0resents serenit2 and relaxation3 should dominate. /ndeed3 color can be an im0ortant3 controllable mar1eting variable for managing image standardiFation because a 0roductBs color can function not onl2 as an immediate identifier of its brand but also its 6ualit2 and 0rice3 e.g. in (ong ;ong3 a golden can of sou0 signifies high 6ualit23 while blac1 on white labeling generall2 conve2s a generic or inferior 6ualit2. :uture research direction :uture research should test the im0act of colors >cool vs warm@ and light >dim vs bright@ on sales. !ombining the conce0ts of color with light3 we 0ro0ose a t20olog2 of four conditions that indicates a variet2 of industries under certain combinations. This t20olog2 can be tested em0iricall2 b2 using the median s0lit method and com0aring the means through the anal2sis of variance >'%,*'@ techni6ue >:igure 1@.

/m0act of color on mar1eting

7C7

:igure 1. The anal2sis of variance

.) 38

7CC

+imitations /n this stud23 we assumed that ever2bod2 could see colors. /n the "& alone3 a00roximatel2 17 million 'mericans suffer from some form of color-blindness >;aufman-&carborough3 2002@. The s2m0toms can var2 from a mere color confusion to a com0lete color-blindness3 i.e. seeing in blac13 white3 and shades of gra2. 'lso3 the e2es naturall2 turn 2ellow with age3 altering 0eo0leBs 0erce0tion of colors >(arrington and .ac1ie3 177?@. Therefore3 mar1eting managers should be aware of their color choices and the fact that the entire mar1et might not ex0erience their logos3 advertisements3 and 0ac1aging in the same manner it was intended b2 the mar1eting team. !olors can deceive3 too.
#eferences 'l0ert3 H./. and 'l0ert3 ../. >17C8@3 The $ffects of .usic in 'dvertising on .ood and -urchase /ntentions3 "niversit2 of Texas3 'ustin3 TK. <elliFFi3 H.'.3 !rowle23 '.$. and (ast23 #.4. >17C?@3 DThe effects of color in store designE3 Hournal of #etailing3 *ol. 57 %o. 13 00. 21- 5. !imbalo3 #.&.3 <ec13 ;.+. and &endFia13 ).&. >177C@3 D$motionall2 toned 0ictures and color selection for children and college studentsE3 Hournal of 9enetic -s2cholog23 *ol. ?? %o. 23 00. ?0?- . 9erard3 #... >1757@3 D)ifferential effects of colored lights on 0s2cho0h2siological functionsE3 un0ublished doctoral dissertation3 "niversit2 of !alifornia3 +os 'ngeles3 !'. (arrington3 +. and .ac1ie3 H. >177?@3 !olor= ' &tro1e of <rilliance3 <enjamin .oore J !o.3 Toronto. Hacobs3 ;.4. and &uess3 H.:. >1775@3 D$ffects of four 0s2chological 0rimar2 colors on anxiet2 stateE3 -erce0tual and .otor &1ills3 *ol. 13 00. 207-10. ;aiser3 -. >17C @3 D-h2siological res0onse to colorE3 !olor #esearch and '00lication3 *ol. 7 %o. 13 00. 27-?8. ;aufman-&carborough3 !. >2002@3 D&eeing through the e2es of the color-blind sho00er= develo0ing dialogues for understandingE3 !olors .atters 5 #esearch3 available at= www.colormatters. com >accessed 11 %ovember 2002@. ;houw3 %. >2002@3 DThe meaning of color for genderE3 !olors .atters 5 #esearch3 available at= www.colormatters.com >accessed 11 %ovember 2002@. ;ido3 .. >2000@3 D<io-0s2chological effects of colorE3 Hournal of /nternational &ociet2 of +ife /nformation &cience3 *ol. 1C %o. 13 00. 25 -82. ;neF3 /. >2001@3 D$ffects of color of light on nonvisual 0s2chological 0rocessesE3 Hournal of $nvironmental -s2cholog23 *ol. 21 %o. 23 00. 201-C. ;otler3 -. >177?@3 D'tmos0herics as a mar1eting toolE3 Hournal of #etailing3 *ol. 7 %o. 3 00. C81. ;ulman3 +. >2001@3 D/n toda2Bs restaurants3 color m2 sushi beautifulE3 "& %ews J 4orld #e0ort3 *ol. 1?0 %o. 23 0. 58. Te1tronix >17CC@3 The !olor !onnection3 !atharine J &ons3 .orton3 /+. Tutssel3 9. >2000@3 D<ut 2ou can judge a brand b2 its colorE3 <rand &trateg23 %ovember3 00. C-7. *eitch3 H.'. >2001@3 D' critical examination of 0erce0tual and cognitive effects attributed to full-s0ectrum fluorescent lightningE3 $rgonomics3 *ol. %o. ?3 00. 255-C0. 4iegersma3 &. and *an der $lst3 9. >17CC@3 D<lue 0henomenon= s0ontaneit2 or 0referenceLE3 -erce0tual J .otor &1ills3 *ol. 88 %o. 13 00. ?0C-10.

'bout the author &at2endra &ingh is an 'ssociate -rofessor at the )e0artment of 'dministrative &tudies3 "niversit2 of 4inni0eg3 4inni0eg3 !anada. (e received his -h) from %ottingham Trent "niversit23 "; in conjunction with &outham0ton <usiness &chool3 ";3 .<' from .aastricht &chool of .anagement3 The %etherlands3 and <$ng. from .uFaffar0ur /nstitute of Technolog23 /ndia. &at2endra &ingh designed and taught courses at all levels in /ndia3 "; and !anada3 and widel2 0ublished in such journals as /ndustrial .ar1eting .anagement3 Hournal of 9lobal .ar1eting3 Hournal of &ervices .ar1eting3 &ervices /ndustries Hournal3 .anagement )ecision3 among others3 and 0resented 0a0ers at international conferences such as 'merican .ar1eting 'ssociation3 'cadem2 of .ar1eting &cience3 $uro0ean .ar1eting 'cadem23 and the <ritish 'cadem2 of .anagement3 among others. (is research interests lie in the areas of emerging and re-emerging mar1ets. (e is the author of the boo1 titled .ar1et ,rientation3 !or0orate !ulture and <usiness -erformance. &at2endra &ingh can be contacted at s.singhMuwinni0eg.ca

/m0act of color on mar1eting

7C7

To 0urchase re0rints of this article 0lease e-mail= re0rintsMemeraldinsight.com

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.