Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
FOREWORD
PREFACE
A NOTE FOR THE TEACHER
C H A P T E R
iii
v
x
PHYSICAL WORLD
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
What is physics ?
Scope and excitement of physics
Physics, technology and society
Fundamental forces in nature
Nature of physical laws
C H A P T E R
1
2
5
6
10
Introduction
The international system of units
Measurement of length
Measurement of mass
Measurement of time
Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement
Significant figures
Dimensions of physical quantities
Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations
Dimensional analysis and its applications
C H A P T E R
16
16
18
21
22
22
27
31
31
32
Introduction
Position, path length and displacement
Average velocity and average speed
Instantaneous velocity and speed
Acceleration
Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion
Relative velocity
C H A P T E R
39
39
42
43
45
47
51
MOTION IN A PLANE
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Introduction
Scalars and vectors
Multiplication of vectors by real numbers
Addition and subtraction of vectors graphical method
Resolution of vectors
65
65
67
67
69
CK
xii
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
C H A P T E R
71
72
75
76
77
79
LAWS OF MOTION
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
Introduction
Aristotles fallacy
The law of inertia
Newtons first law of motion
Newtons second law of motion
Newtons third law of motion
Conservation of momentum
Equilibrium of a particle
Common forces in mechanics
Circular motion
Solving problems in mechanics
C H A P T E R
89
90
90
91
93
96
98
99
100
104
105
Introduction
Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem
Work
Kinetic energy
Work done by a variable force
The work-energy theorem for a variable force
The concept of potential energy
The conservation of mechanical energy
The potential energy of a spring
Various forms of energy : the law of conservation of energy
Power
Collisions
C H A P T E R
114
116
116
117
118
119
120
121
123
126
128
129
Introduction
Centre of mass
Motion of centre of mass
Linear momentum of a system of particles
Vector product of two vectors
Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity
Torque and angular momentum
Equilibrium of a rigid body
Moment of inertia
Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axes
141
144
148
149
150
152
154
158
163
164
CK
xiii
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
C H A P T E R
167
169
171
173
GRAVITATION
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
Introduction
Keplers laws
Universal law of gravitation
The gravitational constant
Acceleration due to gravity of the earth
Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth
Gravitational potential energy
Escape speed
Earth satellite
Energy of an orbiting satellite
Geostationary and polar satellites
Weightlessness
183
184
185
189
189
190
191
193
194
195
196
197
APPENDICES
203
ANSWERS
219
CK
CHAPTER ONE
PHYSICAL WORLD
PHYSICS
PHYSICAL WORLD
Fig. 1.1
Theory and experiment go hand in hand in physics and help each others progress. The alpha scattering
experiments of Rutherford gave the nuclear model of the atom.
Recently, the domain intermediate between the macroscopic and the microscopic (the so-called mesoscopic
physics), dealing with a few tens or hundreds of atoms, has emerged as an exciting field of research.
PHYSICS
PHYSICAL WORLD
Table 1.1 Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions
Name
Major contribution/discovery
Country of
Origin
Archimedes
Greece
Galileo Galilei
Law of inertia
Italy
Christiaan Huygens
Holland
Isaac Newton
U.K.
Michael Faraday
U.K.
U.K.
Germany
J.C. Bose
India
W.K. Roentgen
X-rays
Germany
J.J. Thomson
Electron
U.K.
Albert Einstein
Germany
PHYSICS
Name
Major contribution/discovery
Country of
Origin
Cosmic radiation
Austria
R.A. Millikan
U.S.A.
Ernest Rutherford
New Zealand
Niels Bohr
Denmark
C.V. Raman
India
France
M.N. Saha
Thermal ionisation
India
S.N. Bose
Quantum statistics
India
Wolfgang Pauli
Exclusion principle
Austria
Enrico Fermi
Italy
Werner Heisenberg
Germany
Paul Dirac
U.K.
Edwin Hubble
Expanding universe
U.S.A.
Cyclotron
U.S.A.
James Chadwick
Neutron
U.K.
Hideki Yukawa
Japan
India
Russia
S. Chandrasekhar
India
John Bardeen
U.S.A.
C.H. Townes
Maser; Laser
U.S.A.
Abdus Salam
Pakistan
Sections 1.4 and 1.5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we
advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the
areas which continue to occupy the physicists today.
PHYSICAL WORLD
Scientific principle(s)
Steam engine
Laws of thermodynamics
Nuclear reactor
Computers
Digital logic
Lasers
Superconductivity
Rocket propulsion
Electric generator
Hydroelectric power
Aeroplane
Particle accelerators
Sonar
Optical fibres
Non-reflecting coatings
Electron microscope
Photocell
Photoelectric effect
Bose-Einstein condensate
PHYSICS
PHYSICAL WORLD
10
PHYSICS
Relative
strength
Range
Operates among
Gravitational force
10 39
Infinite
13
10
Electromagnetic force
102
Infinite
Charged particles
Short, nuclear
size (1015 m)
Nucleons, heavier
elementary particles
PHYSICAL WORLD
11
12
PHYSICS
See Chapter 7
PHYSICAL WORLD
13
SUMMARY
1. Physics deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation in
different phenomena. The basic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely different
contexts and conditions.
2. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of physical
quantities.
3. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise to
new physics; at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact
on society.
4. There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of the
macroscopic and the microscopic world. These are the gravitational force, the
electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. Unification
of different forces/domains in nature is a basic quest in physics.
5. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conserved
quantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature include the laws of
conservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge, parity,
etc. Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the other.
6. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries of
space and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of
fundamental forces in nature.
EXERCISES
Note for the student
The exercises given here are meant to enhance your awareness about the issues surrounding
science, technology and society and to encourage you to think and formulate your views
about them. The questions may not have clear-cut objective answers.
Note for the teacher
The exercises given here are not for the purpose of a formal examination.
1.1
Some of the most profound statements on the nature of science have come from
Albert Einstein, one of the greatest scientists of all time. What do you think did
Einstein mean when he said : The most incomprehensible thing about the world is
that it is comprehensible?
1.2
Every great physical theory starts as a heresy and ends as a dogma. Give some
examples from the history of science of the validity of this incisive remark.
1.3
Politics is the art of the possible. Similarly, Science is the art of the soluble.
Explain this beautiful aphorism on the nature and practice of science.
1.4
Though India now has a large base in science and technology, which is fast expanding,
it is still a long way from realising its potential of becoming a world leader in science.
Name some important factors, which in your view have hindered the advancement of
science in India.
1.5
No physicist has ever seen an electron. Yet, all physicists believe in the existence of
electrons. An intelligent but superstitious man advances this analogy to argue that
ghosts exist even though no one has seen one. How will you refute his argument ?
1.6
The shells of crabs found around a particular coastal location in Japan seem mostly
to resemble the legendary face of a Samurai. Given below are two explanations of this
observed fact. Which of these strikes you as a scientific explanation ?
(a)
A tragic sea accident several centuries ago drowned a young Samurai. As a tribute
to his bravery, nature through its inscrutable ways immortalised his face by
imprinting it on the crab shells in that area.
14
PHYSICS
(b)
After the sea tragedy, fishermen in that area, in a gesture of honour to their
dead hero, let free any crab shell caught by them which accidentally had a shape
resembling the face of a Samurai. Consequently, the particular shape of the
crab shell survived longer and therefore in course of time the shape was genetically
propagated. This is an example of evolution by artificial selection.
[Note : This interesting illustration taken from Carl Sagans The Cosmos highlights
the fact that often strange and inexplicable facts which on the first sight appear
supernatural actually turn out to have simple scientific explanations. Try to think
out other examples of this kind].
1.7
The industrial revolution in England and Western Europe more than two centuries
ago was triggered by some key scientific and technological advances. What were these
advances ?
1.8
It is often said that the world is witnessing now a second industrial revolution, which
will transform the society as radically as did the first. List some key contemporary areas
of science and technology, which are responsible for this revolution.
1.9
Write in about 1000 words a fiction piece based on your speculation on the science
and technology of the twenty-second century.
1.10 Attempt to formulate your moral views on the practice of science. Imagine yourself
stumbling upon a discovery, which has great academic interest but is certain to have
nothing but dangerous consequences for the human society. How, if at all, will you
resolve your dilemma ?
1.11 Science, like any knowledge, can be put to good or bad use, depending on the user.
Given below are some of the applications of science. Formulate your views on whether
the particular application is good, bad or something that cannot be so clearly
categorised :
(a) Mass vaccination against small pox to curb and finally eradicate this disease
from the population. (This has already been successfully done in India).
(b) Television for eradication of illiteracy and for mass communication of news and
ideas.
(c) Prenatal sex determination
(d) Computers for increase in work efficiency
(e) Putting artificial satellites into orbits around the Earth
(f ) Development of nuclear weapons
(g) Development of new and powerful techniques of chemical and biological warfare).
(h) Purification of water for drinking
(i)
Plastic surgery
(j ) Cloning
1.12 India has had a long and unbroken tradition of great scholarship in mathematics,
astronomy, linguistics, logic and ethics. Yet, in parallel with this, several superstitious
and obscurantistic attitudes and practices flourished in our society and unfortunately
continue even today among many educated people too. How will you use your
knowledge of science to develop strategies to counter these attitudes ?
1.13 Though the law gives women equal status in India, many people hold unscientific
views on a womans innate nature, capacity and intelligence, and in practice give
them a secondary status and role. Demolish this view using scientific arguments, and
by quoting examples of great women in science and other spheres; and persuade yourself
and others that, given equal opportunity, women are on par with men.
1.14 It is more important to have beauty in the equations of physics than to have them
agree with experiments. The great British physicist P. A. M. Dirac held this view.
Criticize this statement. Look out for some equations and results in this book which
strike you as beautiful.
1.15 Though the statement quoted above may be disputed, most physicists do have a feeling
that the great laws of physics are at once simple and beautiful. Some of the notable
physicists, besides Dirac, who have articulated this feeling, are : Einstein, Bohr,
Heisenberg, Chandrasekhar and Feynman. You are urged to make special efforts to get
PHYSICAL WORLD
access to the general books and writings by these and other great masters of physics.
(See the Bibliography at the end of this book.) Their writings are truly inspiring !
1.16 Textbooks on science may give you a wrong impression that studying science is dry
and all too serious and that scientists are absent-minded introverts who never laugh
or grin. This image of science and scientists is patently false. Scientists, like any
other group of humans, have their share of humorists, and many have led their lives
with a great sense of fun and adventure, even as they seriously pursued their scientific
work. Two great physicists of this genre are Gamow and Feynman. You will enjoy
reading their books listed in the Bibliography.
15
s
P
P q
r tt
s
s
s s
r s
s s
r
s
s
s
qt
t
s
P
P P
P
t t
t
t
t t
t
t s
t s
r
t
t
t
t
t
q
q
t
t
t
t
q
st t t t
t t s
tt
t t t t
t
t tt
t
t t t t t
t t t t t t
t t t t
st s t t t
s t
t t t t t st
t t t t t
t t t t t
t t t t
t t s t
t t
s t
r
P
s P
;
P ;
t tt
t t s t
t t t t t t
t tt st
t t t
t t
t tt
t t t t
t
t t
s
t t t t
t st t t
s t t t st
t t t t t
s st P t t
t t t t
q q
t t
t
t
t s t
t t t
t t t t
qs
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t t tt
t P
tt
t
t
t
t t
t t t
t t
t
t t
t t t
t
P
t
P
t Pt
t t Pt
P
tt t
P P tt
t t t
t t
t tt
t t
t t
t
t
tt
t
t t
t t
t
t
t
qrs r r
t
r
r
s
r
r
r
r
r
t t
r
r
t r
r r
r r r
r
r
r r
r r
r
r
r
r
q
r
r
r
r
r
r
r r
r
r r
r
r
s
r
s
sr s r s
s
s s
r
s s
t
s
r sr s r s
s s
r
s
r sr r
s
s
sr s
s r
sr
s
sr s r s
r rr
P s
ss
ss
t r
r r s r s
s
s r s
s
r s r
s
t
r s s
r r s
s
r s s
t t
t tt t
t t tt
tt t
t t t t
t t
t r t
t t t t
tt t t
t
t tt t
tt t
t
t t
t
t t t t t tt
r t t
t t
t t t t
t t t t
t t t t t
tt s t
t t t
t t
t
tt
t t t
t t t t t
t t t t
tt t t t
t t t
t tt
t t
t
tt t t
t t t tt
t t t
t
t tt
t t tt
t tt t t t
tt
q
qq
qq t s
t t t
tt t
t t t
t
t t
t t t
t t
t
tt t
t t
t t tt st
t
s t t
t t
i.e.
tt t t
tt t t
st t t t
t t
q q
q
t
P
qr
qP
st
t t
t
t t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
t s
t t
t
t
t
t t
t
t
t t s
t t
t t
st
t
t t
t
t
t
t
= ( )
or,
t t
q r
s t t
r
r
t
P P P
qqrs
qqrs
t t t t
s s s s
t t
t t
r t t t
t t t
t t rt
t t t t r
t t t
t t t t
t t t t tt
t t t t t
t
rt t
t
t t r
t r t t
t t
t t
t t t t
t tt
s s
s s s
s tt
t t rt
t t
t t t t t
r tt
t r t r
t t
tt t t t
t t r
t
t
s s
s s
s
s
s ss s
s
s t
t t
s
s
t t t
r t t
t t rt
P
s
s
r
t
r t
t t t t
r t t tt t
t t t
t t t
t t t r t t
t t t t t
r
t t
t t r t
r t
rt r tt t
r t
t t t
t t t r
t
s s
s
s s s
s s
t tt r
r
rt t
t t t
t t t r
t r t t
t r r
t t
t r
t tt
tt t tt t
t t t
t t t
t t t
t t
t t t
t t t t
t t t t
t t t t t t t
t t t t t
r
t t t
tt t
ss s s
s s
ss s
s
ss
s t
s
s
s
s s
s s
ts
s
t r s
ts s
P
ts
ss t
s s
s
s ss
s
s
s
s
s
s s
s s
s s
s ss s
s s
s s
s
s
ss s
s s
t
s
s
s
s
t
s
s
ss
s s
s s
t
s s
t
t
s s
s s
s
s t
s s
s
s s
s
s
t
sss
t
ts
t t
t
t
tss
tt
t
tt
tt
qr
t
t
t
t
ss ss
s ss s
s s s s s
s s
s s ss s s
s t
t
s s
s
s
s
t
s
t
s
s s
s
ss s
ss t s ss
t
ss
s
s s s ss
s
s s
s s s
st s s
s s
s s
ss s
P QP
s s
ss s
s s s
s ss s
ss s
s s ss
s
s
ss s
s s
ss s s s
s
s s s s
s
qs s s s
s s ss
s
s s
s s s
ss r r
sss s
ss s
s s s s
ss s s
s
s s
r s
r stt
ss
s ss s
s ss s s s
ss s ss s
s
s ss
s s s q
s s
s s s
s s
s s s s
s s s
ss
P P
P PQ
s s
s s ss
s
s s
ss
s
ss
s s
s
s s s s
s ss
q q
q t
q
q
q
q
q
t q
t q
q
q
q
t
q t
q
t
q
q
q
q
q
t t
q
P
q
q
q t
t
t
t q
q t
q t
q t
q
q
q
t t
q
t t
t
q
t
q
q q
tt t t t t
t tt t t
t t t t
t t
st t t t
tt
t t
t t t
t t t t
t t t
t t t
t
P
t
t t t
t
tt
t t
t
t t
t t t
t q
r
r
r
r
r
P t t t
t t t
t tt t t
tt t tt
t t
tt t
t
t tt t
t t t
t t tt t
t t t t t
t t t t t t
t t t t
t t
Q
t t
t t t
tt t t
t tt t
tt t t tt
t t
t t t t t
tt t
t tt t t t
t t tt t
t t
t t t
t t t
t t t
t
P t
t tt t
tt q
r
tt
t t
t
t t t
tt
q
q q
q
s
s
s s
s
s
P
s
P
P
P
d
t
t
t
q
r
s
ss
P
t t
t
t
t
r r
r rq
s
P
rr r r r r r
r r r
r r
r r r
r r r r r r
r r
r
r r r r r rr r
t r r r
t r r r
t r r t
r r
t r r t
r t r r r
r r r r r
r r r r
r r r r
r r
r r rr r
rr r r r
r r r r
t r r r
r r r r t
r r r
r r
r r r r
r
r r r
r r
r
r r
r
r
r rr
r
r
r q
r
r r
q r r
rr
st r r
rr r
r r
r
t
t
t
rr
r rr
t
t
t
t
t
t t
t
t
Q
Q
q q
q
q
q
t
rr
t
t
Q
qr s qr
t
t
t
t
t t
P
t t t
t t
1
t
sqqq q
q sqq qr q q
q qr s
q q
s
qr qs s q
t
s
s Q
t
t
s s t
Q
t t
t
t
t
t
tt
tt t
q
t
t
t
r
t
t
t
t t
t
t s
t t s
t
t t
t
t
t t
t
t t t
t
t
t
t
s
t
t
t t
t
t
t t13 t t23
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
qr
t
t
t
P
t t
t t
P
P
s q s rq
q rq
P
P
P
P
P
P P
P
P
P
P
P P
tt t t t
t t t
tt t
t t t
t t
t tt
t tt t
t t t
t t t t
t t t
t
t t t
t t t
tt t t
t t t
s t
t tt t t
t t
t t tt
t t s
t t tt t t
t
t t t t
t t t tt t
t t tt t t
t t t tt
t t t t
t t t t t
t tt
s t
t t t tt t
t
t t t
t t t
t t t s t
P
t t t
t t t
t t s t
t t t
t t t
t t s
t t t
t t t
t t t t t t
t t
t t t t t
Q s t t t
t t
t t t
tt t tt
t tt
qr q r
r r t
s s s s
s s s s
s s
s s s t
s s
s
s
s
s s s
s s s s
ss s
s
s
P P
P P
P P q
Pr P
P q q P
q PP
P P P
q r
PPr
r
Q
t
s s s s
s
s
s s s t
s s
ss
s s s
ss s
s s
s s
s
s s
s
t s s
s t
s t
s t
s
t
s
t
ss
q q
t
ss
q q
r r
ss
t t t tt t
t t t
s
s
s
s s
s
s
s s
s
s
s
s s
tt t
t
t t t
t t tt
qrs
t t
t t
t t t
t t t
tt t t
t t
t t t
tt t
t t
t
P
t
t t t
t t t
t tt t
t t t t
t t
P
s t t t
t tt t
t t
tt t
t t
t
t t t
t t t t t
t t t t
tt
t t
t
t t
tt t tt t
t t t
t t
t t
t t
t t t t t t
tt t
tt tt t t
t t
t
qst
qst
r
r
P s
qq q
q r r
t t
t
t t
t
q r r
r q
q r r
r
q
P
P q r s
P P
PPP
PPP
PPP P
t t
P P
t
s
t
t
s t
t
t t t
s t t
t s
t s s
t s
t s
t
Q
s
t t t
t t t
t t s t
t t
t t s t t
s
r r
t s
s r
s r r
s t s s
s
s r
r s
s s s s rs
s
s s
r s
r s r
s
r rs
r
r s r r s
s
r s
r r
r
s r
r r s
t r r
s r
s s r
s
s r s r
s
t
t
tt
r r
r
r
rr
r
r r
r
rr t
t rr
r r r
r r r
rr
t
r r
P
r
P
r
P r r
P
r r
r r
r P r
r
r
rr r
r r r
P
r
t
t
t t
t t t t t t t
t t t t
t tt t
t tt t
t t t t t t
t t t t
sy
qr
sx
s s
s
s
f x
P
d (a u)
du
a
dx
dx
du du dx
=
.
dt
dx dt
d(uv)
dv
du
u v
dx
dx
dx
d
sin x cos x
dx
s s
d
(sec x) tan x sec x
dx
du du dx
dv dv dx
D q
=
=
=
D r
D q
t
P
qs r
r qr
P P
s s
s s
PP
P
PP P
r
P PP
P rP
P P
P P P
rP
q P
s P P
PP P
P P P
r
P rP
r rP
rr
P P
r
r
t t
r
r
r
r
r
r
r t
r r
t t
t
r
r
r r
r r
r
t r
r
t r
s
r
s
r
t
P
r
r
r
t
s r
r t
q
Q
r
t t
r
Q
r Q
Q Q Q
t
r t
t r
r
t t r
Q t
Q t s
t r
P q r
ss s
s s
Q
P s
q
r
q
t
Q
P q r
sq
sq s
q
s t
t
r
t t
t
r
r
P
r
q
s
t t
tt
Q q
s s
s
s
s s
s
s
s
s
Q
Q Q
s Q Q
Q Q
s
r
s
s r
s s
P
t
q
s s
s
s
s
s
s
s s
q
s
r
s s
s t s
q
qq
q
r
s
q
r q
s s
s
r q
q
q
s
P
P
P
P P P
q
s
q r
P
P
P
r
P P P P
q
r
t t t
P
r
r
r
t
r
r
r r
q s
r
r r
q
q s q s
t
r r
r q
r
r
r r
t r
t
r
r t r
t
t tt t
t t t t r
r
r
q
s
y
y
,
x
x
r
r r
t
ax
t t
t
ay
t t
t
t t t
t t tt
t
t
s
t
r P 3.0t i j k
t
t
qr q
s
q q
t
q
t
t
t t
t
t
t
r r
t t
r r t t
r
t
t t
ss
s
r
t
r t t t
t t
t
r
P
s P
s
q
q
s
t
qr
r r
r r
r
r
t
t t
t t t
t
t
t
t
P
q r s
rs
r r
r t
t
t t
t t
t t
t
t
t t
t
t
t t
t t
t st
t r r
t
t r
t t
v
R
t t
t t t
r r
s tt t
tt tt t tt
t
t t r
t
t t
t r
t t q
ss
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
P t tP t
s
s
s s
s
ss
s
s s
s
s
s
s
t
q r t
q t t
q q q
t
r r
t t
t t
t
t
t t t
t t t
P P
t
t
t
t r t
t
t
q s
P P Pt
t tt t t t t
t t t
t
t
t t
t
t
P
( q )
=
t
t sin
r rr t
P P
t
t t
t t t
t
t
t t
t t
t t
t
t t t
t t t
t t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
t t t
t t
t t
t t t t
t t
t t t
t t
t t
t t
t
t t
t
t
t t
t
P
Q
QO
ss s
s r
r s r s s r
r s r ss
s s s r
s s s
r s s
r s
r s r
s s s
s s s s s s s
s
s s s s
s
s r s ss s s
s s
s
r s
s
s s r
Pt Pt P
s ss s s r s
r s
s
ss s
s s
s s
s
s
r s s
s s s s
s q
q
s
s q
q
s
r
ss
s r s ss s s
s
s s
s s ss
r s
s r sss
s s
s s rss s s
s r sr
rs r ss s s s
s
P
t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
q
r
s
qqr
q q
q
q
q
q
q q
q
q
q
qr
s
s
P P
P P
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
qr t q rq qt
t tqt t tt t q q t q
t q
t
t
t
t t
t
PP PP P P P P
P P P PP PPq
P P P r q P s r P
PP Pq P Pq P P P r
P P PP q P P
P P PP P P
P PP P P
P P P P PP P
P Pq P P P PP P PP
P P P P P Pq P P
P P P P PPq P PP P
P q P P P PP P P
P P P P P PP P P P
P P P q P P
PPP Ps q P P PP PPP
P P P P P P q
Pr P P P P
PP P
t
t
t
t
t
t
t t t
t
t
t
t
t
P
s
s
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
q r q qr q q q
q q
t t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
P
t t t
t t
t t t t
t t
t t t t
t t t t t
t t t t
t
r
t tt t t
t t t
t t t
t t t
t t t t
t t t t
t t t t
t t t t tt
t t
t t
t
t t t t
t t t t
t t
t t t t
t t t t
t tt t
t t t
t t t t
t
t t t t
t
t t t tt
t t t t t
tt t t
t t
t t t t
t t t
t tt t t t t
t t t t t
tt t t t
t
t t t
t t t
t t t t
q s t t
tt tt
t t t t
t
t t t t
t t t
t
t
t
t
P
qrs s
t
t
q r
q
q qqq
s
s
t t
t t
t t
t t t
t
t t t t
t t
t t tt
P
r
r
q ss
P
s
q ro o
t
t
s
s
q ro o
s
o
r r
t
t
r
P P
r
r r
r
qs
r
r r
r
r
r r
r
r
q
t r t o
s qq qs qqs
qs sq q q s s ss
qq q qq qs
s
s s st
s ss
s s
s s s s
ss ts
s
ss s
st s s s
t s ts
s st s s s
s ts s
s tts
t
s t ss
s
s
stts s tt
t s tt
tt
s
s s s s
s s t
ttss tt
s
s t s
s s
st
sst ss s ss
s
s s
P
P
s s s tt
s s s t
s tt s tt
ss s ss
tts tt t
t s
s q r ttss
t
s t s
t tt
s
t s tt
s s
s t
s s t
s
tt s
s s tt
t ss
s s
s s
s s
tt s
s s s s
t s
s ss
s
ttss ss
s s
s s
s t
s t
sss s
s
ts ss s
ts s s
ss s
r s
s tt
s s s
s st
s
ss s s
s
t s
t
r
s
s s s
s
s
s
s
s s
q s
s s
t
s
s
t t
t
t
q
r
q
s
s
t
t
t
t t
t
t
q
r
qr
s t
P
s t
q r
s s
s
s
ts
s s
t s
s s
s
s
s
s s
t s
t
s
s s
s
s
s
s
s
qr r
s
s
s s
s
t
s
P
q rs P
r
P P
P
r
P
r
r
r
r
t s
r
r
s
r s
r
r r
r
r r
r
r r
r r r r
r
r
r
s s
s s s
s
s
sss s
s
s
s s
s s s
s s
s
s
s
s s s s
s
s
s s
s s s
s
s
s P s
s s
s
s
s
s
s
ss
s s
s
s
P s
s s
s
s
s
s
t
t
t
s
t t s t s t
t s
s s
sss s s
s s ss sss
s s sss s
s s s ss
s s s s s
s ss s s s s
s s s s
s ss s ss s
s s s s s
s s s s s
s s ss s
s ss s s s
s s s
s s s s
s s s t
s s s s s ss
s s s ss
s s s
s s s
s s s s s
s s s s
s
s s
sss ss s s ss
s
s s s
s s s s
P
ss s ss s
s s s s s
ss s s
ss s s s
s s s
s s ss s
s
ss
t
t
t t
PP P
r
q
r
q r
r
rr
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
s
P P
s
q
s q
s
s
q
s
q
P P
s q
s
r t
r
r.
.
r
r.r
.
t
t
t
t
t
t t
t t
t
t
t
t
t t
P
t t
t
t
t
t t
r
t
qs qs
s q s q
s
P
s
s
P
s
s
s
s
s
s
ss P
s
s
P
s
s
t s
s ss
s P
t
P P
s
s
s
P
s s
ss
ss
P ss s
P
r
t
P
ss
s P
P s
ss
P
ss
qq
t t
t
t
t
ts s t t
t
s
t s
s t t
t
t t s t
t t
t
t s
t
t
t
t t t s
t s
t s sst
t t t
t t sst
t t
t t
t t t t
t
t s
s
ss
q
r q
t
tt
s
t s
t ss
t t
t t
P
Ps P P
P s P
P
r s
s P
P P
r s
P s
t
P P s
ss r s q
P P || r s
s
P P
P s
P P
r
r
P P
P
r
P P
s
q P P
P Ps q P
s P
P
P P
P
s
s s P
s
q P
Ps
q q P P
P P
s P P
s
P P
s q
P s
P P
qs
qs
t
g
t
q
1
2
PP P
t
q
q
rq
s
rr
rr
s
t
t
q
r
r
t
t
t t
t
t
Ps
tt t
Ps
t
t t t
r q
t P
q r t t r t r t
s
s
s
s
s s
s
s s
s
s s
s
s s
s
s
s
s
s
s s
s
s s
s
s s
ss s s
s
s s
s s s
s
s
q t r
s
s
s s s
s
s s
s s
s
q
s
P
q
s t
q
r
s
s
r
s
P P
t
t t t t t
tt t
t t t
t t t
t t
t t tt s
t t t
t t
t t t
t t t t
tt t t t
t
t t
t tt t
t
t t t t
t t t
t t s
t t tt t t
s
s t
s
t
s t t
qr t
t t t
t t t
s t
s t
s t
7
s
q
s
s
s
s s
s
s s
s
t
P
t
q
t
t
t
t
t
t
t t
t
t tt
r s
t
t
q t
t
r rs
s sr
rs
t sr
t
rs srt
r s
t
q t
t
t
t
t
q
t
t
t
t
t
t t t
r s
rr rs
qt t
qrst
t tt t
t tt t t
t t tt
t t t t
t t t
t
t t t
t t t
t t
t
t t t t
t t
t t t
t t t t
t P P
t
t t ttt
t t
t q t
tr t t t
q sq t
t
t t t t
t t t tt
t t
t
t t t t
t t t
t t t t
t t t t
t
t t
t t tt
t
t t t t
t t t t
t t t
t t t t
t t t
t t t
tt t t t
t t
t tt
t
t t
s
t t t
t t t t t
t t t t
t t
t t
t tt
t t t
t
t
t t t t
t
t t t
t tt
t t r t tt
t t
tt t
t tt t tt
t t tt t
t t
t
2 1 f 2 f 1 f 2 f
qr tq q
q t rq q tq
rq r q q t q qt
q q q q q q t rq q rq
t q t qt q qq
q q rq q q r rq
qr qq qr q
qr tq q r q rq q tq q
qr qr tq
r
q qr q
q qr qr rq q q
q q q qr q q
t q t t
q q q q qr q qr q
q t q qr qr q q qq
qr q q q r q q q
q qt q t
P P
t t
t t
t
t
t
P
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
qrs
t
P
qrq
P
s
s s
s
s
s s
s
s s
s
s s
r
q rq st q q q q r q qr q
q r r qq
s
s
r r P P
PPP P P rP r
P P s
ss
s
P P P r
r
r
r r
t
r
r q q s
r q
s q
P
qst
q
qs
qs q
ts
r
r
r
r
r
P s
qs
r
r
r r
r
s s r
r rs r
r s
r
s
r r s rs
r
r
s r r
r
r r
r
r s
r
rrr rr r
r r
t r
r rr s s
r r r
r r r
rr
r
r r
r r
r
r
s r rs r r
q
q
q q
q q
q q
q
q q
q q
q
q
q q
q
r r
r
r r
r
r
r
r r r
r
P
t
q q q q q q
s
r
$ $
$ $
s s s
s ss s
s s ss
t s
s
ss
s
s s s sss
s ss
s s
(
s ss
s ss
and
ss s
s sss s
s ss s
ss
r q
ss
s s ss
s s s s s s
s
s ss s s
s s s
s ss s s
s
s s s
s ss s s
s s ss s
s s s
s
s
s
s
s
s ss
s
s
s
s s s ss
s ss s
s s s
s ss s
s s
s s ss ss
s ss
s s s s
s s ss
s
s s s
s s s s
s s
s ss s
ss
s s
sss
s
s s
s
PP
r
s
q
t
r t
r
t
t
r
r
r
r
q
t
r
r
r
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
s s q
q q q
q
t
t
t
or
sqrtr
t rss r
r t rss
q
s
t
r
s
r
and
P P P
P P
P P
P P
P P P
q rst q tr
qr r tr
r
t
t
t
t
tt
t
r
r
r 0
P r P
s
t
P
t
qs t
t tt
s
t t
q
q s
t
l r p sin
r
r
t t
t
t
t
q
r
s
r
t
t
t
r
r
r
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q sq
q
q
sq
q
q
q
q q
q q
q q
q q
q
t
t
P
P
P
r r
r r
r r
rr
r r r r
rqst t
PP P
P P
P
r
q
s t
r
r
r
t
r
PP P
P
P P
PP
t t t
tt t
t
tt t t
t tt
t
tt t t
t t t t
t t t t
t
tt
t
tt
t s s
ttt
ss tt
t t
t t
t t t
t t t t
tt
s
tt t
t
s t tt
t
t stt
tt t t
tt
t
t t
t
t
t t s
t t t
t t
t t
t
t
t t
t t t
s
t tt t
t t t
t
tt s tt
t
tt
t t
t tt
t t t
s s s
s
st
s t t s t
t s
t s t qro
P
t
t
r
rqs
t
i.e.
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
r rqs
r rqs q s
t
t
t
t
t
t
P t
t t
rt
P t
t t
P t
t t
qs s
t t
t t t t
t t t
t t t r
rt t r tt
t t t tt tt
s s qss qss s s s
qs qs sq
s s
q s s
qs s s q qs
P
t
q
r s
t
t
t
s
s
s
s
t t
t
s s
s
s
P
s
P
s
P
P
P s q
P r
s q
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
ss s
s
s
s s
s
s
t
t
t
0 t
0 2 ( 0 )
t
t
t
t
qrq q s
qs
r
q q
s
r
q
q
s
q
r s
q q sq
q
q
q sq
qs
q sq
q
q
q q
q q
q
q
r
q
q
s
q
q s
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
t
q
qs
q q
r t
r r
rq
r s
rt
rt
r r
rq r
r
rq r r r r
r rq
r r
rr
r r r r
t r t
r t
rq
r r
r r r
rq r r
r r
r rq r r
r
rq r
rq
rr
q t
r r
r r r
r
r r r r
rt r t r r
r t r rq
rr r
rt t r
r t t q
q r
rt r r r
rt
r
t t r
r
r t
r r t
r rq t
r rt
rr r
s
r r r
q r r r
rt
r s q
q
q
r r
q q
s
t
q
q q q
q q q
rt
t qt
t t P
P
P
t
t t
t t
t
rs
q
t
t
t
t t
t
t
rs
t
s
s
s
ss
s s
s
s r
r r
s
s r
s
r
r
s
P
s r
s
s r
s
s s
q q
s s
s s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
ss s
s s s
s s
s
s
sss
s
s
s
s
s
P
q
t
P
s s
s
s
s s
P P
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
r r r r
r r r r r
r r r r r
r r rr r r
r r r r
r r r
r r r r
r r r r
r r r r
r r r
r r
r r
r r r
r r r r r
r r r r
r r r r
r r r r r
rr r r r r
r r q r rr
r r r r r
r r r r r
r r r rr r r
r r r r r
r
r r
r r r
r
r r r
r r
r r r
r r r r r
r
r
r r rr
r r r r r
r r
r r
r r
r r
rr
P
r r
r r
r r r r
r r r
r r r q
r r r r
t
r ).
q
P
t r s
P
s s s
s ss ss
s
s s qs ss
ss
s ss s ss
s s s
P
P
q q
P
r s
C
2
t t t
t q t
t t t t
ssr t t
t s t
t t t
s s
t
t t
t s
qr st trt t r r t t
rrr rt tst
r qq ts t rts r
rts r q qt qr r qr
str ts qr r qr t
qr str r qr r t qr t sr
qr t r qr str r
rr t rrrs qr qr trt
r qr str t r
rts r
rr
r
qrr qr rs qr tst
r rts t rts
r qq rr ts t t
s
s
s
s
s
s s
s
s
t qr str r t rr t
t t qr st rt q
qr st trt tt t rts r
t qrr qr st trt ss
r qr rr qr str
t qr rqrs t r t
qr str tr r rstr
qr r tr t
qr tqrs ss qr str tr
rts r trr t
qr tr qr tst
r t r r
rss qt t tr t ss
rrst sts
tst r rt
r
qr trt r qr rssr t
qr t r t str qt
rsr r st rts trt
tr r rts r rr qr str ss
tr t sr r trr qt
rr qt qt r t tsr tss
t rr r t r tr t t
rts st tt qt sr t
rstt rrts tt t rss t
rsr st r rt t qt
qr rs t t t
r t rrts trsrt r
rtq t tr
qrr qr rr qr rstr qr
r r qr rst qr
r r t t t t
tsrt qr r t
r r qrr r rt
r r t tsr q tssr qt qr tsr
trsrt r t qr tr
qr rtq t ts r rtq ttts
tt
r
t
q r
q
q
q
;
;
s
s
s
r
s
q q
t
s
$
$
P P
$ $ $
s
s
q
s s
t qr t qr
s s s
ss s s s
P
q r t
q
q
q
P
t
t t t
t t
t q
t t
q
t
s s
t
r
P
s
q
r t
t t
r
q
r
r
r
q
s
t
s
s
t r t
t t t t
t t t
t s tt
t s
tt t
tt t q
s t
tt t
t t
t t t t t s
t t t
s t t
t P t
s
s
t
s t t
t
t t
t
t
t t
t t
t t
t s t t
t t
tt
t t
t t s
t
tt
s t t
t
t t t t
t tt t t
t
s t
t
t t
t t
t t t
t t t
t t t t t
t t t
t t
t t
t tt
tt
t t t
tt
s tt t s
t t tt
t t t
tt
t s t t
t t t
s t
t t
ss s s
s s s
r
r r
r r
r
r s
s s s r s
s s
s s
s
s s
s
t
s s
s s ss
s s s
s s s ss
ss s
s s
s
s s
s
s s
s s s
s s s
s
ss s s
s s
s s
s
s s ss
s s s
s s
s s
s s
s ss
s
s ss s ss
s s
s
s
ss s s s
s
ss
ss
r
s s s s
ss
s s s
s
s ss s
ss s
; s
s
s s
r
r
r t
r
t
P
q sq q
q
t r
r
r
r
r
r rr
r
r
rr
r
r r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r r r
r
s r
t
t
t
s r
t t
s s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
PP P P
P PP
P P P
P PP P P PP PP
P PP qP P
s
s
t
t
s
t
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s s s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s s
s
s
s
s s
s
s
s s
s
s
Fi
i 1
s
q
q
t
t
t
t
t t
r
t t
t
t
t
t t t t
t
t
t
t
P
t t
t t t
q s
t
t
t
t t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
t t
r
q
s
t t
t
t t t t
t
t
t
t
r r
r r r r
t
t
t
P
P
s
r
PP
r
r
r
r
r
r P
r
r
r r
4
r3
3
r
r r
2
r h
q s tq s
b2 4 ac
2
t
s s
r r
t t P
t t P
=
(a b ) (a mb )
i, j and k
i i =
j j = k k= 1,
i j=
j k= k
i=0
i i = j j = k k = 0, i j = k, j k = i, k i = j
a = ax
i + ay
j + a zk
a b + c a b a c
= - =
= - + ( - ) + -
ss ss s s s
s s s s
s ss
s s s s
s
s s s ss
ss ss
s ss s 235
92 U ss ss
s s
ss s s s s s
s s
P
s s s s
ss s s
s s s s ss s s s s
ss s s s
ss s s s
ss
s
ss
s s s s
s s s s
s s s
s s
s s s s
s s
s ss s s s
s ss s s
s s s s ss
s s s s s
ss s
s s s s s
s s s s s
s
s s s
s s s
s
P
s
s
s s
s
s
s s
s s
s s
s
15 45
8
s
s
s s s s
s ss
s t s s
s
t s s ss
t
t
t
P
2 5 / 2 , 1 /
t t
t t t
t
t
t
t
t
P
P
P
P P
t P t
P s
r
r
r
q
t
t
P
P
q
r
2
mv 2
m g r
r
T
r
s
mv 2
, s
R
N mg
s
g / P R
min
2g
1
, cos
R
2
i.e. 60 0
s t
s
s
s t
s
s s s s
s
s
s
s
s s
s
s
s s s s
s
s s s s s
s
s
s
s
s
t 3 / 2
2 2 2 2
L
q r sq sq r q q r q
-2 -2
1 1 2 2 1 2
o o
o
q
o P
q o q
k k k o k
2 o k
2 o k
o
o 1 k