ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Alhamdulillah, first of all I would like to thank God as finally I am able to finish my assignment that have been given by Calculuss teacher to us. This task had been done with all afford by group members even though a little bit problem were happened among us while doing this assignment. uckily ,all the problems can be settle down and we were able to adapt properly and wisely. !esides that ,big thank we address to our "ir because without her guide our pro#ect cannot be done properly like this. "he always give us supports and guide to us how to do our assignment

Calculus

Calculus is the broad area of mathematics dealing with such topics as instantaneous rates of change, areas under curves, and se$uences and series. %nderlying all of these topics is the concept of a limit, which consists of analy&ing the behavior of a function at points ever closer to a particular point, but without ever actually reaching that point. As a typical application of the methods of calculus, consider a moving car. It is possible to create a function describing the displacement of the car 'where it is located in relation to a reference point( at any point in time as well as a function describing the velocity 'speed and direction of movement( of the car at any point in time. If the car were traveling at a constant velocity, then algebra would be sufficient to determine the position of the car at any time) if the velocity is unknown but still constant, the position of the car could be used 'along with the time( to find the velocity. *owever, the velocity of a car cannot #ump from &ero to +, miles per hour at the beginning of a trip, stay constant throughout, and then #ump back to &ero at the end. As the accelerator is pressed down, the velocity rises gradually, and usually not at a constant rate 'i.e., the driver may push on the gas pedal harder at the beginning, in order to speed up(. -escribing such motion and finding velocities and distances at particular times cannot be done using methods taught in pre. calculus, whereas it is not only possible but straightforward with calculus. Calculus has two basic applications/ differential calculus and integral calculus. The simplest introduction to differential calculus involves an e0plicit series of numbers. Given the series '12, 1+, +, 34, +1(, the differential of this series would be '3, .15, 3,, 36(. The new series is derived from the difference of successive numbers which gives rise to its name 7differential7. 8arely, if ever, are differentials used on an e0plicit series of numbers as done here. Integral calculus, like differential calculus, can also be introduced via series of numbers. 9otice that in the previous e0ample, the original series can almost be derived solely from its differential. Instead of taking the difference, however, integration involves taking the sum. Given the first number of the original series, 12 in this case, the rest of the original series can be derived by adding each successive number in its differential '12:3, 1+.15, +:3,, 34:36(. 9ote that knowledge of the first number in the original series is crucial in deriving the integral. As with differentials, integration is performed on continuous functions rather than e0plicit series of numbers, but the concept is still the same. Integral calculus allows us to calculate the area under a curve of almost any shape) in the

car e0ample, this enables you to find the displacement of the car based on the velocity curve. This is because the area under the curve is the total distance moved, as we will soon see. et;s understand this section very carefully. "uppose we have to add the numbers in series which is continuously 7on7 like 2+,2,,21,2,,+1,1,,16,1<, and so on...at this type integral calculation is very useful instead of the typical mathematical formulas.

Foundation:
In calculus, foundations refers to the rigorous development of a sub#ect from precise a0ioms and definitions. In early calculus the use of infinitesimal $uantities was thought unrigorous, and was fiercely critici&ed by a number of authors, most notably =ichel 8olle and !ishop !erkeley. !erkeley famously described infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed $uantities in his book The Analyst in 3<+1. A recent study argues that eibni&ian calculus was more solidly grounded than !erkeley;s empiricist criti$ue thereof. >orking out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the century following 9ewton and eibni&, and is still to some e0tent an active area of research today. "everal mathematicians, including =aclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of using infinitesimals, but it would not be until 3,5 years later when, due to the work of Cauchy and >eierstrass, a way was finally found to avoid mere 7notions7 of infinitely small $uantities.The foundations of differential and integral calculus had been laid. In Cauchy;s writing 'see Cours d;Analyse(, we find a broad range of foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a 'somewhat imprecise( prototype of an '?, @(.definition of limit in the definition of differentiation. In his work >eierstrass formali&ed the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals. Aollowing the work of >eierstrass, it eventually became common to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal $uantities. !ernhard 8iemann used these ideas to give a precise definition of the integral. In modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus.

The reach of calculus has also been greatly e0tended. *enri ebesgue invented measure theory and used it to define integrals of all but the most pathological functions. aurent "chwart& introduced distributions, which can be used to take the derivative of any function whatsoever.

Why learn calculus?

Calculus is essential for many areas of science and engineering. !oth make heavy use of mathematical functions to describe and predict physical phenomena that are sub#ect to continual change, and this re$uires the use of calculus. Take our car e0ample/ if you want to design cars, you need to know how to calculate forces, velocities, accelerations, and positions. All re$uire calculus. Calculus is also necessary to study the motion of gases and particles, the interaction of forces, and the transfer of energy. It is also useful in business whenever rates are involved. Aor e0ample, e$uations involving interest or supply and demand curves are grounded in the language of calculus. 9otwithstanding calculus; functional utility 'pun intended(, many non.scientists and non.engineers have chosen to study calculus #ust for the challenge of doing so. A smaller number of persons undertake such a challenge and then discover that calculus is beautiful in and of itself.

What is involved in learnin calculus?

earning calculus, like much of mathematics, involves two parts/ %nderstanding the concepts/ Bou must be able to e0plain what it means when you take a derivative rather than merely apply the formulas for finding a derivative. Ctherwise, you will have no idea whether or not your solution is correct. -rawing diagrams, for e0ample, can help clarify abstract concepts. "ymbolic manipulation/ ike other branches of mathematics, calculus is written in symbols that represent concepts. Bou will learn what these symbols mean and how

to use them. A good working knowledge of trigonometry and algebra is a must, especially in integral calculus. "ometimes you will need to manipulate e0pressions into a usable form before it is possible to perform operations in calculus.

!recalculus:
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Al e"ra:

Algebra 'from Arabic al.#ebra meaning 7reunion of broken parts7( is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. Algebra arose from the idea that one can perform operations of arithmetic with non.numerical mathematical ob#ects. At the beginning of algebra, and at elementary level, these ob#ects are variables representing either numbers that are not yet known 'unknowns( or unspecified numbers 'indeterminates or parameters(. This allows one to state and prove properties that are true no matter which specific numbers are involved. =ore generally, these ob#ects may have various basic properties, and, presently, algebra is divided in several subareas which include linear algebra, group theory, ring theory and combinatorics 'see below for more subareas(. Elementary algebra is the part of algebra that is usually taught in elementary courses of mathematics. Abstract algebra is a name usually given to the study of the algebraic structures 'such as groups, rings, fields and algebras( themselves. Algebra is also the name of various specific mathematical structures occurring in algebra. To distinguish between the meanings of the word, see below. The ad#ective 7algebraic7 usually means relation to algebra, as in 7algebraic structure7. Aor historical reasons, it may also mean relation with the roots of polynomial e$uations, like in algebraic number, algebraic e0tension or algebraic e0pression. This comes from the fact that, until the end of 3Fth century, algebra was essentially the same area as the theory of e$uations. A witness of that is the fundamental theorem of algebra, which nowadays is not considered as belonging to algebra. A mathematician who does research in algebra is called an algebraist.
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Function:

In mathematics, a function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the property that each input is related to e0actly one output. An e0ample is the function that relates each real number 0 to its s$uare 02. The output of a function f corresponding to an input 0 is denoted by f'0( 'read 7f of 07(. In this e0ample, if the input is G+, then the output is F, and we may write f'G+( H F. The input variable's( are sometimes referred to as the argument's( of the function.

Li#its:
In mathematics, the limit of a function is a fundamental concept in calculus and analysis concerning the behavior of that function near a particular input. Aormal definitions, first devised in the early 3Fth century, are given below. Informally, a function f assigns an output f'0( to every input 0. >e say the function has a limit at an input p/ this means f'0( gets closer and closer to as 0 moves closer and closer to p. =ore specifically, when f is applied to any input sufficiently close to p, the output value is forced arbitrarily close to . Cn the other hand, if some inputs very close to p are taken to outputs that stay a fi0ed distance apart, we say the limit does not e0ist. The notion of a limit has many applications in modern calculus. In particular, the many definitions of continuity employ the limit/ roughly, a function is continuous if all of its limits agree with the values of the function. It also appears in the definition of the derivative/ in the calculus of one variable, this is the limiting value of the slope of secant lines to the graph of a function.

Di$$erentiation:
-ifferentiation is a method to compute the rate at which a dependent output y changes with respect to the change in the independent input 0. This rate of change is called the derivative of y with respect to 0. In more precise language, the dependence of y upon 0 means that y is a function of 0. This functional relationship is often denoted y H f'0(, where f denotes the function. If 0 and y are real numbers, and if the graph of y is plotted against 0, the derivative measures the slope of this graph at each point. The simplest case is when y is a linear function of 0, meaning that the graph of y divided by 0 is a line. In this case, y H f'0( H m 0 : b, for real numbers m and b, and the slope m is given by mHIfracJIte0tJchange in K yKJIte0tJchange in K 0K H IfracJI-elta yKJI-elta 0K, where the symbol L 'the uppercase form of the Greek letter -elta( is an abbreviation for 7change in.7 This formula is true because y : Ly H f'0 : L0( H m '0 : L0( : b H m 0 : m L0 : b H y : m L0. It follows that Ly H m L0. This gives an e0act value for the slope of a line. If the function f is not linear 'i.e. its graph is not a line(, however, then the change in y divided by the change in 0 varies/ differentiation is a method to find an e0act value for this rate of change at any given value of 0.

Funda#ental theore# o$ calculus:

The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations. =ore precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals. !ecause it is usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the fundamental theorem of calculus provides a practical way of computing definite integrals. It can also be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse of integration. The fundamental theorem of calculus states/ If a function f is continuous on the

interval Ma, bN and if A is a function whose derivative is f on the interval 'a, b(, then IintOJaKPJbK f'0(I,d0 H A'b( . A'a(. Aurthermore, for every 0 in the interval 'a, b(, IfracJdKJd0KIintOaP0 f't(I, dt H f'0(. This reali&ation, made by both 9ewton and eibni&, who based their results on earlier work by Isaac !arrow, was key to the massive proliferation of analytic results after their work became known. The fundamental theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integralsQwithout performing limit processesQby finding formulas for antiderivatives. It is also a prototype solution of a differential e$uation. -ifferential e$uations relate an unknown function to its derivatives, and are ubi$uitous in the sciences.

A%%lications o$ Calculus:

Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences, actuarial science, computer science, statistics, engineering, economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields wherever a problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired. It allows one to go from 'non.constant( rates of change to the total change or vice versa, and many times in studying a problem we know one and are trying to find the other. Rhysics makes particular use of calculus) all concepts in classical mechanics and electromagnetism are interrelated through calculus. The mass of an ob#ect of known density, the moment of inertia of ob#ects, as well as the total energy of an ob#ect within a conservative field can be found by the use of calculus. An e0ample of the use of calculus in mechanics is 9ewton;s second law of motion/ historically stated it e0pressly uses the term 7rate of change7 which refers to the derivative saying The rate of change of momentum of a body is e$ual to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction. =a0well;s theory of electromagnetism and Einstein;s theory of general relativity are also e0pressed in the language of differential calculus. Chemistry also uses calculus in determining reaction rates and radioactive decay. In biology, population dynamics starts with reproduction and death rates to model population changes. Calculus can be used in con#unction with other mathematical disciplines. Aor e0ample, it can be used with linear algebra to find the 7best fit7 linear

appro0imation for a set of points in a domain. Cr it can be used in probability theory to determine the probability of a continuous random variable from an assumed density function. In analytic geometry, the study of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high points and low points 'ma0ima and minima(, slope, concavity and inflection points. Green;s Theorem, which gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the plane region - bounded by C, is applied in an instrument known as a planimeter, which is used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a drawing. Aor e0ample, it can be used to calculate the amount of area taken up by an irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming pool when designing the layout of a piece of property. -iscrete Green;s Theorem, which gives the relationship between a double integral of a function around a simple closed rectangular curve C and a linear combination of the antiderivative;s values at corner points along the edge of the curve, allows fast calculation of sums of values in rectangular domains. Aor e0ample, it can be used to efficiently calculate sums of rectangular domains in images, in order to rapidly e0tract features and detect ob#ect . see also the summed area table algorithm. Calculus is also used to find appro0imate solutions to e$uations) in practice it is the standard way to solve differential e$uations and do root finding in most applications. E0amples are methods such as 9ewton;s method, fi0ed point iteration, and linear appro0imation. Aor instance, spacecraft use a variation of the Euler method to appro0imate curved courses within &ero gravity environments.