Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
, causing
fluid shifts from extracellular to intracellular compartments. Serum proteins and
packed cell volume increase and the result is haemoconcentrated blood. This
circulatory disturbance is the primary cause of death, exacerbated by hypoxia.
They further propose that the greater severity of BGD in smaller fish, compared
with larger, reflects smaller ionic reserves.
Bullock (1972) was able to induce a BGD outbreak in fish only after
severely compromising them by maintaining them in crowded conditions with
low dissolved oxygen and increased ammonia. He was, however, not successful
in transmitting a BGD infection in (stressed or control) trout, using various
myxobacterial cultures or by horizontal transmission, using live or dead BGD-
infected fish. In contrast, other workers have been successful in transmitting
BGD by using bacterial cultures in a water-borne challenge, as the bacteria
readily attached to gills (Kimura et al., 1978; Wakabayashi et al., 1980; Kudo
and Kimura, 1983c; Ferguson et al., 1991), via horizontal transmission from
diseased to healthy fish in clean water and across different fish species and ages
(Ferguson et al., 1991). MacPhee et al. (1995) demonstrated that feeding of fish,
following bath exposure to F. branchiophilum, produced clinical disease and
death by BGD, whereas unfed fish developed only mild clinical signs of disease.
They surmised that it was due to physiological changes to the fish, which
facilitated bacterial colonization of the gills. Wakabayashi et al. (1980) rarely
had mortality in juvenile rainbow trout; however, Ferguson et al. (1991)
produced clinical disease and death within 24 h of exposure, and in good water
quality.
There is no vaccine to protect against BGD. The use of the immune response
to control BGD is confronted by several factors that may preclude its feasibility.
First, epizootics are more severe in fry and fingerling fish, which have immature
immune systems, and fish vaccinated at an age prior to when epizootics are
571 Flavobacterial Diseases
anticipated may be too young for them to become immunocompetent. A second
factor is that BGD epizootics are relatively rapid, so high mortality occurs before
a secondary response can be activated to confer protection. Also, BGD is
considered primarily an external disease and chemical therapy is used for
treatment; the effects of chemicals on gill-associated or mucosal antibody-
producing cells are not known.
Lumsden et al. (1993, 1995) demonstrated gill-associated antibody response
in rainbow and brook trout exposed to BGD. Lumsden et al. (1993) exposed 2-
year-old brook trout to BGD, initially by horizontal challenge with infected
rainbow trout. Survivors were bath-exposed to 1.0 10
6
F. branchiophilum 200
days later. A slight response in both serum and gill antibody to F.
branchiophilum was detected following both the primary and secondary
challenges, but only the increase in gill antibody after the second challenge was
significant, with a maximum titre of 1 : 16, 57 days after the second challenge.
Lumsden et al. (1995) also used acetone-killed F. branchiophilum cells as a
vaccine. Rainbow trout (about 50 g) were exposed (6 weeks apart) by bath and
intraperitoneal injection; they demonstrated gill and serum antibody response by
both routes. Gill antibody response was highest and for a longer duration
following the second exposure. The group immersed in the highest
concentration of antigen had the greatest protection, with 11.7% mortality
compared with 45.3% for the group not exposed previously to antigen. However,
protection was not associated with a reduction in the number of bacteria on the
gill surface. Heo et al. (1990a) challenged rainbow fingerlings with 4.0 10
7
colony-forming units (cfu) ml
1
live F. branchiophilum by immersion, followed
by a 2-min dip in 5% NaCl. This was done three times at 6 day intervals. No
antibody was detected, nor were they able to demonstrate serum antibody in
rainbow trout that had survived several natural infections.
TOPICS FOR FUTURE STUDY
Some of the key areas of research which need further resolution are as follows.
1. Delineation of the mechanism(s) of disease in infected fishes.
2. Relationships between high agglutinating titre and protection in the face of
vaccination.
3. Development of either a genus vaccine or a subunit vaccine which is targeted
towards bacterial adherence to the fish.
4. Studies to explain the lack of detectable inflammatory response during
infection.
5. Investigations directed toward disease management via water-quality
management.
6. Two of the more important topics are the elucidation of the role of
environmental factors, or, more importantly, the combination of them that results
in optimum conditions for the pathogens.
7. Improved techniques for bacterial culture of the causative bacteria.
572
E.B. Shotts Jr and C.E. Starliper
REFERENCES
Amend, D.F. (1970) Myxobacterial infections of salmonids: prevention and treatment.
In: Snieszko, S.F. (ed.) A Symposium on Diseases of Fishes and Shellfishes.
American Fisheries Society Special Publication No.5, Washington, DC, pp. 258
265.
Anacker, R.L. and Ordal, E.J. (1955) Study of a bacteriophage infecting the
myxobacterium Chondrococcus columnaris. Journal of Bacteriology 70, 738741.
Anacker, R.L. and Ordal, E.J. (1959) Studies on the myxobacterium Chondrococcus
columnaris. I. Serological typing. Journal of Bacteriology 78, 2532.
Anderson, J.I.W. and Conroy, D.A. (1969) The pathogenic myxobacteria with special
reference to fish diseases. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 32, 3039.
Bader, J.A. (1995) Identification and classification of three bacteria pathogenic to fish in
the genus Flexibacter using the polymerase-chain-reaction and sequence analysis
on the small subunit (16S) ribosomal TNA gene. Doctoral dissertation, University
of Georgia, 104 pp.
Becker, C.D. and Fujihara, M.P. (1987) The Bacterial Pathogen Flexibacter columnaris
and its Epizootiology among Columbia River Fish. American Fisheries Society
Monograph No. 2, Washington, DC, 2 pp.
Bernardet, J.F. and Grimont, P.A.D. (1989) Deoxyribonucleic acid relatedness and
phenotypic characterization of Flexibacter columnaris sp. Nov., nom., rev.,
Flexibacter psychrophilus sp. Nov., nom., rev., and Flexibacter maritimus
Wakabayashi, Hikida, and Masumura 1986. International Journal of Systematic
Bacteriology 39, 346354.
Bernardet, J.-F. and Keronault, B. (1989) Phenotypic and genomic studies of Cytophaga
psychrophila isolated from diseased rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in
France. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 55, 17961800.
Bernardet, J.-F., Segers, P., Vancanneyt, M., Berthe, F., Kersters, K. and Vandamme, P.
(1996) Cutting a gordian knot: emended classification and description of the genus
Flavobacterium, emended description of the family Flavobacteriaceae, and
proposal of Flavobacterium hydatis nom. nov. (basonym, Cytophaga aquatilis
Strohl and Tait 1978). International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 46,
128148.
Bertolini, J.M., Wakabayashi, H., Watral, V.G., Whipple, M.J. and Rohovec, J.S. (1994)
Electrophoretic detection of proteases from selected strains of Flexibacter
psychrophilus and the assessment of their variability. Journal of Aquatic Animal
Health 6, 224233.
Blazer, V., Stark, K. and Starliper, C. (1996) Unusual histologic manifestations of
Flexibacter psychrophila in hatchery salmonids. In: 21st Annual Eastern Fish
Health Workshop, Gloucester Point, Virginia, September 56, p. 10.
Borg, A.F. (1960) Studies on myxobacteria associated with disease in salmonid fishes.
Journal of Wildlife Diseases 8, 185.
Brown, L.L., Cox, W.T. and Levine, R.P. (1997) Evidence that the causal agent of
bacterial cold-water disease Flavobacterium psychrophilum is transmitted within
salmonid eggs. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 29, 213218.
Bullock, G.L. (1972) Studies on Selected Myxobacteria Pathogenic for Fishes and on
Bacterial Gill Disease in Hatchery-reared Salmonids. US Fish and Wildlife Service
Technical Paper 60, Washington, DC, 30 pp.
Bullock, G.L. (1990) Bacterial Gill Disease of Freshwater Fishes. US Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Fish Disease Leaflet 84, Washington, DC, 3 pp.
Bullock, G.L., Hsu, T. and Shotts, E.B. (1986) Columnaris Disease of Fishes. US
573 Flavobacterial Diseases
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish Disease Leaflet 72,
Washington, DC, 9 pp.
Bullock, G.L., Herman, R.L. and Waggy, C. (1991) Hatchery efficacy trials with
chloramine-T for control of bacterial gill disease. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health
3, 4850.
Bullock, G., Herman, R., Heinen, J., Noble, A., Weber, A. and Hankins, J. (1994)
Observations on the occurrence of bacterial gill disease and amoeba gill infestation
in rainbow trout cultured in a water recirculation system. Journal of Aquatic Animal
Health 6, 310317.
Byrne, P., Ferguson, H.W., Lumsden, J.S. and Ostland, V.E. (1991) Blood chemistry of
bacterial gill disease in brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis. Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms 10, 16.
Cipriano, R.C., Schill, W.B., Teska, J.D. and Ford, L.A. (1996) Epizootiological study of
bacterial cold-water disease in Pacific salmon and further characterization of the
etiologic agent, Flexibacter psychrophila. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 8, 28
36.
Dalsgaard, I. (1993) Virulence mechanisms in Cytophaga psychrophila and other
cytophaga-like bacteria pathogenic for fish. Annual Review of Fish Diseases 3,
127144.
Davis, H.S. (1922) A new bacterial disease in freshwater fishes. US Bureau of Fisheries
Bulletin 38, 261280.
Davis, H.S. (1926) A new gill disease of trout. Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society 56, 156160.
DelCorral, F. (1988) Virulence properties of selected bacterial fish pathogens. PhD
dissertation, University of Georgia.
Farkas, J. (1985) Filamentous Flavobacterium sp. isolated from fish with gill diseases in
coldwater. Aquaculture 44, 110.
Ferguson, H.W., Ostland, V.E., Byrne, P. and Lumsden, J.S. (1991) Experimental
production of bacterial gill disease in trout by horizontal transmission and by bath
challenge. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 3, 118123.
Fijan, N.N. (1968) The survival of Chondrococcus columnaris in waters of different
quality. Bulletin de lOffice International des Epizooties 69, 5866.
From, J. (1980) Chloramine-T for control of bacterial gill disease. Progressive Fish
Culturist 42, 8586.
Fujihara, M.P. and Nakatani, R.E. (1971) Antibody production and immune response of
rainbow trout and coho salmon to Chondrococcus columnaris. Journal of the
Fisheries Research Board of Canada 28, 12531258.
Garnjobst, L. (1945) Cytophaga columnaris (Davis) in pure culture: a myxobacterium
pathogenic to fish. Journal of Bacteriology 49, 113128.
Griffin, B.R. (1992) A simple procedure for identification of Cytophaga columnaris.
Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 4, 6366.
Heo, G.-J., Kasai, K. and Wakabayashi, H. (1990a) Occurrence of Flavobacterium
branchiophila associated with bacterial gill disease at a trout hatchery. Fish
Pathology 25, 99105.
Heo, G.-J., Wakabayashi, H. and Watabe, S. (1990b) Purification and characterization of
pili from Flavobacterium branchiophila. Fish Pathology 25, 2127.
Holt, R.A. (1987) Cytophaga psychrophila, the causative agent of bacterial cold water
disease in salmonid fish. PhD thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, 166 pp.
Huh, G.-J. and Wakabayashi, H. (1987) Detection of Flavobacterium sp., a pathogen of
bacterial gill disease, using indirect fluorescent technique. Fish Pathology 22, 215
220.
574
E.B. Shotts Jr and C.E. Starliper
Huh, G.-J. and Wakabayashi, H. (1989) Serological characteristics of Flavobacterium
branchiophila isolated from gill diseases of freshwater fishes in Japan, USA, and
Hungary. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 1, 142147.
Johnson, J. and Chilton, W.S. (1966) Galactosamine glycan of Chondrococcus
columnaris. Science 152, 12471248.
Kent, M.L., Groff, J.M., Morrison, J.K., Yasutake, W.T. and Holt, R.A. (1989) Spiral
swimming behavior due to cranial and vertebral lesions associated with Cytophaga
psychrophila infections in salmonid fishes. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 6, 1116.
Kimura, N., Wakabayashi, H. and Kudo, S. (1978) Studies on bacterial gill disease in
salmonids. I. Selection of bacterium transmitting gill disease. Fish Pathology 12,
233242.
Ko, Y.-M. and Heo, G.-J. (1997) Characteristics of Flavobacterium branchiophilum
isolated from rainbow trout in Korea. Fish Pathology 32, 97102.
Kou, S.C., Chung, H.C. and Kou, G.H. (1981) Studies of artificial infection of the
gliding bacteria in cultured fish. Fish Pathology 15, 309314,
Krieg, N.-R. and Holt, J.G. (eds) (1984) Bergeys Manual of Systematic Bacteriology.
Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland, 964 pp.
Kudo, S. and Kimura, N. (1983a) The recovery from hyperplasia in an artificial
infection. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 49, 16351641.
Kudo, S. and Kimura, N. (1983b) Extraction of a hyperplasia-inducing factor. Bulletin of
the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 49, 17771782.
Kudo, S. and Kimura, N. (1983c) The recovery from hyperplasia in a natural infection.
Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 49, 16271633.
Leadbetter, E.R. (1974) Genus II. Flexibacter. In: Buchanan, R.E. and Gibbons, N.W.
(eds) Bergeys Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 8th edn. Williams and
Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 105107.
Lien, Shu-Ling (1988) Relatedness of Flexibacter spp. and Flavobacterium spp. isolated
from fishes. Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, 110 pp.
Lumsden, J.S., Ostland, V.E., Byrne, P.J. and Ferguson, H.W. (1993) Detection of a
distinct gill-surface antibody response following horizontal infection and bath
challenge of brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis with Flavobacterium
branchiophilum, the causative agent of bacterial gill disease. Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms 16, 2127.
Lumsden, J.S., Ostland, V.E., MacPhee, D.D. and Ferguson, H.W. (1995) Production of
gill-associated and serum antibody by rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
following immersion immunization with acetone-killed Flavobacterium
branchiophilum and the relationship to protection from experimental challenge.
Fish and Shellfish Immunology 5, 151165.
McMeekin, T.A., Paterson, J.T. and Murray, J.G. (1971) An initial approach to the
taxonomy of some Gram negative yellow pigmented rods. Journal of Applied
Bacteriology 34, 699716.
MacPhee, D.D., Ostland, V.E., Lumsden, J.S. and Ferguson, H.W. (1985) Development
of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to estimate the quantity of
Flavobacterium branchiophilum on the gills of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus
mykiss. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 21, 1323.
MacPhee, D.D., Ostland, V.E., Lumsden, J.S., Derksen, J. and Ferguson, H.W. (1995)
Influence of feeding on the development of bacterial gill disease in rainbow trout
Oncorhynchus mykiss. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 21, 163170.
Moore, A.A., Eimers, M.E. and Cardell, M.A. (1990) Attempts to control Flexibacter
columnaris epizootics in pond-reared channel catfish by vaccination. Journal of
Aquatic Animal Health 2, 109111.
575 Flavobacterial Diseases
Nomura, S. and OHara, N. (1994) Production and some properties of the extracellular
protease of Cytophaga columnaris. Fisheries Science 60, 97102.
Obach, A. and Baudin-Laurencin, F. (1991) Vaccination of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus
mykiss against the visceral form of coldwater disease. Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms 12, 1315.
Ordal, E.J. and Rucker, R.R. (1944) Pathogenic myxobacteria. Proceedings of the
Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 56, 1518.
Ostland, V.E., Ferguson, H.W. and Stevenson, R.M.W. (1989) Case report: bacterial gill
disease in goldfish Carassias auratus. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 6, 179184.
Ostland, V.E., Lumsden, J.S., MacPhee, D.D. and Ferguson, H.W. (1994) Characteristics
of Flavobacterium branchiophilum, the cause of bacterial gill disease in Ontario.
Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 6, 1326.
Ototake, M. and Wakabayashi, H. (1985) Characteristics of extracellular products of
Flavobacterium sp., a pathogen of bacterial gill disease. Fish Pathology 20, 167
171.
Ourth, D.D. and Bachinski, L.M. (1987) Bactericidal response of channel catfish
Ictalurus punctatus by the classical and alternative complement pathways against
bacterial pathogens. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 3, 4245.
Pacha, R.E. (1968) Characterization of Cytophaga psychrophila (Borg) isolated during
outbreaks of bacterial coldwater disease. Applied Microbiology 16, 97101.
Pacha, R.E. and Ordal, E.T. (1970) Myxobacterial diseases of salmonids. In: Snieszko,
S.F. (ed.) A Symposium on Diseases of Fishes and Shellfishes. American Fisheries
Society Special Publication 5, Washington, DC, pp. 243247.
Pacha, R.E. and Porter, S. (1968) Characteristics of myxobacteria isolated from the
surface of freshwater fish. Applied Microbiology 16, 19011906.
Pate, J.L. and Ordal, E.J. (1967) The fine structure of Chondrococcus columnaris III.
The surface layers of Chondrococcus columnaris. Journal of Cell Biology 35, 37
51.
Piper, R.G., McElwain, I.B., Orme, L.E., McCraren, J.P., Fowler, L.G. and Leonard, J.R.
(1983) Fish Hatchery Management. US Department of the Interior, Fish and
Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 517 pp.
Post, G. (1983) Textbook of Fish Health. TFH Publications, Neptune City, New Jersey,
256 pp.
Reichenbach, H., Behrans, H. and Hirsch, Z. (1981) The classifications of the
Cytophaga-like bacteria. In: Reichenbach, H. and Weeks, O.B. (eds) The
FlavobacteriumCytophaga Group. Verlag Chemie, Deerfield Beech, Florida, pp.
715.
Roberts, S. (1994) Treatment of bacterial gill disease with hydrogen peroxide.
Proceedings of the Annual Northwest Fish Culture Conference 45. 6.
Schachte, J.H. and Mora, E.C. (1973) Production of agglutinating antibodies in channel
catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) against Chondrococcus columnaris. Journal of the
Fisheries Research Board of Canada 30, 116118.
Shewan, J.M. and McMeekin, T.A. (1983) Taxonomy (and ecology) of Flavobacterium
and related genera. Annual Review of Microbiology 37, 233252.
Shotts, E.B. and Teska, J.D. (1989) Bacterial pathogens of aquatic vertebrates. In:
Austin, B. and Austin, D.A. (eds) Methods for the Microbiological Examination of
Fish and Shellfish. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, UK, pp. 164186.
Shotts, E.B., Hsu, T.C. and Waltman, W.D. (1983) Pigmented bacteria associated with
fish disease. In: Proceedings of 8th Eastern Fish Disease Workshop, Leetown, West
Virginia, June 2123, p. 26.
Speare, D.J., Ferguson, H.W., Beamish, F.W.M., Yager J.A. and Yamashiro, S. (1991a)
576
E.B. Shotts Jr and C.E. Starliper
Pathology of bacterial gill disease: ultrastructure of branchial lesions. Journal of
Fish Diseases 14, 120.
Speare, D.J., Ferguson, H.W., Beamish, F.W.M., Yager, J.A. and Yamashiro, S. (1991b)
Pathology of bacterial gill disease: sequential development of lesions during natural
outbreaks of disease. Journal of Fish Diseases 14, 2132.
Starliper, C.E. (1992) Studies on the effects of environmental factors of fish diseases.
Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, 123 pp.
Thune, R.L., Stanley, L.A. and Cooper, R.K. (1993) Pathogenesis of gram-negative
bacterial infections in warmwater fish. Annual Review of Fish Diseases 3, 3768.
Toyama, T., Kita-Tsukamoto, K. and Wakabayashi, H. (1996) Identification of Flexi-
bacter maritimus, Flavobacterium branchiophilum and Cytophaga columnaris by
PCR targeted 16S ribosomal DNA. Fish Pathology 31, 2531.
Van Duijn, C., Jr (1973) Diseases of Fishes. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois,
372 pp.
Vogel, H. (1958) Mycobacteria from cold blooded animals. American Review of
Tuberculosis and Pulmonary Disease 77, 823828.
von Graevenitz, A. (1990) Revised nomenclature of Campylobacter laridis, Entero-
bacter intermedium, and Flavobacterium branchiophila. International Journal of
Systematic Bacteriology 40, 211.
Wakabayashi, H. (1993) Columnaris disease. In: Ingalis, V., Roberts, R.J. and Bromage,
N.R. (eds) Bacterial Diseases of Fish, 8th edn. John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp.
2339.
Wakabayashi, H. and Iwado, T. (1985) Changes in glycogen, pyruvate and lactate in
rainbow trout with bacterial gill disease. Fish Pathology 20, 161165.
Wakabayashi, H., Egusa, S. and Fryer, J.L. (1980) Characteristics of filamentous
bacteria isolated from a gill disease of salmonids. Canadian Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Sciences 37, 14991504.
Wakabayashi, H., Hikida, M. and Masumura, K. (1984) Flexibacter infection in cultured
marine fish in Japan. Helgolaender Meeresuntersuchungen 37, 225420.
Wakabayashi, H., Hikida, M. and Masumura, K. (1986) Flexibacter maritimus sp. nov.,
a pathogen of marine fishes. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 36,
396398.
Wakabayashi, H., Huh, G.J. and Kimura, N. (1989) Flavobacterium branchiophila sp.
nov., a causative agent of bacterial gill disease of freshwater fishes. International
Journal of Systematic Bacteriology 39, 213216.