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VictorFrankensteinsurgicallyfatheredthefamousfictionalmonster,butthefiendwasconceptuallymotheredif
notphysicallyspawnedbyelectricityintheformoflightningfromtheheavens.Perhapsunwittingly,perhaps intuitively,authorMaryShelley(1831)touchedadeeptruthinthematernalmetaphor:Lifedidoriginatefrom electricaldischargesintotheprimevalfog.Indeed,lifecontinuestopreserveinallofitsearthlyformsfromthe mostprimitivecelltothemostcomplexorganismanelementaldependenceonelectricalphenomena. Understandably,thecuriosityofthescientistabouttheelectrobiologicalgoingsonoftheearth'sfloraandfauna issharedbythelayman.Alargepopularliteratureisaccumulatingandembracesexperimentsandanecdotes thatrangefromtheostensiblyrespectabletotheseeminglybizarre.RecentlypublishedtextsbyTompkinsand Bird(1973)andbyBurr(1972,1973)arenotonlyexemplarsoftheliteraturebutarerichsourcesofreference materials.Onereads,forexample,thatplantshavenervoussystemsthatyielddifferingelectricalsignalson "stimulation"bykindormalevolentthoughts ofhumanbeings(Backster,1968).Onealsoreadsthatmany SovietscientistsaregivingcredenceandcarefulstudytoESPandrelatedphenomena,notindefianceof Marxiandictatesofmaterialismbutquiteinkeepingwiththem.TheSovietsarechampioningearliertheoretical notionsofGeorgesLakhovsky(1934)totheeffectthateachplantoranimalcellisanoscillatorysystemcapable oftransmittingandreceivinghighfrequencyelectromagneticenergyoveradistance.Whileaffirmingthat electricaleventsareintimatelyinvolvedincellularactivity,on'emustyetwonderfromLakhovsky'sperspective whythehumancentralnervoussystemwithitstensofbillionsofneuronsandglialcellsdoesnotdrowninits ownelectricalnoise.Thisapparentphysical
ThisarticleisbasedonmaterialspresentedinaseminartothefacultiesofPsychologyandEngineeringattheUniversityof Utah(SaltLakeCity,Utah)onAugust21,1974.Theauthor'sresearchprogramissupportedbytheVeteransAdministration andbyU.S.PublicHealthServiceGrantFDO0650.AcknowledgedinthepreparationofthemanuscriptareE.L.WikeandC.L. Sheridan,foracriticalreadingKayWahl,forartworkandLynnBruetschandVirginiaFlorez,fortyping.IalsothankJohn OsepchukoftheRaytheonCorporationforhissearchingcriticismofthemanuscriptouropinionsdiffer,hisadviceis appreciated. RequestsforreprintsshouldbesenttoDonR.justesen,LaboratoriesofExperimentalNeuropsychology,Veterans AdministrationHospital,KansasCity,Missouri64128.TheauthorisalsoattheDepartmentofPsychiatry,KansasUniversity MedicalCenter,KansasCity,Kansas66103.

Microwaves andBehavior DONR.JUSTESEN

Laboratoriesof ExperimentalNeuropsychology, VeteransAdministrationHospital, KansasCity,Missouri

complicationnotwithstanding,thelayman'sinterestinelectrobiologyiswell attestedbythesubstantialvolumeofthepopularliteraturebutthestrangeand oftenconflictingclaimsthatappearareequallyanattesttoarelatedtruth: Scienceissorelylackinginanunderstandingofbasicelectrobiological mechanisms.Moreover,theabsenceofasatisfactorytheoryoftheroleof intrinsicelectricaleventsinuniormulticellularorganismsputsaheavy epistemologicalburdenonthosewhowouldexplainhowanorganismreactsto electromagneticfieldsofextrinsicorigin.Withthepossibleexceptionof mammalianphotoreception,whichisbetterunderstoodanywayasaquantum mechanicalprocessthanoneinvolvingelectromagneticwaveactivity,thereare fewbasicdataonthebiologicalresponsetoexogenouselectromagneticfields. Theharddatathatdoexistthosevindicatedbyindependentexperimental confirmationsarewithoutexceptioncorrelativeordescriptive.Manyofthe findingsareofinteresttothepsychologist,however,notonlybecausebehavior hasoftenbeentheendpointofsuccessfulelectrobiolocicalexperimentation, butalsobecausepsychologistshaveplayedimportantrolesinthese researches,particularlyinthedevelopmentofmethodologyand instrumentation. Inthisessay,Isummarizesomecontributionsbyexperimentalpsychologiststo thebiologicalstudyofradiofrequencyelectromagneticfields,especiallythe "microwaves."Butfirstthereadershouldbeacquaintedwithafew fundamentalsofwavetheoryandprovidedwithasynopsisofpertinent historical

developments.Thereaderwhodisdainstechnicaldiscussionsmaywishtoskip thenextfewparagraphs,butwillprobablyberewardedbyabetter understandingofthematerialsthatfollowifheorsheoptstoreadthem. ElectromagneticWaveTheory Themicrowaveportionoftheelectromagneticspectrumincludesthe emanationsofradars,television,andshortwaveradio,Themicrowavesrange infrequencyfromafewtoseveralthousandsofmegahertz(MHz).Inin vacuowavelengths,themicrowavesrangefromafewmeterstoabouta millimeter.Therelationofthemicrowavestotheothercomponentsofthe electromagneticspectrumisshowninFigure1.Myreviewofdatastopsshort oftheradiationsoftheinfraredspectrumandofthesolarandcosmic radiationsthatliebeyond,butIamnotdrawinganaltogetherarbitraryline. Whileabsorptionofelectromagneticenergyofanywavelengthtranslatesto andresultsinanincreaseofkineticenergyinthebiologicaltarget,thephoton energiesofradiofrequencyradiationsarevanishinglysmall.Notsoof radiationsofhigherfrequency.Theineluctableproductofthemultiplicationof frequencybyPlanck'suniversalconstant,photonenergy,becomesapotent biologicalfactorathigherfrequencies.Correlatedwiththemagnitudeof photonenergyistheprobabilitythataradiationwillionizetheatomsofthe absorbingtarget.Thedisplacementofelectronsfromatoms,thecruxof ionization,createsadditionalelectricalchargeswithinandamong,molecules therebyposingdistinctbiomolecularhazardsdistinct,thatis,fromtheheating ofbodytissuesthatresultsfromamoderateincreaseofkineticenergy.Stated anotherway,atdensitiesthatarelowintermsofavailablekineticenergy,X andgammaradiationsarelikecoolbutdeadlybulletscomparedtothebenign ripplesthatbathethetheorganismonexposuretocommensuratedensitiesof microwavesandotherradiofrequencytheenergy.Ontheotherhand, exposuretohighdensitiesofradiofrequencyenergyishazardousandcan resultinexcessiveheating.Witnessthepotatothatbakestoburstingina microwaveoveninlessthanfourminutes! Amajorfactorthatdistinguishesthebiologicalresponsetoradiationby microwavesasopposedtoradiationbyinfraredandultravioletenergiesisthat thelatterareabsorbedorscatterednearthe Page 1 / 7

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Amajorfactorthatdistinguishesthebiologicalresponsetoradiationby microwavesasopposedtoradiationbyinfraredandultravioletenergiesisthat thelatterareabsorbedorscatterednearthe

Figure1.Componentsoftheelectromagneticspectrum.Frequenciesarein cyclespersecond(hertz,Hz)areshowninparentheses.(Abbreviations:DC, directcurrentorzeroHzG,giga=109K,kilo=103M,mega=106 andt,tera=1012.)

surfaceofatarget.Unscatteredmicrowaveenergypenetratesmuchmore deeply.Ifa1,000MHzmicrowaveenergyisincidentontheheadofahuman being,asignificantportionoftheenergywillpenetratetheskullandbe capturedbytissuesofthebrain.Oneofthehazardsofmicrowaveenergyis thatthewarningsensationsofwarmthsoreadilyproducedbyinfraredenergy throughstimulationofsurfacereceptorsmaynotoccurtoexposurestofairly highdensitiesofmicrowaveenergyuntilthermaldamagehasresulted. Themechanismofmicrowaveheatingofbiologicalmaterialsisfairlywell understoodandderivesfromtwoelectrophysicalpropertiesofwater.First, themoleculeofwaterispolarizeditcarriesachargethatdiffersoverits surface.Theresultisanelectricaldipole,amoleculethatreorientswhenan externalelectricalfieldisimpressedonit,evenasbitsofpaperareattractedto orrepelledbyanelectrostaticallychargedrod.Water'ssecondpropertyisa highmolecularviscosity,orwhatistechnicallytermedalengthyrelaxationtime. Ifitsrelaxationtimeisshort,apolarizedmoleculecanreorientitselfwithease inanoscillatingelectricalfield.Moleculesofwaterareunabletoorientand reorientcompletelyinarapidlyoscillatingelectricalfield,andsotheirhigh viscosityresultsin"molecularfriction"muchofthemicrowaveenergyincident onabiologicaltargetcanthereforebe"lost"ordissipatedasheat. Theamountofradiofrequencyenergyabsorbedbyatargetisapositive functionofthetarget'selectricalconductivity,anegativefunctionofits dielectricconstant,andtocomplicatematters,boththeconductiveand dielectriccharacterofbiologicalmaterialsarefrequencyandtemperature dependent.Thewaveconformationofradiatedradiofrequencyenergyisalso avariablethatcontrolsabsorptiontheelectricfieldisatrightanglestothe magneticfield,andbothareatrightanglestothelineofpropagationofthe electromagneticwave.Energywillcoupletoabiologicaltargeteitherfromthe electricorfromthemagneticfield,buttheamountcoupledwillchangeas functionsbothoftherelativewavelengthandoftherelativegeometryofthe targetwithrespecttothevectorsoftheelectricandmagneticfields(seeFigure 2). Thequantityofkineticenergyinapropagatingelectromagneticfieldis reckonedbyPoynting'svectorandistechnicallytermed"powerfluxdensity." Thisdensityisthequantityofenergythatflowsintimethroughameasured planeofspace.

Thequantityofenergyisdeterminedbythedensitometerandisscaledin termsofwattspersquaremeter(W/m2)orwattspersquarecentimeter (W/cm2).Aroughruleofthumbforestimatingabsorptionofradiofrequency energycanbeappliedtothecaseinwhichthephysicaldimensionsofa biologicaltargetarelargewithrespecttothewavelengthoftheradio frequencyenergythatisincidentonit:Approximatelyhalfoftheenergyis absorbedandtheremainderisscattered.Anotherruleofthumbapplieswhen thephysicaldimensionsofatargetaremuchsmallerthanthewavelengthofthe incidentenergy:Thetargetbecomeselectricallytranslucentortransparentand littleornoenergyisabsorbed.Asthephysicaldimensionsofabiological targetapproachthewavelengthofaradiofrequencyradiation,anextremely complexscatteringfunctionoccurs,asuccessionofvalleysandpeaks,and eitherverylittleoragreatdealofenergyisabsorbed.Maximumabsorption occursatanddefinesresonanceandmayexceedthenominalamountof energythatisincidentonthetarget.Atresonancetheeffectiveelectrical capturesurfacepresentedbya"lossy"targetoflowelectricalconductivitymay

Figure2.Idealizedschematicrepresentationofradiationofabiologicaltarget intheopenorfreefield,thetraditionalmethodofexposinganimalsto microwaves.(Inpractice,theinsidesurfacesofalaboratoryarecoveredwith energyabsorbingmaterialthatpreventsreflectionofenergytothetarget.The animalisshowninrestraintnecessary,unlessthesubjectisanesthetized, becausechangesofbodygeometrywillalterthecapturesurfaceexposedto radiations.TheHandtheE,respectively,refertothemagneticandelectric vectorsofaplanewave,transversefieldtheflowvector[orlineof propagation]isdepictedbyarrowsthatpointtotheanimal.)

begreaterthanitsphysicalcapturesurfaceareabyanorderofmagnitude (Anne,Saito,Solati,&Schwan,1961). BriefScientificandPoliticalHistoryofRadioFrequencyStudies Thehistoryofbehavioralandbiologicalexperimentationonradiofrequency energyisaspottychroniclethatbeganinthe18thcentury'whenLuigiGalvani observedthattheisolatedlegofafrogwouldtwitchuponbriefactivationofa remotesparkgaptransmitter(seePresman,1970,p.3).Muchlater,afew yearsbeforetheturnofthe19thcentury,Jacquesd'Arsonval(1893)radiated intactmammalswithradiofrequencyenergyandrecordedbothphysiological andgrossbehavioralreactions.d'Arsonval'sobservationofelevated temperaturesinhisradiatedanimalsmarkedthebeginningofdiathermy,the medicaltermforheatingoftissuesbyradiofrequencyenergy.Nearlyhalfa Generated with www.html-to-pdf.net centurypassedbeforethefirstsemblanceofconcertedinvestigativeactivity beganthisforthegreaterpartintheSovietUnion,whereanumberof

1961)hadbeenatvariancewiththeSoviet'sinterpretationAmericanrats anddogsapparentlydidnotdeveloptheneurasthenicsyndrome,evenafter intenseradiationbyrrucrowavesinthelaboratory.ManyAmerican servicemenandtechnicianswhoworkedinproximitytoradarandotherradio frequencydeviceswereexaminedbyphysicians,buttomyknowledgereliable evidenceofthesyndromewasneverreportedintheUnitedStates.Indeed, theclearimplicationofthemajorityoftheexperimentalandcasedatareported byU.S.investigatorshasbeennegativeforallbutsimpleheatingeffects.What triggeredarenewedoutpouringofsupportforresearchonmicrowaves,once againspearheadedbytheDepartmentofDefense,wasdescribedbyJack Anderson(1972)inhissyndicatedcolumnintheWashingtonPost.Reading likethescenarioofanovelbyIanFleming,thecolumnrelatedhowtheU.S. EmbassyinMoscowhadbeenbuggedclandestinelyforseveralyearsbythe Soviets,whohadpresentedAmbassadorAverellHarrimanin1945witha Page 2 / 7 handsomelycarvedGreatSealoftheUnitedStates.Anelectronicbugwasin theseal,andthesealwasinaroomwhereprivyconversationsamongU.S.

Thehistoryofbehavioralandbiologicalexperimentationonradiofrequency energyisaspottychroniclethatbeganinthe18thcentury'whenLuigiGalvani observedthattheisolatedlegofafrogwouldtwitchuponbriefactivationofa remotesparkgaptransmitter(seePresman,1970,p.3).Muchlater,afew yearsbeforetheturnofthe19thcentury,Jacquesd'Arsonval(1893)radiated intactmammalswithradiofrequencyenergyandrecordedbothphysiological andgrossbehavioralreactions.d'Arsonval'sobservationofelevated temperaturesinhisradiatedanimalsmarkedthebeginningofdiathermy,the medicaltermforheatingoftissuesbyradiofrequencyenergy.Nearlyhalfa centurypassedbeforethefirstsemblanceofconcertedinvestigativeactivity beganthisforthegreaterpartintheSovietUnion,whereanumberof investigators,manyofPavlovianpersuasion,begantoprobeforbehavioral andbiologicaleffectsofexposuretoradiofrequencyfields.Theresearchesby SovietandotherEasternEuropeaninvestigatorsthrough1966havebeenwell summarizedandsynthesizedbyPresman(1970),thedistinguishedSoviet biophysicist. TheinterpretivethrustoftheeasternEuropeans'studiesofanimalsandofcase historiesofhumanbeingsemployednearindustrialormilitarysourcesofradio frequencyenergyisthatchronicexposuretomicrowaveradiationsresultsina neurasthenicsyndrome.Headache,fatigue,weakness,dizziness,moodiness, andnocturnalinsomniaaretypicallyreportedsymptoms(cf.Marha,1970 Tolgskava&Gordon,1973). Concertedbiologicalinvestigationsofradiofrequencyenergyfirstgot underwayintheUnitedStatesduringthemiddle1950s,largelythroughthe aegisoftheDepartmentofDefense.Thisjointeffortbyscientists,whowere supportedbyallthreemilitaryservices,falteredanddiedintheearly1960sfor wantofsustainedfunding(cf.Susskind,1970).Theimpetusforarenaissance ofresearchactivityintheUnitedStatesoccurredinthelate1960sbecauseof politicaleventsintheSovietUnion.Theinterpretationofbiologicaldatafrom thesocalledTriServicestudies(see,e.g.,Peyton,

servicemenandtechnicianswhoworkedinproximitytoradarandotherradio frequencydeviceswereexaminedbyphysicians,buttomyknowledgereliable evidenceofthesyndromewasneverreportedintheUnitedStates.Indeed, theclearimplicationofthemajorityoftheexperimentalandcasedatareported byU.S.investigatorshasbeennegativeforallbutsimpleheatingeffects.What triggeredarenewedoutpouringofsupportforresearchonmicrowaves,once againspearheadedbytheDepartmentofDefense,wasdescribedbyJack Anderson(1972)inhissyndicatedcolumnintheWashingtonPost.Reading likethescenarioofanovelbyIanFleming,thecolumnrelatedhowtheU.S. EmbassyinMoscowhadbeenbuggedclandestinelyforseveralyearsbythe Soviets,whohadpresentedAmbassadorAverellHarrimanin1945witha handsomelycarvedGreatSealoftheUnitedStates.Anelectronicbugwasin theseal,andthesealwasinaroomwhereprivyconversationsamongU.S. officialsweresupposedtotakeplace.Theseconversationswereactually overheardbytheSovietsoverthenextsevenyearshowever,acheckby U.S.securityexpertsin1952revealedthebugandsubsequentlybroughtforth additionalexpertswhomadeperiodicinspectionsforpresenceofother electroniceavesdroppingdevices.DuringonesuchsweepinMoscowinthe early1960s,itwasdiscoveredthattheSovietsweredirecting,beamsof microwaveenergyattheU.S.Embassy. Americanintelligenceagentswereunderstandablycurious,buttheydidnot wanttheirSovietcounterpartstoknowthatthemicrowavebombardmenthad beendetected.EntertheAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency(ARPA),an armoftheExecutiveOfficethatspecializesingettingfastanswerstofarout questionsthatmaybearonnationalsecurity.AgentsforARPAcontacted JosephC.Sharp,formerdirectorofresearchinexperimentalpsychologyat theWalterReedArmyInstituteofResearch,andanelectronicengineerMark Grove,whobegantoputtogetheratWalterReedwhatisnowoneofthebest equippedlaboratoriesintheUnitedStatesforstudying,biopsychological effectsofmicrowaveradiations.Additionalbehavioral,engineering,and medicalscientiststhroughouttheUnitedStateswerealsobroughtintothe investigation

effortthroughresearchcontracts.Bytheearly1970s,ARPA'ssupportof microwaveresearchhadlargelyfaded,ostensiblybecauseoftheenactmentof theMansfieldAmendment.Thefiscalslackhassincebeenpickedupbythe threemilitaryservicesbytheBureauofRadiologicalHealthoftheFoodand DrugAdministration,andbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Inspiteof muchinvestigativeactivitysupportedbytheseagenciesandtherecent conveningofseveralinternationalsymposiaonmicrowaves(see,e.g,.Cleary, 1970Czerski,1974Tyler,1975),theSoviet'smotivesinradiatingtheU.S. Embassyhaveneverbeenclarified.OnespeculationisthattheRussianswere doingitto"bug"theUnitedStates,notinthesenseofsurreptitious surveillance,buttofrustratetheU.S.military'scuriosity.JackAnderson suggestedthattheSovietsmayhavebeentryingtoinduceaneurasthenic syndromeinAmericanembassyofficials.1Idiscountthispossibility.Butit shouldbenotedthatSovietofficialsvoicedsuspicionsthatminionsofBobby FischermayhavebombardedBorisSpasskywithmicrowaves,thereby causingthelattertolosehischampionshipintheirfamouschessmatch(Wade, 1972).RecentlyreportedinvestigationsbySovietscientists(seeCzerski, 1974)haveconvincedmeofthesincerityoftheirbeliefintheneurasthenic syndrome,butthebasesforthedifferingconvictionsofSovietandU.S. scientistsaboutthesyndromeandotherallegedhazardsoflowdensity microwaveradiationareyettoberesolved. ImpactbyPsychologists OneoftheAmericanpioneersofmicrowaveresearchAllanFrey(see,e.g., Frey,1961,1965Frey&Messenger,1973),afreelancebiophysicistand engineeringpsychologist.Frey'smajoraccomplishmentwasdiscoveryorat leastconfirmationanddisseminationofoneofthemoreintriguingdatathatlink microwavesandbehavior.Humanbeingscan"hear"microwaveenergy.The averageddensitiesofenergynecessaryforperceptionofthehisses,clicks,and popsthatseemtooccurinside
1JackAndersonmentionedthatthesubjectofthemicrowavebombardmentoftheU.S. EmbassyinMoscowwasontheagendawhenPresidentLvndonJohnsonmetSoviet Generated with www.html-to-pdf.net PremierAlekseiKosyginattheGlassboroSummitMeetinginJune1967.Oneinformant toldAndersonthatJohnsonpersonallyrequestedKosygintoorderahalttothe radiationoftheEmbassy.

theheadarequitesmall,atleastanorderofmagnitudebelowthecurrent permissiblelimitintheUnitedStatesforcontinuousexposuretomicrowaves, whichis10mW/cm2. To"hear"microivaveenergy,itmustfirstbemodulatedsothatitimpinges uponthe"listener"asapulseoraseriesofpulsesofhighamplitude.Atfirst spurnedbymostmicrowaveinvestigatorsintheUnitedStates,theradio frequencyhearing,orFreyeffect,wasrepeatedlydismissedasanartifactuntil behavioralsensitivitytolowdensitiesofmicrowaveenergywasdemonstrated inratsinanexquisitelycontrolledstudybyNancyKing(seeKing,Justesen,& Clarke,1971).Shortlyafterthecompletionofthestudyanditsinformal disseminationviatheinvisiblecollege,theskepticsbegantoappearin appropriatelyequippedmicrowavelaboratoriesintheUnitedStateswith requeststo"listentothemicrowaves."Amajoritywasableto"hear"the pulsedmicrowaveenergy,therebybelatedlyconfirmingtheclaimsmadeby Freyfornearlyadecade.2 RecentworkreportedbyFosterandFinch(1974)suggeststhattheFrey effectmaybeathermohydraulicphenomenon.Theauthorssuspendeda microphoneinacontainerofwaterthatwasradiatedbypulsedmicrowavesat lowaverageddensitiesofenergy.Themicrophonedeliveredsignalstoan amplifier,theaudiooutputofwhichwasnotunlikethat"heard"bydirectly radiatedhumansubjects.Sincewaterchangesdensityasitstemperatureis altered,theminusculethermalizationsproducedinituponabsorptionofthe pulsedmicrowavesweresufficienttoinitiatesmallbutdetectablechangesof hydraulicpressure. Sonictransductionofpulsedmicrowavesatlowaverageddensitieshasbeen demonstratedbySharp,Grove,andGandhi(1974)inmaterialslackingin
2Thereisironyhereworthyofparentheticalcomment.Considerthatsubspeciesof humanbeing,theexperimentalpsychologist,whodistrustsintrospectivedataso thoroughlythatapropositionbasedonthemisconsideredhighlysuspectuntil corroboratingdataareobservedinloweranimals.Theironyinthepresentcaseisthat thedemonstrationofbehavioralsensitivitytomicrowavesbyadumbanimaldoesnot Page 3 / 7 implythattheanimalishavinganauditory"experience."IwasdubiousabouttheFrey effectuntilIsawratsreacttolowdensitiesofpulsedradiationthisconversionoccurred

1JackAndersonmentionedthatthesubjectofthemicrowavebombardmentoftheU.S. EmbassyinMoscowwasontheagendawhenPresidentLvndonJohnsonmetSoviet PremierAlekseiKosyginattheGlassboroSummitMeetinginJune1967.Oneinformant toldAndersonthatJohnsonpersonallyrequestedKosygintoorderahalttothe radiationoftheEmbassy.

humanbeing,theexperimentalpsychologist,whodistrustsintrospectivedataso thoroughlythatapropositionbasedonthemisconsideredhighlysuspectuntil corroboratingdataareobservedinloweranimals.Theironyinthepresentcaseisthat thedemonstrationofbehavioralsensitivitytomicrowavesbyadumbanimaldoesnot implythattheanimalishavinganauditory"experience."IwasdubiousabouttheFrey effectuntilIsawratsreacttolowdensitiesofpulsedradiationthisconversionoccurred despitemybeingoneofthesizableminoritythatcannothearmicrowavesunderdirect radiation.Theothersideofthecoinofparadoxisexemplifiedbyacolleague,aconfirmed cynic,who,whilebeingirradiatedinmypresence,said,"Well,Icanhearthe<censored> microwaves,butIstilldon'tbelieveit!"

water,forexample,incarbonimpregnatedplasticandincrumpledsheetsof aluminumfoil.Evensubjectswhocannothearmicrowaveswhendirectly radiatedbythemcanreadilyperceiveclickingsoundswhenapieceofenergy absorbingmaterialisinterposedbetweentheheadandaradiatorofpulsed microwaveenergy.Oddlyenough,themassoftheinterposedmaterialdoes notseemtobetoocriticalIsuccessivelyusedsmallerandsmallerpiecesof materialassonictransducersuntilitwasnecessarytoimpaletinypiecesona toothpick,yettheclickingsoundsinducedinthematerialbymicrowavepulses wereclearlyaudibletome. Thedemonstrationofsonictransductionbatedandunresolvedquestionof microwaveenergybymaterialslackinginwaterlessensthelikelihoodthata thermoacoustictransductionprobablyunderliesperception.Ifso,itisclear thatsimpleheatingassuchisnotasufficientbasisfortheFreyeffectthe requirementforpulsingofradiationsappearstoimplicateathermodynamic principle.FreyandMessenger(1973)demonstratedandGuy,Chou,Lin,and Christensen(1970)confirmedthatamicrowavepulsewithaslowrisetimeis ineffectiveinproducinganauditoryresponseonlyiftherisetimeisshort, resultingineffectinasquarewavewithrespecttotheleadingedgeofthe envelopeofradiatedradiofrequencyenergy,doestheauditoryresponse occur.Thus,therateofchange(thefirstderivative)ofthewaveformofthe pulseiscriticalfactorinperception.Givenathermodynamicinterpretation,it wouldfollowthatinformationcanbeencodedintheenergyand "communicated"tothe"listener."Communicationhasinfactbeen demonstrated.A.Guy(Note1),skilledtelegrapher,arrangedforhisfather,a retiredrailroadtelegrapher,tooperateakey,eachclosureandopeningof whichresultedinradiationofapulseofmicrowaveenergy.Bydirectingthe radiationsathisownhead,complexmessagesviatheContinentalMorse CodewerereadilyreceivedbyGuy.SharpandGrove(Note2)foundthat appropriatemodulationofmicrowaveenergycanresultindirect"wireless"and "receiverless"communicationofspeech.Theyrecordedbyvoiceontapeeach ofthesinglesyllablewordsfordigitsbetween1and10.Theelectricalsine waveanalogsofeachwordwerethenprocessedsothateachtimeasine wavecrossedzeroreferenceinthenegativedirection,abriefpulseof microwaveenergywastriggered.

Byradiatingthemselveswiththese"voicemodulated"microwaves,Sharpand Grovewerereadilyabletohear,identify,anddistinguishamongthe9words. Thesoundsheardwerenotunlikethoseemittedbypersonswithartificial larynxes.Communicationofmorecomplexwordsandofsentenceswasnot attemptedbecausetheaverageddensitiesofenergyrequiredtotransmitlonger messageswouldapproachthecurrent10mW/cm2limitofsafeexposure.The capabilityofcommunicatingdirectlywithahumanbeingbyreceiverlessradio" hasobviouspotentialitiesbothwithinandwithouttheclinic.Butthehotly debatedandunresolvedquestionofhowmuchmicrowaveradiationahuman beingcansafelybeexposedtowillprobablyforestallapplicationswithinthe nearfuture. TheU.S.limitof10mW/cm2isactuallyanorderofmagnitudebelowthe densitythatmanyinvestigatorsbelievetobenearthethresholdforthermal hazards(Schwan,1970).TherearetwocampsofinvestigatorsintheUnited States,however,whobelievethatthelimitisnotsufficientlystringent.Inthe firstcampofconservativesarethosewhoaccepttheSoviet'sbeliefthatthere arehazardouseffectsunrelatedtoheatingfromchronicexposurestofieldsof lowdensity(<1mW/cm2)someagreewithMiltonZaret(1974),aNew Yorkophthalmologist,whoholdsthatseverelydebilitatingsubcapsularlesions oftheeyesmaydevelopyears,evendecades,afterexposuretoweak microwavefields.Otherstendtorejectthenotionthatweakmicrowavefields producethisanomalouscataract,becauseoflackofsubstantiating,evidence fromtheclinicorthelaboratory(Appleton&Hirsch,1975).Butthese conservativesarepossessedofavagueuneasesimplybecauseoftheSoviet's limitofcontinuouspermissibleexposureisthreeordersofmagnitudebelow thatoftheUnitedStates.3 Theothercampofconservativestendstorejectthepossibilityofhazardous nonthermaleffects,
3TheSoviet'sexposurelimitof10W/cm2isthreeordersofmagnitudebelowthe exposurelimitintheUnitedSates,butadifferent,thatis,emission,limitholdsfor microwaveovenspurchasedforuseintheAmericankitchen.IntheUnitedStatesatthe presenttime,anewivpurchasedmicrowaveovenmaynotemitradiationatadensity greaterthan5mW/cm2asmeasuredatadistanceof5cmfromtheoven'ssurface.A userwhostandsImfromanoventhatemitsenergyatthemaximumpermissiblequantity wouldprobablybeexposedtoadensityofonlyafewmicrowattspersquarecentimeter thisisbecauseelectromagneticenergywhenradiatedfromapointsourceattenuates markedlyasitpropagatesthroughspace.

butholdsthattherearethermalhazardseveninmicrowavefieldsoflow Korbel'sdataareaclearvindicationofsuspicionsbyother,investigatorsthatthe measureddensity.Tounderstandthequalmsoftheseconservatives,thereader exclusiveuseoffielddensityastheindependentvariableinbiologicalstudiesof needsbeinformedthatthedatausedtoestablishthecurrentU.S.limitwerefor microwaveirradiationisanegregiousshortcoming(cf.Johnson&Guy,1972 thegreaterpartgatheredunderhighlycontrolledconditionsinthelaboratorywith Justesen&King,1970). simulatedbiologicaltargets(seeAnneetal.,1961).Hollowglassspheres In1967,NancyKingandIsoughttoresolvetheproblemofaccuratescaling containingmixturesoffluidsthatduplicatedthenetelectricalcharacteristicsof thecontentsofthehumanheadwereradiatedinwhatistechnicallytermedthe anddosingofmicrowaveenergyinlaboratorystudiesbytwomeans.Thefirst "freefield,"thatis,underconditionsinwhichnoreflectedenergyilluminatesthe wastousethemultimodecavity,nowwidelyindomesticuseasthe"microwave oven,"asthemediumforexposingexperimentalsubjects.Thequantityof target,onlythatradiatedbythesource.Underactualconditionswhere microwaveradiationsatfairlyhighdensitiesareencounteredbyhumanbeings, microwaveenergyabsorbedbyananimalinsuchacavitycanbeclosely meteredandcontrolled(Justesen,Pendleton,&Porter,1961Justesen& forexample,aboardships,inoraboutaircraft,orneararoundbasedradars, therearenearlyalwaysreflectivesurfacesthatcouldreflectadditionalenergyon Pendleton,Note4).Justesen,Levinson,Clarke,andKing(1971)transformed abiologicaltarget.Unfortunately,additionalconcentrationsofreflectedenergy thecavity(aTappanmicrowaveoven) maynotbedetectedbydensitometersbecauseoftheirhighdirectional sensitivity.Aradiofrequencyfieldthatmeasureslowindensitymayactually containsignificantlevelsofenergy.Suchwasthefindinginacollaborative Page 4 / 7 Generated with www.html-to-pdf.net investigativeventurebytheengineerArthurGuyandpsychologistSusanKorbel.

maynotbedetectedbydensitometersbecauseoftheirhighdirectional sensitivity.Aradiofrequencyfieldthatmeasureslowindensitymayactually containsignificantlevelsofenergy.Suchwasthefindinginacollaborative investigativeventurebytheengineerArthurGuyandpsychologistSusanKorbel. GuyandKorbel(Note3)radiatedmodelsofratsina500MHzmicrowavefield that,ascarefullymeasuredbyseveraldensitometers,appearedtohavean incidentdensitynear1mW/cm2.Activitylevelsofradiatedratshadearlierbeen foundtodifferreliablyfromlevelsofcontrolsafterexposuresatthislowdensity (cf.Korbel,1970KorbelEakin&Thompson,1965).GuyandKorbelwere awarethattheexposureshadtakenplaceinanelectricallyshieldedenclosure. Sincetheshieldingcreatedthepossibilityofundetectedreflectionsand concentrationsofenergywithintheenclosure,thermographicstudieswere performedonradiatedmodels.Extremelyhighconcentrationsofthermalized energywerefound,someofsufficientdensitythattheywouldresultinfocal burnsintheheadsandextremitiesofliveanimals.Thehotspotsobservedinthe modelswouldbelesssevereinaliveanimalbecauseofpartialthermal equilibrationbythecirculatorysystemofmajorinterestisthatthetotalamount ofenergyabsorbedbythemodelswasoftenmuchhigherthanwhatwouldbe predictedfromthemeasureddensityofthemicrowavefield.Guyand

Figure3.Plexiglasconditioningchamberlocatedinamultimodecavity. (Microwaveenergyentersthecavityfromthewaveguideandismixedbya slowlyrotatingmodestirrersothatitimpingesontheanimalinthechamberfrom allangles.Aphotodetectorofthelickingresponse,aliquidfeeder,andaspecial gridforpresentingelectricalshockstothefeetprovideforoperantand/or respondentconditioningofananimalduringradiation.Asteadystreamofcooled airflowsfromanairductintothecavityandthechamberandoutofsmallholes inthedoorofthecavity.Temperatureinthechamberismonitoredviaan electricallyshieldedthermistor.)

intoanoperantandrespondentconditioningchamberthatpermitsradiation duringbehavioraltesting.Theachievementofcontrollableenergydosingof animalsinbehavioralexperimentswassomethingofachallenebecausewe hadtodesignandincorporateaspecialresponsedetectionandpayoffsystem foroperantconditioningthatwouldnotinteractwiththemicrowavefields insidethecavity'sconditioningchamber(King,Justesen,&Simpson,1970).A similarchallenge,thatofproviding,anoninteractivesourceofaversive electricalstimulationforPavlovianconditioning,wasmetbythedesignand incorporationofafaradicshockingdevice(Justesen,King,&Clarke,1971). Wesoughttocopewiththeenergyscalingproblembyusingcalorimetric dosimetrywhereasthedensifometermeasuresenergyinproximitytoatarget, thecalorimetrictechniqueprovidesestimatesoftheamountofenergyactually absorbedbyabiologicaltarget(cf.Justesen&King,1970Justesen, Levinson,Clarke,&King,1971Justesen,Levinson,&Justesen,1974). Takingourleadfromtheionizingradiobiologists,weproposedaconvention basedonabsorbedenergypergramunitofmass.Becauseofthehighphoton enerciesofXandgammarays,theradthestandardunitofabsorbeddose ofionizingradiationiscouchedinrelativelyminusculetermsofonly100ergs pergram.Forthemicrowaveswiththeirlowphotonenergies,weproposed that107ergsoronejouleper

gram(J/g)serveasthedosingunitoftotalabsorbedenergy.Sincethejoule persecondisthetimecomplexedquantityofenergythatdefinesthewatt,we alsoproposedthatthewattpergram(W/g)serveasthebasicunitofrateof dosing. Toestimatetheamountofenergyabsorbedbyananimalinamicrowavefield, weemploysimplethermometry,themeasurementofelevationoftemperature (t )inphantommodelsbyprecisionelectronicthermometers.Inthe multimodecavity,the&916t sofcylindricalmodelsofwatercanprovidean estimatewithin10%oftheenergyactuallyabsorbedbysmallanimalsof equivalentmass(Phillips,Hunt,&King,1975).Thequantityofenergyin wattsisreadilycalculatedfromthet sandisthendividedby,theanimal's weightingramstoyieldtherateofdosing.A300gratunderpulsed2,450 MHzradiationshasadosingratethresholdofperceptionnear.5mW/g(King etal.,1971).Toplacethisvalueinameaningfulperspective,onecancompare ittotherat'sambientrateofenergyproductionthroughmetabolism,whichis near10mW/ginastandardenvironment.A60secexposureofa300g animalthatisabsorbingmicrowaveenergyatarateof.5mW/gwould maximallyincreaseitsaveragedbodytemperatureby.01C.4 Thecalorimetricdosing,methodisasubstantialimprovementforexperimental purposesoverthetraditionalscalingtechniqueinwhichthemeasureddensity ofenergyasincidentuponananimalisuseddirectlyastheindependent variableorelsetoestimate(viaroughrulesofthumb)thedepositionofenergy intheanimal.Whereerrorsofmeasurementgreaterthananorderof magnitudearepossibleand,indeed,probable,withthetraditional, densitometricmethodsofscaling,theareascalorimetrictechniquereducedthe errortolessthan10%.Apsychologist,E.HuntoftheBattelle
4Themaximalriseoftemperatureisstipulatedfortheanesthetizedanimal.Theawake, physiologicallyintactanimalthatisexperimentallynaivetoradiationatdetectable densitiesmayexhibitanelevationofbodvtemperaturethatisgreaterthanthatsolely attributabletoheatingbymicrowaves.Apparently,theemotionalactivationinducedby novel(ornoxious)stimulationisassociatedwithmetabolicactivation,andthus concomitantendogenousheating,whichaddstothetotalthermalloadingofaradiated animal(justesen,Note5).Unlessthereisacompensatoryriseinrateofheatdissipation, anemotionallystressedanimalmaysuccumbfromhyperthermiaduringradiation treatmentsthatarenotmortalforanhabituated,unstressed,oranesthetizedanimal (Justesen.Levinson,Clarke,&King,1971Justesenetal.,1974).

Figure4.Schematicdiaaramofatwinwelldifferencecalorimeterdeveloped attheBattelleLaboratories.(Highlyprecisemeasurementsaremadeofthe quantityofmicrowaveenergyabsorbedbymodelsorbodiesofradiated animals.Areferenceornonirradiatedtargetisplacedinonewell,aradiated targetintheotherwellthedifferenceinthermalloadingisthendetectedby sensitivethermocouples.)

Laboratories,tooktheleadinsqueezingthelasteliminableerrorfromthe determinationofenergydosing.(see,e.g.,Hunt,King,&Phillips,1975, Generated with www.html-to-pdf.net Phillipsetal.,1975)developedaspecialtwinwellcalorimeter(Figure4)into whichsuitablemodelsorcarcassesofacontrolandanirradiatedanimalare

with918MHzmicrowavesinthefreefieldfirstatlowdensitiesandthenat successivelyincreaseddensitiesuntiltheheadmovingoperantextinguished. Page 5 / 7 Theabsorbedenergydosingrateatthethresholdofextinctionwasnear8 mW/g,avaluethatagreescloselywiththatreportedforcornparablemeasures

Laboratories,tooktheleadinsqueezingthelasteliminableerrorfromthe determinationofenergydosing.(see,e.g.,Hunt,King,&Phillips,1975, Phillipsetal.,1975)developedaspecialtwinwellcalorimeter(Figure4)into whichsuitablemodelsorcarcassesofacontrolandanirradiatedanimalare placedimmediatelyaftermicrowavetreatments.Differentialcalorimetryisthen usedtomeasuretheamountofenergyabsorbedbytheradiatedtarget,either inthemultimodecavityorinthefreefield.Whenquantitiesofabsorbedenergy athighdosinglevelsweresubsequentlyequilibratedforliveanimalsinthe cavityandinthefreefield,Huntandhiscolleaguesobservedthatdeathrates weremuchhigherfromexposuresinthefreefield.Onewouldexpectthis differencebecausetheanimalinthecavityisabsorbingenergythatisincident fromallangleswhiletheanimalinthefreefieldisilluminatedunidirectionally (callingtomindthediscomfitureofthenakedchildinacoldroomashestands infrontofanoverheatedpotbellystove). ThecomparisonsbyHuntandhiscolleaguesinvolvedmiceandratsinrestraint underirradiationbymoderatetohighdensitiesofmicrowaveenergy.The bodilyrestraint,whichisusedinthefreefieldtomaintainconstancyofenergy dosing,caninteractasastressorwithmicrowaveinducedhyperthermiato increasemorbidityandmortality(cf.Justesen,,Levinson,Clarke,&King, 1971Justesenetal.,1974).Comparisonsofcavityandfreefieldexposures ofrestrainedsubjectsatlowerdensitiesofenerhywouldbedesirableontwo grounds:first,iftheenergyincidentuponananimalinthefreefieldisnottoo intense,thegradientoftemperaturebetweenexposedandunexposedareasof thebodywillbereducedbyconvectivedispersionofheatbytheblood streamandsecond,thestudyofoperantandrespondentbehaviorscanbest berealizedinanimalsundebilitatedbyexcessiveheating.Theappropriate comparisonofbehaviorsofsubjectsunderlowtomoderatedensitiesof microwaveenergyhasbeenundertakenbyLin,whotrainedratstoaccept restraintinabodyholder(Lin,Guy,&Caldwell,Note6).Slightmovementof theheadofarestrainedsubjectwaspossible,anditwasthismovementthat Linusedasanoperantresponse.Duringpretraining,arestrainedanimalwas reinforcedwithafoodpelleteachtimeitsheadinterruptedaphotoelectric beamuntilrespondingduringshortdailysessionshadstabilized.ThenLinetal. irradiatedtheanimals

with918MHzmicrowavesinthefreefieldfirstatlowdensitiesandthenat successivelyincreaseddensitiesuntiltheheadmovingoperantextinguished. Theabsorbedenergydosingrateatthethresholdofextinctionwasnear8 mW/g,avaluethatagreescloselywiththatreportedforcornparablemeasures onratsexposedinthemultimodecavitybyJustesenandKing(1970)andby Huntetal.(1975),Onemaysurmise,atleasttentatively,thatthebehavioral andbiologicalresponsetoexposuresinthecavityandinfreefieldaremore likelytobecomparableatlowdensitiesofradiationandincreasinglydivergent atincreasinglyhigherdensities.Onemayalsosurmisethatfreefieldexposures tomicrowaveenergy,insofarastheyproduceunevennessofheatinginan experimentalanimal,aremuchmorelikelytobethermallystressinginthe psychologicalsense.Thequintessentialcharacteristicofpsychologically adequatestimulationischangeeithertemporallyorspatially.Intheabsenceof change,orinthesteadofchangethatoccurstooslowly,evenintenseenergy maynotbebehaviorallystimulating.Scripture(1899,p.300)recountedhowa frogneversomuchastwitched,asthewaterinwhichitwasimmersedwas slowlybroughtfrombodytemperaturetotheboilingpoint.King(1969) recountedasimilarexperiencewithratslonginuredofexposuresinthe multimodecavitytomildlythermalizingradiation.Duringradiationtreatments theanimalsbecameimmobileandappearedtogotosleep.Ithoughther animalsweredisplayingtheneurasthenicsyndromeuntilshemeasuredtheir bodytemperaturesandfoundtheyweresufferingfromsomethingakintoheat prostration! Epilogue Focusedasitwasonmethodologyinstrumentation,thisarticlehasskirted muchinformationthatrelatespsychologyandpsychologiststothebiological studyofelectromagneticfields.Amongtheomissionsisthespecialconcernfor behavioralvariablesmanifestedbymostbasicandmedicalscientistscurrently working"inthemicrowavefield."Muchofthisconcernisactuallyhomageto thereliabilitywithwhichbehavioraleffectshavebeendemonstratedand duplicatedintheradiobiologicallaboratory.Behaviorhasbecomeamajor "handle"orendpointinattemptsofscientiststogetapurchaseonthe biophysicalandphysiologicaleventsthatoccurintheradiated

organism.Whatthesescientistshavediscoveredisthatthecentralnervous systemisabiologicalamplifierwhoseoutputasmanifestedinbehavior providesahighlysensitivelitmusofreactivitytoelectromagneticenergy.This sensitivity,particularlythedemonstrationoftheFreyeffect,willinevitablygive risetothequestion,Aretheresubstantiveimplicationshereforparanormal phenomenaespeciallyfromthevantageoftheSovietscientistforwhomESP means"electrosensory"(notextrasensory)perception?Iamnotpreparedto answerbeyondthiscaveat:Underoptimalexperimentalconditions,the quantityofmicrowaveenergythatisnecessaryfordirecttransferof informationtoahumanbeingismanyordersofmagnitudegreater,say,than thephoticoracousticenergyassociatedwithathresholdresponsetovisualor auditorystimulation.Perhapsthereareelectromagneticreceptorsystemsinus asyetundiscoveredwithsensitivitiescomparabletoorevengreaterthanthat ofthevisualandauditorysystems.Thispossibility,however,isbankruptof operationalmeaningwithoutacorollarydemonstrationofspecific electromagneticradiationbythehumanorganism.Withoutatransmitter,a receiverisuseless.Exceptforanincoherentfluxofinfraredenergiesthatare broadcastfromourbodiesastheresidueofmetabolism,therearenoknown electromagneticemissionsofsufficientenergytowarrantmorethanthemost guardedofspeculations,Notatallacynic,butverymuchtheskeptic,I conclude: ElectroMagneticreceiversweare, Alightwavewecansee AsEMemittersourwavefrontsareweak, HardlyenoughforESP.
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