THE UNITED KINGDOM OF

GREAT BRITAIN &

NORTI=IERN IRELAND

. ri,:::ri:'!. , a' .:i,.r.t.

t:

.. ':,

.,.!1...

"'r.

!r,..;-:

*'

, j'

The Tower

of London

Piccodilly Circus

Tower

Bridge

United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern lreland

Status: Kingdom

Area: 244.7 55 I{n2 Population: 55.5 14.500 Capital: London Language: English, Welsh, Gaelic Religion: protestant majority, roman catholic, Jewish, Muslim and Hindu minorities Currency: pound sterling (GBP) England
Status : Constituent Country

Area: 130.360 km'

Population: 46.1 70.3 00 Capital: London Northern Ireland
Status: Constituent Region Area: 14. 150 km'

Population: 1.589.000 Capital: Belfast

Scotland

Status: Constituent Countty Area: 78.750 km' Population: 4.957.000 Capital: Edinburgh
Wales

'vor

Status: Principality Area: 20.760 km' Population: 2.798.200

Capital: Cardiff

The United Kingdom is part of the British lsles, which are

situated off the coast of north-western Europe, separated from France by the English Channel and from Belgium, the Netherlands and Scandinavi'a by the North Sea. There are two main islands: the larger, Great Britain, comprises England, Scotland and Wales: the other, the island of lreland separated from Britain by the lrish Sea, comprises Northern lreland and the lrish Republic.

The Land
One of the main physiographic features of England, as well as of the entire island of Great Britain is the deeply indented coast. Most of the indentations are excellent natural harbours, easily accessible to deepwater shipping, a factor that has been decisive in the economic development and imperial expansion of England. By virtue of the high tides that prevail along the eastern coast, a number of rivers and their estuaries provide this region with safe anchorage. The most important of these belong to such ports as Newcastle upon Tyne, on the Tyne River; MiddlesborouEh, in the Tess River; Hull, on the Hunberg River; Great Yarmount, on the estuary of the Yare River; and London, on the Thames River. The most important harbous on the southern coast include those of

Dover, Hastings, Eastbourne, Bringhton, Portsmounth,

Bournemoth, and Plymounth. The Western coast, considerably more broken than either the eastern or southern coast, also has numerous anchorages. Of outstanding comercial importance are the harbour of Bristol, at the confluence of Bristol Channel and the Severn River and Liverpool Harbour, at the mounth of the Mersey
River.

The relief of England is diversified. The northern and western portions are generally mountainous. The principal highland region, the Pennine Chain (or the Pennies ), forms the backbone of northern England. lt is composed of several ranges extending south from the Cheviot Hills to the valley of the Trent River and numerous spurs and extensions that radiate in all directions. The extreme elevation for the Pennine Chain and the highest summit in England is Scafell Pike (978 m ! 3210 ft above sea level). A large portion of the area occupied by the Pennine Chain comprises the Lake District, one of the most picturesque regions in Engalnd. The relief east of Wales
and between the southern extremities of the Pennine Chain and

the Bristol Channel is an extension of the rolling plain that occupies

most of central and eastern Engiand fu{uch of the western part of this central region is known as the iVlidlands. !t eontains an area that is known as the Black Country because cf its intensive industrial development. To the east lie The Fens, a vast drain marsh area. To the south of the Bristol Channel an elevated plateau slopes upward, culminating in the barren uplands and nroors of Cornwall and Devon Dartmoor (about 610 I about 2000 ft abcve sea level on the wildest tracts in England).
"

As a resuli cf the relative lvarmth cf the nearby seas, England l3S 3 '.i-,cderaie cirrnaie i-areiyu markecj by extremes of heat or cold. T-: a^',a iemceratui-e rarges between 11 1' c (52' F) in the s:-r:' a^.8 9' C r48' Fi rn the northeast, Seasonal temperatures .2', :e:,.'e3r a i'nean of about 16.1" C (61" F) during July, the ^r::es: -'cntn cf the year, and 4.4'C (4A" F) during January, the :l3es: rontli, The average January and July temperatures for the r . , :f London are 4.5" c (40" F) and 18' c (04' F), respectively. tcgs nrists, and overcast skies are frequent, particularly in the Pennine and tnland regions. Precipitation, heaviest during Cctober, averages about 760 mm (about 30 in) annually in rnost of England.
,i I
,"

i,, a::j

.1.

, := :'. .r.:,'1. I 't i..r l' - l

]rl

cf

L-ancashire. waterpower resources are small and mosily concentrated in the highlancs of Cunnbria. in northern England.
Although a tiny percen:oge in agriculture, farm produce s

England has some agricultural and mineral resources but relies on imports of both. Approximately two-fifths of the land area are arable, with the richest soils found in the east. Substanlial reserves iron ore are concentrated in Cumbria, Staffordshire, and

:':^3 -e: c.r s,,.,,c.kforce

z'-" '":

markets. 76% of the tota ,,( cereal crops are wheat, bar er a Ereen vegetable crops o[ \,i'!c permanent pasture for raising ta land, mainly hill and mounta'r e
sheep.

,,

'a.m and.The main :s =:-.z:oes. suqar beet and -: : -'. 20oto of the land is ==' s:cck: and 28% of the -s=r'o' rough grazing of

a'aa s

::th honne and export

is employed

Pigs and poultry are widespread in both England and lowland Britain. The best fruit-growing areas are the south-east, especially Kent, and East Anglia and the central Vale of Evesham for apples, pears and soft fruit. Both forestry and fishing industries contribute to the economy. The major mineral resources of the UK are coal, oil and natural gas. Coal output, mostly from the fields of South Wales, Central Scotland, North-East England, Yorkshire and the Midlands, goes towards the generation of electricity but oil and natural gas from the North Sea, and to a lesser extent nuclear power, are divided between the needs of industry and the consumer. lron ore, once mined sufficiently to satisfy industry, is now important to support the iron and steel-manufacturing sector.The UK produces a great range of industrial goods for home consumption and export. Heavy industry, particularly the production of iron and steel, is traditionally located close to fuel sources (coal) in South Wales, the North-Eastat Teesside and South Yorkshire. Most of the ore is imported. The main shipbuilding areas are Clydeside in westein Scotland, Belfast in Northern lreland and Tyneside in the North-East. Other heavy industrial goods, vehicles, engines and machinery are produced in Merseyside, Derby and Nottingham in the North Midlands, Birmingham in the West Midlands, Cardiff in South Wales, Clydeside and Belfast. 'and consumer goods manufacturing is located in all General heavy industriai areas but the London area, West Midlands and Lancashire and Merseyside predominate. The main products are food
woolen textiles, electrical and electronic goods. .The UK is a trading nation, The balance of trade has changed during the last 30 years because of stronger economic, military and politiCal ties within Europe - the EC and NATO - and consequently reduced trading links with former colonies particularly in Australasia. The UK has a highly developed transport network to move goods and services. Motorways, trunk roads and principal roads t,otal over 50.000km (31.070 miles). The railway network covers 16.730km (10.395 miles) and now carries over'X40 million tons of freight annually. The inland waterway system, once a major freight carrier, totals

and drinks, chemicals, light engineering products, cotton

and

only 563 navigable kilometers (350 miles) but still carries over 4
million tons of goods annuallY.

THE COUNTRIES OF ENGLAND

AVON BEDFORDSHIRE BERKSHIRE BUCKINGHAMSHIRE CAMBRIDGESFIIRE CHESHIRE CLEVELANT} GORNWALL CAMBRIA {O. DERBYSH!RE 11. DEVON {2. DOR$ET ,!3" DURHAM 14. EAST SUSSEX '!5. ESSEX ,i 6. GLOUCESTERSI'IIRE {7. GREATER LONDON 18. GREATER MANCHESTER ,'9. HAMPSHIRE 20. HEREFORD AND FIERTFORDSHIRE 2,I. HUMBERSIDE 22" |SLE OF ylilcHT 23. KENT 24. LANCASHIRE 25. LEICESTERSHIRE 26. LINCO|-NSHtRE 27. MEREYSIDE 28. NORFOLK 29. NORTHAMPTONSHIRE 30. NORTHUMBERLAND 3{. NORTH YORKSHIRE 32- NOTTINGHAMSHIRE 33" OXFORDSHIRE 34. SHROPSHIRE 35. SOMERSET 36. SOUTH YORKSHiRE 3?. STAFFORDSHIRE 38" SUFFOLK 39. Si"rRRY 40. TYNE AND WEAR 4{. VIIARWICKSHIRE 42. WEST IVIIDLANDS 43. WEST SUSSEX 44. WEST YORKSHIRE 45. WILTSHIRE 46. WORCESTER

1. 2" 3. 4. 5. 5, 7, 8. 9.

A t1

THE HISTORY OF BRITAIN

One might expect that the historical evolution of Britain be linked exciuslveiy with its insular status. lndeed, the British prefer to consider themselves as a distinct, even opposite entity to the Continent. This is cniy partly true but, ironicaliy, if it had not been for Europe, we would nct have spoken today of the British as a powerful nation which rn its tur"r: has infiuenced the history of the Old Continent and of the world.
ffi
lFq

ffi

T"fl fstr-# ffi

effi tu'-g re # ffiYffi ffiY

ffiffi,

{4, &

+;;r*"*:B

,ff"

$""Fyffi4}ffi

- ffiffi ffi#,
lrad

th* pe*pling b*gsr: before this, about 250,c00 BC. Glaciens

Britain became an island only after the iast ice age. lt is said that

c,3t*c a iand bricg* {c the eentinent; it is this bnidge that allowed

rlcn:asie *ontincntai ili'clups tc settle rn Britain. They were followeei by ilei**iithrc hunters {abni-rt 3G,000 BC}, Mesolithie peopl* (8,300 +,**ui *C:. F,,**ui 3.50'i ffiC, *s the island had taken its present shape, ilenpie fr*n: th* continent brought the Neolithic "revolution"" i#*sl hls?*r'tarrs beiieve thai due to its remoteness and isoiaticn, the ,*oll:si: *arli' elviiisatrcr-l developed specific features such as a i*i:ui*':rii tci,vai'd giant elimensiorrs (e.9. Stonehenge) and a lack cf ili:,\j:# "arias seen in Spain cr Fnance. ,*, n*w wa',r* nf ne*ple settled beiween 2,500 - ''l ,500 BC. They *r* {ni}v'ri-} as th* "fieak*r'" pecple because they are the ones who tii:'**u*cr"r p*tt*ry i:*axers ar:cj bronze civilisation in Britain. They i";nm* f;"o*: ioda\i-'s Ger-nranyr and also frcm Northern Eurcpe. The llcn o** be#an af*ili-iei I*fi *e ntitlr the arrivai of the Celts. Histcrians find r. ':.."fir-ji *rffier;it t* d*r:i,Je whether ihe Celts invaded the islanc ar they ;#nj.,r, p*ae,*f,;iiy &s B. consequence of thre trade relatioi''lship ijs,i,::ii::;i$n*d netweer-i tft* "Br;tish" BeaKer people and Cerrtral EurCIpe. tir *.r!':ai ,$r:,*tiaird rs c*ncerned ths first CIecple landec fr*m the i-,,-.,,:i;n*:r: a***t 3"slt BC The finsi s*ttiers of !reiar''rd can-le fr*mr ':r-..irt'tfi. rAlaie.':,i enr: Britgin. l-atec- nr: trr* **itic trihes whc riae* settleC ';' i:'iii#li',, Liil$i]** lh* i:i"evi3US SettierS lr-lianC and forCed,;th*rS tC :-:*itrl ir,l Si:r:tie:r11 *nqi ireiarrd.

qJ

The Celts were never united as a nation. Each local group had its chieftain or King. A typical Celtic community was made up of aristocrats, Druids and common people. Most of the members of the Celtic tribe were descending from the same ancestor. Their lack of unity helped the Romans conquer them even though Celtic bravery was legendary.

ROMAN BRITAIN (55 BG - AD 4tO)

The first Roman expeditions in Britain were led by Julius Caesar (55 BC : 54 BC). He never actually annexed the island to the Roman Empire. Still the Romans started influencing its development even from then. lt was emperor Claudius who invaded Britain. ln AD 43

scme 40.000 Roman soldiers conquered part of the island in

sixteen-day expedition. Under Vespasian, resistence in the West was also crushed and by AD 59 Wales was also conquered. Trojan consolidated Rome's power overthe island. The conquered tribes tried to rebel against the Romans but they were always defeated because they chose to fight the Romans as separate tribes. Queen Boudicca managed to unite several tribes but her rebellion of AD 59 - 60 ended with her death and that of her daughters and allies. In the years that followed, the Roman military effort concentrated on making the Northern frontier safer. ln 121, emperor Hadrian began work on the Wall which separated The Roman - province from the tribes of the Scots and Picts. The work was completed in 128. The 7 meters high barrier ran for 76 miles and had 16 forts. lt is his Wall as well as efficient Roman administration, that provided the island with three centuries of relative peace at the end of which, the Scots and Picts swept over the Wall. In 401 , emperor Honorius took most of the Wall's legions to fight Alaric's Visigoths on the Continent. The remaining soldiers were also called to protect Rome against the Goths this time,in 410. Thus, by the middle of the fifth century direct links with Rome were broken. New invaders threatened the Britons: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. These eventually settled in various parls of Britain.

t6

THE INVADER$r A}IGLE$, SAX0HS' JUTE$

AND VIKIHG$

(early 5th century - 10661

The Britons tried in vain to resist these invaders. Two legendary figures are linked to the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons: Vortigern (about 449) and Artorius (about the year 500). The latter seems to have generated the countless stories about King Arthur. By the middle of the sixth century, the invaders were in control of most of Britain and had organised themselves into 7 Kingdoms: Kent, Sussex, EastAnglia and Essex were smaller than Northumbria Mercia and Wessex. By the eighth century only the latter three were left , each dominating over the others in turn. King Offa of Mercia (757 - 796) was the first to call himself RexAnglorum (King of the

English). After his death, King Egbert of

Essex (802 - S39) extended over the other Saxon states and named his Kingd om Engtalond and his people Angelcynn (from the name of
The conversion to Christianity was led at first by two separate parties: the Celtic monks (in Scotland and the Midlands) ancl the Roman missionaries. But, during the second half of the seventh century, a synod at Whitby decided in favour of the Ronrans and as such the inhabitants of Britain were united under Rome once again. At the beginning of the nineth eentury a new group of raiders attacked the island: the Vikings, who were coming from Norway and Danmark. The only major opposition against them was led by King Alfred of Wessex (871 - 899). His victory in a decisive battle in B7B allowed him to make a treaty with the Vikings: the Danes were forced to leave Wessex and convert to Christianity. Alfred reigned over the south of England only, while the rest of the island belonged to the Vikings and was known as Danelaw. After Alfred's death, his son Edward (899 - 925) started the reconquest of the Danelaw which was finished by Athelstan (925 - 939) who claimed the title Rex Totius Britanniae (King of all Britain).

the Angles).

The reign of Edgar the Peaceful (959 - 975) was devoted to the improvement of the administration of the country (a new ccinage, a new code of laws). He was crowned and anointed King rather late rn his reign (973) in a ceremony which seems to have provided the nnodel for all the later coronations. Ethelred Unread (g7s - 1010) showed little desire to face the Danes and ended up paying a huge tribute. His son, Edmund (1016) tried to fight them but he was killed. In 1016, King Cnut of Denmark was alsc crowned King of England. He become Christian and married Ethelred's widow, Emma His successor invited the son of Ethelred and Emrna to his court and recognised him as his heir. As such, the house of wessex was restored through Edward the e onfessor (1042 - 1066). He had spent much time in France and he introduced the French language and fashion at the English court. He appointed William, Duke of Normandy, as his heir but the nobles elected Harold Godwin (1066).

ENGLAND AFTER THE NORMAN GONQUEST

(1066 . {455)
The year 1066 saw the arrival in Britain of a new invading force: the Normans, led by the one who was to be remembered as Williann the Conqueror {1066. 1087}. During his reign the British island was under Norman (military) occupation. William's son, Henry I {1100 of Alfred the Greai. The two boys died before their father, so when !-{enry died, a descendant of the conqueror, Stephen of Blois (1135 - 11541 became King. Henry's daughter, Matilda, invaded England in 1139. Her father had married her to Gecffrey of PEantagenet, count of Anjou and had forced his bar^ons tc sware aliegiance to her. A Civil War broke out in these ccnditions and it did not end before Stephen agreed that Henry Flantagenet, Matilda's son, could succeed him. When he became King, Henry ll (1154 - 1189) pulled dcwn the castles of his opposers barons and forced them to iive in unprotected manor houses. He ruled over England, Wales. lreland, Anjou, Normandy Brittany andAquitaine (the latterfourwere in France).

1135) had three legitimate children by a descendent

His name is linked to that of Thomas Becket. In f7A, he had Becket rnurdered in his own cathedral (Canterbury). Four years later, he had to fight his rebellions sons, Henry, Richard and John,
in alliance with the French monarch. Richard I Coeur de Lion (1189 - 1199) spent only five months in

England; he went campaigning in France, Palestine, Sicily. England paid the expenses of all these campaigns and also the huge ransom {X50,C00 marks) because he had been captured in 1192, in Vienna cn his way back from a Crusade. He left no heir and the throne went io his brother John (1199 - 1216) who lost Normandy in 1204. lr,, iZtr 5 he was fcrced by his nobles to sign the lllagna Carta which be*anre a iandrnark of Engiish liberties. Constitutional developments fai!*i'ueci during the reign of l-lenry lll (1216 - 1272j who was only ten =Ve#rs old when he became King. At twenty-five. he reissued the f#agna Carfa. His nobles ferced him to also accept the Prcvisions of *xf*:^d, ihat lirniiecl his powers, His son, Edward l(1272' 1307) had tc *,ensent tn i'uie the ccuntry together with a parliament. lt is dt-.lring nis i'*ign that \l/ales wes finally annexed to the English crown and his s*n was prr:*lairned Prince of Wales, the first heir tc the English throne to h*id this title.

Hdward lf {1307 - 132V} was the first rnonarch tc be dethroned bil parlianr*nt. Hrs son, Edward lll (1327 - 137V'i is famous fcr his *lairn tc the French crown, his mother was the daughter of Philip the Fair nf France. The Hundred Years War {1337 - 1453)broke out *,-:r!nE his reign. At the enei of the war , the English had lost all their Srench possessions excepi for Calais. Edward's Successor was i*reed to resign the crown to Henry of Bolingbroke, Duke of !*ancaster, his cousin. The next King frorn the house of Lancaster -#emry V {14i3 - 1 422'i restored England's continental empire by defeating the French at Agincourt (1415). His son proved to be a
,

weaker King, from a military point of view.

* &,*#**butrg

WaIr

THE WARS OF THE ROSES (1455 - 1487 )

Henry Vl (1 422 - 1461) founded Eton and King's College, .Cambridge but he lost all the possessions his father had regained and failed to stop the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses (1455 - 1487). He was murdered in the Tower of London in 1471, after he had become insane. Richard , Duke of York, become Protector. The nobles in'the North remained loyal to the King while those in the South deserted him. At the same time, after the duke's death, his son was proclaimed Kirig of England. Edward lV (1461 1483) inaugurated a new dynasty on theEnglish throne. He named his brother, Richard of Gloucester, as Protector. Edward's heir was only twelve years old when he become King.Richard sentthe boy king and his brothertothe towerwhere theywere killed. Richard lll (1483 - 1485) is one of England's most controversial

others

characters. Some historians see him as a monster,

as an English prototype of the

Renaissance ruler.

He improved finances but was never able to ensure the loyalty of his men who betrayec him in the battle at Bosworth where he died. Lord Stanley picked Richard's crown from the battlefield and placed it on Henry Tudor's head. The latter had gathened round him both

Henry VII (1485 - 1509) put an end to the Wars of the Roses (called so from the badges of the rival armies: the red Lancaster rose and the white York one) and inaugurated what some historians consider the most glorious period in English history: the century of
Tudor rule.

Lancasterians and Yorkists,

all opposing Richard lll.

i.

I0

 #ffiffi -

ffi*ffi F

Henry Vll restored royal autharity, trade traditioirs and created a new nobility (most lords had died during the \A/ars cf the Prcses) ccmpietely dependent on the crown. Still, one of the b*si knn'r,rn Kings of the house of Tudor is Henry Vlll {1509 - '854?}. L{e is r*r-nenrhered fcr standing up te the authority cf the Cathclic Chureh, in a t!m* ,r'rhen h/lartin Luther in Gernrany and Jean Calvin rn Sv'ritzeriand were leading the refcrrnist me>vernent againsi the Catho!ie ehr="1i"*l-i. F-ienry was initiaiiy on Rcm*':* side {ti:e F*pe had *ctualiy giv*r: h!r: thc title of Fidei Defensoi". ilefender of Faith) but h* *vei:iue!iv ti;rned against it u.'hen the Fope ejei:ie# hirn ih* divor*e frcm i;ethen!ne nf Aragon who had failed t* give hir;:.* rivir"rg son :n i534 th* Englisf-r King was recoEnrzeei by ihe parliernerll as th* S*r:;"::rt* l-l*ee *f the er:ilrcli of Engianci. f'lenrr,,'r1lii !s a!s* farneus ir"r: hi* *!"r, i:iilrs*nut;v* rnarriages. He eiiv*reed thr+ first l,,iifs, eaiherrnr= ,;1 Aia,;*n vrh* i^rad glven him a daugnter, i+'!*r"t/ H* tir*i: i'':"larried Anii* **i#'li't "'q'h* g&v* Sirth tC yet Ail{-}?her dAr;ght*r". Eii;:eb**th. Hgnr.'' ir,** Arlr::.--: *.}i*euted. ac*usii'rg hei" i".;' adultery. *in{i y"nenli*d .iane S*ly.1su:" ,lin* di** !n "rhc f*i=:rthu*'vif* chile bi*h, pr*vldirlg Henry ''q/itn iiia s*n he wai:ir:ij,

Anna ef Clev* wa$ nepia**ci b'i th* rnore *eau'irfu!, Kath*rin* [-{oy,yard wha was cv*ntually *xeei,:tcd lusi llke her ,lrl;sin, Ar:n*
Soleyn.The last wtfe, Ka{hes'ine trarr. "*r"lt!l"red **i'li"v. The Church *f England hee*rne sti"enger rjn**r
F-{enry's son, ffidward VB

th*

,"eiSn nf

{1547.. 1553}. tsut Mcry {i:}S3 "'tSSS}, the daughter of Catherine of Aimgc*. persecuted ti-r* Frnt*stants. Thausands cf men, womefi ana ehild!'*n were burnt f*r th*il beiiefs' lr: '1558, the English lost th*ir last French p:r:*s*ssicn, eaiais. Elizabeth ! t,fi 5SS - 16C3) ls one cf the gr"eat*st nronarchs of

others. Her reign was ais* dedicateei to

England. She proclaimed Protestantisrn with vigour. she rnaintained a count which employed and supporteci Shakespeare. Spencer and

eNtending

Fngland's influence overseas with the help of Sir iohs'l Hauvkin*, Sir Frances Drake and Sir Walter R*leigh. Th* latter estaniisn** Virglnla as an Engiish colony cn theAmctlc*n cilFt, in 1578.

ft

Her well-known moment of glory was in 15BB when the large Spanish fleet (the lnvincible Armada) was defeated. Not even the bad harvests inflation and the loss of public morale from her later years, did diminish the glorious aura that surrounded her figure. She is still remembered as Gloriana.

TI{E '$T{'|ATT DYilIA$TV AITID THE BRffIS}I .ilEVOWNOil

{{003 .17141
Shortly before dying Elizabeth I had designated ..iames Vl of Scotland as her successor. A new dynasty began with the son of Mary Stuart. He reigned as James | (1603 - 1o2s) and united England, Scotland and lreland. He become senile during the later part of his reign and the country was ruled by carr and Buckingham. His successor Charles I (1625 - 1649) got into financiai conflict with the parliament: he asked them money to meet the costs of various wars. Before granting him any, they presented him with A petition of Right, forcing him not to decide upon any taxes without their consent. The King assented to it but then dissolved the assembly. There was no parliament since 1629 to 164a, when Charles needed monev again. The Givil war (1642 - 1646) broke out when the restored parliament asked him to give up the command of the army and he refused. This time, Charles was captured, he had to stand trial and he was executed in January 1649.In May 1649, England was declared a Commonwealth. The new rulers of the country were Oliver Gromwelt and his New Model Army, though there was a Council of forty-one members. Cromwell became Sovereign of England in 1653 when he was named Lord Protector. His son held the power after his death ,for avery short while before the parliament decided to restore monarchy in England. Charles ll (1660 - 1685) was greeted enthusiastically by the people and his reign meant a period of naval and commercial prosperity for Britain. Restoration ended though in 1689. Charles's brother, James, the heir to the throne, had converted in 1G72 to. Catholicism. Upon ascending the throne he tried not only to turn England back to Catholicism but also to achieve power for himself.

12

In 1688, the country made a formal invitation to James's son-in-low, William, Prince of Orange-Nassau. James ll (1685 - 1688) was deposed and fled to France. This was the Glorious Revolution and it saw the ascendence to the throne of William lll and Mary ll {1689 - 169a); the parliament gave the crown to thenn, jointly. After
hlary died of srnallpox, William ruled by himself until 17A2. The throne passed to Mary's sister, Anne. William lll and his wife had not had any children. Anne's reign {1702 1714) sow the ernergence of the conflict between the Whigs and Tories. She was

'

married

to prince George of

Denmark with whom she had 17

children; all died in infancy or early childhood.

fl

ffief*ffi\fffi ffi r&Fw ffiYro&SY'Y - Yffiffi h**L$Sffi ffiF W*rdmsffiffi {$?S4 - *m th* prmxmm?}
hffi

Upon Anne's death the crown went to the closest Protestant

relative, George, Elector

t1714

1724b inaugurated the Hanoverian dynasty in England' The

of

Hanover who aS King George

office of Prime Minister was created during his reign since he was mcre German than English and loved spending time in Hanover' Robert Walpole is generally considered Britain's first Prime Minister. He directed the government for 20 years and was neplaced in 1742

George !l {1V27 - 1760} was the last English monarch to lead troops into battle .George lll (1760 - 1820) was an English King, ratherthan a German ruler. His reign was confronted with the political problems raised by the American and French Revolutions (the loss
of the Arnerican colonies) but also the developments associated with the Industrial Revolution" His son George lV {1820 - 1830) eroded sorne of the respect that his father had gained for the monarchy. Later on Williarn lV {1830 - 1837) did very little to stop monarchy from not unnecessary institution. disneputable being seen as It was Queen Victoria (1S37 - 1901) that restored the usefulness of the e rown. Her hard work, dedication tn family values and religious piety turned her into the incarnate spirit of the British nation just like Eiizabeth ! had been. She was the daughter of the Duke of Kent, Willianr lV's brother. She become queen at the age of eighteen and

by Henry Pelhann.

if

tit

3 .,

after inarrying Aibert cf Saxe - Coburg Gotha, in 1840, she initiated irarious reforms in the country. After Albert's death in 1861, she reixainee in nncurning for the rest of her life, making very few publrc apilGi*rances. Stit;. during the last i/ears of her reign she becarne the surnbnl *f f h* Empine, loved and idolised by her people *n;: scidiers. i**i" san ffidwand Vgi (1901 - 1910) reigned during that short *ci'iud sf peace thet preceded the outbreak of the First World War. i-!* ais* uia3r*d an imp*rtant role in the diplomacy which generated i'ii* I-r"ip!* ffint*y"lt* iHngiand, France, ltaly). His son, George V {1910 'i#SSl i':,** io face the *rises before and during the War.
The n*xt King Hdwand Vlll {1936} seerns not to have preserved
he

his fath*r qualities. Not onlv was he more informai, but

s.i:;i: ebdicate*: his duiies in order to marry an American divorcee, r'#rs \ltje!!is Sinnpson. 'i{e wes inade Duke of Vdindsor and spent his iif* rii F*i-is v;h*re lrs elsc dieci. Flis brother, the iluke cf York, ,;*i:i,31-fi* st:nr:: lG**ng*, udg {"?S36 - jg5gi. Thcugh at finst !t seenred -:,.1 \iv-frLlii,: ir;,lv* *iffieu!ries **ping with his new role as rnonarch, he f:r'+,i"r'iL:a.::iri r*:,,ii.,i** **nfidenCe in the monarchy with the help of his ,,rr',=.i i,]:fid *xi:gili*r^s. il)uring \Alcrld War Two, they never left l-oncjon, ::r,:;.*il"rg i*r;e ar"rd eare for their people. The most well-known Prime li;rlisi*r- ef the p*ri*d wes Winston Churchiil. ilfier G*erg*'s sudden death, his daughter become queen ffif;$amfuet*"r E$. !{er neign had to face, so far, the various changes with u,rrh;elr ffir:tain has been confronted during the last half of the twentieth c*ntury" F-Jen functions are mostly ceremonial and she has no direct

the queen and the Royal family ai'e invclved in ilr;!i-fi!"*us events, esp*cially charitabie ones. By 1966, almost all the ueuninies cf the Hmpire had gained their independence and The Empire vL/as replaced by the Connmonwealth which joins 51 former

i:ilw*rs"

F-Jcwevei^,

eelcnies in analliance of co-cperaticn" Elizabeth l! is the iongest-reignrng British monarch since Victoria ilebate about the future of monarchy' continues as the Royai family is trylng to show vigour and digniiy in spite of scandals.

14

k .&
;...

m " *fArW

fr,*"#.&e*.r-" trXli"

#"
#"

rt*dddeass'a. g$c,e

*msesaes'{}ry'.

#
#"

ffiib&seud
Htr

{*,r.*,rg: VEXtr,

#dcryN, {hsdres#d&

,9" fl*e'r'ges

ii, tH' i4pe,sse-, ,f " 'B'!rer.s,t"rffi4 M ' #decffivr,f, \rlT]i,

ff-

{1" ffi,fuiaeaed ff.axes,v.,'t- sa+ S":fueri r'. -#fee@: i&forg, ds gdt$"&*dft '+ {i&s,ntur i"

ft"

#&gcef&

T5

THE SOUL OF ENGLAND THE CITY The story of London begins. as it did centuries ago, in the 'square mile' called the City. Here. within its boundaries ca'- De found landmarks to London's fortunes througr^:^e aJ3s The Romans laid the first foundations of LcnJ3' ,'.:=:=-*---:^. fortified and walleci settlennent in lne a'ee ,,,^ t- -=::., :: -=*: . thriving trading center The N:',*a- ^, as :^ a '.': -::-: .:3's .':' gave the Cit;' a fol'ess
power ever since

It rras 3ee- e : :a:e 'J: z :? a:a 3:=. :' _ : , :.- -e-. a- : aiso the scene o" sct*g 3' :^9 : :.:'::s: a.:-:s - I-: s- - Stt-.* Kings. cueer']s a-: ;e3: : :':-e - l-:s: -:-" '2,? s-:-3: the sarne fate wrthrrr iis ',,,dr s ES st es J J:g-s e': :-3::-s -^= tower of Loncon ts whe:e :ney ,,','t'e ic{tJrec. oe^ea:e: "'--ce-e: or imprisoned, lt rs also the nation's treasure nouse ccr:a ntnE i^e Crown Jewels. William the Conqueror pianned nis rnassr','e fortress to proteci the city, subdue and cverawe its citizens and guard the approach to London by river fror;r its strategic position at the City's eastern bounciary. The White tcwer, dating from 1078. has walls 11-15 feet thick and has been built of white Cane stone from Normandy. lt contains a collection of arms and armour. The oldest church in London, the Chapel of St. John dating from 1080, lies within the White Tower's walls. Frorn this central dominant Norman keep, the Tower of London grew over 400 years. Ringed by two protective walls both strung with numerous towers, these in turn are surrounded and defended by a moat-dry now-and drawbridges Yet this formidable fontress has never been seriously put to the test in its 900 year history. Trainor's Gate, with an arch 60 feet wide was the entrace to the state. lt gave direct entrance to the Tower by boat or by the moat. The Tower has been associated with sensational events throughout its history. One king's exploits in panticular have left a notorious mark. King Henry Vlll was married in the Tower to Catherine of Aragon in 1509. Her successor', Anne Boleyn, rode io her coronation from the Tower and was beheaded in the same place in 1536. A similar fate befell Henry's fifth queen,
o'rr---------------,ces ,

THE TOWER OF LOHDOH

Catherine Howard. in 1 542.

I6

The Tower's prisoners included King David ll of Scotland in the 14th century, Princess (later Queen) Elizabeth in the 16th century, Guy Fawkes and his fellow conspirators who plotted to blow up the Houses of Parliament in the 17th century and Rudolph Hess, Hitler's deputy, in the 20th century, Tower Green is where many of royal and noble birth met their death. Nearby is the Chapel Royal of St. Peter and Vincula where many victims are buried. Ravens can always be seen on Tower Green. Their disappearance is said to herald the fall of the British Empire and the White Tower, so their wings are clipped to confine them. A Raven Master feeds and protects them. As well as being home to the relics of English history, the Tower also houses its glory. The Crown jewels are permanently on display in a specially built modern vault. The oldest crown in the royal regalia is St. Edward's, made forthe coronation of King Charles ll in 1661 and is still used for the coronation ceremony. The lmperial State Crown, made for Queen Victoria's coronation in 1838, is set with 3,000 diamonds and other precious stones, including the ruby given to the Black Prince in 1367 and worn by King Henry V at the battle of Agincourt in 1415. At the brow of the crown is one of the Stars of Africa diamonds cut from the Cullinan, the largest diamond ever found, which weighed one and a half pounds uncut. The Crown of Queen E'lizabeth made in 1937 is set with the Koh-i-noor or 'Mountain of Light' diamond whose legendary history goes back five thousand years. Ceremonial is still part of the daily life within the Tower. Each night the Chief Warder locks the gates and gives the keys to the Resident Governor-a ritual that has taken place for 700 years. Yeoman warders who assist today's visitors to the Tower still wear the distinctive colourful uniform dating from Tudor times. An opening in the wall by Traitor's Gate leads to Tower Wharf where cannon gun salutes are fired to mark significant royal events and anniversaries. Tower Wharf offers a strategic view of London's most famous bridge. A miracle of hydraulic engineering TOWER BRIDGE raises its 1,000 tonne drawbridges as if in salute to allow tall ships to pass between its twin Gothic-style towers. Rising from the riverbed, the towers house the original machinery, which lifts the roadway in one and a half minutes. Started in lBBO and finished in 1894 at a cost of 800,000 pounds, Tower Bridge has been raised over half a million times since it was built. The towers are connected at the top by a walkway 142feet above the water level.

17)

Designers of the bridge lvere Sir Horace Jones. who died as work began. and Sir John iVotfe Barry. Just opposite the west

side of the Tower of London is Tower Hill Pageant. Ride in a time-car through 2000 years of London's history. See the Roman invasion. watch the Vikings attacking, smell the
horrible plague and relive the Great Fire of London.

ST.PAUL'S CATHEDRAL The spiritual center of the City rose out of the devastation of the Great Fire of London of 1666, which razed two thirds of London to ashes in four days. lt was the fifth cathedral to be built on the site of the present building, completed in 1710, and has remained larEely unalterated to this day. St. Paul's has been the setting for solemn and significant occasions in the nation's history, from the funeral of Sir Winston Churchill to the wedding of the Prince and Princess of Wales. King Charles ll authorized the new cathedral building in 1673 and a higher tax on coal entering the port of London was levied to pay for it. The King knighted the chosen architect Sir Christopher Wren, before building started as a sign of his confidence. After the old cathedral had been cleared from the site, Sir Christopher Wren called for a stone to nrark out the foundation of the new one. A workman chose one at random from a heap of rubble. lt was part of a brok*,"r tombstone carved with the word RESURGAM (l shall rise again). From the foundations rose the magnificent Renaissance build!ng seen today. Built of Portland stone, the cathedral's main west front portico, carved with a sculpture of the conversior: of St. Paul's, is flanked by two towers. The north tower contains a peal of twelve bells and the south houses a clock and Great Paul, the largest beli in England, weighing over 16 tons. The Dome, the second largest in the world after St. Peter's in Rome, rises 365 feet into the air and supports

modern monument to those who died in the two World Wars. The fine woodcarving on the choir stalls is the work of Grinling Gibbons and Hampton Court. Steps lead to the Dome's Whispering gallery (a word whispered into the wall will be clearly heard on the other side). This is the best vantage point to view Sir James Thom hill's decoration of the Dome depicting the life of St. Paul. More steps lead up to the Stone and Golden Galleries. A ball and cross surmount the top. St. Paul's contains monuments
r l8

a lantern and cross weighing around 700 tons. The altar is a

---

-r-ql

I--

-:

to the nation's heroes, including Admiral Nelson and the Duke of Wellington, statesmen, writers and artists. But the simplest and humblest epitaph is to St. Paul's architect, Sir Christopher Wren. Translated from Latin it says: "Reader, if you seek a rnonument,
look about you".

THE CITY OF LONDON Today it is the financial powerhouse of London. Bankers, brokers, buyers and traders conciuct their daily business within its boundaries. Here, the ancient halls of the medieval craft guilds shelter in the shadow of modern steel and glass office Ulocks iike the controversial Lloyd's building and the Stock Exchange. THE BANK OF ENGLAND ln Threadneedle Street,there is the national bank. lts vaults hold the country's gold reserves. The Bank is known as the 'old Lady of Threadneedle Street'-a reference to the sculpture of Britannia over

own government and its own police force. Even th': sovereign has to stop at the City's frontiers until the Lord F/!ayor allows admittance. Built by John Nash in 1B26,the Royal Mews houses the collection of coachei including the state carriage used fe r coronations, the lrish state coach used fon the State Opening of Parliarr:ent and the 'glass' state coach used for royal weddings.

the main entrance. The city has its own Lord Mayor, its

THE GUILDHALL Dating from the 15th century,it is the place where the Lord Mayor Alderrnen and City fathers conduct the City's affairs. lmportant banquets and ceremonial occasions are held there. The Mansion House, built in 1735, is the official home of Lord Mayor, who holds
office for a year.

The Monument, a 202 feet high coiumn, commemorates the Great Fire of London of 1666, which broke out in a baker's shop in Pudding Lane, 202 feet away from the column's plinth. Designed by Sir Christopher Wren, it symbolizes the City's ability to restore itself from disaster from a bombsite. The Barbican Centre has developed into a vast 60 acre commercial, residential and leisure complex. The Center includes a concert hall,an exhibition gallery,

l9

of the Royal Shakespeare Company) The Museum Of London depicts London's history from prehistory to the present day, with
a cinema, restaurants, bars, gardens and theatre (the London home

many archaeolog ical finds on d isplay.

WESTMINSTER C6ncentrated,within a half-mile square of Westminsterthere are the centers of power in British life: Civil power is represented by parliament and government, based in the Houses Of Commons And Lords and in Whitehall. Spiritual power is focused in Westminster historic ABBEY and CATHEDRAL. For 900 years, nearly every king or queen of England has been crowned in Westminster Abbey. The Abbey was refunded in the 11th century by a king Edward the Confessor-and the strong royal link and special royal status have been maintained over the centuries. Many English monarchs are buried here. The site had been used as a place of worship for centuries earlier. lts name refers to its position to the west of the City of London'west monastery' of Westminster. "Minster" means large church. The magnificent Gothic building seen today largely dates from the 13th and 14th centuries, although the Chapel of the Pyx and the Undercroft (now the Abbey museum) are 11th century. The Abbey museum features wooden or wax funerary effigies of monarchs and treasures including Henry V's shield and helmet from the battlefield of Agincourt. Monuments to those who were born to high rank and those who achieved glory line the walls of theAbbey. St. Edward the Confessor's chapel, the most sacred part of theAbbey, is the burial place of kings. But a simple black marble slab in the nave pays tribute to those unknown and unsung heroes who also served their country-the tomb of the unknown warrior. Beside it there is a green marble slab to the memory of Sir Winston Churchill. The Sanctuary, within the altar rails, is the setting of coronations. Behind the 1Sth century carved stone screen, which forms the back of the high altar, stands the oak Coronation Chair. Until 1996 the Stone of Scone lay underneath it. This block of sandstone was used as coronation seat of the kings of Scotland and seized in'1297 by the English, The stone, now housed in Edinburgh Castle, will be returned to the Abbey for future coronations. Henry Vll's chapel, recently restored, is notable for the delicate and intricate fan vaulting of its roof. The Abbey nave vaulting is the highest of any church in England at 1 03 feet.

20

The 16 Waterford crystal chandeliers, which hang in the Abbey, were a gift to mark in 1965 the 900th anniversa!'y of its consecration. Opening off the east walk of the cloisters is the Chapter House, an octagonal chamber 60 feet across dating from the l3thcentury. Called'the cradle of all free parliaments'it was the meeting place for Parliament from the 14th to the 16th centuries. In the Chamber of Pyx, part of Edward the Ccnfessor's church, was stored the 'pyx' or chest containing the trial plates of gold and silver used as standards of quality for coins of the realm. The Abbey precincts, which include Dean's Yard on the site of the Abbey gardens, are a quiet and timeless sanctuary. The Westminster Abbey towers over The St. Margaret's" the parish church of the House of Commons. Founded in the I lth or 12th century, it has been a fashionable place for weddings over the centuries. Diarist Samuel Pepys was married here in 1655,the poet John Milton a year later

and Winston Churchill

in 19il8. Westminster Cathedral is

the leading Roman Cathc!ie Church in England" Designed by John

Francis Bentley and built around the turn of the century in Byzantine style, its red brick (tweive anei d half million of them) and white Portland stone give its exteri*r & striking striped appearance. This is highlited by the campanri* ?73 feet high, wich stands out like a beacon over the surroundlrig area. The cross, 11 feet high,

that tops the campanile contains

nelic

of the True Cross.

The cathedrai is 342 feet long , 117 feet to the top of the domes and the nave is the widest in England at 60 feet across, giving the interior a feeling of massive magnificence. While the bare walls and vaults were designed to be covered with mosaics and marble, the intended effect can be seen in the cathedral's chapel, notably the elaborated decorated Lady Chapel. Eric Gill's relief depicting Stations of the Cross is considered one of the cathedral's treasures. Sir Winston Churchill's statue is among those of famous statesmen and former prime ministers in Parliament Square. A patch of green uniting the House of Comrnons on one side, Westminster Abbey on another and Whitehall, Parliament Square was laid out by Sir Charles Barry, architect of The Houses Of Parliament. The Houses of Parliament form an elaborate Gothic-style carved stone group of buildings on the banks of the River Thames. Here laws governing British life are formulated, debated and passed. Begun in 1B40,after a disastrous fire destroyed the previous building, the

2i'i
'l

Houses of Parliament cover eight acres and include 100 staircases, eleven courtyards, rnore than 1,000 apartments and two miles of passages. Its ofticial title is New Palace of Westminster, as a royal palace has existed on the site since the 11th century. One of the bestknown landmarks in the world is the 320 feet high clock tower, popularly known as Big Ben" This is actually the name of the thirteen and a half ton bell that strikes the hours. The clock's four dials are each 23 feet across and the hands over 14 feet long. A light in the tower at night shows where the House of Commons are sitting. At the opposite corner of the building rises the Victoria Tower, the largest and tallest square tower in the world. Through its archway the monarch enters for the State Opening of Parliament each November. In 1605, Guy Fawkes and fellow Roman Catholic conspirators were discovered in the cellars ready to blow up king James I together with the Lords and Commons as they assembled November" for the opening Panliament on the sth The vaults are still searched by Yeoman of the Guard each year before the State Opening of a new Parliamentary session. 650 Members of Parliament represent the British people in the House of Commons. The House of Lords comprises peers of the realmdukes, earls, countesses, marquises, viscounts, barons and baronesses and archbishops and bishops. Their Lordship's charnber is a richly carved hali with a dais for the monarch's ornate throne. ln front of the throne is the Woolsack, a seat stuffed with the wool from Britain and Commonwealth, which was traditionally stood in the House since the time of Edward lll in the 14th century. This is the seat of the Lord Chancellor when the House is sitting.

of

of

The House of Commons, completely destroyed in an air raid

in

1941,is simpler in style. The green leather parallel rows of benches that face towards the well of the chamber offer seating for only two thirds of the 650 elected members at any one time. The mace (a symbol of authority) is placed on a table in the center of the chamber at the start of each day's proceedings. Each daily sitting is presided over by the Speaker" Westminster Hali, the great hali of the royal palace, is the only remaining medieval part of the complex apart from St. Stephan's Crypt and the Jewel Tower. King Charles I stood trial at Westminster Hali after ne lost the Civil War and was sentenced to die. A statue erected in front of Westminster

'22

who established supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy and made Fr-rgland a republrc for '11 years. Whitehall is named after a royal palace" which existed on the site. lt burned down in 1698 when one cf King William's Dutch laundry maids hung some clothes to dry too close to charcoal fire. The Palace was razed tc the ground by the next day" The only remaining part is the Banqueting House, a masterpiece cf classical architecture by Inigo Jones, which was built in the 17ln century. Rubens painted its ceilings. The Horse Guards, whose entrance is guarded by two mounted troopers of ti:* Household Cavalry, was built on the site of the guardhouse for th* *id palace of Whitehall. The troopers are at their posts daily fr*n: trCI arn tc 4 pm. At 11 arn (10 am on Sundays) the colourful eer#ffiony of changing the Guard is performed. Government offices !rn* bcth sides of \4/hitehall. The Cenotaph, a memorial to those whr: died rn the Z*th centuny \Frars, forms an island in the center of t!'r* brcaej road" Each year on Rernembrance Sunday (in Ncvernber) a trs* r:rrr"rr-rte siience is observed during a service attended by the illlrcer: anC i"evai farnily, statesnren and representatives of the armed f*r**s of eomm*nwealth. The ofticiai home of the Prirne tu{ir:lster. nurr:ber 10 Downing Street, leads off Whitehail. During r"t*bu;idir:fi wark behind its Georgian facade in the 1960s were found i'*r;-ra:ns t:f Rar*eil pattery, a Saxon haii and the Tudon palace of

Hall commernorates his adversary, Oliver Cromwell,

iitlhit*fl:all. Eowning Street was named after George Downing, a ,*ipi*nrat spy anC prcper-iy deveioper. He was taken as a child to F{assachusetts ln Arnerica but returned home when Cliver Cnornweil seized power. Atter becoming Crcrnwell's chief spy on the *cntinent, he switched sides to spy for King Charles and was r"ewarded with a knighthcod and a crown iease on the pancei cf lancj. i4e developed the site. which subsequently became home to successive British Prime Ministers from 1735 onward. Sixty rooms lie behind the narrow front. The Cabinet Room is on the ground floor and State Rocms on the finst where official receptions and banquets are heid. A door and passageway lead from number 10 tc number 11 next docr-the officiai residence of the Chancellon of the Exchequer. The undergncund Cabinet War Rooms in King Charles Street now show vrsitors where the cabinet, led by Churchill, met in the 1940s
r,vhen Londcn was under attack during World War ll.

23r

TRAFALGAR SQUARE
From his perch 167 feet above TRAFALGAR SQUARE, Admiral Lord Nelson surveys the memorial to his great naval victory in 1805. Laid out in 1840 by Sir Charles Barry, who designed the Houses of popular venue for politicai Parliament, Trafalgar Square is demonstrations - and pigeons. The Admiral's statue, 17 feet high and carved in granite, looks towards the Houses of Parliament at the end of Whitehall. Four panels at the foot of the famous column cast from captured cannons depict the Battles of St. Vincent and the Nile, the Bombardment of Copenhagen and the death of Nelson. Four magnificent bronze lions, each 20 feet long and 11 feet high, stand guard. The fountains in the square were remodeled in 1939 to the designs of Sir Edwin Lutyens. Every Christmas, a fir tree is

thanks for the Gallery's classical columns pro vide the backdrop for the north side of the square. Containing one of the richest and most expensive collections of art in the world, the National Gallery was built on the site of a royal stable. Behind the National Gallery is the National Portrait Gallery, a pictorial hall of fame whose treasures include a painting of Queen Elizabeth lafter the triumphant defeat of the Spanish Armada. Admiralty Arch was erected in 1910 as one of the national memorials to Queen Victoria. Chamberlain's department. Clarence House, at the southwest front of the St. James's Palace, was added in 1825. Across the stable yard from St James's Palace is Lancaster House, a richly decorated setting for great state occasions and banquets.

set up in Trafalgar Square, a gift from the people of Norway in

St. James's Palace is now the official office of the

Lord

KENSINGTON
Kensington is one of London's royal boroughs. Many members of the royal family continue a royal tradition by making it their London base. Kensington Palace was formerly the home of the Ead of Nottingham. King William lll, an asthmatic who found the air of Whitehall disagreeable and crowds objectionable, bought the house in 1689 for 18,000 pounds and employed Sir Christopher Wren, architect of St. Paul's, to rebuild it. The south wing of the red brick Palace is the notable surviving part of Wren's work.

Later monarchs ordered subsequent improvements

24

and

alterations.

woodcarving, probably by the mastercarver Grilling Gibbons, and a selection of paintings from the Queen's private collection. Mementos of Queen Victoria, who was born and lived at Kensington palace as a princess, include her toys and dolls' house. The Cupola room, where Princess Victoria was christened, is one of the most extravagantly decorated State Rooms. The private part of the palace is now a select series of apartments for Princess Margaret and other royal relatives. Kensington Gardens, once the privite grounds of the Palace, is now a public park, separated from Hyde Fark by the serpentive Lake. Features incrude the orangery, now containing statuary, a sunken garden and the statue of peter pan, hero of sir James Barrie's fairy, story. lt was erected in 1g12,at night, to surprise the local children. The Albert Memorial is within KenJington Gardens. The elaborate memorial to Prince Albert Consort to eueen Victoria was erected between 1863-76.The Prince in gilt bronze is depicted under an ornate canopy, a copy of ftre catalogue of the Great Exhibition on his lap. He inspired the idea of -irre Great Exhibition in 1851 as a showcase of British artistic and engineering expertise and craftsmanship. The exhibition also raised money to opposite the Royal Albert Hali, an oval amphitheatre covered by a glass dome-the home of good music from the classical Promenade concerts to pop. Completed in 1B71to the designs of captain Francis Fowke, it measures 273 feet across, 155 feei high and is capable of accommodating audiences of up to 8,000 p-eople. The Hall's famous organ, with nearly 10,000 pipes, is one of the mightiest in the world. The Victoria and Albert Museum is a national collection of fine and applied art. Over its main entrance in Cromwell Road are

T!9 state Apartments were restored and opened to the public in 1975.King william's Gallery, designed by wren, features fine

build Kensington's museums nearby. The Albert Memoriai

is

Science Museum's emphasis on working models, which visitors can explore and handle, brings science to life. lt shows scientific discoveries and "ihe evolution of technorogy to the present cJay.

statues of Queen Victoria and prince Albert. The museum has around seven miles of galleries and exhibits ranging from the 16th century Great Bed of ware to the Canning Jewel, a merman forged in precious gold and jewels and brought from India by Lord Canning after the Mutiny of 1857-59. The museum is a vast treasure house of arts and crafts culled from all periods and cultures. The

25)

GRAMMAR
TENSES
TENSE
PRESEi.\T

SIMPLE

(-ONTINI I.)I
Lvery morning he reads th(
newspapers

Iq

read you read

I

I mthinting you aretirinling

hershetil isthinking

"What are you thinking about?

he/sirelit reads PRESENT PERFECT

we/vou,/thev read I have workeC vou have worked

u'e/rnrr/ther erethirk ino

I have lived here sfu.e 199:
f ha.,p hapn.' -,itinc

he/she/it has worked

..,-h,^.. /+L-,. L..,-,,,^-L-i PAST
1

beenwaiting hershetit hasbeenu'aiting

lou
have sbr/^rr/rhav L..,- k---.,,";1 ;--

Dan has been waiting for

Sur

./blthreehours
I was talking with Mary rry'rile m'

cleaned

I wastalking
I cleaned mv room lasl week you
brother was listening to his stereo he/she,/it wastalk ing we,'vou,/thev weretalk ing I had been swinrn ing The shou' had started belo^ you had been sn'imm ing He had been swimming/br two hour u,e arrived at the theatre heishe/it hadbeensu'imming belbrehereachedtheisland rvntrrn,,/thcrr horl hpen ru-imnr ino

rA)

PERFECT

you cieaned he/she/it cleaneri we/vou'thev cleaned I had started you had starled

weretalking

heishe,/it had startcd nre/von/fherr had stafed

FUTURE

i will play

IttIUKt
PERIECT

you rvill play heishelit will play we/vou/thev will nlav i will have flnished you wil) have finished heisherit will have finishcd we/you/they will have finished

Mike will play chess

at Ton 1'gu will befl_ving Lucky youl You rvill be tlying to Hawai tomorrow he/shelii will be fll ing ot this time tomorrow we/r'orr/thev will heflv ins I will have beendo ing By the end o/ the Junt you will have beendoing I will have been doing thisjob/br we will have finishet he'sheiit will have beendoing thifiy five years by July school wervou/they will have been do ing

I will betlying

SIGNALS FOR THE TENSES

TENSE

SIGNAL
every oay/ weee monrD year always, sometimes. never. often,
seldom

EXAMPI-ES

rrus[l\ I
SIMPLE

do exerciscs cvery day.

rruD[lf

CONTINUOUS

usually, occasionaily, regularly, generally at the weekends, on Monday momings now, at present, at tne moment, curTently this week/ month, right now still, just look!
JvrLuruoJ! r@il tr!5r1u

I often visitmy grandparents in tlre country sidc. Hc usually reads or listens to music in his frec ttme We goto the cinema at the weekends She presents her repod on Monday rnomings. Cunently, i am prepanngmy cxams. We are studying this table right nou'. I amstill readingthe book you lent to me. Lookl It's rainins! I linlshedmy paper last nlght. He leftschool two years ago. Shc travelledto Spain in 1985. He talkedall the time durins our last meetin When she called me" I wasjust leavrng
Wherc rrrercvnr onino at nine n'elnclt laqr nioht'/ She has worked on her project for two months. She has worked on hcr project since November.

fAsl slll4tsLt;

two minutes/ hours/ weeks/ months/ years ago in 2000, on Mrch 26th during our last meeting PAST CONTTNITOIIS
at three o'clock vesterday. at this time..

PRESENT PERFECT

Ior
since already, just

yet today/ this week/ month/ year in/ over the last few weeks/ months/ years so far, up to now, until now latelv, recently

His fax hasjust anived Sorry, I haven't sentthe reply.vet. No, I haven't seenher today. In the last few years it has rained a lot.

Nothing

has been decided so

far

rKl,stlN
PAST

I
slnce

PERFECT (-ONTINITf|ITS PERFECT

There have been manv cultural events latelv. He has been workingin this olllcc for 35 learsi She's been cooking since ten o'clock. no wonder
<hc'< cwhlretp.4

alter/ wtren

Alter they have readthe rules they understood the

grammar exercise.
T

until that happened...

a long time before,.. /up to that time.. oetore rnar nappeneo.. until that happened... soon

Ih f^ lLor

L^l;i.r.

h-

h.,l

l"aa6.'ar\/

hrr.\'

rAs

Before they realized, they had been walking 1or three

hours. She' tl be twenty years soon. The exhibition will opennext month. ln the future astronauts will fly to Mars. I hone thev' ll arive on time. At this time tomorrow. I' l1 be reading my paper at the conttrence. B1 the end ofthe vear I will have finishedthe Engiish
course_

PERFECT
CONTINTTOITS

FUTURE

SIMPLE
FUTUR.E

tomotrou. nert ueek month )ear

in (the) tuture

I thjnk.... I hope. I expcct... at thls tlmc tomonos't next

s cekl monthl vear
O.v

.r|NTTNITNITS tlu I uKl!

lvionoa) July tne elrl ol

PERIECT

2a

THE PASSIVE VOIGE

TEI\TSiES;

FORMS
to be into the same tense as the active verb + Past Particiole of the active verh. - the subject of the active sdrltence becomes the agent and is introduced by bv
-

EXAMPLES
Active: We keep the wine in the cellar. Pasive: The wine is kenf in the cellar. The X-mas tree is decked by the whole family. Lord of the Rings is read bv my friends. The kitten is keot in a small box. The packet is beins carried to the deliverv ooint I was invited to have a meal at McDonald's A new house was heino huild at that time A lot of eood deeds have been done bv the hero. She had heen fold olhis wit The patient will be nut under suerveillance.

Simple Present Present Continuous Simple Past

Past Continuous Present Perfect
Past Perfect Future

EXAMPLES
- We do not know who does the action or this is

obvious.
- We are more interested in the action than the person who does it.

- Verb + preposition + object? the preposition remains risht after the verb. - The indirect object may become the subject.

You will be met there. (we do not know by who) When he got in ire was arrested (bv the police) Two new e-cafes have been opened on my street. A new comouter same is hcino dcwclnnodW'e must write to him? He must be written to. The new sDorts equioment can he nleved wifh sa.felv The guide showed him the new museum? He was shown the new museum.

TNDIREGT SPEECH
with reporting t'erb.s in
Sam
a.

present, prcsent petfect or.fitture

ten..ge,

there is no t:hange of tenses. Peter says that he wants to walk out the dog. Jack has said that they have l651their dog.
past tense

says,

l_ran hcq

,l serd.

"I

want to walk out the dog".

"We have lost our dog"

I |

I |

With reportirLg yerb,y in the past, the chctnges are

present tense - past tense present perfect - past perfect

I Alan said that he ryss very
I he added (that) he

? past perfect future ? futwe-in-the-past

Alan saitl,

"I

amvery hungry. I haven't eaten tbr hours. Andlhadbreakfastat6o'clockinthemorning! So I will order a large meal now - but first

hungry that he had not eatenfor hours;

lhementionedthathehadhadbreakfastat6o'clockinthemornirs
would order a large meal and would like some
I steak for a starl.

I would like some steak."

N.B.: Motlul.s (ntigltt. should, coLtld) und the set:ond conditional do not chttnge in the inclirect.speech With both yesh'Lo questiotl,r and u-lt- que.stions, lJtere is no question forn in the indirect .speech Sue asked, Sue asked iflwheter the post office was near, | "ts tt.re post office near?" Paul asked, | "Where didyou meetGerry?" Paul askcd me where I had met Gerry.
Lfit.h orders. reque.\t.\ ttntJ

said. | "Tuk".ur. of you!" Dad sard. I Don't make so much noisel" l1 Other chon.ges refet to prcnoutts' cutd udjet:tives; this - that fim saicl, "I will sqe you a1 my office this week''
Mom
Adverb,s of time and place :

adtir:e, the imperative r:hunges inlo the infinitit,e Mom adr iscJ me to take care. Dad told me not to make so much noise.
these - those Dan said he would see me at his offrce rhar week.

today tomorrow
yesterday the day after tomorrow the day before yesterday last week/ month/ year two years ago
here

that day the next/ following day the day before in two day's time two days before the previous week etc. two years before there

-_\ 27

MODAL VERBS
EXPRESSING

CAN/COULD

Ability. capabilitl' (ro &c

ahle to) Kcqucst. penrrssron
Possibr lrt-v, suggestlons

EXAMPLES

+perfect

Pre

supo si ti on s.

canspeak Irish. He couldplay golf" but couldn'tski. (but He was able toleam Chinese in one \ ear.) Can I rnake a phone cail? Could i take a day offl ( could is more polite) Do you think this answer couldbe corect? We couldpaint the room a dift-erent colour for a chanse. The visitors didn't come to the meetins - thev could have missedthe train.

infinitive
Past

hvoothesis

possibility not
hapoend

You could have toldme there

r""'as

no money 1eft for the holiday!

+not

N{AY/MIGHT

t can't betrue - he can't have metme tn Rotne because l-\e ne\er bcen thcrel Dad, rnayi go to the movic? Mightl call you up tomonow? ( nlgfttis more polite) Ther,' ll bc allowcdto travel alone. Possibility, presupposition He maycome today. We mightfind the money u,e need, but I'm not sure. ( might
lmn()sslbllltv
Permission (to be aLlov,ed l pernitted to)
Past

+pertect infinitivt MUST / HAVE TO

possibility

no1

It

shows sreater doubt) nright have beena solution - unfortunately, we thought

ofit

too late.

happend Necessltv. obllgatlon

You mustwash the dishes before you get out. I musthave my hair cut (speaker:\
order. u-ill).
Somc pupils have to wear uniforms. I' ve got to hnish the reporl in an hour (external oblisation). You mustgo and see Harry p617nr' - it's absolutely terific! You mustgo to the doctor - vou look ill. We haven't seen Mike today - he mustbe on the business trip he told us about. She didn't answer the phone she must have been in a rneeting Passagers must notcarry dangerous materials in their luggage. You'mustn'tp1ay with the knife! You don't have toeat up the 50up if-you don't like it

Advice
Deducrion" orobabilirr Deductron 1n the past

+perfect

infinitive
+not
Prohibition, interdiction
Absence of oblieation

NEED
+not

Necessity, requirement
Ahsence of oblisation Unnecessary, yet done

Need

l/ Do I need tosign the

paper right now? -

I haven't talked to my lawyer yet

infinitive SHALL/
SHOULD/

No longer necessan Offerins heln

5USSeSilOn

Oprnion, advice

You needn'ti don't need towait for me - l'11 come alons later. We r-reedn't have hurried tothe aircor1. the plane was late. I didn't have totell him the news. he had already found out. ShallI brins vou some collee? Shall I make a copv fbr vou? (lirst person ottlt'.') Shallwe have a shorl break now? I think vou shouldtry this cake - it's delicious! We shouldi ought tobe more patient with our new collegues. You should/ ought to
smoke less. Books shall/ shouldbe retumed within 30 days. You shouldvisit your grandparents more often. There shouldn'ti ought not tobe any problem. They should/ ought to have arrivedby

Duty, moral obligation

OUGHTTO
+perfect

Expectation

Criticism Firm decision,

commltment Polite requests Offers and invitations Instant decision and thought Repeated action

He should have apologised You shouldn't have spent all the money. You ought to
hcrre fnld me earlier

infinifiwe

WILLi
WOULD

We willdo everything in our power to win.

wouldtell him, but he didn't listen to me.

Willyou give me that book, please? Wbuldyou help me carry these handbags? (v'ould is more polite) I'l1 eivethem a ring if vou iike. Wouldyou like me to finish this reporl for yout What would you have? - I' llhave some pizza. I think I' llgo home now.
Most days they will get home at about 6 p.m. He would always give her flowers when thev had a date. Hc u'on'tever do that I te1l him to do. They u'ouldn'tfollow their guide and they got lost in the woods.

*no1

Retusa

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

FORMS
- Exactly the same form as the Infinitive. Therefore the Present Subjunctive ofto be is be for all persons, and the Present Subjunctive ofall other verbs is the same as their Present Tense exceot that -s
is not added for the third person singular. - Exactly the same form as the Simple Past. With the verb tre the Past Subjunctive form is lvere for all persons (note that the use ofwas for all persons is also quite common'). - Exactly the same form as the Past Perfect.

EXAMPLES
this be so, you are both to be blamed. Far be it from me! He asked that the project be done in time. Everybody come to parly! Somebody go and fetch me the remote, please! Long live freedom!
he were in town for St. Valentine's day. (As vrea sa fie in oras...) Don't you wish we went to Constanta for the

lf

I wish

summer? (N-ai vrea sa mergem...?) I wish he had visited me when he arrived here. He wished he had not spent all the money.

USAGE
- In cefiain exclamations, to express wish or
hone.

EXAMPLES
Godbless you! Godhelp us! Mav vour wish come truel

After 'had better', 'would rather' 'would sooner' - After ceftain verbs and expressions followed by a pronoun (noun) - as if / as though - even if / even though - it is (high) time ('high') is used for
-

I'd better go now. I'd rather buy the blue sweater. I'd soonerhave a cat as a pet than a dog. He behaves as if he owned the place. He talked as though he had found the solution. Even if it were cold, we should leave on time. It is time we went to the station. (Este timoul sa
plecam...) it is (high) time Bob got a job. (Ar fi timpul...) I wish you were here. (as vrea sa fii aici) I wish I had bcen slimmer rvhen I was young. (as vrea sa fi fost... /as vrea sa fiu...) If only he had taken my advice! I'd rather Dan played Hearts with us. (as prefera ca Dan sa joace...) I'd rather he didn't leave for the cinema. If I were you, I would accept this job right now. If you lived nearer, we could meet more often. If you had not wasted the time. the project would have been finished risht now.

emphasis)

wish

ttwishtt)

if only (is more dramatic

than

- would ('d) ruther

In if cluuse, conditional sentences

type

II

and

III

SUBJUNCTIVE EGIUIVALENTS
Should + infinitive

Should I have + Pasi Participle

It was arranged that I should meet them. It's absolutely necessary that I should travel to
France.

In the construction should

infinitir e. we sometilnes
omit should especially in American Enelish) May (might) + infinitive introduced by the conjunction so that

It is great that he should have done so well in the suitar concert. He ordered that an action (should) be taken. He advised that they (should) be there to supporl their basketbali team.
Send me an e-mail so that i mar' (might) know your anivai. He worked hard so that he might win the prize.

of

2i

INFINITIVE OR GERUND ?
VERBS FOLLOWED ONLY BY THE INFINITIVE

appesr ask sttempt bother(negative) choose deicide demand deserv expect Jitil happen hope ofJbr plan prepare pretend promise prove refuse tend threaten want wish

manage

He asked to seethe document. She didn't bother to reply They decided to set upa firm. She expects to be giventhejob. I hope to stafla new career. We managed to raisc enough funds for a neu' school. He off'ered to bring the music. Thcy seem to be very happy. I lvish to see the managcr right now.

VERBS FOLLOWED ONLYBY THE GERUND

admin appreciate avoid canlhelp can'tstand deqt detest enjoy excuse fancy Jinnish.forgive imagine keep mind miss postpone practice pret)ent resist risk suggest it's no good it s rLo use it s (not) worth
I admit be'ing wrong. She avoided making the same mistake. They enjoy playing ciress every day. Please excuse
m.rr

involve

disturbing you.

Fancl'meeting him on top of the mountain! My aunt kept complaining about food. Would you mind answering the phone? You missed seeing the sunrise. He risks iosing all his money. I suggested visiting the cathedral. The fi1m is worth seing.

'k begin

VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE OR THE GERUND can't bear cease continue intend it neetls/requires/wants sturt - with slight or no change oimcaning: Thc room needs/ requiresl rvants decorating. She began to sing. He intends to buy the bouse. I have learnt cooking. Shc began singing. He intends buying the house. I have learnt to cook Chinese lbod. The room needs to be decorated.

* distike hate like love preJbr - the ger-und refers to general tastes; the infinitive refers to a particular moment: I prel'er walking io driving. I hate spending holidays alone. I like visiting my relatives quite often.
I would like to visit Aunt Maggy tomorrow. I rvould hate to spend New Year alone. I preter to walk - it's
a fine day today.

- the gerund expresses an earlier action: the infinitive expresses an action to happen later: Nou that you askcd nte. I remembergiving hcr thc lcller. those stupid words. I regret to tell you that I cannot accept your offer. I remembered to give her the ietter when I met her. Don't forget to buy some bread!

forget regret remember

will never forget buying my first bike. I regret telling you

go on mean stop tty use to He rvent on talking about his childhood till the audier.rce got bored. (the same toptc) Afier a f-ew jokes, he went on to talk about his childhood (a change of the topic) He stopped drinking on his doctor's advice. (he didn't ddnk any more) He stopped (talking.t to drink some water (that rvas his purposc)

I didn't mean to upset hcr at ali. (it was not lrv intention) I told her the story even ifit meantupsetting her. (this is what it involved) I tried to leam Japanese (I rnade an attempl but $'itltout t]]uch succcsscs) i tricd leaming ten words a day (l made an erpcrinrent tc. sec iiit t'orks)

Thev used to travel a lot a1i over the country during the holidays: nou'thcv sia)'home most ofthe tinte. (a past habbit or ruLrtinet They were used to travelling a lot, therefore ther-' didn't feel tired aftet- such 3 lpng jounter. (thcr s ere accusilrllled lLr lt)

(a_o)

THE TNDEFINTTE ARTIGLE

a - v/ith consonant or semivowel sounds: a child a hall a uniform a European an - with vowel sounds: an egg an hour an uncle an exercise

USAGE With unspecified singular countable

nouns

EXAMPLES I live in a nice flat. She has a daushter

A fridge is a very useful thing in our homes. A child needs love.
He is a nice man. London is a very busy city. She is an architect. I am a translator. Three times a/per day 15p a/per kilo 65 km an/per hour $11.000 a/per month It's a Ditv! What a fine dav! as a rule, on an average, at a distance

With singular nouns which represent a class of thinss

After to De to describe: someone or something someone's iob

In expressions of measurement (oer can also be used) In exclamations

ln some expresslons

THE DEFINITE ARTTGLE

the

pronounced [d6] before consonant or semivowel sounds i6il before vowel sounds

USAGE With things that are unique or well-known With a specif,rc noun, defined by
a phrase or clause With nouns mentioned before Specilic meanings with plural or uncountable nouns lJelore acuectlves to speclly a category 01 oeoDle or thinss

EXAMPLES
the sun the stars the sea the wind Shut the door! Where is the staff room? the library round the corrrer The school where I leamt was verv sood. He wrote a novel. The novel was brilliant. The young people we met here are students. The information I got from them was wrong. the English, the rich, the poor, the elderly, the bankins svstem. the mobile nhone
I wish vou all
in

In suoerlative conshuctlons
Ordrnal numbers Proper names: - seas, rivers, groups ofislands - chains of mountains, desefis - some countries and cities - adjective + piace
- phrases with "of' - poiitical entities - newspapers, ships, hotels - mlrseums, famous burldings - some orsanisations Plural surnames ( the family) Points of the comoass In some time nhrases

the best. The latest news is bad. the first olace the third winner

Plavins instruments
Job titles and official titles

After prepositions In some expresslons

the Atlantic, the Thames, the Seychelles the Carpathials, the Sahara the Netherlands, fhe Hague the Red Sea, the Middle East the Towerof London,the Gulf of Mexico the European Union, the United Kingdom the Times, the Titanic, the Ambassador the British Museum, the Eiffel Tower the BBC, the United Nations Organisation The Johnsons will eo on holidav. the north. the south-east in thc mornins. in the evenins Andrew plavs the suitar in his soare time. the Finance Director. the Prime Minister He laid his notebook on the table. atthc beginning, forthe moment. onthe left
in the future.

'3

r-

THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

\iii
F -5 to the singular noun:

\I

EXAMPLES
Book - books. day - days, house - houses, bridge - bridges Church - churchss, kiss - kissss, fox - foxss, buzz ' buzz6,
match - matchss,

(but: radio - radios" photo - phot(

Clhange nouns ending consonant + -y

-\dd - es to a noun ending in -ch, -o, -s, -sh, -ss, -tch, -x, -z

Into consonant + -ies

Change nouns cnding in

-f(s) into yss: (but: roof - roofs. clifi- cliffs)

Nouns ot Greek or Latin origin:

(but: album - albums, stadium - stadiums)

- babiss, country - countriss, party - pafiies, study - studies; Lif'e - lives, knife - knives, leaf - leayss, shelf - shelves. calf - calyss, wife - wiy65, wolf - wolygs; Urltenon - cnterla, phenomenon - phenomenn, crisis - crisss, analysis - analyses, datum - data, medium - media, formula - formulss, index - indiss5,
t3aby

IRREGALAR PLURALS
man - men, woman - women, foot - fbet, goose - geese, tooth - teeth, mouse - mice, die - dice, louse - iiss, child - children, ox - oxen same.form, both for singular and plural: deer - deer, fish - fish, slieep - 5hssp collective nottns (.crew, family, team) can take a singular or a plural verb (singular : a group or unit) "Our team is the best!" "Our team nys wearing their new T-shirts" always pltu'al: clothes, pants, pyjamas, binoculars, glasses, scissors, spectacles, compasses alwavs ,singular: (advice, equipment, furniture, information, klowledge, luggage, money, work): "Thc money i5 on tl're table" plural in.form bttt singular in metttting: ncws, murnps, pools, billiards "That news is good" initials: VIP5 (very important persons), UFO5 (unidentified flying objects) compottnd nouilst Dsnally the last words made plural: boy-friend5, travel agents, forget-me-not5 man and wotnan are also made p1ural: men drivers, women doctor5 (.but: nou.ns with -er l adverlts: hangers-on, runners-up; noLtn + preposition I noun; sisters-in-1a$,

COMPARISON OF ADJEGTIVES
Adjectives of one sltllable Ad.jectives of one syllable ending vowel-consonant Adjectives o,f two qtllables ending in -y
Tw'o

or more syllables

Positive Jomparatrve
Sr-rperlative

cheap, nice; big. wet; easv. happv cheaper, nicer; bigger, wetter; easisr. happigl Cheapest, nicest; biggest, wettesti easiest, hapiest

modem, interesting

mglg modern, m61s interesting

most modem, most interesting

N.B. Some two-syllable adjectives, such as: clever, common, narrow, quiet, simple, can forrn in either way:

e.8. COtnltlr)tt ComnlOItCf mofe Common COmmOnesl m}s;t S -r

COmmOn

Equality
Wales is (just) as interesting a country as Scotland and attracts many tourists, Inns are not asi so expresive as hotels and are located near motorwa

R L' G -r
TJ

o F
P A R I S

I? E S

Comparative
Holiday camps are cheaper than Neu York is morc exoensir e
The Himaiayas are by far the tallest mountains in the world / o:[ all. The least expensive things can be bought

Hoiiday camps are less quiet than hotels. Lisbon is less expe lve New York. Superlative
Your answers have been veryt good. The trip to Florence was extremely exciting. Harr1, Potter is an afisslulsly .fascinating book for children. and not onh,. Parallel increase Tht'rttort: we afe. lJte nterrier we shall The less mistakes you make, the better

c o tvl

o N

Gradual increase The weather is getting r.urmet uurl rtrntet.. He becarne less untl less irttcre.stietl in the gamc.

g,

AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES
Adverb Subject Ronald
The visitors

Auxiliary
Modal Verb

Verb

Object flowers

Adverb

likes arrived

will
The pupi The funny litlle man tler vounc brother his uncle Han-v the whole class George
has

s9no

learnt

was
can

laughing
Dla\j

Jometrmes -ast summer

takes decided
read

cn tlme the e-mail tomonow momlnq the whole poem bv heaft. all the tirne. the guitar him to the mountains. to travel around the country

Mamer I Plat:e lTine

a

lol

at school

on Monday

NTERROGATIVE SENTENGES
AUXutAry Subject
VOII

vuesnon word

Verb

0bject

Adverb

Modal
Dn

Verb

Does
Di,-l

Julia
It

want I
ridden I
leave
read

a pet

lor her
,)

wilt
Have What When
Can are

the show vou the nuoils vou

)
a donkev'.)

did

Gerry
Who

bu),

his new hat? to the t

goes

NEGATIVE SENTENGES
JubJect uoJecr
AAVeTD

Thel
YOU

Modal verb + not do not (don't) ar!- not'(aren't)

has not (hasn't)

believe llstenlng
seerl

He

his stories to mel that SF movie

Mary
I ne

rvill not (won't)

cannot (can't)

walt
speak

for rne
spannlsn

vet at the station

slllcent

velv well

NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE SENTENGES

auest on word 4uxtltary
suDJect

Not

verb

Object

Notes

Modal
verb

Did

vou
he

not not

see

hcr?

Usually contracted:

Didn't vou

see her?

whv

1S

commlng

with us'l

Usually contracted: Why isn't he coming with us

flowwnat
How
here.
Hor,r,'

AdJectwe/ubJect u'onderful! \ -arm

a

JubJect

yerb

1t

lr,'as IS:

Let's

go j

ur umbrella! to the cinema!

What What

Diwl

an interesting book this

t3

ffiffiruffiffiYffffiru&tuffi
$\nt i'tflxAl
i
f-clause: presenl simple

-.SA (Pw#*

f'-r'

Ws&

" ?ffJ'wgsre&xdtp#
.: "{ v* ./ {

fteeqgf

"

34t

Aig

Glqo-

,i '.i

r {nrpc}Iuu(u.f

AqnM
**:
,li "{ {r },

Enrpfu
Material realizal de S.G. NOBLE HOUSE DIDAGT S.R.L. BRAILA Autor: Prof. Univ. Rodica Stefan, Bucuresti, Eleny Paraschiv, Bucuresti; Revizuit si adaugit:Prof Oana Ciobanu, Braila.

Toate drepturile asupra acestei Iucrari apartin S.C. NOBLE HOUSE DIDACT S.R.L. BRAILA Reproducerea integrala sau partiala a continutului lucrarii este posibila numai cu acordul scris al S.C. NOBLE HOUSE DIDACT S.R.L. BRAILA. RELATII Sl COMENZI LA: 0722.544.570 : 0239/ 631292 Aprobat de M.E.C. cu procesul verbal nr. 132Oldecembrie 2OOO