CHAPTER -1 1.

1 Introduction A screw jack is a mechanical device used for converting rotary motion into linear motion and transmitting power. A power screw is also called translation screw. It uses helical translatory motion of the screw thread in transmitting power rather than clamping the machine components.

1.2 Working principle: One of the most common applications of the principle of the inclined plane is in the screw jack which is used to overcome a heavy pressure or raise a heavy weight of W by a much smaller force F applied at the handle. R represents the length of the handle and P the pitch of the screw, or the distance advances in one complete turn.

Neglecting the friction the following rule is used: The force F multiplied by the distance through which it moves in one complete turn is equal to the weight lifted times the distance through which it is lifted in the same time. In one complete turn the end of the handle describes a circle of circumference 2 R. This is the distance through which the force F is exerted.

1.3 Applications The main applications of power screws are as follows: To raise the load, e.g. screw-jack, To obtain accurate motion in machining operations, e.g. lead-screw of lathe, To clamp a work piece, e.g. vice, and To load a specimen, e.g. universal testing machine.
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There are three essential parts of a power screw, viz.screw, nut and a part to hold either the screw or the nut in its place. Depending upon the holding arrangement, power screws operate in two different ways. In some cases, the screw rotates in its bearing, while the nut has axial motion. The lead screw of the lathe is an example of this category. In other applications, the nut is kept stationary and the screw moves in axial direction. Screw-jack and machine vice are the examples of this category.

1.4 Types of Screws: There are two general type of screws used to create motion and power: Power screws and Ball screws. Power screws are the simplest of these as they have only two main elements, the screw and the nut. 1.4.1 Power Screw: Power screws cover a wide variety of screw series and include Acmes, Hileads(r), Torqsplines(r) and other special series (not offered in this catalog but produced for OEM customers) such as Stub Acme, Trapezoidal ("metric Acme") and Buttress. Regardless of the thread series, an externally threaded screw mates with an internally threaded nut of the same thread form; when either member rotates, the other member translates. Contact between the screw and nut is sliding friction at the screw and nut interface surface (Below Figure ). Efficiencies vary from 20% - 30% for standard Acmes to 25% - 40% for Hileads(r) and up to 75% for some Torqsplines(r). Efficiency of any power screw and nut juis dependent upon the coefficient of friction between the screw and nut materials, the lead angle and the pressure angle of the screw thread. Of these, the lead angle has the greatest effect, the coefficient of friction has a secondary effect and the pressure angle has a minimal effect. For the exact formula of efficiency as a function of these variables, see the Useful Formulas section. Efficiencies of power screws may vary with load. When the load increases, unit pressure increases and the coefficient of friction can drop. This is especially true for plastic nuts but has also been observed with bronze nuts. Power screws in the Acme screw series (single start screws) are self-locking. This means that they can sustain loads without the use of holding brakes. In vibrating environments, some locking means may be needed, but Acme screws rarely require brakes. This makes them simple and inexpensive for use in many different applications such as machine tools, clamping mechanisms, farm machinery, medical equipment, aerospace and other mechanisms of many industries. Power screws are
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typically made from carbon steel, alloy steel, or stainless steel and they are usually used with bronze, plastic, or steel mating nuts. Bronze and plastic nuts are popular for higher duty applications and they provide low coefficients of friction for minimizing drive torques. Steel nuts are used for only occasional adjustment and limited duty so as to avoid galling of like materials.

Fig 1.4.1 Power Screw

1.4.2 Ball screw: Ball screws, first invented in the late 1800s, did not come into widespread use until the 1940s when they were adapted for use in automotive steering gear. Since that time they have been used in a variety of industrial and commercial applications due to their high efficiency and predictable service life. Ball screws utilize a series of ball bearings between the screw and nut threads so that movement is achieved through rolling friction (see Figure 20). Power screws

Fig 1.4.2 Ball screws

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and Ball screws are analogous to bushings (sometimes called plain bearings) and ball bearings. Like ball bearings, Ballscrews exhibit low friction and predictable service life. Screws, nuts, and balls are made of heat treated steel to optimize performance and resist Hertz an stresses. Efficiency for Ball screws is 90% and does not vary with load. Because of their high efficiency, Ball screws are never self-locking. A holding brake is necessary to sustain loads as Ball screws can easily convert thrust to torque and back drive a gearbox or motor or other drive system elements.

1.5 Advantages Power screws offer the following advantages: Power screw has large load carrying capacity. The overall dimensions of the power screw are small, resulting in compact construction. Power screw is simple to design. The manufacturing of power screw is easy without requiring specialized machinery. Square threads are turned on lathe. Trapezoidal threads are manufactured on thread milling machine. Power screw provides large mechanical advantage. A load of 15 kN can be raised by applying an effort as small as 400 N. Therefore, most of the power screws used in various applications like screw-jacks, clamps, valves and vices are usually manually operated. Power screws provide precisely controlled and highly accurate linear motion required in machine tool applications. Power screws give smooth and noiseless service without any maintenance. There are only a few parts in power screw. This reduces cost and increases reliability. Screw jack can be designed with self-locking property. In screw-jack application, self locking characteristic is required to prevent the load from descending on its own.

1.6 Disadvantages The disadvantages of power screws are as follows: (i) Power screws have very poor efficiency; as low as 40%.Therefore, it is not used in continuous power transmission in machine tools, with the exception of the lead screw. Power screws are mainly used for intermittent motion that is occasionally required for lifting the load or actuating the mechanism. (ii) High friction in threads causes rapid wear of the screw or the nut. In case of square threads, the nut is usually made of soft material and replaced when worn out. In trapezoidal threads, a split- type of nut is used to compensate for the wear. Therefore, wear is a serious problem in power screws.

Chapter -2

2.1 Forms of Threads There are two popular types of threads used for power screws viz. square and I.S.O metric trapezoidal.

Fig 2.1(a) Square Thread

2.1 (b) Trapezoidal

2.2 Advantages of square threads The advantages of square threads over trapezoidal threads are as follows: (i) (ii) The efficiency of square threads is more than that of trapezoidal threads. There is no radial pressure on the nut. Since there is no side thrust, the motion of the nut is uniform. The life of the nut is also increased.

2.3 Disadvantages of square threads The disadvantages of square threads are as follows: (i) Square threads are difficult to manufacture. They are usually turned on lathe with single-point cutting tool. Machining with single-point cutting tool is an expensive operation compared to machining with multi-point cutting tool. (ii) The strength of a screw depends upon the thread thickness at the core diameter. Square threads have less thickness at core diameter than trapezoidal threads. This reduces the load carrying capacity of the screw. (iii) The wear of the thread surface becomes a serious problem in the service life of the power screw. It is not possible to compensate for wear in square threads. Therefore, when worn out, the nut or the screw requires replacement.

2.4 Advantages of Trapezoidal Threads The advantages of trapezoidal threads over square threads are as follows: (i) Trapezoidal threads are manufactured on thread milling machine. It employs multipoint cutting tool. Machining with multi-point cutting tool is an economic operation compared to machining with single point-cutting tool. Therefore, trapezoidal threads are economical to manufacture. (ii) Trapezoidal thread has more thickness at core diameter than that of square thread. Therefore a screw with trapezoidal threads is stronger than equivalent screw with square threads. Such a screw has large load carrying capacity. (iii) The axial wear on the surface of the trapezoidal threads can be compensated by means of a split-type of nut. The nut is cut into two parts along the diameter. As wear progresses, the looseness is prevented by tightening the two halves of the nut together; the split-type nut can be used only for trapezoidal threads. It is used in leadscrew of lathe to compensate wear at periodic intervals by tightening the two halves.

2.5 Disadvantages of Trapezoidal Threads The disadvantages of trapezoidal threads are as follows: (i) The efficiency of trapezoidal threads is less than that of square threads. Trapezoidal threads result in side thrust or radial pressure on the nut. The radial pressure or bursting pressure on nut affects its performance.
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(ii) There is a special type of thread called acme thread. Trapezoidal and acme threads are identical in all respects except the thread angle. In acme thread, the thread angle is 29 instead of 30. (iii)The relative advantages and disadvantages of acme threads are same as those of trapezoidal threads. Another type of thread called buttress thread. It combines the advantages of square and trapezoidal threads. Buttress threads are used where heavy axial force acts along the screw axis in one direction only.

Fig 2.5 Trapezoidal Threads 2.6 Advantages of Buttress Threads The advantages of buttress threads are as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) It has higher efficiency compared to trapezoidal threads. It can be economically manufactured on thread milling machine. The axial wear at the thread surface can be compared by means of spit-type nut. A screw with buttress threads is stronger than equivalent screw with either square threads or trapezoidal threads. This is because of greater thickness at the base of the thread. (v) The buttress threads have one disadvantage. It can transmit power and motion only in one direction. On the other hand, square and trapezoidal threads can transmit force and motion in both directions. (vi) Square threads are used for screw-jacks, presses and clamping devices. Trapezoidal and acme threads are used for lead-screw and other power transmission devices in machine tools. Buttress threads are used in vices, where force is applied only in one direction. Buttress threads are ideally suited for connecting tubular components that must carry large forces such as connecting the barrel to the housing in anti air-craft guns.

Fig 2.6 Trapezoidal Thread

2.7 Designation of Threads There is a particular method of designation for square and trapezoidal threads. A power screw with single-start square threads is designated by the letters Sq followed by the nominal diameter and the pitch expressed in millimeters and separated by the sign x. For example, Sq 30 x 6 It indicates single-start square threads with 30mm nominal diameter and 6mm pitch. 9 Similarly single-start I.S.O metric trapezoidal threads are designated by letters Tr followed by the nominal diameter and the pitch expressed in millimeters and separated by the sign x. For example, Tr 40x7 It indicates single-start trapezoidal threads with 40mm nominal diameter and 7mm pitch.

2.8 Multiple Threaded Power Screws Multiple threaded power screws are used in certain applications where higher travelling speed is required. They are also called multiple start screws such as double-start or triple-start screws. These screws have two or more threads cut side by side, around the rod. Multiple-start trapezoidal threads are designated by letters Tr followed by the nominal diameter and the lead ,separated by sign x and in brackets the letter P followed by the pitch expressed in millimetres. For example, Tr 40 x 14 (P7) In above designation, Lead=14mm pitch=7mm Therefore, No. of starts =14/7=2
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It indicates two-start trapezoidal thread with 40mm nominal diameter and 7mm pitch. In case of left handed threads. The letters LH are added to thread designation. For example, Tr 40 x 14 (P7) LH

2.9 Terminology of Power Screw The terminology of the screw thread is as follows: (i) Pitch: The pitch is defined as the distance, measured parallel to the axis of the screw, from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the adjacent thread. It is denoted by the letter P. (ii) Lead: The lead is defined as the distance, measured parallel to the axis of the screw that the nut will advance in one revolution of the screw. It is denoted by the letter l. For a singlethreaded screw, the lead is same as the pitch, for a double-threaded screw, the lead is twice that of the pitch, and so on. (iii) Nominal diameter: It is the largest diameter of the screw. It is also called major diameter. It is denoted by the letter d (iv) Core diameter: It is the smallest diameter of the screw thread. It is also called minor diameter. It is denoted by the letters dc. (v) Helix angle: It is defined as the angle made by the helix of the thread with a plane perpendicular to the axis of the screw. Helix angle is related to the lead and the mean diameter of the screw. It is also called lead angle. It is denoted by . The following conclusions can be drawn on the basis of the development of thread: (i) The screw can be considered as an inclined plane with as inclination. (ii) The load W always acts in vertically downward direction. When the load W is raised, it moves up the inclined plane. When the load W is lowered, it moves down the inclined plane. (iii)The load W is raised or lowered by means of an imaginary force P acting at the mean radius of the screw. The force P multiplied by the mean radius (dm/2) gives the torque required to raise or lower the load. Force P is perpendicular to load W.

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2.10 Torque Requirement- Lifting Load The screw is considered as an inclined plane with inclination .When the load is being raised, following forces act at a point on this inclined plane: (i) Load W: It always acts in vertically downward direction. (ii) Normal reaction N: It acts perpendicular (normal) to the inclined plane. (iii) Frictional force N: Frictional force acts opposite to the motion. Since the load is moving up the inclined plane, frictional force acts along the inclined plane in downward direction. (iv) Effort P: The effort P acts in a direction perpendicular to the load W.It may act towards right to overcome the friction and raise the load. T= W Tan ( + )d/2 = W d/2

2.11 Torque Requirement- Lowering Load When the load is being lowered, the following forces act at a point on the inclined plane: (i) Load W: It always acts in vertically downward direction. (ii) Normal reaction N: It acts perpendicular (normal) to the inclined plane. (iii) Frictional force N: Frictional force acts opposite to the motion. Since the load is moving down the inclined plane, frictional force acts along the inclined plane in upward direction. (iv) Effort P: The effort P acts in a direction perpendicular to the load W.It should act towards left to overcome the friction and lower the load. T= W Tan ( + )d/2 = W 2.13 Self Locking Screw The torque required to lower the load can be given by, T = tan ( - ) It can be seen that when, friction angle
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d/2

The torque required to lower the load is negative. It indicates a condition that no force is required to lower the load. The load itself will begin to turn the screw and descend down, unless a restraining torque is applied. This condition is called overhauling of screw. When, Friction Angle

A positive torque is required to lower the load. Under this condition, the load will not turn the screw and will not descend on its own unless effort P is applied. In this case, the screw is said to be self-locking. The rule for self-locking screw is as follows: A screw will be self-locking if the coefficient of friction ids equal to or greater than the tangent of the helix angle. For self locking screw, > tan > tan

Therefore, the following conclusions can be made: (i) Self-locking of screw is not possible when the coefficient of friction () is low. The coefficient of friction between the surfaces of the screw and the nut is reduced by lubrication. Excessive lubrication may cause the load to descend on its own. (ii) Self-locking property of the screw is lost when the lead is large. The lead increases with number of starts. For double-start thread, lead is twice of the pitch and for triple threaded screw, three times of pitch. Therefore, single threaded is better than multiple threaded screws from self-locking considerations. Self-locking condition is essential in applications like screw-jack. 2.14 Efficiency of Square Threaded Screw Refer to the force diagram for lifting the load, illustrated in Fig. .Suppose the load W moves from the lower end to the upper end of the inclined plane. The output consists of raising the load. Therefore, Work output = force x distance travelled in the direction of force =Wxl The input consists of rotating the screw by means of an effort P. Work output = force x distance travelled in the direction of force = P x ( dm) The efficiency of the screw is given by,
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From the above equation, it is evident that the efficiency of the square threaded screw depends upon the helix angle and the friction angle .

Following conclusions can be derived from the observation of these graphs, (i) The efficiency of square threaded screw increase rapidly up to helix angle of 20. (ii) The efficiency is maximum when the helix angle between 40 to 45. (iii)The efficiency decreases after the maximum value is reached. (iv) The efficiency decreases rapidly when the helix angle exceeds 60. (v) The efficiency decreases as the coefficient of friction increases.

There are two ways to increase the efficiency of square threaded screws. They are as follows: (i) Reduce the coefficient of friction between the screw and the nut by proper lubrication, and (ii) Increase the helix angle up to 40 to 45 by using multiple start threads. However, a screw with such helix angle has other disadvantages like loss of self-locking property.

Efficiency of Self-Locking Screw The efficiency of square threaded screw is given by, = for self-locking screw, ;

Substituting the limiting value ( = ) in (a), Tan (2 ) =

Therefore, efficiency of self-locking square threaded power screw is less than or 50%.

Efficiency of Trapezoidal and Acme Threads

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The thread angle is 2.For isometric I.S.O metric trapezoidal thread, 2 = 30 For acme thread, 2 = 29 There is a basic difference between the force acting on the thread of square and trapezoidal threads. In case of square threads, W is the axial load raised by the screw. It is also the normal force acting on the thread surface. In case of trapezoidal or acme threads, these two forces are different. The axial force on the screw is W, while the normal force on the thread surface is (W/cos ) or (Wsec ).The frictional force depends upon the normal force.Therefore; the effect of thread angle is to increase the frictional force by a term (sec ).This is because of the wedging action of the threads. The coefficient of friction is taken as ( sec ) instead of in case of trapezoidal threads and the equations derived for square threaded screw are modified and used for trapezoidal or acme threads.

2.15 Coefficient of Friction It has been found that the coefficient of friction () at the thread surface depends upon the workmanship in cutting the threads and on the type of the lubricant. It is practically independent of the load, rubbing velocity or materials. An average of 0.15 can be taken for the coefficient of friction, when the screw is lubricated with mineral oil.

2.16 Stresses in Screw and Nut The body of a screw is subjected to an axial force W and torsional moment (T). The threads of the screw which are engaged with the nut are subjected to transverse shear stresses. The screw will tend to shear off the threads at the core diameter under the action of load W.The shear area of one thread is dc t. The transverse shear stress in the screw is given by,
Screw =

Where, Ts = transverse shear stress at the root of the screw (N/mm) t = thread thickness at the core diameter (mm) n = number of threads in engagement with the nut. Dc= core diameter (mm)
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W= axial load on the screw

The transverse shear stresses in the nut are determined in a similar way. Under the action of load W, the thread of the nut will tend to shear off at the nominal diameter. The shear area of one thread is dt.Therefore,
Nut

Where, Tn = transverse shear stress at the root of the nut (N/mm) t = thread thickness at the root of the nut (mm).

The bearing pressure between the contacting surfaces of the screw and the nut is an important consideration in design.

Therefore, PB =

Where Pb = unit bearing pressure (N/mm) The permissible bearing pressure depends upon the materials of the screw and the nut and the rubbing velocity.

2.18 Buckling of Columns When a short member is subjected to axial compressive force, it shortens according to the Hookes law. As the load is gradually increased, the compression of the member increases. When the compressive stress reaches the elastic limit of the material, the failure occurs in the form of bulging.However, when the length of the component is large compared to the crosssectional dimensions, the component may fail by lateral buckling. Buckling indicates elastic instability. The load at which the buckling starts is called critical load, which is denoted by Pcr. When the axial load on the column reaches Pcr, there is sudden buckling and a relatively large lateral deflection occurs. An important parameter affecting the critical load is the slenderness ratio. It is defined as,
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Slenderness ratio = 20 When the slenderness ratio is less than 30, there is no effect of buckling and such components are designed on the basis of compressive stresses. Columns, with slenderness ratio greater than 30 are designed on the basis of critical load. There are two methods to calculate the critical loadEulers equation and Johnsons equation.

Where, l = length of column (mm) k = least radius of gyration of the cross-section about its axis (mm) The radius of gyration is given by, k = 0.25dc I = least moment of inertia of the cross-section (mm4) A = area of the cross-section (mm2) Pcr = critical load (N). n = end fixity coefficient E = modulus of elasticity (N/mm) A = area of cross-section (mm) The load carrying capacity of the column depends upon the condition of restraints at the two ends of the column. It is accounted by means of a dimensionless quantity called end fixity coefficient (n).

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Chapter-3

3.1 Design Considerations: 1. Factor of safety for the assembly is taken 5 due to the nature of the design. Actually the factor of safety is taken 1.5 to 2 in static loading of ductile material. A higher factor of safety is considered due to the consequences of the failure. 2. Selection of Material for the screw and nut is of great importance. There are common materials used in the design of screw jacks like steel for the screw and cast iron, bronze or plastic for the nuts. Mild steel or hard steel is considered for different screw designs. In order to prevent friction cast iron or bronze is preferred for the design of the nut. Cup and frame are made of Grey cast iron which is cheap and has good mach inability. Material is selected as following:

3.1.1 a. Screw: Plane carbon steel (30C8 IS: 1570-1978) is selected because screw is always under Torsional, bending and axial load. Carbon steel is chosen due to the strength issues. This steel is also used for the handle of the screw jack. ( yield = 400 MPa, =240 MPa, E=207GPa)

3.1.2 b. Nut: In order to reduce the friction resistance between the screw and nut a softer material is selected for the nut. Phosphor Bronze (Grade 1-IS: 28-1975) is a proper material for nut construction because it acts very well against wear resistance and reduces torque to overcome friction. ( ultimate = 190 MPa, yield (tension) =100 MPa, yield (compression) = 90 MPa, =80 MPa ) 3.1.3 c. Screw Jack Handle: Plane carbon steel (30C8 IS: 1570-1978) is selected for the handle of the jack because of the high strength it offers. ( yield = 400 MPa, =240 MPa, E=207GPa)

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3.2 DESIGN CALCULATIONS: Given Data: Load = 2 Tons =2 9.81 = 19.62 103 N Factor of safety = 5 (actually F.S taken 1.5 To 2)

3.2.1 Design of The screw: Material Plane Carbon Steel (30C8-IS: 1570-1978) From Tables Yield Stress y = 400 MPA Shear stress = 240 MPA Youngs modulus = 207 GPA c =

( )

dc =

= 0.017 M or 17.67 mm

From tables: Core Diameter of Bolt dc = 19 mm Nominal Diameter of Bolt do = 24 mm Pitch P = 5mm Mean Diameter d = Tan = = 0.074 = 21.5 mm

Coefficient Of Friction () = 0.08 (from tables) () = Tan = 0.08

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Torque Required To Rotate the Screw (T) T= W Tan ( + )d/2 = W d/2

= 32676.9N-mm

Compressive Stress Due To Axial Load c = = = 69.19 N/mm2

Shear Stress Due To Torque = = 24.26 N/mm2

Max Principle Stress (Tensile or Compressive)

c(Max) =

y(allow) =

= 80N/mm2

= 76.84 N/mm2 Max Shear Stress ( =

2 max)

= ]
allow =

= 48 N/mm2

= 42.25N/mm

Criteria for Safe Design against Principle Stress

allowable

allowable

> >

Max

c(Max)

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3.2.2 DESIGN OF NUT: Material: Phosphor Bronze (1-IS : 28-1975)

From Tables: Stress ultimate = 190 MPA Yield Stress (tension) = 100 MPA Yield Stress (compression) = 90 MPA Shear Stress = 80 MPA

From Tables Bearing Pressure for (STEEL & BRONZE) PB = 11.2 to 17.5

PB = n = No. of Threads = 6.63 Say10 Threads / Inch Height of The Nut = H= np = 105 = 50 mm

Shear Stress in the screw

Screw =

= 13.4 N/mm2

t = p/2

Shear Stress in the nut

Nut =

= 10.40 N/mm2

Tearing Strength Of Nut W=

t/5

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D1 = 42.7 mm say 44 mm W= c/5 D2 = 57.63 mm say 60mm.

Consider Shearing of the nut W= t1 = 3.73 mm say 10mm

3.2.3 Materials for frame: C-Channel = 100504 mm MS plate = 10010025mm

3.3 Materials Used in Screw jack: plain carbon steel Phosphor Bronze

3.3.1 Properties of plain carbon steel: About steel:

The term steel is used for many different alloys of iron. These alloys vary both in the way they are made and in the proportions of the materials added to the iron. All steels, however, contain small amounts of carbon and manganese. In other words, it can be said that steel is a crystalline alloy of iron, carbon and several other elements, which hardens above its critical temperature. Like stated above, there do exist several types of steels which are (among others) plain carbon, stainless steel, alloyed steel and tool steel.

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3.3.2 Plain carbon steel: Carbon steel is by far the most widely used kind of steel. The properties of carbon steel depend primarily on the amount of carbon it contains. Most carbon steel has a carbon content of less than 1%. Carbon steel is made into a wide range of products, including structural beams, car bodies, kitchen appliances, and cans. In fact, there are 3 types of plain carbon steel and they are low carbon steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel, and as their names suggests all these types of plain carbon steel differs in the amount of carbon they contain. Indeed, it is good to precise that plain carbon steel is a type of steel having a maximum carbon content of 1.5% along with small percentages of silica, sulphur, phosphorus and manganese.

3.3.3 General properties of plain carbon steel:

Generally, with an increase in the carbon content from 0.01 to 1.5% in the alloy, its strength and hardness increases but still such an increase beyond 1.5% causes appreciable reduction in the ductility and malleability of the steel.

Low carbon steel or mild steel, containing carbon up to 0.25% responds to heat treatment as improvement in the ductility is concerned but has no effect in respect of its strength properties.

Medium carbon steels, having carbon content ranging from 0.25 to 0.70% improves in the machinability by heat treatment. It must also be noted that this steel is especially adaptable for machining or forging and where surface hardness is desirable.

High carbon steels: Is steel-containing carbon in the range of 0.70 to 1.05% and is especially classed as high carbon steel. In the fully heat-treated condition it is very hard and it will withstand high shear and wear and will thus be subjected to little deformation. Moreover, at maximum hardness, the steel is brittle and if some toughness is desired it must be obtained at the expense of hardness. Depth hardening ability (normally termed as hardenability) is poor, limiting the use of this steel. Furthermore, as it has been seen that hardness, brittleness and ductility are very important properties as they determine mainly the way these different carbon content steels are used. Considering the microstructure of slowly cooled steel; for mild steel, for instance, with 0.2%
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carbon. Such steel consists of about 75% of proeutectoid ferrite that forms above the eutectoid temperature and about 25% of pearlite (pearlite and ferrite being microstructure components of steel). When the carbon content in the steel is increased, the amount of pearlite increases until we get the fully pearlitic structure of a composition of 0.8% carbon. Beyond 0.8%, high carbon steel contain proeutectoid cementide in addition to pearlite. However, in slowly cooled carbon steels, the overall hardness and ductility of the steel are determined by the relative proportions of the soft, ductile ferrite and the hard, brottle cementite. The cementite content increases with increasing carbon content, resulting in an increase of hardness and a decrease of ductility, as we go from low carbon to high carbon steels.

3.3.4 Physical properties of plain carbon steel There are also other properties of plain carbon steel that needs to be considered and these properties are being illustrated as shown in table 1 below

3.3.5 Limitations of plain carbon steel Like everything, the plain carbon steels do have some appreciable properties but also consists of some limitations. These are: (i) There cannot be strengthening beyond about 100000 psi without significant loss in toughness (impact resistance) and ductility. (ii) Large sections cannot be made with a martensite structure throughout, and thus arenot deep hardenable. (iii) Rapid quench rates are necessary for full hardening in medium-carbon leads to shape distortion and cracking of heat-treated steels. (iv) Plain-carbon steels have poor impact resistance at low temperatures.
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(v)
(vi)

Plain-carbon steels have poor corrosion resistance for engineering problems. Plain-carbon steel oxidises readily at elevated temperatures.

Carbon steels also contain residual elements up to acertain composition. Discuss how the residual elements may affect the properties of the steel

Steel, is an alloy, which is mainly produced from pig iron. In fact, the manufacture of steel is quite a long process as it comprises of numerous stages and one of these stages is refining. Indeed, once produced in furnace, the steel does contain quite significant amount of impurity and thus, it requires to be refined to a certain degree. However, even after the refining process, the steel still contain small amounts of residual elements (also termed as trace elements) which has some negative influence on the properties of steel. For instance, carbon steel is an alloy made up of mainly iron and carbon but still other elements do exists in this alloy as shown in table 2 below

Out of these elements, Phosphorus, Sulphur and Silicon are considered as trace elements as they have negative impacts on the steel. Indeed, there are many elements which are considered as being residual elements and these elements are

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The properties of Carbon steel can be enhanced by using the appropriate alloying elements. Discuss the general effects of alloying elements in an alloy:

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and some other material. Most alloy contain a large amount of one metal, called the base metal, and smaller amounts of one or more other metals or nonmetallic materials. Many pure metals are too soft, corrode too easily, or have other mechanical or chemical disadvantages can be overcome if the metals are combined with other metals into alloys. Most alloys are harder than the metals from which they are made. They are also less malleable. They are harder to hammer into shape. Most alloys are less ductile than puremetals. That is, they are less easily drawn into fine wires and similar shapes. But most alloy are more fusible and more easily melted, than the pure metals of which they are composed. Some alloys will even melt at the comparatively low temperature of hot water. Few alloys can conduct electricity as well as many metals in their pure forms. General effects of alloying elements are:

Improves tensile strength without appreciably lowering ductility. Improves toughness. Improves hardenability which permits hardening of larger sections than possible with plain carbon steels or allows quenching with less drastic rates. Reducing the hazard of distortion and quench cracking. Retain strength at elevated temperatures. Obtain better corrosion resistance.
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Improves wear resistance. Imparts a fine grain structure to the steel. Improves special properties such as abrasion resistance and fatigue behaviour.

The amount of the allowing elements in the alloy is sometimes critical to achieve certain properties. Give the composition range of each element and their effect on the alloy. Like it has been stated above, alloying elements are used in steel so as to improve its properties and this is in the scope of rendering the steel appropriate for different uses. However, allowing is not only a matter of adding elements to steel, the quantity of alloying elements added is of prior importance so as to achieve the required hardness, toughness or machinability of steel. There is below a table showing the different composition range used for each alloying element together with their effect on the steel.

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CHAPTER 4 4.1 Introduction A screw jack is a portable device consisting of a screw mechanism used to raise or lower the load. The principle on which the screw jack works is similar to that of an inclined plane. There are mainly two types of jacks-hydraulic and mechanical. A hydraulic jack consists of a cylinder and piston mechanism. The movement of the piston rod is used to raise or lower the load. Mechanical jacks can be either hand operated or power driven.

Jacks are used frequently in raising cars so that a tire can be changed. A screw jack is commonly used with cars but is also used in many other ways, including industrial machinery and even airplanes. They can be short, tall, fat, or thin depending on the amount of pressure they will be under and the space that they need to fit into. The jack is made out of various types of metal, but the screw itself is generally made out of lead.

While screw jacks are designed purposely for raising and lowering loads, they are not ideal for side loads, although some can withstand side loads depending on the diameter and size of the lifting screw. Shock loads should also be avoided or minimized. Some screw jacks are built with anti-backlash. The anti-backlash device moderates the axial backlash in the lifting screw and nut assembly to a regulated minimum.

A large amount of heat is generated in the screw jack and long lifts can cause serious overheating. To retain the efficiency of the screw jack, it must be used under ambient temperatures, otherwise lubricants must be applied. There are oil lubricants intended to enhance the equipments capabilities. Apart from proper maintenance, to optimize the capability and usefulness of a screw jack it is imperative to employ it according to its design and manufacturers instruction. Ensure that you follow the speed, load capacity, temperature recommendation and other relevant factors for application

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The screw has a thread designed to withstand an enormous amount of pressure. This is due to the fact that it is generally holding up heavy objects for an extended amount of time. Once up, they normally self lock so that they won't fall if the operator lets go, and they hold up well to the wear of repeated use. If they are made with a ball nut, they will last longer because there is less friction created with this type of jack. However, they will not self lock. This can be dangerous and handled carefully.

4.2 Operation: The jack can be raised and lowered with a metal bar that is inserted into the jack. The operator turns the bar with his hands in a clockwise direction. This turns the screw inside the jack and makes it go up. The screw lifts the small metal cylinder and platform that are above it. As the jack goes up, whatever is placed above it will raise as well, once the jack makes contact. The bar is turned until the jack is raised to the level needed. To lower the jack the bar is turned in the opposite direction. An automatic screw jack has gears inside the jack that are connected to the screw. Theses gears are connected by other gears and bars that are turned by a power source to raise and lower the jack.

Although a jack is a simple and widely used device, the use of any lifting device is subject to certain hazards. In screw-jack applications, the hazards are dropping, tipping or slipping of machines or their parts during the operation. These hazards may result in serious accidents. The main reasons of such accidents are as follows: (i) The load is improperly secured on the jack
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(ii) The screw-jack is over loaded. (iii)The centre of gravity of the load is off centre with respect to the axis of the jack (iv) The screw-jack is not placed on hard and level surface. (v) The screw-jack is used for a purpose, for which it is not designed. Proper size, strength and stability are the essential requirements for the design of the screw-jack from safety considerations.

4.3 Construction of Screw Jack

Screw jack consists of a screw and a nut. The nut is fixed in a cast iron frame and remains stationary. The rotation of the nut inside the frame is prevented by pressing a set screw against it. The screw is rotated in the nut by means of a handle, which passes through a hole in the head of the screw. The head carries a platform, which supports the load and remains stationary while the screw is being rotated. A washer is fixed to the other end of the screw inside the frame, which prevents the screw to be completely turned out of the nut.

Function The basic function of a screw jack is to lift a portion of a vehicle. Typically this is used to change a tire although other maintenance is sometimes performed.

4.4 Features All jacks have safety features to protect the user from accidental injury. Wide bases help to stabilize a jack and prevent tilting or sinking into soft soil. Most car jacks also come equipped with their own handle or cranking mechanism, but alternately many of these also will accept the flat end of a tire tool to jack up a vehicle. When in the extended position, jacks will have a stop point that prevents the user from overextending the jack beyond its rated capabilities. When in the contracted position, jacks that are provided by the manufacturer will have a storage area specially formed or designed for the jack to rest in when not in use.

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4.5 Benefits Equipping motorists with car jacks has provided many benefits to those who are on the road. Most importantly, jacks have equipped drivers with the ability to change a tire in an emergency situation without having to call for assistance, which can save service fees and potential towing fees as well. Car jacks also provide the home auto enthusiast with a tool to use in maintenance of their own vehicle with the simpler tasks such as changing brake pads, oil and belts. When used appropriately with safety in mind, car jacks are an essential resource for anyone owning or operating a motorized vehicle.

4.6 Types Jacks are of mainly two types- mechanical and hydraulic. They vary in size depending on the load that they are used to lift.

4.6.1 Mechanical Jacks A mechanical jack is a device which lifts heavy equipment. The most common form is a car jack, floor jack or garage jack which lifts vehicles so that maintenance can be performed. Car jacks usually use mechanical advantage to allow a human to lift a vehicle by manual force alone. More powerful jacks use hydraulic power to provide more lift over greater distances. Mechanical jacks are usually rated for maximum lifting capacity. There are two types of mechanical jacks. Scissor Jacks Scissors jacks are also mechanical and have been in use at least since the 1930s. A scissor jack is a device constructed with a cross-hatch mechanism, much like a scissor, to lift up a vehicle for repair or storage. It typically works in just a vertical manner. The jack opens and folds closed, applying pressure to the bottom supports along the crossed pattern to move the lift. When closed, they have a diamond shape Scissor jacks are simple mechanisms used to drive large loads short distances. The power screw design of a common scissor jack reduces the amount of force required by the user to drive the mechanism. Most scissor jacks are similar in design, consisting of four main members driven by a power screw. A scissor jack is operated simply by turning a small crank that is inserted into one end of the scissor jack. This crank is usually "Z" shaped. The end fits into a ring hole mounted on the end of the screw, which is the object of force on the scissor jack. When this crank is turned, the screw turns, and this raises the jack. The screw acts like a gear mechanism. It has teeth (the screw thread), which turn and move

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the two arms, producing work. Just by turning this screw thread, the scissor jack can lift a vehicle that is several thousand pounds. Construction a scissor jack has four main pieces of metal and two base ends. The four metal pieces are all connected at the corners with a bolt that allows the corners to swivel. A screw thread runs across this assembly and through the corners. As the screw thread is turned, the jack arms travel across it and collapse or come together, forming a straight line when closed. Then, moving back the other way, they raise and come together. When opened, the four metal arms contract together, coming together at the middle, raising the jack. When closed, the arms spread back apart and the jack closes or flattens out again.

4.6.1.1 Design and Lift A scissor jack uses a simple theory of gears to get its power. As the screw section is turned, two ends of the jack move closer together. Because the gears of the screw are pushing up the arms, the amount of force being applied is multiplied. It takes a very small amount of force to turn the crank handle, yet that action causes the brace arms to slide across and together. As this happens the arms extend upward. The car's gravitational weight is not enough to prevent the jack from opening or to stop the screw from turning, since it is not applying force directly to it. If you were to put pressure directly on the crank, or lean your weight against the crank, the person would not be able to turn it, even though your weight is a small percentage of the cars. Bottle (cylindrical) Jacks Bottle screws may operate by either (i) Rotating the screw when the nut is fixed; or (ii) Rotating the nut and preventing rotation of the screw. Bottle jacks mainly consist of a screw, a nut, thrust bearings, and a body. A stationary platform is attached to the top of the screw. This platform acts as a support for the load and also assists it in lifting or lowering of the load. These jacks are sturdier than the scissor jacks and can lift heavier loads.

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4.6.2 Hydraulic Jack: Hydraulic jacks are typically used for shop work, rather than as an emergency jack to be carried with the vehicle. Use of jacks not designed for a specific vehicle requires more than the usual care in selecting ground conditions, the jacking point on the vehicle, and to ensure stability when the jack is extended. Hydraulic jacks are often used to lift elevators in low and medium rise buildings.

Fig 4.6.2 Hydraulic Jack A hydraulic jack uses a fluid, which is incompressible, that is forced into a cylinder by a pump plunger. Oil is used since it is self lubricating and stable. When the plunger pulls back, it draws oil out of the reservoir through a suction check valve into the pump chamber. When the plunger moves forward, it pushes the oil through a discharge check valve into the cylinder. The suction valve ball is within the chamber and opens with each draw of the plunger. The discharge valve ball is outside the chamber and opens when the oil is pushed into the cylinder. At this point the suction ball within the chamber is forced shut and oil pressure builds in the cylinder. In a bottle jack the piston is vertical and directly supports a bearing pad that contacts the object being lifted. With a single action piston the lift is somewhat less than twice the collapsed height of the jack, making it suitable only for vehicles with a relatively high clearance. For lifting structures such as houses the hydraulic interconnection of multiple vertical jacks through valves enables the even distribution of forces while enabling close control of the lift. In a floor jack a horizontal piston pushes on the short end of a bellcrank, with the long arm providing the vertical motion to a lifting pad, kept horizontal with a horizontal linkage. Floor
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jacks usually include castors and wheels, allowing compensation for the arc taken by the lifting pad. This mechanism provide a low profile when collapsed, for easy maneuvering underneath the vehicle, while allowing considerable extension

4.7 Design of Screw Jack Loads and Stresses in Screw The load on the screw is the load which is to be lifted W, twisting moment M, between the screw threads and force F at the handle to rotate the screw. The load W is compressive in nature and induces the compressive stress in the screw. It may also lead the screw to buckle. The load F produces bending and it is maximum, when the screw is at its maximum lift. The screw also experiences twisting moment due to F. the shear stress is also induced in the screw due to the twisting moment between the threads of screw and nut. Step I Problem Specification It is required to design a screw jack for supporting the machine parts during their repair and maintenance. It should be a general purpose jack with a load carrying capacity of 50KN and a maximum lifting height of 0.3m. The jack is to be operated by means of a D.C motor. Step II Selection of Materials (i) The frame of the screw jack has complex shape. It is subjected to compressive stress. Grey cast iron is selected as the material for the frame. Cast iron is cheap and it can be given any complex shape without involving costly machining operations. Cast iron has higher compressive strength compared with steel. Therefore, it is technically and economically advantageous to use cast iron for the frame. (ii) The screw is subjected to torsional moment, compressive force and bending moment. From strength consideration, EN8 is selected as material for screw.

4.7.1 Screw (iii)There is a relative motion between the screw and the nut, which results in friction. The friction causes wear at the contacting surfaces. When the same material is used for these two components, the surfaces of both components get worn out, requiring replacement. This is undesirable. The size and shape of the screw make it costly compared with the nut. The material used for the nut is stainless steel.
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Square Threaded screw

4.7.2 Nut Step III Design of Screw (i) The screw jack is an intermittently used device and wear of threads is not an important consideration. Therefore, instead of trapezoidal threads, the screw is provided with square threads. Square threads have higher efficiency and provision can be made for self-locking arrangement. When the condition of self-locking is direction is applied.

Nut

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4.7.3 Thrust Bearings Thrust ball bearings are used to replace the sliding force with rolling friction. The friction torque is so small, that it can be neglected. Thrust ball bearing is suitable for a purely axial load. It is a single-direction thrust ball bearing, because it can support axial load in one direction only, i.e., vertically downward. This ball bearing should not be subjected to radial load. Single-direction thrust ball bearings are separable and the mounting is simple as the components can be mounted individually. There are three separable parts of this bearing known as shaft washer, a housing washer and the ball and cage assembly. The inner diameter of the shaft washer is press fitted in the screw body. The outer diameter of the housing washer is press fitted in the cup. These two components are separately mounted before final assembly. The life of thrust bearing is assumed to be 3000 hours. 4.8 Operational Considerations of a screw jack: Maintain low surface contact pressure Increasing the screw size and nut size will reduce thread contact pressure for the same working load. The higher the unit pressure and the higher the surface speed, the more rapid the wear will be. Maintain low surface speed increasing the screw head will reduce the surface speed for the same linear speed. The better the lubrication, the longer is the service life. Grease fittings or other lubrication means must be provided for the power screw and nut. Dirt can easily embed itself in the soft nut material. It will act as a file and abrade the mating screw surface. The soft nut material backs away during contact leaving the hard dirt particles to scrap away the mating screw material. When the mating surfaces heat up, they become much softer and are more easily worn away. Means to remove the heat such as limited duty cycles or heat sinks must be provided so that rapid wear of over-heated materials can be avoided.

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