Ethnic Identity

Joseph E. Trimble and Ryan Dickson Western Washington University in C. B. Fisher & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.; in press), App ied deve op!enta s"ien"e# An en"y" opedia o$ resear"h, po i"ies, and progra!s. %ho&sand 'a(s# )age.

%he "onstr&"t, ethni" identity, "an *est *e &nderstood thro&gh an e+a!ination o$ its ety!o ogi"a origins. %he ter! ethnic has Latin and ,ree( origins - ethnicus and ethnikas *oth !eaning nation. .t "an and has *een &sed histori"a y to re$er to peop e as heathens. Ethos, in ,ree(, !eans "&sto!, disposition or trait. Ethnikas and ethos ta(en together there$ore "an !ean a *and o$ peop e (nation) iving together /ho share and a"(no/ edge "o!!on "&sto!s. %he se"ond part o$ the "onstr&"t, identity, has Latin origins and is derived $ro! the /ord identitas; the /ord is $or!ed $ro! idem !eaning same. %h&s, the ter! is &sed to e+press the notion o$ sa!eness, i(eness, and oneness. More pre"ise y, identity !eans 0the sa!eness o$ a person or thing at a ti!es in a "ir"&!stan"es; the "ondition or $a"t that a person or thing is itse $ and not so!ething e se1 ()i!pson & Weiner, 2343, p. 567). Co!*ining the de$initions and interpretations o$ identity and ethni"ity it "an *e "on" &ded that they !ean, or at !ini!&! i!p y, the sa!eness o$ a *and or nation o$ peop e /ho share "o!!on "&sto!s, traditions, histori"a e+perien"es, and in so!e instan"es geographi"a residen"e. At one eve o$ interpretation the "o!*ined de$inition is s&$$i"ient to "apt&re the !anner in /hi"h the identity is genera y "on"ept&a i8ed and &sed to &nderstand ethno"& t&ra in$ &en"es on its $or!ation and deve op!ent. At another eve identity is a !ost synony!o&s /ith ethni"ity pro!pting so!e so"io ogists i(e 9er*ert ,ans (677:) to s&ggest that identity is no onger a &se$& ter!. Additiona y, *e"a&se o$ it in"reasing pop& arity identity is rapid y *e"o!ing a " i"h; and there$ore !ore and !ore di$$i"& t to &nderstand (, eason, 2335). <e$initions o$ ethni" identity vary a""ording to the &nder ying theory e!*ra"ed *y resear"hers= and s"ho ars= intent on reso ving its "on"ept&a !eanings. %he $a"t that there is no /ide y agreed &pon de$inition o$ ethni" identity is indi"ative o$ the "on$&sion s&rro&nding the topi". %ypi"a y, ethni" identity is an a$$i iative "onstr&"t, /here an individ&a is vie/ed *y the!se ves and *y others as *e onging to a parti"& ar ethni" or "& t&ra gro&p. An individ&a "an "hoose to asso"iate /ith a gro&p espe"ia y i$ other "hoi"es are avai a* e (i.e., the person is o$ !i+ed ethni" or ra"ia heritage). A$$i iation "an *e in$ &en"ed *y ra"ia , nata , sy!*o i", and "& t&ra $a"tors (Che&ng, 233:). Ra"ia $a"tors invo ve the &se o$ physiogno!i" and physi"a "hara"teristi"s, nata $a"tors re$er to >ho!e and> (an"estra ho!e) or origins o$ individ&a s, their parents and (in, and sy!*o i" $a"tors in" &de those $a"tors that typi$y or e+e!p i$y an ethni" gro&p (e.g., ho idays, $oods, " othing, arti$a"ts, et".). )y!*o i" ethni" identity &s&a y i!p ies that individ&a s "hoose their identity, ho/ever to so!e e+tent the "& t&ra e e!ents o$ the ethni" or ra"ia gro&p have a !odest in$ &en"e on their *ehavior (?ivisto & @e$8ger, 233:). A&et Che&ng (233:) de$ines ethni" identi$i"ation as >the psy"ho ogi"a atta"h!ent to an ethni" gro&p or heritage> (p. 2625) and th&s "enters the "onstr&"t in the do!ain o$ se $Bper"eption. %he @ether ands so"io ogist, )a/iti )aharso (2343), e+tends the de$inition to in" &de so"ia pro"esses that invo ve oneCs "hoi"e o$ $riends, se e"tion o$ a $&t&re partner, per"eption o$ their i$eB "han"es, and the rea"tions o$ others in oneCs so"ia environ!ent. Both de$initions invo ve *o&ndaries /here one !a(es a distin"tion *et/een >se $> and >other.1 )aharsoCs de$inition e+tends the >others> *o&ndary to in" &de an attri*&tion "o!ponent. An individ&a !ay strong y identi$y psy"ho ogi"a y /ith an ethni" gro&p, ho/ever, the strength and a&thenti"ity o$ the identity is "ontingent on the a""eptan"e and a"(no/ edg!ent o$ >ingro&p> and >o&tgro&p> !e!*ers. )aharso=s de$inition is "onsistent /ith the /ritings o$ the so"io ogist, Fredri( Barth (2353), /ho arg&ed that ethni" identity /as a !eans to "reate *o&ndaries that ena* ed a gro&p to distan"e the!se ves $ro! one another. Barth /as D&ite $or"e$& a*o&t his position as he strong y !aintained that ethni" *o&ndaries de$ine a gro&p and not the 0"& t&ra st&$$ that en" oses it1 ()o ars, 2335, p. ++ii). %he psy"ho ogist, Eean Fhinney (2337), notes that there are >/ide y dis"repant de$initions and !eas&res o$ ethni" identity, /hi"h !a(es genera i8ations and "o!parisons a"ross st&dies di$$i"& t and a!*ig&o&s> (p.G77). C&rrent y, the !ost /ide y &sed de$inition o$ the "onstr&"t in psy"ho ogy is the one deve oped *y Fhinney (2337, 6777, 677:). )he !aintains, that, 0ethni"

identity is a dyna!i", !& tidi!ensiona "onstr&"t that re$ers to one=s identity, or sense o$ se $ as a !e!*er o$ an ethni" gro&p1 (677:, p. 5:). Fro! her perspe"tive one " ai!s an identity /ithin the "onte+t o$ a s&*gro&p that " ai!s a "o!!on an"estry and shares at east a si!i ar "& t&re, ra"e, re igion, ang&age, (inship, or p a"e o$ origin. )he goes on to add that, 0Ethni" identity is not a $i+ed "ategori8ation, *&t rather is a $ &id and dyna!i" &nderstanding o$ se $ and ethni" *a"(gro&nd. Ethni" identity is "onstr&"ted and !odi$ied as individ&a s *e"o!e a/are o$ their ethni"ity, /ith in the arge (so"io"& t&ra ) setting1 (677:, p. 5:). Fhinney (2337, 6777) vie/s s&*He"tive identity as a starting point that event&a y eads to the deve op!ent o$ a so"ia identity *ased on ethni" gro&p !e!*ership. %he "rossB"& t&ra psy"ho ogist Feter Weinrei"h (2345) not on y vie/s se $Bidentity as a starting point, he *e ieves that identity $or!ation and deve op!ent re$ers to di$$erent identity states /here di$$erent so"ia "onte+ts /i in$ &en"e the identity state and one=s a"tions. 9e asserts that >oneCs identity as sit&ated in a spe"i$i" so"ia "onte+t is de$ined as that part o$ the tota ity o$ oneCs se $B"onstr&a in /hi"h ho/ one "onstr&es onese $ in the sit&ated present e+presses the "ontin&ity *et/een ho/ one "onstr&es onese $ as one /as in the past and ho/ one "onstr&es onese $ as one aspires to *e in the $&t&re.> Moreover, Weinrei"h !aintains that ethni" se $Bidentity is not a stati" pro"ess *&t one that "hanges and varies a""ording to parti"& ar so"ia "onte+ts. .ndivid&a s, $or e+a!p e, !ay avoid sit&ations /here their identity is "ha enged, threatened, h&!i iated, and "astigated; and see( o&t and s&stain /henever possi* e settings that $avor the identity state. )e $Be+pression, !aintenan"e o$ ethni" identity, and sit&ated identities o$$er pro!ise $or &nderstanding the "o!p e+ities and dyna!i"s o$ ethni" orientations thro&gh Weinrei"hCs theory o$ .dentity )tr&"t&re Ana ysis (Weinrei"h & )a&nderson, 677:). )evera "on"ept&a approa"hes to ethni" identity e!phasi8e an individ&a eve o$ ana ysis /here notions o$ identity $or!ation and deve op!ent are in(ed to oneCs se $B"on"ept. M&"h o$ the /or( in this area re ies on the so"ia psy"ho ogist 9enri %aH$e Cs (2346) theory o$ so"ia identity. %aH$e *asi"a y !aintains that oneCs so"ia identity strong y in$ &en"es se $Bper"eption and "onseD&ent y sho& d *e the "entra o"&s o$ eva &ation. %he strength and /ea(ness o$ the se $ is arge y deter!ined $ro! o&r stat&s /ith o&r re$eren"e gro&ps and ho/ /e assess o&tgro&p !e!*ers. When ethni"ity and ra"e $or! the ne+&s o$ an ingro&p, then se $Bidentity /i *e "orresponding y in$ &en"ed. 'neCs distin"tive ethni" "hara"teristi"s, ho/ever, "an *e restri"tive as one !ay reHe"t e+terna H&dg!ents and opinions o$ their o/n ethni" gro&p and in t&rn esta* ish their o/n "riterion to "ha enge and re$&te those o$ the do!inant o&tgro&p. 'ther responses are possi* e# individ&a s !ight /ithdra/ or "hoose to disso"iate /ith the re$erent there*y "reating added psy"ho ogi"a "o!p i"ations $or the!se ves. %aH$e Cs so"ia identity theory has generated "onsidera* e in$ &en"e on ethni" identity resear"h; so!e pre$er to "arry o&t the /or( &nder the ethni" se $Bidenti$i"ation r&*ri". Ethni" identity is &s&a y "onte+t&a and sit&ationa *e"a&se it derives $ro! so"ia negotiations /here one de" ares an ethni" identity and then de!onstrates a""epta* e and a"(no/ edged ethni" gro&p !ar(ers to others. 'ne=s ethni" de" aration o$ten is open to the s"r&tiny o$ others /ho !ay va idate or inva idate the de" aration. Ethni" de" arations e!*ody an ethni" "ons"io&sness that is " ose y a igned /ith the "& t&ra e e!ents o$ the ethni" gro&p /ith /hi"h they a$$i iate. %he & ti!ate $or! o$ one=s ethni" "ons"io&sness is the gen&ine asso"iation o$ one=s persona identi$i"ation /ith a "o!!&na one. %h&s it is ogi"a to ass&!e that a "on"ordan"e /o& d e+ist *et/een persona identity and an o&tsiderCs sense o$ identity /here the i!portan"e is p a"ed on oneCs o/n "ategories and intention o$ se $Bidenti$i"ation. %o pro!ote the &nion *et/een se $ and other, individ&a s o$ten /i &se ethno ogi"a spee"h patterns and gest&res to pro!ote the a&thenti"ity o$ their " ai!. .$ o&t/ard physi"a appearan"es do not !esh /ith the standard physi"a "riteria or there is the sense that others do&*t the identity " ai! ethni" a"tors /i tend to e+aggerate and give e!phasis to !anneris!s and spee"h idiosyn"rasies (no/n to *e parti"& ar and spe"i$i" to the re$eren"e gro&p. %his rit&a or sty isti" e!phasis $reD&ent y o""&rs, too, /hen ethni" gro&p !e!*ers !eet or gather in geographi" areas that di$$er $ro! their ho!e ands or "o!!&nities o$ "o!!on origin. %he distin"tive rit&a is a pri!e e+a!p e o$ sit&ationa ethni"ity and sit&ated ethni" identity. At an individ&a or so"ieta eve one !ay re y on a*e s to des"ri*e their ethni" a$$i iation and s&*seD&ent y their identity. La*e s assist in " assi$ying and na!ing peop e. %h&s, ethni" a*e ing has a so"iopo iti"a va &e and $&n"tion, espe"ia y $or "ens&s and de!ographi" st&dies. At a s&per$i"ia eve , /here genera i8ations a*o&t distin"t "& t&ra orientations are not &sed, ethni" a*e s

serve a &se$& $&n"tion. 9o/ever, &se o$ a a*e is a s!a part o$ the identity pro"ess, as one is i(e y to e+pand the a*e ing to in" &de other identi$iers s&"h as nata *a"(gro&nd, a""& t&ration stat&s, egoBinvo ve!ent, and attit&des to/ard o/n and other gro&ps; *ehaviora pre$eren"es s&"h as ang&age &sage, $riendship a$$i iations, !&si" and $ood pre$eren"es, and parti"ipation in "& t&ra and re igio&s a"tivities !ay *e in" &ded (%ri!* e, 6777). Feop e /ith !i+ed ethni" *a"(gro&nds present interesting ethni" identity "ases as they have at east t/o ethni" gro&ps $ro! /hi"h to " ai! and negotiate an ethni" de" aration. Based on e+tensive intervie/s /ith peop e o$ !i+edBethni" *a"(gro&nd the " ini"a psy"ho ogist Maria F. F. Root (233I) identi$ied $o&r *asi" reasons /hy a !& tiBethni" person /o& d "hoose to identi$y /ith a parti"& ar gro&p regard ess o$ ho/ others !ay vie/ the!. Root !aintains that# 2.) 'ne enhan"es their sense o$ se"&rity *y &nderstanding a distin"t part o$ their ethni" heritage; 6.) Farenta in$ &en"es sti!& ated *y the en"o&rage!ent o$ grandparents pro!ote identity, there*y granting per!ission to the o$$spring to !a(e a "hoi"e; :.) Ra"is! and preH&di"e asso"iated /ith "ertain gro&ps ead to sharing e+perien"es /ith $a!i y, there*y assisting the individ&a to deve op psy"ho ogi"a s(i s and de$enses to prote"t onese $ (the shared e+perien"es he ps to *&i d se $B"on$iden"e and "reates the sense that one "an "ope /ith the negative e e!ents o$ten asso"iated /ith the gro&p); and I.) >,ender a ign!ent *et/een parents and "hi dren !ay e+ert in$ &en"e on ethni" and ra"ia so"ia i8ation parti"& ar y /hen they have good re ationships and are !&t&a y he d in estee!> (p. 2G). %he $irst o* iD&e re$eren"e to ethni" identity "an *e $o&nd in the anthropo ogi"a and so"io ogi"a iterat&re o$ the ear y 67th "ent&ry, in re$eren"e to the $ie d st&dy o$ nonB/estern "& t&res. %he ter!s, ethni" gro&ps and ethni"ity, /ere $irst &sed in anthropo ogy to re$er to a peop e pres&!ed to a$$i iate /ith the sa!e "& t&ra gro&p and /ho shared the sa!e "&sto!, ang&age and traditions. 'ver the years the "onstr&"t see!s to have e!erged thro&gh the "o!*ination o$ ethni" and identity and their !eanings, as a reasona* y thoro&gh iterat&re sear"h /as &na* e to &n"over a "oining a&thor or an o$tenB"ited de$inition. Re$eren"e to the notion o$ ethni" identity "an *e tra"e *a"( to the ear y 23 th "ent&ry. .n 2474, 9&gh M&rray (2474), in re$erring to the in$ &en"e o$ !enta i!ages on se $Bre"ognition, asserted a nota* y !odern vie/ on the "onstr&"t /hen he stated, 0B&t . thin( it evident that the "hara"teristi" D&a itiesJare /ho y &n"onne"ted /ith those e+terna *y ra"es /hi"h are disting&ished. Mind is !ore $ e+i* e s&*stan"e and yie ds !ore readi y to the in$ &en"e o$ a tered "ir"&!stan"es1 (pp. ::B :I). Writing a*o&t individ&a and nationa di$$eren"es *et/een 24:7 and 24:G the nat&ra ist, A e+ander Kon 9&!*o dt, !aintained that, 0Lang&age is the o&ter appearan"e o$ the !enta ities o$ peop es; their ang&age is their !enta ity and their !enta ity their ang&age. 'ne "an hard y overe!phasi8e their identity. Feop e /ho share a "o!!on ang&age deve op a si!i ar s&*He"tivity, a weltanschauung (/or d vie/)1 (Kon 9&!*o dt, 24:7B24:GL234G), p. 26). .n *oth "itations, ang&age and one=s !enta i!ages $or!ed the *asis o$ the s"ho ars= o*servations a*o&t the i!portan"e o$ identity $ro! a nationa isti" perspe"tive. When $irst &sed, ethni" identity /as synony!o&s /ith ra"e or ra"ia identity and ethni"ity in genera . .t is i(e y that ethni"ity /as $irst &sed *y the Fren"h nationa ist and s"ientist, ,eorges Ka"her de a Fo&ge, in 2435 to des"ri*e the 0nat&ra and "o&nter$eit1 "& t&ra , psy"ho ogi"a and so"ia "hara"teristi"s o$ a pop& ation, and in order to disting&ish the atter $ro! the "on"ept o$ ra"e /hi"h he de$ined as a series o$ physi"a "hara"teristi"s (Ka"her de a Fo&ge, 2435). 9er*ert E. ,ans (2335) s&ggests that the so"io ogist <avid Ries!an gave ethni"ity a ne/ and sa ient !eaning in the 67th "ent&ry. Werner )o ars (2335), on the other hand, attri*&tes the ear iest &se o$ the ter! to Einar 9a&gen and Eosh&a Fish!an /ho /ere i(e y in$ &en"ed *y the so"io ogist W. L oyd Warner (see p. +++vii) a o$ /ho! /ere /riting a*o&t the "on"ept in the 23I7=s and 23G7s. Ra"e and ethni"ity /ere o$ten &sed inter"hangea* y in re$eren"e to *oth the physi"a and "& t&ra "hara"teristi"s o$ an individ&a as a !e!*er o$ his or her ethni" or ra"ia gro&p and the "ir"&!stan"es that in$ &en"ed its i!portan"e. 'n this point in 2325, the phi osopher 9ora"e ?a en /rote that, 0When the D&arre (/hether they identi$ied /ith the Eng ish or Britons in A!eri"a) "a!e they re!e!*ered ho/ they had e$t the !other "o&ntry in sear"h o$ re igio&s i*erty $or the!se ves; ho/ they e$t 9o and, /here they had $o&nd this i*erty, $or $ear o$ osing their ethni" and "& t&ra identity and /hat hardships they had *orne $or the sa(e o$ "onserving *oth the i*erty and the identity1 (?a en, 2335, p. 53). .n 2366, the so"io ogist, Ma+ We*er, /rote a*o&t ethni" gro&ps in a nove /ay, in" &ding /ithin the de$inition a s&*He"tive e e!ent that previo&s y had *een a*sent. We*er a so di$$erentiated *et/een ra"ia and ethni" identity *y proposing that a * ood re ationship

/as ne"essary $or ra"ia identi$i"ation *&t not $or ethni" identi$i"ation. 9e de$ined ethni" gro&ps as, 0Jthose h&!an gro&ps that entertain a s&*He"tive *e ie$ in their "o!!on des"ent *e"a&se o$ si!i arities o$ physi"a type or o$ "&sto!s or *oth, or *e"a&se o$ !e!ories o$ "o oni8ation and !igration; this *e ie$ !&st *e i!portant $or gro&p $or!ation; $&rther!ore it does not !atter /hether an o*He"tive * ood re ationship e+ists.1 A tho&gh he /rote a*o&t the signi$i"an"e o$ ethni"ity in genera , We*er never a"(no/ edged the need $or an individ&a =s a"tive parti"ipation in their ethni" identity $or!ation, nor did he e+p ore the "onstr&"t !&"h *eyond a de$initiona "on"ept&a i8ation. %he "on"ept o$ ethni" identity *egan to ree!erge in the so"ia and *ehaviora s"ien"es iterat&re o$ the 2357=s and 23M7=s. Ethni"ity, $or e+a!p e, is !ore sa ient today than in prior de"ades. >Ethni"ity,> !aintains <anie Be , >is a !eans (no/) $or disadvantaged gro&ps to " ai! a set o$ rights and privi eges /hi"h the e+isting po/er str&"t&res have denied the!> (23MG, p. 2MI). And $or the past $e/ de"ades A!eri"aCs ethni" !inority gro&ps have *een a"tive y asserting their "ivi rights and de!anding privi eges hereto$ore denied the!. )evera $a"tors have *een "ited as eading to this rene/ed interest in ethni"ity, arg&a* y the !ost signi$i"ant *eing the "ivi rights str&gg e o$ A$ri"an A!eri"ans in the United )tates. %he *eginning o$ this !ove!ent "an *e "hara"teri8ed as an atte!pt on the part o$ A$ri"an A!eri"ans eaders and the A$ri"an A!eri"ans "& t&re in genera , to ta(e "harge o$ their ethni" and ra"ia identity and to s&*seD&ent y rede$ine their ethni"ity at *oth a so"ieta and "& t&ra eve . ConseD&ent y, the so"ia !ove!ent ed to in"reased dis"o&rse on the topi"s o$ ra"e and ethni"ity in addition to an &ps&rge in so"ieta a/areness regarding these topi"s (Bo&rg&ignon, 23M3; Fhinney, 2337). More and !ore it appears that @orth A!eri"ans are rea i8ing that their *io ogi"a an"estors /itting y and &n/itting y in$ &en"e their ives. %o gain so!e &nderstanding and perhaps to add str&"t&re and !eaning, !any are sear"hing their atti"s $or ong ost re"ords des"ri*ing their so"ia histories. And $ro! the dis"overies one "onstr&"ts a >sy!*o i" identity.> >.$ yo& /ish to &nderstand persons B their deve op!ent and their re ations /ith signi$i"ant others,> !aintains Anse ! )tra&ss (23G3), >yo& !&st *e prepared to vie/ the! as e!*edded in histori"a "onte+t> (p. 25I). .n the "o&rse o$ "onstr&"ting and !aintaining the identity, "o!!on histori"a sy!*o s are identi$ied, shared, and passed a ong to $&t&re generations. %he sy!*o s a so "an serve as a p&* i" a$$ir!ation o$ oneCs ethni" " ai! B " othing, de"a s, adorn!ents, $ ags, $ood, ang&age, and "e e*rations. References Barth, F. (2353). Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of culture difference . Boston# Litt e, Bro/n, & Co. Be , <. (23MG). Ethni"ity and so"ia "hange. .n @. , a8er & <. F. Moynihan, (Eds.), Ethnicity: Theory and practice (pp. 2MIn), Ca!*ridge# 9arvard University Fress. Bo&rg&ignon , E. (23M3). Psychological anthropology: An introduction to human nature and cultural differences. 9o t, Rinehart, & Winston# @e/ Aor(. Che&ng, A. W. (233:). Approa"hes to ethni"ity# C earing road* o"(s in the st&dy o$ ethni"ity and s&*stan"e a*&se. International Journal of Addictions, !(26), 2673B2665. ,ans, 9. E. (2335). )y!*o i" ethni"ity# %he $&t&re o$ ethni" gro&ps and "& t&res in A!eri"a. .n W. )o ars (2335), Theories of ethnicity: A classical reader (pp. I6GBIG3). @e/ Aor(# @e/ Aor( University Fress. ,ans, 9. (677:, Mar"h M). .dentity. The "hronicle of #igher Education, p. BI. , eason, F. (2335)..denti$ying identity# A se!anti" history. .n W. )o ars (2335), Theories of ethnicity: A classical reader (pp. I57BI4M). @e/ Aor(# @e/ Aor( University Fress.

?a en, 9. M. (2335). <e!o"ra"y vers&s the !e tingBpot# A st&dy o$ A!eri"an nationa ity. .n W. )o ars (2335), Theories of ethnicity: A classical reader (pp. 5MB36). @e/ Aor(# @e/ Aor( University Fress. ?ivisto, F., & @e$8ger, B. (233:). )y!*o i" ethni"ity and A!eri"an Ee/s# %he re ationship o$ ethni" identity to *ehavior and gro&p a$$i iation. $ocial $cience Journal, %&, 2B26. Fhinney, E. ). (2337). Ethni" identity in ado es"ents and ad& ts# Revie/ o$ resear"h. Psychological 'ulletin, (&!, I33BG2I. Fhinney, E. (6777). Ethni" identity. .n A. E. ?a8din (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology, )olume %. (pp. 6GIB6G3). @e/ Aor(# '+$ord University Fress. Fhinney, E. (677:). Ethni" identity and a""& t&ration. .n ?. Ch&n, F. B. 'rganista, & ,. Marin (Eds.), Acculturation: Ad)ances in theory, measurement, and applied research (pp.5:B 42). Washington, <C# A!eri"an Fsy"ho ogi"a Asso"iation. Root, M. F. (2336). Ba"( to the dra/ing *oard# Methodo ogi"a iss&es in resear"h on !& tira"ia peop e. .n M. F. Root (Ed.), *acially mi+ed people in America (pp. 242B243). London# )age F&* i"ations. )aharso, ). (2343). Ethni" identity and the parado+ o$ eD&a ity. .n E. F. Kan '&denhoven & %. M. Wi e!sen (Eds.), Ethnic minorities: $ocial psychological perspecti)es (pp. 3MB22I). Ber/yn, FA# )/ets @orth A!eri"a. )i!pson, E. A., & Weiner, E. ). (2343). The ,+ford English dictionary (6nd ed., Ko . K..). '+$ord# C arendon Fress. )o ars, W. (2335), Theories of ethnicity: A classical reader. @e/ Aor(# @e/ Aor( University Fress. )tra&ss, A. L. (23G3). -irrors and masks: The search for identity. , en"oe, .L# Free Fress. %aH$e , 9. (2346). $ocial identity and intergroup relations. Ca!*ridge# Ca!*ridge University Fress. %ri!* e, E. E. (6777). )o"ia psy"ho ogi"a perspe"tives on "hanging se $Bidenti$i"ation a!ong A!eri"an .ndians and A as(a @atives. .n R. 9. <ana (Ed.), #andbook of "ross/"ultural and -ulticultural Personality Assessment, (pp. 23MB666). Mah/ah, @E# La/ren"e Er *a&! Asso"iates. Ka"her de a Fo&ge, ,. (2435). 0es selections sociales. %horin# Faris. Kon 9&!*o dt, A. (24:7B24:GL234G). U*er die Kers"hiedenheit des !ens"h i"hen )pra"h*a&es &nd ihren Ein$ &* a&$ die geistige Ent/i"( &ng des Mens"henges"h e"hts. .n M. Riede (Ed.), 1eschichte der Philosophie in Te+t und 2arstellung (Ko . M, pp. 55B277). )t&ttgart# Re" an. Weinrei"h, F., & )a&nderson, W. (Eds.). (677:). Analyzing identity: "ross/cultural, societal and clinical conte+ts. @e/ Aor(# Ro&t edge. # Weinrei"h, F. (2345). %he operationa isation o$ identity theory in ra"ia and ethni" re ations. .n E. Re+ and <. Mason (Eds.), Theories of race and ethnic relations (pp. 633B:67). Ca!*ridge, Eng and# Ca!*ridge University Fress.