Chapter 4: Case Studies of Sri Lanka and Northern Ireland

Causes of conflict in Sri Lanka

Citizenship rights -In the 1948 Ceylon Citizenship Act, Sri Lanka granted citizenship only to those who were either born in Sri Lanka or those whose fathers and grandfathers were also born there. As many as 100 000 Indian Tamils who were brought from India to Sri Lanka by the British remained stateless even though they worked on tea plantations and contributed to the Sri Lankan economy. Being stateless meant that they did not have any civil rights and basic rights such as the right to vote, buy a house and receive education while the Sinhalese did. In 1964, after discussions with Sri Lanka, India agreed to allow some Indian Tamils to return to India. Others were given Sri Lankan citizenship. However, this agreement was not carried out in full by Sri Lanka until the late 1980s as it was interrupted by ethnic violence. This lack of common identity was a cause of conflict as both Sinhalese and Tamils do not feel that they are valued members of the society, especially Indian Tamils. In 2003, Sri Lanka passed the Grant of Citizenship to Persons of Indian Origin Bill. This Bill gave citizenship to Indians who had lived in Sri Lanka since 1964 on a permanent basis or were descendants of people who had permanently stayed in Sri Lanka since 1964. The government did not honour their promise and this led to conflict. The Tamils were unhappy as they were deprived of basic rights although they contributed significantly to the Sri Lankan economy. They felt that the Sri Lankan government was deliberately persecuting them. They wanted to break free from the government as they felt that a separate state was needed to ensure their rights. -this is not the most important factor as it only affects Indian Tamils Resettlement policy -Under the resettlement policy of the 1950s, Sinhalese peasants were resettled from the densely populated south-western and central areas into Tamil areas. Buddhist monks and the Sri Lankan Army also went to live among the Tamils and occupy Tamil lands. The government had implemented this policy to provide land for the landless Sinhalese peasants to live on and to cultivate padi. This changed the population representation to increase the Sinhalese population so that the Sinhalese are the majority in more areas. -The Tamils felt as if their homeland was invaded and their traditional way of life, culture and language were being eroded away. The resettlement issue was a cause of conflict as resettlement did not consider the feelings of the Tamils as the lands belonged to the Tamils and they were forced to live side by side with the Sinhalese. The resettlement policy meant that basic amenities necessary to life such as water, food and land now had to be shared among more people. Tamils had to compete with the Sinhalese peasants for land, jobs and basic needs. This unfair allocation of economic resources put the Tamils in a disadvantage. The lack of interaction between the Sinhalese and Tamils meant that there is little understanding and tolerance between the two groups. This caused unhappiness as the Tamils had to complete with the Sinhalese for land and sales of their products.

Sinhala Only policy -Before 1948, under British rule, the Tamils entered government service and were promoted to high positions though they were a minority in the country as they knew how to read and write in English effectively, unlike the Sinhalese. After independence, the Sinhalese government decided to improve the position of the majority Sinhalese and implemented the Sinhala Only policy making Sinhala the only language of administration. Tamils in the government service had to learn Sinhala within three years or be dismissed. This upset the Tamils. Although Tamil was also declared a national language and accepted as an official language, it is still not widely used. -Tamils realized that they were unable to secure jobs in the government service or be promoted. They were deprived of job opportunities which severely affected their livelihood. Inability to use their own language also meant the erosion of traditions and culture for the Tamils. Thus, conflict broke out as the Tamils felt that the government was not paying any attention to their grievances and needs. This action by the Sinhalese government was seen as unfair towards the Tamils and the Tamils peaceful demonstration made to voice their grievances was met with hostility from the Sinhalese. It turned violent and over a hundred people were killed. An agreement in 1957 to make Tamil the language of administration in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka was met with strong protests from the Sinhalese. The agreement was withdrawn. Fighting occurred, resulting in many deaths and many people were made homeless. Different university admission criteria -Before 1970, the number of Sinhalese and Tamils were almost equal in the more prestigious engineering and medicine faculties although the Tamils are a minority in Sri Lanka. However, the Sinhalese were unhappy as they felt that the number of Sinhalese students who entered the universities was not in proportion to their numbers in the country. Hence, after 1970, in a bid to improve the standing of the Sinhalese in the country, the Sri Lankan government raised the criteria for the Tamils entering universities and implemented schemes which disadvantaged and made it harder for the Tamils to gain entry into the medical and engineering courses. For example, the minimum marks needed to enter engineering courses were 227 for Sinhalese but 250 for Tamils. -The percentage of Tamil students admitted to engineering courses fell while most Sinhalese youths entered university. This clearly disadvantaged the Tamils and made them feel that the government was unfair. Tamil youths who were not able to enter good courses in university were not able to get better jobs. It meant that the Tamils social and economic status would always be lower than that of the Sinhalese. This made the Tamils unhappy and resent the government. They felt that government was biased against them and in the process, deprived them of a good education and future job opportunities.

Consequences of conflict in Sri Lanka

Political Impact -Armed conflict (violence from Sinhalese): When the Tamils protested against the Sinhala Only policy in 1956, the Sinhalese started a riot against the Tamils which saw hundreds of Tamils lose their lives and property. Other anti-Tamil riots from the 1950s to the 1980s were encouraged by the Sinhalese army. Tamils had to flee for their lives. In the 1983 riots, thousands of Tamils fled to Tamil Nadu in South India. -Armed conflict (violence from Tamils): When their demands for equal rights failed, the Tamils formed the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). The LTTE attacked the Sinhalese and Tamil members of the police force, Tamil members and supporters of the Sinhalese government and Tamil politicians who did not support their idea of a separate state. The LTTE were also responsible for the assassinations of political leaders like former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991. Thus, the fight for a separate homeland for the Tamils in Sri Lanka cost thousands of lives. -Foreign intervention: A divided country such as Sri Lanka often provides the excuse for a more powerful neighbor such as India to interfere in their affairs. Foreign intervention from India compromised the sovereignty of Sri Lanka as Sri Lanka was not able to protect its independence. For example, in 1987, India violated Sri Lankas airspace while the Indian Air Force dropped food and medical supplies to Tamils in Sri Lanka. After the 1983 riots, Indias efforts to mediate between the conflicting parties failed. In July 1987, a peace accord was signed between the Tamils and Sri Lanka calling for a ceasefire and for the LTTE to surrender their arms to the Indian peacekeeping force. This failed and resulted in clashes between the Indian peacekeeping force and the LTTE. India eventually redrew its troops in 1990. This further reduced Sri Lankas international standing as poor relations with other countries affected trade. Economic impact -Unemployment: The riots in July 1983 resulted in massive unemployment. Tamil-owned businesses, factories and homes were destroyed and burnt, causing thousands of people to become unemployed. Many of the unemployed were Sinhalese who vandalized looted or burned their places of work such as garment factories. In violent conflicts, all groups suffered. Unemployment means a generation will end up with no skills to compete economically. This is why Sri Lanka has been unable to climb out of its Third World nation status. -Loss of Investments: Companies will not invest in Sri Lanka as it is politically and socially unstable. For example, Motorola had finalized plans to establish their company but withdrew their plans away from Sri Lanka with the breaking of ethnic riots in 1983. The loss of investments means that the countrys revenue will decrease as these companies bring with them jobs and revenue. Investments in Sri Lanka dropped from US$66 million in 1982 to US$22 million in 1986. The government spends a lot of money and resources dealing with

this conflict. This money could have been put to better use to rebuild Sri Lanka as the conflict resulted in the destruction of infrastructure and property. -Fall in number of tourists: Since the July 1983 riots, the number of tourists to Sri Lanka dropped steadily. This resulted in the loss of jobs for those in the tourism industries and fall in tourism revenue. Sri Lanka has less revenue to develop facilities such as housing for the people. Thus, the standard of living may fall. Social impact -Large scale displacement: Thousands of Tamils fled to Tamil Nadu in South India after the 1983 riots. In 1995, the Sri Lankan army moved into Jaffna to confront the LTTE. The Sri Lankan army occupied large parts of Tamil-dominated areas in the north and east of Sri Lanka. As a result, many Tamils fled from their homeland. Today, an estimated 65 000 Sri Lankans remain as refugees in India. Their quality of life is bad due to poor living conditions. The majority of them are Tamil refugees who live in overcrowded refugee camps or with relatives and friends. There is a lack of facilities and amenities in the refugee camps. They were attacked by people in India who saw them as taking over their land and resorted to crime due to poor conditions. -Children received little education: Many Tamil children were recruited into the LTTE and became child soldiers. They grew up with little education and developed a bias attitude, contributing to the difficulty of achieving peace. The mistrust between the Sinhalese and Tamils worsened the conflict and made it difficult to achieve long term peace.

Causes of conflict in Northern Ireland

Divided loyalties -The Protestants and Catholics have differences in political beliefs and are loyal to different countries. The Protestants regard themselves as British and want Northern Ireland to continue as part of the United Kingdom. They are afraid of union with the Republic of Ireland as its Catholic government will not tolerate their Protestant beliefs. They celebrate the victory of the Battle of Boyne annually by marching through Catholic residential areas. The Catholics regard themselves as Irish and want the country to be reunited with the Republic of Ireland. Catholics resent the past history of English conquest where Catholics were illtreated of massacred. This caused tension and unhappiness to surface between the two groups. -This lack of common identity prevented understanding and cooperation between the Catholics and Protestants. The Catholics and Protestants felt that they belonged to different countries and hence lived their lives differently. This caused each side to be increasing intolerant of each others activities, causing tension. Lack of voting rights -Before 1969, voting rights were a source of conflict between the Protestants and Catholics. Each household was entitled to two votes while companies were entitled to more votes depending on their size. The richer Protestants owned more companies and had more votes than the Catholics. The voting system was unfair to the Catholic population as they were poorer. The voting districts were often drawn up to include a larger proportion of Protestants. -The Catholics felt that the laws made by the government were biased to them. Since more Protestants got to vote, the Catholics were worried that more Protestants would come to power and policies made would favour the Protestants. Thus, the social and economic needs of the Catholics may not be attended to as the voices of the Catholics are not heard in Parliament. Hence, the Catholics staged demonstrations to display their frustration which led to unrests. Since 1969, every British subject above 18 years old is entitled to one vote. To ensure fairness, voting districts were redrawn. Unequal employment opportunities for the Catholics -Academically qualified Catholics were not able to get a job as easily as the Protestants. Male Catholics were 2.5 times more likely to be jobless than Protestant males. There were fewer Catholics in the government and senior positions. The number of Catholic engineers and civil servants were not proportionate to the numbers in the country and Catholics felt that they were discriminated against. -Catholics felt that the laws made by the government were biased. With fewer Catholics in the government positions, policies made will also favour the Protestants as Catholics will not be able to make their demands heard in the government. The inability of the Catholics to secure better jobs also meant that they would not be able to match the Protestants in terms

of their social and economic status. This discrimination led to conflict between the two communities. Hence, they staged demonstrations to display their frustration and resentment, which led to unrests. Unequal allocation of housing -Public houses are partly paid for by the government. City councils that provide public housing consist largely of Protestants. Often, large Catholic families in need of housing have to wait a long time to get a house. Houses would be given to Protestants in some cases. In 1968, 71% of the local houses in Dungannon were given to Protestants although 53% of the people there were Catholics. -The Catholics were frustrated as the unfair allocation of housing meant that they would have to wait for many years before they could be given their own houses. Lack of opportunities for social interaction -Protestants and Catholics do not have opportunities to interact as there are separate education systems and separate residential areas. There are public schools that cater only to Protestants and private schools that cater only to Catholics. Protestant children in public schools learn British history, play British sports like cricket and are very loyal to Britain while Catholic children in private schools learn Irish history, language and culture, play Irish sports like hurling and are loyal to Ireland, considering Britain to be a foreign country. There are privately run mixed schools but these are not popular. In 2003, only 5% of the school-going population attended these schools. Catholics and Protestants have lived in separate residential areas since the 17th century. The 1991 census showed that in Belfast, 63% of the population lived in areas that were mainly Catholic or Protestant. By 2001, this had risen to 66%. As they study in different schools and lived in separate residential areas, there is a lack of opportunity for children from these two communities to interact with one another. Generations of Protestant and Catholic children grew up being hostile to each other due to their lack of interaction and understanding.

Consequences of conflict in Northern Ireland

Political impact -Political reform (changes in the government): The Northern Ireland government was pressurized by the civil rights marches to have policies that do not discriminate a certain group. The civil rights campaigns succeeded in forcing through some reforms. For example, the government agreed to remove the unfair voting system and promised to review the housing policy. -Armed conflict (violence from Protestants, Catholics, the Irish Republican Army and the British Army): Peaceful demands during the Civil Rights movement in the 1960s were met with hostility and violence from some Protestants, including the police force. In the 1972 Bloody Sunday, a peaceful civil rights march by Catholics turned violent. 13 civilians were shot dead by the British Army and many were wounded. After 1972 there was more violence between Protestants and Catholics. Catholics homes were petrol-bombed by Protestant mobs, houses were looted and businesses were burnt and bombed. The local police force did nothing to stop the Protestants. Desperate, Catholics looked to the illegal organization, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) for help. The IRA used violence against the British Army and representatives of the British government. From 1969 to 1993, more than 3500 people died in the conflict and the IRA was accountable for 2/3 of the deaths. -Foreign intervention by Britain: Foreign intervention compromises the sovereignty of Northern Ireland. In 1969, the British Army was sent to Northern Ireland to help keep order. The Catholics soon lost faith in them as they began searching their homes and arresting suspects. In 1972, a peaceful civil rights march by Catholics turned violent as they were shot by British soldiers. The British Army often raided Catholic homes, using force and damaging property. The intervention of the British Army led to a great outburst of Catholic anger and deepened hostilities between the two groups. Economic impact -The conflict led to a declining economy created instability which discouraged domestic and foreign investments. The conflict also resulted in an increase in the cost of doing business in Northern Ireland, forcing foreign-owned businesses to close down. The instability caused by the violence also resulted in the loss of tourism earnings. In the 1970s, the cost of maintaining the British Army and compensating victims of the conflict amounted to 600 000 pounds every day. Revenue from these areas could be used for development of the country to improve the living standards of the people. Social impact -Protestants and Catholics are segregated socially in the way they live, work and play. They do not mix with each other and there is a lack of understanding between the two communities. Protestants see themselves as British while Catholics see themselves as Irish, hence they remain intolerant of each other. Generations of children grow up to be

distrustful of each other, resulting in more hostility. This has made it difficult to achieve peace despite a peace agreement in 1998.

Chapter 5: Bonding Singapore

Challenges of a multi-ethnic society
Managing perceptions of different racial groups -The lack of understanding among the racial groups can create suspense and unhappiness among racial groups. In 1964, Singapore experienced race riots which resulted in 36 people dead and 560 others injured. -During the merger period, the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) and Peoples Action Party (PAP) had political differences. To increase support for UMNO from the Malay community in Singapore, UMNO started anti-PAP campaigns through Utusan Melayu which aimed to reduce support for PAP among Malays. UMNO highlighted the poverty among the Malays in Singapore and claimed that the resettlement policy carried out by PAP was to remove the Malays from their lands. This stirred anger in the Malays towards the PAP which was seen as anti-Malay are there were more Chinese in the party. During the celebration of Prophet Muhammads birthday at the Padang, Chinese policemen and Malays clashed, developing into full-blown race riots leading to loss of property and lives. -Peace and harmony in Singapore can be broken through the use of violence due to perceptions that one racial group is being treated differently. Irresponsible media reporting and a trigger like the issue of race can also cause suspicion, distrust and hostility among Singaporeans. The lack of unity among the people will affect the development of Singapore as the people are unwilling to work together for the well-being of the country. Managing perceptions of different religious groups -Differences in religious beliefs and practices can be used to create tension among the people in Singapore. This is because members of a particular religious group may see actions taken by another group to be disrespectful and insulting to their religion. When misperception occurs, violence may result. -An example is the Maria Hertogh riots in 1950. Maria Hertogh, a Catholic, was left in the care of a Muslim lady when her Dutch parents were imprisoned during World War 2. She was raised as a Muslim and married a Muslim man. After World War 2, her parents demanded the return of their daughter. A court trial followed where the High Court ruled in favour of the Hertoghs. The marriage was annulled as she was deemed to be underaged. She was housed in a convent and was seen kneeling in front of Mother Marys statue. The Muslims felt that the court was disrespectful to Muslim law. This sparked off a riot against the European and Eurasian communities, resulting in the loss of property and lives. -In a culturally diverse society, racial and religious harmony is critical. If religious issues are not handled carefully by the government, various religious communities may feel that they have not been treated with respect and fairness. Hostility will occur among them and they will create chaos to vent anger. Thus, the unity of Singapore will be shaken, affecting the progress and prosperity of Singapore.

Threats from external forces -Threats from external forces such as transnational terrorism can cause conflict in Singapore. Transnational terrorism refers to acts of violence by terrorist groups which are global in terms of aims, organization and impact. -From 2001 to 2005, Singapore experienced the Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) threat. JI had made plans to bomb certain areas in Singapore to create chaos and mistrust in the country, and to force the government to stop supporting the Western countries. Members of JI were arrested by Singapore authorities. -Terrorist acts based on religion can test the social bonds of people in Singapore when people have misunderstandings about a particular community. This creates ill-feelings among the different ethnic groups, threatening racial and religious harmony in the country and affecting the peace in the country.

Measures to manage ethnic diversity

Building a national identity -The policy of multi-racism ensures that everyone has equal opportunities to succeed, regardless of their background. Favouring a certain group of people because of their race or religion is prohibited by the Constitution. This promotes equality amongst the races. Everyone is seen as a valued member of Singapore society so ethnic groups will not stage protests and use violence to fight for equal treatment, thereby ensuring the peace and stability of Singapore. -Common practices are actions that Singaporeans carry out together, such as the singing of the national anthem and pledge-taking. These remind us of the values that we should uphold as a nation and help people to see themselves as one despite their different ancestry. By inculcating loyalty to Singapore, people would be united and continue to work together for Singapore, contributing to the countrys growth. -The policy of bilingualism was introduced in schools in 1966. Students were expected to learn English and their Mother Tongue. Mother Tongue languages impart moral values and cultural traditions of each race. English is a common language for communication with different races. As English is a non-native language for all the ethnic groups, no one has an advantage over others. It helps reduce any misunderstanding among the people as they can use a common language to communicate, leading to building of bonds among the people. Safeguarding minority interests -Minority representation: The Presidential Council of Minority Rights (PCMR) and the Group Representation Constituency (GRC) are examples of how representation of the minority groups is achieved. The PCMR consists of members from minority racial and religious groups and ensures that no racial or religious group is disadvantaged as a result of a law passed in Parliament. The GRC ensures that at least one candidate in the team contesting in the General Election is from the minority racial communities. The PCMR and GRC give the

minority groups a say in governance and safeguard their interests. As such, no racial and religious group is disadvantaged and Singaporeans know that their welfare is being looked after. This prevents them from using violence to fight for equal rights, hence ensuring peace and prosperity in Singapore. -Self-help groups: Self-help groups such as Chinese Development Assistance Council (CDAC), Mendaki, Singapore Indian Development Association (SINDA) and Eurasian Association help less fortunate members of their community to get aid in their studies and training for their jobs. They help give moral and financial support to them. These groups provide support in areas specific to the ethnic group to cope and compete with one another on an equal footing. The welfare of those less fortunate is provided for and citizens of various ethnic groups will be able to improve their social and economic positions in the society. Hence, this prevents them from using violence to fight for equal rights, ensuring peace and prosperity in Singapore. Developing common space -Grassroots organizations such as Peoples Association create common space through their wide range of programmes and activities developed to cater to the needs and interests of every Singaporean, such as providing facilities such as badminton courts for people to use and engage in leisure activities together. This allows participants to gain a better understanding of the cultures and customs of other races. With mutual respect, strong friendships can be built over time.