Neotectonics 2014

Chapter - 2 TECTONIC FRAMEWORK-NEOTECTONICS AND SEISMOTECTONICS
2.1 GENERAL The tectonic fabric of the study region is cumulative effects of geodynamic processes that were in operation and that are in operation. The mid oceanic Ridge at Indian Ocean drifts the Indian plate at the rate of 4 5cm/year at an average and it was 20 cm/ year until it collided with Asia (Searle, 2005). Being part of actively colliding Indian plate, though covered with hard crystalline Archaean rocks the prowess of tectonic disturbances are imminent in the form of adjustment tectonics and reactivation of faults etc. A reappraisal on tectonic framework will enlighten the tectonic events and possible places of reactivation. 2.2 TECTONIC FRAMEWORK OF SOUTH INDIA AND STUDY REGION The Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) has a complex evolutionary history from the early Archean to late Neoproterozoic (3500 550 Ma) with repeated multiple deformations, anatexis, intrusions and polyphase
metamorphism (Bartlett et al., 1998; Bhaskar Rao et al., 2003). The region essentially consists of charnockite and khondalite group of rocks and their magmatic derivatives, supracrustals, gneissic complex, intruded by mafic ultramafic rocks, granites and alkaline complexes of various periods. Fermor was the first to divide the Indian Peninsular shield into Charnockite and Non Charnockite Regions, prior to that both were grouped together as the Archaean Dharwar system. The SGT is separated from the Dharwar Craton by the orthopyroxene isograd known as the Fermor line. However, there exists a narrow transition zone along which the low-grade greenstone granite domain transforms to high-grade granulite facies rocks (Swaminath et al., 1976). The SGT is a mosaic of crustal blocks consisting of highland charnockite massifs separated from each other by a network of low-lying shear zones extending in different directions viz. NESW, EWand NWSE
Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....
The most prominent among the charnockite massifs are the Biligiri Rangan, the Shevaroy, the Nilgiri and the Kodaikanal hills and they constitute the northern massif (Nr-M). The most important shear zones of the region are the Moyar Bhavani Salem- Attur (MBSASZ), the PalghatCauvery (PCSZ) and the Achankovil (AKSZ) shear zones. The SGT is composed of rocks of two different ages, the northern part is of Archaean age, Northern massif or Northern granulite block (NGT) and the southern part Pandiyan mobile belt (PMB) is of neoproterozoic age and they are separated by MBSASZ and PCSZ.The Achankovil Shear Zone marks the southern limit of the Madurai Block and the northern limit of the Trivandrum Block (TB). The MBSASZ branches into several curvilinear shear zones in the NESW direction. Prominent among them is the Mettur shear zone (MESZ) (Fig. 2.1). Based on satellite data and subsequent ground follow-up, Chetty et al. (2003) termed the network of crustal-scale shear zones as the Cauvery Shear Zone system (CSZ). They divided the region between the Biligiri Rangan and Kodaikanal high-grade charnockite massifs into the MoyarBhavani- SalemAttur shear zone (MBSASZ), the ChennimalaiNoyil shear zone (CNSZ), the Dharapuram shear zone (DSZ), the DevatturKallimandayam shear zone (DKSZ) and the KarurOddanchatram shear zone (KOSZ). The well-known PalghatCauvery Shear Zone broadly coincides with the ChennimalaiNoyil shear zone. All the shear zones of the CSZ exhibit dextral strike slip movement with a maximum lateral displacement of ~80km
(Drury et al., 1984; Chetty et al., 2003). Most of these shear zones are intruded by the late Neoproterozoic (750550 Ma) granites and alkaline (carbonatite and syenite) plutons (Anil Kumar et al., 1998; Santosh et al., 2005). Some of these are associated with layered anorthosites and mafic/ultramafic complexes. The Charnockite group occupying the eastern & central parts of the Salem district includes charnockite, pyroxene granulite and banded magnetite quartzite. The charnockite in the Kolli hill and Shevaroy hill is altered to bauxite & laterite. A number of shear zones traverse E-W trending foothill of
Geoinformatic Modelling for Certain Georesources and Geohazards of Attur Valley, Tamil Nadu, India.
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the Kolli Malai. Pyroxene granulite bands associated with magnetite quartzites occurs as interbanded sequence with charnockite and form good marker in deciphering the structure of the area as seen around Attur. The Satyamangalam group rocks comprising fuchsite quartzite and amphibolites occur in a linear zone surrounding the Sankari dome. Some of the important tectonic domains are discussed below; 2.2.1 Northern Massif (Nr-M): An overall prominent NNE-trend (Dharwar trend) characterizes the vast expanse of various Northern massifs including the Biligirirangan, Shevaroy and Kalrayan hills to the north of the Moyar Shear Zone. The north trending boundary between the older Western Dharwar craton (3.3-3.0Ga) and younger Eastern Dharwar craton (2.8- 2.6Ga) (Swaminath and Ramakrishnan, 1981; Naqvi and Rogers, 1987) approximately passes within the domain of northern massif in the western parts (Fig.2.1). 2.2.2 Moyar Shear Zone (MSZ): Most distinct rotation of the NNE-trending fabric of the Northern massifs has been observed along their southern margin, which is demarcated by the Moyar Shear Zone, having distinct E-W, ESE-WNW and ENE-WSW trends. The Gradual rotation of the regional trends on either side of the MSZ reveals its dextral shear character having large strike-slip component in contrast to the earlier observations by Naha and Srinivasan (1996), who postulated large-scale up-thrust displacements. In the western parts, the Moyar River flows along this zone, this is then occupied by the eastwardflowing Bhavani River around Satyamangalam. The shear zone skirts the northern margin of Sankaridurg and extends uninterruptedly eastwards towards Salem and Attur (Srinivasan, 1974; Chetty, 1996; Chetty and Bhaskar Rao, 1998; Bhadra, 2000). The MSZ is characterized by strong penetrative mylonitic shear foliation, which trends almost E-W in the western parts and dips very steeply both towards the north as well as south. A subordinate trend of foliation
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having N30E orientations also noteworthy and may correspond to the relict N-S foliation of the Northern massifs within the shear zone. Numerous shear criteria like asymmetric mafic boudins within the MSZ reveal distinct ductile dextral shear sense of movement, with mylonitic foliation characterized by sub horizontal to gently plunging mineral/stretching lineation. However, the mylonitic foliation also contains variable sub vertical to steeply down-dip plunging lineations towards NW or SE as well as towards west. Further, the gradual rotation of axial surfaces of tight to isoclinal folds due to dextral shearing within the MSZ .The main orientation of the ductile shear zones within the MSZ is almost E-W, having both north/ south dips and a minor component of NE trending sinistral shear zones. Further eastwards in the Satyamangalam region, orientation of dextral shear zones has slightly changed to S 80 E with steep northerly dips while sinistral shears remain oriented at N 30 E with steep E/W dips.In the easternmost region of Attur, where both the conjugate sets are well developed, dextral shear zones trend S 70 E with very steep to vertical dips and the sinistral ductile shear zones are oriented N 20 E. All along the MSZ, mineral/stretching lineations are well developed on the mylonite foliation and within ductile shear zones, and plunge either steeply down-dip (Naha and Srinivasan, 1996; Bhadra, 2000) or undergo rotation to become moderate to gentle (Chetty and Bhaskar Rao, 1998). 2.2.3 Kolli -Pachchaimalai Massifs: The presence of many charnockitic massifs in the eastern parts to the south and southeast of Salem with high relief Kolli Malai, Pachchaimalai and surrounding areas are remarkably charnockitic and reveal dominant NE trends, which coincide with the main foliation. These trends undergo gradual rotation due to the presence of dextral shear zones along the northern and southern margins of the massifs. 2.2.4 Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone (PCSZ): Large and wide low-lying expanse around Coimbatore-NamakkalTiruchirappalli and further east is characterized by E-W trends in the PalghatGeoinformatic Modelling for Certain Georesources and Geohazards of Attur Valley, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Cauvery gap, which was named as the Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone by Drury et al. (1984). In this domain, eastward draining Cauvery River flows along distinct E-W trending major shear zone boundary from south of Namakkal to Tiruchirapalli.The main foliation within the PCSZ regionally trends almost EW with subordinate trends towards NE and north.
Fig 2.1 Tectonic framework of Southern Granulites Terrain (SGT)

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2.2.5 Salem-Attur Shear Zone It is the eastward continuation of the Moyar-Bhavani shear zone along Salem and Attur to the Eastern Ghat. The Godumalai shear zone of Grady (1971) became the Vellar fault of Srinivasan (1974) and Salem-Attur shear zone (SASZ) of Gopalkrisnan (1996). Drury et al., (1984), Chetty (1996), Bhadra (2000) have accepted the SASZ as the eastern continuation of MBSZ. Srinivasan (1974) showed another fault immediately to the south called the Swetha Nadi fault. 2.3 DEMARCATION OF STUDY WINDOW The various fracture controlled linear features and geomorphological features were interpreted for the study area using the raw and digitally processed satellite data IRS-1A, P24-R60. Geology map of the study area was prepared from Geology and mineral map of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry (GSI-1995). The topographic analysis of the study region was done using SRTM data. It is quintessential to narrow down the study region in order to provide greater thrust and to make a detail study pertaining to the objectives. 2.3.1 Topographic Anomalies The study region is covered with major hills like Yelagiri Shevaroyan Chitteri, Kalrayan, Kolli, Pachchai hills with intermittent plains and rolling topography. East and south eastern part of the study region is covered with younger sedimentary rocks of cretaceous and tertiary periods that are vastly plains with badland topography at the places of marly limestone and shale. Significantly, the crystalline rocky terrain is alternated with hills and valleys and plains. DEM (Digital elevation model) was created using SRTM data of 30m resolution (source: http//www.glcc.com). Profiles were drawn along N-S and E-W directions to bring out the relief variations of the terrain (Fig. 2.2).
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2.3.1.1 Profile A-B The profile A-B was drawn along Shervaroys to Bodamalai. The cross section clearly indicated a low lying plain occupying altitude of 350 - 400m between high hill ranges of 1550m of Shervaroys and 850m high Bodamalai that was corresponding to easterly extension of Moyar Bhavani Attur Shear Zone. 2.3.1.2 Profile C-D The profile C-D clearly defines the oscillation of altitudes along N-S direction. The southern foot of the Chitteri hills corresponds to Vellar fault (Srinivasan, 1974) and northern foot of Kolli hills corresponds to Sweta nadi fault (Srinivasan, 1974) and low lying central part corresponds to Moyar Bhavani Attur Shear zone (Srinivasan, 1974). Moreover the hills are also highly dissected and clearly depict the strong lineaments. 2.3.1.3 Profile E-F The profile E-F shows higher amplitude at the places of Yelagiri, Kalrayan and Pachchai hills. The low area between Yelagiri and Kalrayan hills corresponds to Ponnaiyar river fault. The Vellar fault is relatively deeper than Ponnaiyar river fault along the N-S profile. 2.3.1.4 Profile G-H Near E-W profile was drawn along the southern fringe of Shevaroys, and Kalrayan hills. The profile was gentle and smooth. This profile G-H is more or less corresponds to Vashista Nadi fault. 2.3.1.5 Profile I-J Another profile was drawn along the northern fringe of Kolli and Pachchai hills. The profile is smooth except for few undulations near Naraikinaru hills and Kudamalai in the east. Naraikinaru hills and Kudamalai hills are much resistant and stand slightly elevated than the plains corresponding to Sweta Nadi fault.
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Fig. 2.2 Topographic Analysis Using SRTM and Anomalous Profile Variations
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2.3.2 Significant Lithologies Though most part of southern peninsula is covered with rocks of age earlier than late Proterozoic age (550ma before present), the general assemblages of significant rock types have possess some tectonic history in them to tell (Fig. 2.3). Alkaline rocks syenites, carbonatites and ultramafic rocks, granites, mylonite, phyllonites, pegmatites and dykes were taken as significant lithology since they are associated with major lineaments and rifts.
Fig. 2.3 Regional Study - Significant Lithologies

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The ages of Yelagiri syenites (77336Ma, Miyazaki et al., 1999), Samalpatti carbonatite (70030Ma, Moralev et al. 1975) and Sevattur carbonatites (7678Ma, Kumar et al., 1991) suggest the tectonics associated with their emplacement were contemporary to Pan-African orogeny (Rajesh et al., 1996). Rock types varying from Sathymangalam group- equivalent to Sargur schist belt to Cuddalore Sanstone of Mio-Pliocene sequence is nearly
complete in the latitudes of 11 12 degrees that is towards the east of Attur valley (Fig. 2.3). Considering the vastness and volume of younger sediments, this could be possible, when the easterly flowing rivers vigor enough to erode and supply the sediments. The intensity of river could be positively correlated with rise of the plateaus bounding the Attur valley. 2.3.3 Geomorphic Anomalies The landforms are expression of combined action of tectonics and geomorphic agents. The tectonic landforms like intermontane valley, fracture valleys, combination of dissected plateau and undissected plateau, bajada (high relative relief) structural basins clearly evidences neotectonism and are taken as anomalies (Fig.2.4). The Shevaroys, Chitteri, Kalrayan and Kolli and Pachchai hills shows morphotectonic anomalies like combination of dissection and undissection as similar as the features observed in Kodai hills by Kumanan (2001). 2.3.4 Drainage anomalies The crude parallel drainage pattern that is shown by the streams viz. Sweta and Vashista which are flowing on the southern fringes of Shevaroys, Chitteri and Kalrayan and northern fringes of Kolli and Pachchai hills respectively (Fig.2.5). The parallelism is controlled by vellar fault and sweta fault (Srinivasan, 1974). Moreover, the Toppur ar and Ponnaiyar fault along
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the northern fringe of Shevaroys, Chitteri and Kalrayan takes a southerly deflection while Kollidam River, a major distributory of river Cauvery flows south of Kolli and Pachchai hills and takes a northerly deflection along NESW sinistral graben, (Ramsamy, 1989). This suggests a possible development of deep or transpressional tectonism or block faulting in complement to cymatogenic arching along MangaloreChennai and Cochin
Ramanathapuram (Ramasamy et al., 1987, 1995a; Ramasamy 1989; and Subrahmanya, 1994 & 1996).
Fig. 2.4 Regional Study - Geomorphic Anomalies Extensive gullying east of gangavalli shear zone have connote either the soft lithology like shale or salt affected land or a topographic high which results in the formation of badlands.
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Fig. 2.5 Regional Study Drainage Anomalies 2.3.5 Structural Anomalies The structures in the study region studied by various people like Srinivasan (1974) Vemban et al. (1977) Ramasamy (1989,1995b), Ramasamy et al. (1991, 1998, 2000, 2006a ), Chetty, T.R.K. (1996), Chetty et al. (1998), Bhadra, (1999, 2000), Naganjaneyulu et al. (2003), Vijaya Rao et al. (2006), Biswal et al. (2010) and many others. Because of multi phase deformation history, the structural basins and their alignment along the shear zones are observed as significant rather than alkaline ring complexes in Samalpatti and Koratti. 2.3.5.1 Trend line anomalies and structures The trend lines are the expressions of the structures of the rocks either primary like bedding or imparted structures during deformation
accompanied with metamorphism. The rocks near Vellalakundam expresses a

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basin structure and major axis of the oval basin trends ENE-WSW direction. Another fold with north easterly plunge is observed in southern part of Chitteri hills. The Palaniyapuri basin (Malliyakarai basin) completely aligning its major axis of the oval towards E-W direction. Hills near Singliyankombai expresses S type fold with axis trending NE-SW direction and the loop structure is observed in Naraikkinaru hills (Fig.2.6a). 2.3.5.2 Lineament Anomalies Polymodally oriented lineaments show dominance of NW-SE orientation in the northern part and NE-SW orientation in the southern part of the study region. The imprints of N-S lineaments are extending from northern end to southern end of the study region but the conspicuous E-W lineaments are confined to bounds of Shervaroys, Chitteri and Kalrayan and Kolli and Pachchai hills. The presence of E-W parallel lineaments at the Attur valley, EW and NW-SE parallel lineaments at Shervaroys and Chitteri hills, N-S and NW-SE parallel lineaments near Yelagiri hills, Shevaroys and Chitteri hills and branching off lineaments in Kalrayan hills are of prime importance as they signifies the neotectonism ( Ramasamy, 2006a). 2.3.5.3 Lineament Density The total length of the lineaments in 5sq.km grid area were measured and plotted in the respective grid centres and thus the lineament density diagram was generated. Though the azimuth of the lineaments varies from EW, NE-SW, NW-SE, NNE-SSW, NNW-SSE and N-S, the trend of the lineament density maximas were E-W, NNE-SSW, NE-SW, NNW-SSE, and NW-SE. The maxima zone of lineament density was concentrated in Attur valley (Fig.2.6b).
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Fig. 2.6a Regional Study Structural and Lineament Anomalies
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Fig. 2.6b Regional Study Lineament Density and Lineament Density Maxima 2.3.6 Synthesis and Demarcation of Study Window From the regional study following observations were made, The Chitteri Kalrayan and Kolli, Pachchai sector shows anomalous relief variations with a broad valley in between them. The presence of steep fracture valleys, steep slopes, fault scarp, combination of dissected and undissected plateaus. The bajada on all the sides of raised plateaus suggest renovation of relative relief and thereby increase in sediment deposition.
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Though the alkaline rocks and ultramafic rocks are found in rift tectonic settings, and in this part of country they are dated to late proterozoic period Sheared rocks are strikingly possesses the clues of recent crustal disturbances. The parallel drainage pattern shown by Vashista nadi and Sweta nadi is owing to the E-W trending faults viz., Vellar fault in the northern fringe and Sweta nadi fault in the southern fringe of broad Attur valley, (Srinivasan, 1974). The deflections of drainages are confined to E-W trending Attur valley. The complementary deep along Attur valley to the cymatogenic arching along Mangalore Chennai and Cochin Ramanathapuram (Ramsamy et al., 1987, 1995), possesses the evidences of block faulting. Lineament density is higher in the latitude of 11-12 degrees Lineament fabric is nearly East-West, NNE-SSW and N-S Structural basins are present- Kanjamalai, Palaniyapuri basin and their conspicuous alignment along E-W shear zone. The presence of branch off lineaments, parallel lineaments and curvilinear lineaments indicates the area is highly vulnerable for neotectonism. Based on the above conceptions new study window was selected for studying the neotectonic activity and related geodynamics and geohazards. The study window ranging from 11 15 to 12 0 latitudes and 78 0 to 79 0 longitudes and includes parts of Salem, Dharmapuri, Tiruvannamalai, Villupuram, Cuddalore, Perambalur, Trichy, Namakkal districts (Fig.1.1).
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2.4 NEOTECTONIC AND SEISMOTECTONIC ZONATION MAPPING The Indian Peninsular Shield in general and its southern part in particular has always been thought of as being inert to younger earth movements and related seismicities/ earthquakes. Though the Southern Indian Peninsular Shield has not been studied in great detail with regards to faults, especially concerning their tectonic alertness, since 1960, a number of workers have observed, in various parts, possible repetitive tectonism since the Jurassics. Some significant observations are: possible Post-Jurassic tectonic movements along the Palghat graben (Arogyasamy 1963); varying signatures of Neotectonism of the Mysore plateau (Radhakrishna 1966); possible repetitive Post- Jurassic tectonic movements in South India (Vaidyanadhan 1967); a positive relation between Neotectonism and petroleum occurrences in South India (Ermenko 1968); active tectonic graben along the SalemAttur valley (Srinivasan 1974); a striking coincidence of historical seismicity data with NESW and ENEWSW lineaments/faults/lithological boundaries of South India (Vemban et al., 1977); tectonic wedging and related drainage reversals in the Dharmapuri region (Suryanarayana and Prabhakar Rao 1981); possible Neotectonism and the related clockwise rotational migration of Palar in the Chennai region (Rao 1989); Holocene transform faults of ENE WSW orientation along the Kerala coast (Nair and Subramainan 1989); NS trending cymatogenic arching and related rejuvenation of the Cauvery river (Radhakrishna 1992); signatures favouring intra plate deformation in South India (Subrahmanya 1996); dynamic mobile belts in South India (Chetty 1996); multi various evidences favouring Late Quaternary/Holocene earth movements in South India (Valdiya 1997, 1998, 2001, Valdiya et al., 2000); and signatures on active tectonic movements in parts of the Western Ghats (Gunnell and Fleitout 2000), etc. In recent years, Ramasamy et al., (1987, 1991 1993) have carried out interpretation of satellite images and recorded evidence of possible Neo-active tectonics in parts of South India, with
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possible land arching in the Chennai and Ramanathapuram areas. Subsequently, Subrahmanya (1994) and Ramasamy and Balaji (1995) also observed evidence of possible regional cymatogenic arching along the MangaloreChennai region. Tamil Nadu State is one of the 13 identified seismotectonic zones of Peninsular India (Umesh Chandra, 1977). Reliable historical earthquake
records for the last 200 years are available with the reputed research institutions of India through published literature. So far 12 earthquakes of M>5.0 have occurred in the State (Ganapathy et al., 2010). Bureau of Indian standards (BIS. 2001) categorized Tamil Nadu under Seismic Zones II and III, representing an area of 73% and 27% respectively. These disastrous
earthquakes have changed the long held belief of low order seismicity of Peninsular India and revised the seismic zonation of part of Peninsular India from moderate to high seismic prone areas according to Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), 2001. The author has taken up detailed studies to identify and interpret various tectonic, riverine, and coastal geomorphic anomalies from satellite based remote sensing data and aeromagntic anomalies, further, to spatially integrate this information to build up a comprehensive picture of Neo-active tectonics for the study window. After validating with multidepth resitivity data, alignment of spring, historic seismicity data and field study, the resources and geohazards were spatially correlated to bring out a comprehensive report of the influence of neotectonism. The present study is a newer attempt to identify, analyze, and spatially amalgamate a large number of anomalies visibly displayed by the tectonic, fluvial, geophysical, and hydrological systems in remote sensing and ground based datasets/observations, and to finally paint a fair picture on the active tectonic scenario of Attur valley.
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2.4.1 General Methodology The possible anomalies used by many workers around the world as well as in India for Neotectonic and seismic zonation mapping in respect of tectonic, fluvial and geomorphic, and geophysical anomalies were cataloged. The anomalies observed by the earlier workers in parts of South India were also taken into account. In addition, GIS based visualization techniques were used in the present study to identify newer and characteristic anomalies which can signal such Neotectonic zones. By duly interpreting such raw and digitally enhanced IRS-1C satellite images, the lineament map was prepared for the study area and from the same, various anomalies such as fracture swarms, curvilinear lineaments, branch off lineaments, radial lineaments, etc., were interpreted and probable zones of NeoActive tectonics were deduced. In the same way, various drainage / fluvial and geomorphic
anomalies were interpreted such as radial drainages, palaeochannels, deflected drainages, compressed meanders, eyed drainages, etc. and the anomalies seen in landforms like fracture valleys, escarpments, triangular facets, etc. derived Topographic expressions studied from shaded relief map from SRTM were interpreted for neotectonic signatures.
Aeromagnetic total intensity anomalous values and break were taken for neotectonic analysis. Litho units of tectonic importance and structural trend breaks were interpreted as weak zones for neotectonism. All these anomalies picked up from lineaments, drainage, litho units, structural trend and tectonic geomorphology and aeromagnetic were integrated using Arc-GIS and zones of coincidence were identified as probable zones of Neotectonics in the study area (Fig. 2.7). In addition to building up the concept for Neotectonic mapping, the Neotectonic model brought out for the study area was also validated with the help of historical seismicities, alignment of springs, multidepth resistivity data and field study.
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NEOTECTONIC AND SEISMOTECTONIC ZONATION MAPPING
Topographic Anomalies
Detection of Anomalies
Significant Lithology
Structural Trend Anomalies
Lineament Anomalies
Aeromagnetic Anomalies
Drainage Anomalies
Geomorphic Anomalies
Data Integration and Detection of NEOTECTONIC and SEISMOTECTONIC Zones Model Building
Model Validation
Through Multi Depth Resistivity Data
Through Historical Seismicity Data
Through Alignment of Springs
Field Validation
Fig. 2.7 Methodology Flow ChartNeotectonic and Seismotectonic Mapping 2.4.2 Topographic Anomalies from SRTM 2.4.2.1 General Since the announcement of Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) in 1998 (NASA-JPL, 1998a; NASA-JPL, 1998b) great expectations were increased within the scientific community for its numerous environmental applications. Antecedently the most frequently used global DEM was the Global Digital Elevation Model (GTOPO30). However this system was restricted by its numerous limitations such as the combination of different elevation data sources with different vertical errors and the spatial resolution of 30 arc-seconds. Although some research was carried out using this data
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(Miliaresis and Argialas, 1999; Miliaresis and Argialas, 2002), it presents constrains especially at the modeling stage. The SRTM elevation data was produced with the synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry technique. The use of SRTM elevation data appear as new opportunity for geomorphometric studies at regional scale and geomorphometric
susceptibility areas for neotectonism (Enrique Castellanos, 2005). DEM data can be used to derive topographic factors, other than simply elevation, including slopes, aspects, hill shading, slope curvature, slope roughness, slope area and qualitative classification of landforms (Fernandez et al., 2003). Laszlo Fodor et al. (2005) have studied the neotectonic structures and morphotectonics of the western and central Pannonian Basin using SRTM data. The topography of a region is a cumulative effect of paleo-tectonism and neotectonism over characteristically different rock types and the action of various atmospheric agents. Unless affected and altered by neotectonism in the form of exhumation and reactivation and adjustment tectonics, the resultant topography would have smoothness in relief variations, gentle denudational slope and complete denudation will mask the previously originated linearity. In the present study the anomalous relief variations, gaps in between hills, linear shadows, steep slope sides and deeps in the topographic profiles were interpreted for places of active tectonism. The topographic sheets of SOI were checked for contour values and spacing. 2.4.2.2 Anomalous Relief Variations, Contour Pattern, Shape and Slope The study window shows great variations in the relief with many hillocks and hills cover the entire region. The relief of the entire area ranges from 80m at the eastern part of the study area to 1649m at Shevaroyan hills. The sudden raise of the hillocks from the surrounding plains with steep sides probably escarpments, vast plateau on the hills and steep narrow drops in the middle, defines steep sided narrow valleys which could be neotectonically
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significant. The altitude of the hills decreases gradually towards the easternside as well as the southernside of the study window. 2.4.2.2.1 Shevaroys The peak Sholai Karadu hill measures 1649m and forms the highest peak in the study window and the stretch of peaks along the NE-SW direction are known for bauxite cappings. The bauxite capped hills were strikingly separated by broad valleys on either side with an altitude of 1200m on the west and 1020m on the east. In the easternside of the hills the contour valleys goes as low as 780m along an N-S trending linear depressions. The contours spacing are very close around the hill and the slope measures up to 56 -60 with steep cliffs. On the contrary, the contour spacing is comparatively broad on the top of the hills with intermittent breaks. 2.4.2.2.2 Chitteri The easternside of the Chitteri hills the highest being the
Arunuttumalai peak which measures 1211m and it is a very sharp and narrow peak. The western side of the Arunuttumalai hill is bounded by Manjavadighat passes which is a narrow valley separates the Chitteri hills from the Shevaroys. The contour pattern and the shadows from relief map (Fig. 2.8a) clearly depict NE-SW ridges. In the middle of the hill, a broad N-S trending linear valley with the minimum contour value 436m. NW-SE trending two narrow linear depressions were observed on the middle of the Chitteri hills. NNE-SSW trending linear depression merges with N-S trending narrow valley at the southern side of the Chitteri hills. Three more NNE-SSW trending valleys makes the hill highly dissected appearance. On the northern fringe the ESE-WSW trending Toppur Ar fault forms the boundary of the Chitteri hills. 2.4.2.2.3 Kalrayan The maximum altitude of the Kalrayan hills is 1249m and there are many peaks at the altitude of 1000m and above in the south-westernside of the hill. The central part contours are broad and represent the denudational
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plateau. The Kalrayan hill is separated from Chitteri by the NE-SW trending Kotapatti shear and along this western side the slope is moderate when compared to southern and easternside. The outline of the hill is highly serrated in the southern and easternside. Two N-S trending narrow valleys converge into a deep valley at the northernside. The easternside of the hills are steep and having sharp contact with the plains. 2.4.2.2.4 Kolli Hills The Kolli hills lies in the southern side of the study window and 1370m is the highest peak. North and northeasternside of the hills shows serrated appearance whereas the west and eastside of the hills are steep and sharply raised above the plains. The top of the hills shows less dissection than Pachchai hills. The entire hill itself shows a crude S type folding. Kolli hills separated from Pachchai hills by a broad valley. 2.4.2.2.5 Pachchai Hills The Pachchai hills are highly dissected and Gangavalli shear separates the Manmalai hill (. 971m) from Kambakkal malai hill (.957m) where as the highest peak is1071m. The northernside and northeasternside of the Pachchai hills are serrated and NE-SW trending narrow valley further separates the Pachchai hills into two halves. The slope on the westernside and south western sides are steep and the altitude decreases gradually towards the east and northeast. 2.4.2.2.6 Other Hills Apart from the above major hills discussed, there are many hills with maximum altitudes of 900m and above like, Kanjamalai, Bodamalai, Godumalai, Malliyakarai, Manjini, Singliyankombai, Jargumalai and
Tenmalai. These hills shows characteristic steep slopes and their isolated
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distribution along certain shear zones make them sensitive clues for marking neoactive lineaments.
Fig. 2.8a Study Window - Lineaments from Topographic Analysis 2.4.2.3 Profiles The profiles provide vertical section view of the terrain of interest and fundamental exercise for the geoscientists to understand the topographic variations. This type of representation is often helpful in bringing out the slope, depth of valleys and frequency of relief variations. Profiles I to V (Fig.2.8b) was drawn to find out the relationships between the major hills in the study area and the intervening vast plains spotted with small structural and residual hills.
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2.4.2.3.1 Shevaroyan Hills NW-SE Profile I Profile I was drawn from west of Shevaroys to Chitteri hills along NW to SE direction so as to cut perpendicular to the general trend of the rocks. The west side of the profile rises up to 1560m then drops to 780m in the east which corresponds to N-S narrow valley. Another sharp drop of altitude to 580m was observed after a flat profile that was corresponds to NE-SW Manjavadighat pass. The sharp drop can be conveniently classed as escarpments as the field observations confirm triangular facets on the western side walls of the valleys. 2.4.2.3.2 Chitteri -Kalrayan hills NW-SE Profile II Profile II was drawn across the general trend of the rocks in Chitteri and Kalrayan hills. The NW-SE profile shows a drop in altitude from an average height of 650m to 440m on the west side of Chitteri hills which corresponds to N-S fracture valley. 2.4.2.3.3 Kalrayan- Pachchai hills N-S Profile III The N-S profile was drawn from Kalrayan to Pachchai hills so as to cut across the intervening plains between the two hills. The southern fringe of Kalrayan displays a E-W trending narrow trough. Further south there was a great plain with an average height of 210m which corresponds to E-W trending Attur valley. The Attur valley was fringed by E-W trending faults. 2.4.2.3.4 Shevaroyan - Kolli hills NNW-SSE Profile IV The fourth profile was drawn in NNW-SSE direction and to cut across Shevaroys to Kolli hills. The broad valley corresponds to the E-W trending Moyar Bhavani Attur shear zone and moreover the intermittent presence of hills indicates branching nature of the shear zone. The northern fringe of the Kolli hills corresponds to the Swetha nadi fault.
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Fig 2.8b Topographic Profiles along Major Hills

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2.4.2.3.5 Kolli - Pachchai hills E-W Profile V The fifth profile displays the break at NNE-SSW trending Kolli east Shear and Gangavalli shear zone near Pachchai malai. The Kolli east shear is relatively broad where as Gangavalli shear shows sharp V shaped valley. 2.4.3 Significant Lithology 2.4.3.1 General Lithology map was prepared from District Resource Map (DRM) of GSI with the updates from field work, where alkaline rocks, ultramafic rocks, dykes, granites and pegmatites, pseudotachylytes and mylonites were taken as significant lithologies and their orientation and location have been considered as tectonic weak zone or anomalies. Since, these rocks represent the tectonic history or recurrence of tectonic events these will give us clue on the orientation of then tectonics weak zones and possible zones of reactivation (Fig. 2.9). 2.4.3.2 Alkaline Rocks and Ultramafic Rocks A large number of alkaline and ultramafic suite of rocks have been observed (Udas and Krishnamurthy, 1970; Borodin et al. 1971;
Krishnamurthy, 1977; Subramanian et al., 1978; Viladkar and Subramanian 1995) in the northern parts of Tamil Nadu and they are found to be located along a major NE-SW lineament (Grady, 1971). The study window displays many ultramafic bodies including Chalk hills where active Magnesite mining is going on. Ultramafic suite with alkaline rock shonkinite was found to be aligning with NE-SW lineament. The Chalk hills shows E-W elongation near north of Nagaramalai and show strike slip along NW SE lineament near southern part. Siddeswaran Kovil near northern flank of Kanjamalai dunite and peridotite with magnesite occurrences was reported. The original extensions of the rocks were mapped during the field study by the author during the year 2008 where peridotite extensions were observed parallel to the E-W
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lineament (Plate IA). Near Ariyanur (Salem-Erode NH47) on the southern flank of Kanjamalai, ultramafic rocks emplacement was observed during field study on the 1008 Shivalinga temple Hillock (.306 m. E 78 5' 5.94", N 11 35' 42", Plate IB) and Makkalur hill (.296m. E 78 3' 25.2", N 11 34' 58.8"). Another mound of amphibolite (E 78 3' 25.2", N 11 34' 19.19") with intervening mylonites was also observed during the field study near Chinnasirangapadi village. The amphibolite shows higher degree of alteration in to asbestos where the hornblende biotite gneisse contains sericite in patches near the asbestos pockets. Syenite was also found on the way from Omalur to Mecheri road near Silakardu hill (.426m) which crudely aligning with a NESW lineament and an E-W lineament. Carbonatites outcrops were observed near Umaiyapurampudur (E 78 28' 8.39", N 11 37' 30", Plate-IC) and near Karippatti (E 78 17' 13.2", N 11 39' 28.79"). Near the first location the NW-SE trending dykes were completely fractured by the intrusion of the carbonatite and the mine was not operating due to the poor quality of the produce. The carbonatite veins invading the joints present in the charnockite were observed near Karippatti and metasomatic effects of the intrusion could be seen on the vein rock contact (Plate-ID). New outcrops of syenite were located in Attur valley during field study and were reported (Plate-IE) near Vembakavundanpudur (78 25' 14.09", N 11 31' 28.27). These syenites are found to be corundiferous (Plate-VIIIE) associated with ultramafic rocks and aligning with NE-SW trending lineament. Lamprophyre was observed in a well cutting near
Koraiyar (E 78 19' 6.28", N 11 29' 25.40", Plate-IF and VIIID) during the field study. 2.4.3.3 Granites, Pegamtites and Migmatites The granites of Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) can be grouped under two broad categories, viz., the Late Archaean / Early-proterozoic granites and the Late-Proterozoic / Early-Palaeozoic (Pan-African) granites.
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The older granites are restricted to the northern part of SGT, while the younger Pan-African granites are mostly found in central and southern parts of SGT. Geochronological studies have yielded isochron age of 534 15 Ma for the Sankari- Tiruchengodu, 61935 Ma for the Maruda Malai and 471-475Ma
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for the Punjai Puliyampatti granites. The field setting, mineralogical and geochemical characters of most of the Pan-African granitoids of SGT characterize them as Anorogenic A-type granites (Nathan et al., 2009). The Granulite-Gneiss terrain of Central Tamil Nadu, representing the marginal zones of Dharwar craton, witnessed wide spread Neoproterozoic acid magmatism. This event is marked by the emplacement of several granitoids (viz. Sankari-Tiruchengode, Punjai Puliyampatti, Karamadai and Madura Malai granites) in a linear array within the E-W trending Cauvery Shear Zone / Cauvery Suture Zone (CSZ) which is bound by Moyar-Bhavani Attur Lineament (MBAL) in the north and Palghat-Cauvery Lineament (PCL) in the south. The Sankari-Tiruchengode (ST) granite, occurring at the intersection of the MBAL with the NNE-SSW trending Mettur lineament, is emplaced within the Bhavani Gneissic Complex and the associated supracrustal rocks of Sathyamangalam Group. The ST granite comprises two distinct phases, viz. a leucocratic phase and a pink phase. The leucogranites, showing grain size variation from medium grained to pegmatoidal, occur in the peripheral parts of the ST pluton while the pink granites (coarse to pegmatoidal) occupy the core. Late Archaean-Early Proterozoic periods in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry are characterised by granulitic facies metamorphism with charnockite formation and concomitant anatexis of earlier rocks. A number of small granite plutons were emplaced as culmination of migmatisation during this period. The Migmatite Complex shown in the map at places includes gneisses and granitoids generated during this period. The Late Archaean granite is developed along the northern periphery of the state (to the north of Palar River) around Tiruttani, Sholingar, Bisanattam, Ebbari and Krishnagiri (Ca 2500 Ma) (Krogstad et al. 1988), while early Proterozoic granite is recognised around Gingee, Tiruvannamalai and Tirukovilur (2254Ma; Balasubrahmanyan et.al. 1979).
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Linear NE-SW trending granite outcrops were marking lineaments with the similar trend were found in Thoppar Ar valley near Mallapuram and four exposures were found near Northern part of Chitteri hills. Similar NESW trend of the granitic bodies were observed near Belukurichi, and Thumbaipatti in the southwestern part of the study area and also near Mukkanur in the northeastern part of the study area. E-W trending granites could be observed near central eastern part of the study area. There are a large number of sheets, bands and lenses of Pegmatoidal granites confined to southern parts of Attur valley in general and to the southeastern portions in particular. Maximun concentration of these bodies were recorded around hill .419 and .513, north of .582, northeast of .600, south of .601 and west of .626. In most of the cases they intruded into charnockites, except at hill .419 and southeast of .654, where they are emplaced into a pyroxene granulite. The granite bodies vary in size from less than 5 meters to over a km. long with a thickness range otf 1-25 meters, but on an average, they are a couple of meters thick. Longest of all pegmatoidal granites are found at hill .419 (west of Singipuram, ridge west of .626 and northeast of .593), which are around a km. long. The exposures of grey granite near Pokkamalai (539m) and pink granites near Kudamalai (E 78 35' 31.20", N 11 27' 28.8") were found and the pink granite found to be emplaced at the intersection of Gangavalli shear zone and Swetha nadi fault (Plate-IIA). West of Chalk hills, pegmatite veins and rock exposures were observed near Chettipatti and Reddiyur near Omalur and also near Kachchirapalayam on the east of Kalrayan hills. Many exposures of pegmatites were found near Taramangalam and adjoining area where feldspar and quartz are being mined. Good quality beryl crystals are commonly found in these rocks.
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Migmatites were found near Sitampundi south west corner of the study area and also north of Bodamalai. The first one was found to be trending NE-SW and the other one was trending WSW-ENE direction. 2.4.3.4 Basic dykes The northern part of Tamil Nadu, north of Noyil-Cauvery Rivers (north of 11latitude) is characterised by dyke swarms, in contrast to the areas south of Noyil-Cauvery Rivers where they are absent. In general, the mafic dykes trend WNW-ESE and NNE-SSW and rarely N-S and NNW-SSE. In the central part of Tamil Nadu, ENE-WSW to NE-SW trending mafic dykes are seen transecting the charnockite and migmatites in Nilgiri and Kolli Hills. Although most of these mafic dykes show textural characteristics of dolerite, gabbroic / basaltic variants are not uncommon. The mineral assemblages of these dykes indicate quartz-gabbro / quartzdolerite composition with minor variations to olivine-gabbro/dolerite. Petrochemical studies indicate that the majority of these dykes are quartz normative tholeiites, while olivine-dolerite dykes show basaltic komatiite chemistry (Krishna Rao and Nathan, 1999). The chemical attributes of these dykes suggest that they were emplaced in a continental tectonic setting. The available K-Ar ages for the mafic dykes of Tamil Nadu are clustering around 1700Ma (Radhakrishna and Mathew Joseph, 1993; Sarkar and Mallick, 1995) indicating that they were emplaced during a major extensional tectonic regime in the Southern Peninsular Shield. A large number of mafic intrusives comprising medium to coarse grained dolerites to fine grained basalts are encountered in the study area. These dyke bodies traverse across almost all the rock types mainly along NESW, E-W and NNW-SSE trends. Local variation of a few degrees in trends of these dykes was common since most of them are of swerving nature and a few were branching. The general trend of above sets of dykes roughly follow the regional fold axes and shear zones; and timing of their emplacement could also be related to the regional episodes of folding and dislocations. Among the vast number of dykes encountered in the area, the following were the major ones:
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(a) NNW-SSE trending 7.5 km. long discontinuous dolerite dyke extending from southeast of hill .711 to the south of Karippatti. (b) NNW-SSE trending 2.5 km. long coarse grained dolerite dyke with highly varying thickness, passing between hill .601 and hill .413. (c) NE-SW trending 2.5 km. long dolerite dyke and swerving at two places extends from NE of Mudiyanur to south of .413. (d) two NE-SW trending dolerite dykes, about 2 km. long, one to the NE of Palaniyapuri and the other to the NW of Singipuram. (e) NE-SW trending highly mylonitized 2 km. long dolerite between hill .698 and hill .711 showing branching nature. (f) NE-SW trending discontinuous dolerite dyke extending from SW of Vembakavundan- - pudur to east of Tirnmanayakkaapatti (combined length - 5 km.). (g) A NE-SW trending faulted dolerite dyke south of Pusariyur (h) NE-SW and NW-SE trending dykes intersect near Umayalpuram-pudur (Plate-IIB). NWSE trending dykes extend from
Puthrakavundadanpalayam up to Tammampattiin in the south. In addition to the above listed dykes, there are several dolerite dykes relatively smaller dimensions, extending in both NNW-SSE and NE-SW directions. They are generally dark greenish to black (melanocratic), hard and compact, massive and less jointed, but quite a few show shearing and mylonitisation, which was obivious by the presence of pseudotachylyte veins.Most of the dykes, either stands out prominently as low ridges or exposed as exfoliated boulders in plains. Extremely well developed exfoliation in coarse grained dolerite dykes could be seen along the road cutting between hills .601 and .413 and east of hill.413.
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2.4.3.5
Siderite Ankerite gneiss A process of carbonatisation, similar to fenitisation, has affected the
country rocks around carbonatites and adjoining area, leading to the formation of pinkish siderite-ankerite bearing quartzofeldspathic gneisses (termed as carbonated gneisses). Some mafic rocks are also affected by carbonatisation giving rise to carbonated mafic rocks and they are of small dimensions and patchy in occurrence. This type of carbonate metasomatism has been reported from carbonatite complexes as well as from certain major shears zones. Similar process of carbonatisation has affected a sizable area around Kangankunde Carbonatite Complex, west of Lake Chilwa, Nyasaland (Garson, 1958), where the surrounding rocks were first permeated by strontianite rich ankerite and siderite material and later remobilized to Kfeldspar-ankerite-siderite rock. Regional carbonatisation connected with EpiHercynian tectogenesis was also reported from southern Tien Shan (Baratov et al., 1984). Since siderite- ankerite carbonates which are involved in carbonate metasomatism in the area are also the primary carbonates of all the carbonatite bodies in the Attur Valley, the process of carbonatisation seems related to the emplacement of carbonatites, not only spatially but also genetically, at least in this area. However, carbon isotope study of carbonates from these litho units is necessary for confirming their consanguinity. 2.4.3.6 Garnetiferous Gabbro A group of ultrabasic rocks ranging in composition from dunite, peridotite, websterite, garnetiferous gabbro, gabbroic anorthosite and anorthosite occur closely associated with the Sathyamangalam Group in the central belt of Tamil Nadu, around Mettupalayam and other areas. They also occur as enclaves within the peninsular gneisses as a part of the dismembered sequence. Large volume of garnetiferous gabbro and hornblendic anorthosite with chromitite layers as well as small lenses of eclogitic rocks are the characteristic features of this suite (Gopalakrishnan, 1994b). They are
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considered to have been emplaced along reactivated lineaments, shear zones, fracture zones or as tectonic slice (GSI, 2006). These rocks were recorded near Mariamman pallam (E 78 7' 48", N 11 59' 45") north of Toppal Ar, near Varagur (E 78 57' 32", N 11 53' 45") within Kaduvanthu reserve forest and near Cholambathu (E 78 55' 19", N 11 50' 27). Around Cholampattu four small rock bodies viz. one on the south, second on the NE side, third on the east and fourth on the NNW side of the Cholampattu were recorded by GSI. 2.4.3.7 Mylonites and Cataclasites The term mylonite refers to rocks with a specific (micro) structure that, in most cases, can be qualified as follows: (Rudolph A. J. Trouw, et al., 2010) Presence of a strong SL (Schistosity Lineation) fabric Presence of a fine-grained matrix with porphyroclasts. Minerals like quartz, chlorite, biotite and muscovite are usually present in the matrix, either highly strained at low grade, or recrystallised at higher grades. Minerals like feldspar, garnet, hornblende and pyroxenes may form porphyroclasts, commonly showing evidence of crystal-plastic deformation by undulose extinction and/or partial recrystallisation. Presence of a certain asymmetry, especially in low-grade mylonites, in the form of C/S fabric or C shear bands, mineral fish, stair stepping, oblique foliation etc. A protomylonite has between 10 and 50% matrix, a mylonite has 5090% matrix and an ultramylonite has between 90 and 100% matrix. Some ultramylonites have also been referred to as phyllonites, a term also used for mylonites rich in mica, derived from schists. The cataclasites reffered in this chapter are all cohesive fault rocks that show evidence of brittle fracturing although other processes such as grain boundary sliding and pressure solution may have played a role in their
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formation as well. These rocks are usually composed of angular broken rock fragments embedded in a matrix of quartz, iron oxide, calcite, chlorite and/or other minerals that precipitated from a fluid. Cohesive cataclasites are thought to form in the P-T realm where brittle deformation predominates, that is, approximately in the upper 10 km of the Earths crust, with lithostatic pressure up to about 3 kbar and temperatures up to about 300 C. However, their depth cannot be established with precision because other factors, like the presence or absence of fluids and the strain rate, also play an important role. Pseudotachylytes are cohesive glassy or very fine-grained fault rocks that characteristically occur in veins. They are composed of an extremely finegrained or glassy matrix with inclusions of wall-rock fragments. Commonly, a straight main fault vein (Sibson 1975; Spray 1992) representing a generation surface is present, from which smaller injection veins branch out. The main criteria to distinguish pseudotachylytes from cataclasites are: The presence of injection veins branching from a straight main fault vein (generation surface). A sharp transition between pseudotachylyte veins and the wall rock, with characteristic embayments at the site of mica or hornblende crystals; in cataclasites the transitions are more commonly gradual. There is potential confusion, however, where pseudotachylyte is in contact with cataclasite rather than with intact wall rock. The Salem Attur Shear Zone is about 100 km long and 2 to 5 km wide and passes through a valley extending from Salem to Attur. The average trend of the shear zone is EW. Mylonitisation was well at places and this zone was characterised by 1 to 1.5 km wide zone of Phyllonite. Evidence of dextral (Chetty, 1996, Bhadra, 2000, Biswal et al., 2009 & 2010) and sinistral movements has been recorded along this shear zone. The mylonite bands could be traced from west of study window i.e. Kanjamalai to Godumalai
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where it takes a northeasterly swerve to Tumbal north west of Attur. At the same time eastern extension could be traced up to Ettappur but no visible exposure/ outcrop could be found except well cuttings. Further extension beyond this location needs field study.
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So, the branching nature of the shear zone with intermittent isles of non-strained zones was characteristic feature of Attur valley. Protomylonite were observed near Perumapuram (E 781818.9, N 113931.1 and E 782337.91, N 113822.1) where the rocks display bigger clasts of feldspar within granitoids (Plate-IIC). In most of the places along Salem Attur shear zone, the hornblende botite gneiss is mylonitized and they became highly foliated (Phyllonite) near Sarkar Nattarmangalam adjacent to Godumalai (Plate-IID). Cataclasites and Pseudotachylytes were the common brittle shear indicator as the study area is dominated by charnockites and they were restricted to charnockites and granites at some places. The NE-SW trending Gangavalli Shear zone, E-W trending Swetha nadi fault and N-S trending a set of faults in Kalrayan hills were important locales of cataclasites (Plate-IIE insert) and pseudotachylytes (Plate-IIE) where 1m to 1km thick shear zones with bands of cataclasites and pseudotachylyte could be found. Apart from these major occurrences there are plenty of locales of smaller veins measuring less than a millimeter to few centimeters are widespread in the study area with orientation of NE-SW, E-W and NW-SE. 2.4.3.8 Epidote hornblende gneiss The epidote-hornblende gneiss is formed due to the progressive retrogression of charnockite. Enclaves of intermediate charnockite, pyroxene granulite, meta-pyroxenite and meta-gabbro and conformable bands of quartzo-feldspathic gneiss occur within the epidote-hornblende gneiss. Gabbro and dolerite dykes traverse the area along WNW-ESE and NW-SE directions. The epidote hornblende gneiss which hosts the Molybdenum characteristically comprises the Neoproterozoic ultramafic alkali carbonatite plutons as oval shaped complexes viz. Odugattur, Rasimalai, Elagiri, Koratti, Samalpatti and Pakkanadu. The alkali complexes show well preserved igneous planar features. Discordant bodies of felsites, aplitic syenite, pegmatoidal syenites and quartz
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veins also occur within this belt. Younger quartz reefs cut across all the above mentioned rock types along NNE-SSW direction.
Fig. 2.9 Significant Lithologies within Study Window (Courtesy: GSI) The well developed foliation planes strike along NNE-SSW to NE-SW directions, in general, with steep dips towards NW. The axial plane traces of
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the regional folds are parallel to the foliation. Epidote-hornblende gneiss showing compositional variation from granodiorite to quartz-diorite is the dominant rock type. These rocks were present on the northern limit of the study area near Manjavadi ghat pass and north of Chitteri hills ((Plate-IIF). 2.4.4 Geomorphic Anomalies 2.4.4.1 General The dynamism of geomorphic agents is relentless in shaping the earth and the agents are the immediate respondants of the geotectonic and geodynamic processes operating on the Earth system. They leave us certain clues about the onset of neotectonism apart from the past tectonism. Tectonic landforms are the major and direct indicators of morphotectonic and
morphodynamic processes operating in the planet Earth. Sometimes intensified sedimentation does explain change in relief of the region due to neotectonism. Ramasamy (1989) has described the evolution of east and west coasts of Indian peninsula based on geomorphic and tectonic studies. Richard Thomas Walker (2006) has made remote sensing based Geomorphological observations to study the folds and faults in southern Kerman province in Southeast Iran. 2.4.4.2 Combinations of Dissected and Undissected Plateaus Plateau is an upland area with relatively a flat topography and most are erosion surfaces. They may be extensive or dissected until only fragments are left. They occur on a wide range of rock types including horizontal strata, metamorphic rocks, granite and massive lava flow sequences. Volcanic and tectonic processes that raise rocks above sea level are ultimately responsible for elevating mountain ranges, although normal faulting also may produce local relief in extensional settings. Erosional processes may limit the total relief maintained by rock uplift but also cut valleys and produce relief over shorter length scales. Fluvial and glacial processes that incise the landscape produce relief, whereas mass-wasting processes (such as soil creep and many
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types of landsliding) tend to reduce relief. The overall relief of a mountain range ultimately depends on the balance between uplift and erosion, unless accumulation of crustal material exceeds the mechanical limit supportable by crustal strength, leading to the growth of a high plateau (Plate-IIIA). By interpreting satellite image FCC various tectono-geomorphic anomalies were interpreted such as plateaus, fracture valleys and ridge lines. The plateaus were by and large found in the Northern and parts of the study area. The NW-SE, NE-SW and N-S dissections were well pronounced in Shevaroys and Chitteri hills than Kalrayan hills. Similarly contrast dissection among Kolli and Pachchai hills conveys that a NE-SW trending lineament the southern
extending from Vaniyambadi to Virudhunagar separates the dissected western plateaus from the undissected east. Further Ramsamy and Sivakumar (1999) have observed that this Vaniyambadi-Virudhunagar lineament should be morphotectonically active (Fig.2.10). 2.4.4.3 Structural hills The structural hills are hills with prominent discernible structural elements. Since these hills possess the evidences of structural disturbances that had happened in the terrain. The study area possess the hills like Kanjamalai, Godumalai and Palaniyapuri basin (Malliyakkarai basin) which are characteristically possess the banded iron formation (BIF), meta gabbro, quartzo-feldspathic gneisses, pyroxenites, etc. These rocks show
characteristic bedding nature and they were folded in Kanjamalai and Palaniyapuri basin with elliptical trendlines in satellite image. But no folding was observed in Godumalai where beds were dipping steeply and trending EW. The entire three hills posses the rocks equivalent to Sargur supracrustals i.e. Sathyamangalam group of rocks which forms isolated hills within a vast plain of mylonitised gneissic rocks.
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2.4.4.4 Fracture Valleys and Intermontane Valleys The Shevaroys and Chitteri were separated by a major NE-SW aligned fault valley. On the contrary, the tectonic valleys interpreted have shown that these are predominantly falling in N-S and NE-SW directions, followed by EW and by NW-SE lineaments. Two broad intermontane valleys were observed in east of Shevaroys and middle of Chitteri hills with N-S trend. The extension of the intermontane valley from Shevaroys (Plate-IIIB) could be traced on the Bodamalai with a right lateral shift. Two fracture valleys at Kalrayan hills shows N-S trend with a curvilinear orientation and the convexity towards the east. Moreover the valleys show branching at the southern part. The fracture valleys at Kolli and Pachchai hills show NE-SW orientation in contrary to multi orientated fracture valleys in the northern hills in the study area. The NW-SE dissection was pronounced in Shevaroys and Chitteri where as in Kalrayan the NW-SE fracture valleys are thin and displays more spacing. The hills present in the middle of the Attur valley also show thin linear fracture valleys as they could be linked to the major fracture valleys in the northern hills (Plate-IVC). Barren fracture valleys were present in between a set of NW-SE
trending lineaments and filled valleys on SW and NE blocks were observed in Chitteri hills. N-S lineament in the east of Kalrayan separates the eastern barren fracture valley and the western filled valleys. Pachchai hills display barren fracture valleys which probably extend the eastern N-S trending lineament of Kalrayan to the west of Pachchai hills. So, this lineament has a curvi-linearity and alignment over Gangavalli shear. 2.4.4.5 Rocky Slope / Cliff A cliff is a steep slope (usually >40, often vertical and sometimes overhanging), exposing rock formations. Cliffs rising 100500 m above sea level are termed high cliffs, and those 500 m (as in Peru and western Ireland) megacliffs (Guilcher 1966). Cliffs less than a metre high are termed
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microcliffs. Joints, bedding planes, faults and intrusions influence cliff morphology, and lateral changes in lithology result in changes in cliff profiles. Mass movements occur on cliffs where the groundwater load becomes excessive, where stresses develop, where a massive caprock exerts pressure on underlying weaker formations, or where there is expansion or base exchange, weakening clay minerals. Breakaways develop at the cliff crest where masses of rock topple down the cliff, and slumping produces irregular topography as rock outcrops disintegrate and material slides, flows or creeps down the slope towards a basal receding cliff. Cliffs and rocky slopes are commonly observed in Shevaroys, Chitteri, Kalrayan, Kolli, Pachchai and other small hillocks. They are very distinct very steep (Plate-IIIC). 2.4.4.6 Triangular Facets and Escarpments Heights and stages of dissection of triangular facets are indicative of relative tectonic activity (Bull and McFadden, 1977). Basal sections of triangular facets may resemble degraded fault planes (Hamblin, 1976; Menges, 1990; Ellis et al., 1999). Obvious landscape contrasts in the Great Basin of Obvious landscape contrasts in the Great Basin of west-central Nevada were used by De Polo and Anderson (2000) to estimate slip rates for hundreds of normal faults. Rapidly rising mountain fronts have 1) Fault scarps on the piedmont and at the mountainpiedmont junction and 2) High triangular facets. Tectonically inactive mountain fronts have neither. The term escarpment, or scarp, has been applied traditionally to a steep, often single slope, of considerable length, that dominates a section of landscape. An escarpment thus can be distinguished from the two flanking walls of canyons. For example, south of Sydney, Australia, the coastal escarpment forms a long, virtually continuous wall, but it is outflanked by canyons which extend more than 100 km further inland. Another notable
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instance of a valley cut well back from an escarpment is the Sognefjord, which extends about 200 km inland from the coastal edge of the Norwegian highlands. The lengths of escarpments vary from a few kilometres to the subcontinental scale of mega-escarpments, or Great Escarpments, such as the Drakensberg of South Africa, while their heights vary from a few tens of metres to several thousand metres. A distinction is generally drawn between denudational escarpments and fault although this may be no simple exercise in areas of essentially homogeneous crystalline rocks. Less extensive, though nonetheless impressive, escarpments have developed as a result of regional uplift in continental interiors. The classic examples are along the margins of the Mittelgebirge of central Europe, such as the Massif Centrale of France and the Erzgebirge of Germany (Goudie, 2004). The triangular facets/ spur facets were very common feature along the entire western slope of Kolli, south east and southwest slope of Shevaroys, southwestern slope of Kalrayan hills (Plate-IIID), south western slope of Pachchai hills and north and southern part of Bodamalai. The lines connecting the top of apices of the triangles tentatively represent the trend of the lineaments. So, the facets in the western Shevaroys show N-S trend and in the eastern side show NE-SW trend. NE-SW trend of lineament could be traced
from Chitteri hills whereas NNW-SSE trend from west and ENE-WSW trend from northern and southern sides of Bodamalai. N-S trend from northwest, WNW-ESE from northwest lower side and eastern side and a set of NE-SW lineaments could be traced from the Kolli hills. In Pachchai hills the trend of lineaments of NE-SW and NNW-SSE could be traced from the facets. The splendid triangular facets of the Wasatch Range escarpment in north-central Utah have been a classic example of a tectonic landform since the time of Davis, W. M. (1903). Blackwelder (1934), Hamblin (1976), and Wallace (1978) describe triangular facets as being fault planes that have been modified by erosion.
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Mapping of escarpment seems appropriate for mountains bounded by normal faults. The northwestern side and eastern side of the Shevaroys were bounded by NE-SW trending escarpments (Plate-IIIE).
Fig. 2.10 Geomorphic Anomalies within Study Window
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2.4.4.7 Linear Ridge Linear ridge are long narrow elevated topography that stretches in a straight line. It may indicate the presence of a fold or fault. If it is found along a lateral fault, it may be a shutter ridge or a pressure ridge. Sometimes they are resulting from differential erosion of different rocks or intrusion of dykes along linear cracks. Though many dykes were present in the study area the one near Malliyakkarai with NW-SE trend stood out as a prominent ridge. Many ridges of lesser elevation were found near west and north of Kolli hills where the linearity corresponds to banded iron formation (BIF) and dykes with NE-SW trend in the west and E-W trend in the north. The Gangavalli shear stands out as a ridge which is essentially a charnockite with cataclasites and pseudotachylyte in the middle make this ridge hard and resistant. This ridge displays dextral slip and they may be a shutter ridge resulting from lateral dextral slip fault. Meta-gabbro forms prominent ridge around the entire Kanjamalai at the base and similar beds forms protruding ridge at different elevation. The bottom most ridge was dissected by N-S and E-W trending lineaments and thus appears like hogback (Plate-IIIF). 2.4.4.8 Alluvial fans and Bajada Alluvial fans occur in two characteristic situations at mountain fronts and at tributary junctions. In both cases, high sediment loads encounter zones of reduced stream power, with accommodation space for deposition. These conditions are controlled by long-term landform evolution, including the tectonic setting and erosional history. Mountain fronts may be faultcontrolled or erosional, in which case the fans may bury an older pediment surface. Tributary-junction settings are controlled by the long-term dissectional history. Pope and Wilkinson (2005) studied the roles of climate and tectonics in the late quaternary fan development on the Spartan piedmont Greece.
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In Kolli hills the bajada were observed all along the western and eastern sides and two patches of alluvial fans on the northern side along Vachchikai ar and near Periya Kombai. Near the south western side of Kalrayan and southeastern side of Chitteri hills bajada was observed. Entire eastern and south eastern side of Kalrayan hills displays bajada zones. Apart from this there were localized occurrences of alluvial fans near
Vellalakundam (on the foot of .777, .747, .711, .626 peaks). In Bodamalai four Alluvial fans were observed on the northeastern side, southeastern side and easternside. A thick alluvial fan was observed on the easternside of .582 hill near Mudiyanur. Alluvial fans were strikingly absent around Shevaroys and Pachchai hills. The alignment of the alluvial fans around Kalrayan and Kolli hills, along NE-SW clearly indicates the slope modifications of these hills due to rising or faulting. North of Tenkal malai (.811) the alluvial fan has sharp boundary and aligning with NE-SW lineament passing through Kottapatti shear. Similar, abrupt termination of alluvial fans could be observed on the southern and south western side of Kalrayan hills and they could be attributed to NW-SE lineament on the southwest side and E-W lineament on the southern side of the Kalrayan hill. Near Mannur reserve forest the northern one (.392 hill)
could be correlated to E-W lineament and the southern one could be attributed to ENE-WSW lineament. 2.4.5 Drainage Anomalies 2.4.5.1 General The nineteenth and early twentieth-century geomorphologist Davis, W.M (1889, 1899) developed an elaborate scheme to describe the components of a river drainage network as they related to stages in its physiographic development. Their pattern and flow dynamics, in other words, their architecture are greatly dependent on the local lithology and the exposed and buried geological structures in their mature stage. Miller (1937), Chitale (1970) and again a large number of workers have brought out exhaustive
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information on how these drainages can be used in mapping the lithology and geological structures especially from the aerial photographs. In addition, the rivers as indicate the palaeo and buried geological structures, their anomalies have unique credentials in mapping the active geological processes. The drainage fabric of the study area was brought out using the Survey of India topographic sheets of 1972 and 1973. These drainages were compared with the IRS-1C satellite images and necessary updation was done. These drainages were digitized using ArcGIS software and GIS layers were generated for the study area. The drainage zones of various anomalies viz. radial drainages, parallel drainages, deflected drainages, eyed drainages, anomalous compressed meanders etc. were marked as probable tectonic weak zones. While the deflected drainages indicated such probable weak zones predominantly along N S, NE SW and NW SE alignments, the eyed drainages and other anomalies indicated the predominance of N S oriented tectonic weak zones with marginal variations from NNE SSW to NNW SSE and NE SW and NW SE tectonic weak zones. Moreover, the Vellar and Gomukhi drainage have a constriction in the east by Mio-Pliocene Cuddalore sandstone uplands so, these river have funnel shaped drainage pattern and cutting through the uplands via the E- W trending Vellar fault (Fig.2.11). 2.4.5.2 Drainage Anomalies and Related Tectonics In this process, the following various drainage anomalies were identified in the study sectors Radial drainages and Annular drainages Parallel drainages Deflected and lineament controlled drainages Eyed drainages and Braiding of streams Compressed meanders Palaeochannels.
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2.4.5.2.1 Radial and Annular Drainages The radial drainages are the drainages that are radiating away in all directions from a central point or drainages converging from the periphery towards a central point. The former is called as centrifugal radial drainage and the latter as centripetal radial drainage. These have been invariably interpreted to be the indicators of recent tectonic movements unless otherwise these are controlled by the topographic features of erosion or the impact phenomenon. Such radial centrifugal drainages observed in many parts of the world were inferred to be due to active tectonic doming (Whitehouse 1941, King 1942, Isachsen 1975, Twidale 2004 and many others). In India too, a lot of inferences were made by many on the possible active tectonics from such radial drainages. In Saurashtra Peninsula, Sood et al. (1982) interpreted a number of such centrifugal radial drainages along with gullying and doubted for possible Post Deccan trap diapirism. Babu (1975) while has inferred that the anomalous radial cum annular drainages indicate possible
morphostructures related to hydrocarbon in KrishnaGodavari delta. Ramasamy et al., (2006a) have observed network of radial cum annular drainages in Cauvery delta and inferred them to be the reflection of recent subsurface doming. Hence, the detailed scanning of the enlarged formats of the drainage fabric in the computer has lead to the detection of radial drainages in a number of places. These radial drainages were analysed in conjunction with various topographic features such as hills, erosional plateaus, prominent depressions, etc. and only the radial drainages that do not fall in these features were identified as radial drainages related to probable Neo Active tectonics. Such an interpretation has lead to the identification of radial drainages in two locations; one was near west of Pathakurichi and another one near Kandamattan (near E 78 50, N 11 30).
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The drainages were radiating in all directions centrifugally. Wherever different arms of radial drainages showed rectilinearity those were marked as active lineaments / faults. These two radial drainages were buffered out as probable Neotectonic zones. Annular pattern of drainages were observed on the northern side of Pachchai hill where the Swetha nadi displays a curvature from near Gangavalli up to near Krishnapuram where it confluence with Vellar. Vashista nadi was showing a curvature after Kattukottai and parallelism could be observed with Swetha nadi. A set of arcuate drainages were seen near Kumbapadi on the Kalrayan hill. Another set of arcuate drainages were observed east of the Kalrayan hill top. Two more arcuate drainages were observed one near Sankapuram and other southwest of the previous one. Strikingly they show parallelism and bend towards the south was evident. SE corner of the study area near Chittall an annular drainage with western convexity was observed. On the top of Chitteri hill the drainage system follows the fold where the axis of the curvature was pointing NE-SW direction. 2.4.5.2.2 Parallel / Rectilinear Drainages A system of co-linear drainages is called as parallel drainages, whereas the long and straight flow paths of the drainages are called as rectilinear drainages. The parallel or co-linear drainages are normally seen in dune fields in between co-linear ridges (Miller 1937). In general, the rectilinear flow of drainages is normally attributed to the faults, whether active or dormant. In fact, most of the lineaments and faults are interpreted by the Geoscientists only from such rectilinear flow of drainages (Twidale 2004). In India, the rectilinear flow of Narmada River for over 1000 km in Central India was inferred to be due to a major crustal dislocation (Oldham et al., 1901, West, 1962, Yellur, 1968, Murty and Mishra 1981 and many others). In parts of Tamil Nadu also, most of the easterly flowing near rectilinear rivers
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namely Palar, Ponnaiyar, Cauvery in parts, Vellar, Vagai etc. were inferred to flow along WNWESE transverse faults, out of which some of them are inferred to be active (Vemban et al., 1977). Again the northeasterly rectilinear flow of river Coleroon (Cauvery) from east of Tiruchirappalli and upto its point of confluence was observed to follow a NE SW Pleistocene sinistral fault by Ramasamy and Balaji (1995). Closely spaced parallel drainages were observed to indicate fracture swarms in general by many. Chamyal et al. (2003) have observed the closely spaced parallel drainages in Saurashtra Peninsula to indicate tectonic upliftment. The Vashista nadi that flows on the southern flanks of Chitteri and Kalrayan hills and Swetha nadi that flows on the northern fringe of Kolli and Pachchai hills which are nearly 40 km. apart exhibit parallelism. This strengthen the view of Srinivasan (1974) who has described that the Attur valley as a graben. In fact these rivers were mainly controlled by E-W running Vellar fault in the north and Swetha nadi fault in the south. Parallel drainages were observed in Shevaroys corresponding to NWSE lineaments, N-S lineaments and NE-SW lineaments. Fold pattern was explicitly defined by the parallel drainages in the Chitteri hills. Parallel drainages of smaller dimension could be traced in Kalrayan which are mostly N-S for shorter distance and trend of many smaller streams collectively project a N-S trend. 2.4.5.2.3 Deflected and Lineament Controlled Drainages The slope controlled and the lineament controlled drainages which were sharply deflected by the lineaments were interpreted as deflected drainages. In the case of slope controlled drainages, the geometry of the lineaments which have deflected the drainages were interpreted as the related lineaments. Whereas, in the case of lineament controlled drainages, the geometry of both the lineaments along which the drainages were originally flowing and the lineaments which have deflected the drainages were taken as
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the lineaments related to such drainage anomalies. Such mega deflected drainages were interpreted in 643 locations in different parts of study area. Whereas in the case of fracture controlled drainages, both the lineaments (controlling one and the deflected ones) were inferred as probable Neo-Active tectonic lineaments. These types of deflected drainages were interpreted in many riverine systems the world over (Bowler and Harford 1966, Panizza 1978, Reid 1992, Saintot et al., 1999, Kusky and ElBaz 2000, Twidale 2004 and many others). For example Twidale (2004) has observed many such deflections in Murray river of Australia and identified many lineaments / faults related to them. In India too, a lot of workers have utilized the drainage deflection phenomenon as a tool for detecting the land stability and Neo-Active tectonics. Babu (1975) has observed anomalous drainage deflections in river Godavari, Andhra Pradesh and attributed these to various lineaments related to tectonic upliftments. The rectangular flow of Bhramaputra river, Assam valley has been explained by NESW, NWSE, EW and NS faults (Murty and Mishra 1981). Amalkar (1988) has explained the complex drainage pattern in Luni basin, Rajasthan through lineaments of various orientations. Radhakrishna (1992) has observed multiple deflections in river Cauvery in Biligirirangan Hogenekkal area (south of Bangalore) and on the basis of such acute and rectangled deflections, identified a spectrum of NS dextral and sinistral faults. Ramasamy et al. (2006b) attributed deflection of Araniyar and Korattaliyar to Late Holocene lineaments. Ramasamy et al. (1992) recorded that the river Cauvery has migrated during 27002300 B.P. towards Tiruchirappalli Thanjavur plains and its left out trace was occupied by river Ponnaiyar after it. Hence, obviously the drainages, the deflections and the related lineaments of these deflected drainages of Ponnaiyar River should be younger to 2300 years B.P. By taking the above analogy, the drainages which were deflected and controlled by lineaments could have neotectonic significant and hence they
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were marked. The analyses of the controlling and the deflecting lineaments have shown that NS, NESW and NWSE and E-W oriented lineaments have contributed to the maximum in such drainage anomalies (PlateIVA&B).
Fig. 2.11 Drainage Anomalies within Study Window
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2.4.5.2.4 Eyed Drainages (Anastomosis) and Braiding of Streams An anabranching alluvial river is a system of multiple channels characterized by vegetated or otherwise stable alluvial islands that divide flows at discharges up to bankfull. The islands may be developed from within-channel deposition, excised by channel avulsion from extant floodplain, or formed by prograding distributary channel accretion on splays or deltas. A specific subset of distinctive low-energy anabranching systems associated with mostly fine-grained or organic sedimentation are defined as anastomosing rivers (Smith and Smith 1980; Knighton and Nanson 1993; Makaske 2001). Neither of these terms now applies to braided rivers where divided flow is strongly stage dependent around bars that are
unconsolidated, ephemeral, poorly vegetated and overtopped at less than bankfull. However, some confusion remains because an individual low-flow channel in a braided system is sometimes referred to as an anabranch. The islands in an anabranching river are about the same elevation as the adjacent floodplain, persist for decades to centuries, have relatively resistant banks, and support mature vegetation. Anabranching bedrock rivers can occur where the individual channels follow joint and fracture patterns. However, bankfull flow is unclearly defined making such rivers difficult to compare to their alluvial counterparts. Van Niekerk et al. (1999) found that bedrock anabranching channels on the Sabie River in South Africa have a significantly greater potential to transport sediment than do the other entire channel types along that river. At present, relatively little is known about bedrock anabranching systems. Anabranching is not a mutually exclusive category for it occurs in association with other The drainages flow as a single stream, branch off into two and rarely into four or five, run co-linearly or curvilinearly and meet after a few hundred meters or kilometers, thus ultimately giving a shape of an eye or biconvex lens. Because of such morphology, such drainage anomalies were interpreted
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as eyed drainages. Smith et al. (1997) have called this phenomenon as Anastomosis. Thornbury (1985) has long back propounded that vertical cutting / incisement of drainages indicates tectonic emergence and the splitting up of the drainages suggests land subsidence. Ramasamy and Kumanan (2000) have found similar eyed drainages in few places in Tamil Nadu along the easterly flowing Bay of Bengal bound rivers and drainages and these were invariably found to be either bisected by lineaments or confined within two or more sub parallel lineaments. On the basis of this, they have further demonstrated ongoing land subsidence along these lineaments / faults. Ramasamy and Karthikeyan (1998) have observed a mega lens shaped drainage (eyed drainage) in river Cauvery in Tiruchirappalli, South India with an eye length of 1520 km and the same was found to fall exactly within a NESW trending 300 km long Holocene graben extending from Pondicherry in the northeast to Kambam valley in the southwest. Ramasamy and kumanan (2000) have observed eyed drainages in parts of Tamil Nadu, with eye length of 530 km and explained them to be due to tectonic subsidence in Holocene period. They have observed S shaped dragging in eye shaped drainages, from which they have suspected sinistral strike slip movements along these lineaments / faults which bisect such eyed drainages or the sub parallel lineaments which bound such eyed drainages. Ramasamy and Ramesh (1999) have observed an eyed drainage in Coleroon river, east of Tiruchirappalli having a broad rectangular shaped caught up island during 1930 AD and the modification of the same into a trapezohedran shape during 1992 AD. From the same, they have visualized sinistral movements of the NESW fault in the recent years along which the Coleroon river is flowing. Similar drainage anomalies were also reported by many from outside the country. Significant amongst them are the observations made by Smith et al. (1997) in Okavango river, Botswana that the river on reaching a graben split up into four channels and ultimately rejoin after crossing the graben. They have called this tectonically induced phenomenon as anastomosis.
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The hallmark of braided rivers is the presence of multiple active channels that divide and rejoin to form a pattern of gently curved channel segments separated by exposed bars. Braided rivers are marked equally by temporal dynamism: gradients in sediment flux associated with the complex
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spatial topography change in local slopes, leading the flow to continually adjust its path as it picks its way through the network. Even when external conditions are constant, the braided pattern is continually changing, yet statistically consistent: a true dynamic equilibrium. It has been suggested that braiding was the dominant river pattern on Earth before the first appearance of land plants in late Silurian time (Schumm 1968). Historically, a major step in analysis of the causes of river patterns like braiding came with the application of stability analysis to the problem (Fredsoe 1978; Parker 1976). In stability analysis, one asks mathematically how a system responds to small perturbations. The braiding of streams usually happens when the gradients drops near confluence points. Excluding alluvial fans, if the braiding starts at much earlier stages of stream then it could be due to drop in gradient which is anomalous manifestation of land subsidence along a fault. These eyed drainages were invariably found to be either bisected by the orthogonally / obliquely aligned lineaments or confined within two sub parallel / oblique lineaments. Such eyed drainages were viewed critically in conjunction with lineament data. Three eyed drainages were observed near Gomukhi reservoir east of Kalrayan hills and 8 eyed drainages were found near eastern side of study area where the Swetha and Vashista nadies confluence to form Vellar. Two were found along the Kottapatti shear zone and at four places Tirumanimuttar nadi displays eyed pattern. So, totally some 17 eyed drainages, have been identified through visual interpretation
and the size varies from place to place. In Tirumanimuttar nadi the lineaments set corresponds to eyeing have NE-SW and NW-SE orientations and near Thummal sector NW-SE and E-W lineaments control the anabranching of streams. Those in Gomukhi River near eastern Kalrayan were controlled by ENE-WSW lineaments, the drainages near Pachchai hills and in Vellar the controlling lineament have NNW-SSE, NW-SE and NNE-SSW lineaments.
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Radhakrishna (1992) has observed such NS trending system of dextral and sinistral faults in Sivasamudram area (south of Bangalore and west of present study area) and concluded that such faults only have caused rejuvenation of the river Cauvery. Ramasamy and Balaji (1995) have also observed that most of the NESW faults of South India are sinistral strike slip faults of Pleistocene parentage related to the post collision tectonics. Hence all these eyed drainages were filtered out as the probable zones of NeoActive tectonics. 2.4.5.2.5 Compressed Meanders The otherwise normally flowing drainages when exhibit compressed meandering abruptly, the same is interpreted as compressed meanders. These types of anomalous occurrences of compressed meanders in otherwise normally flowing drainage systems have been demonstrated to be indicative of active tectonics in such zones of compressions (Bakliwal and Sharma 1980, Murthy and Sastri 1981, Barooah and Bhattacharya 1989, Ramasamy et al., 1991, Smith et al., 1997, Valdiya 2001, Jain and Sinha 2005 and many others). Many workers explained the anomalous sinuosities of the river Yamuna right from its outlet from Himalayas and upto its joining point with Ganges in Indo-Gangetic plain to be due to active tectonics related to post collision phenomenon. On the contrary, Bakliwal and Sharma (1980) have explained the intense, acute and restricted compressed meandering in river Yamuna in Agra region of the IndoGangetic plains to active scissor fault tectonics along two sub parallel lineaments of the Great Boundary Fault System. Murthy and Sastri (1981), Barooah and Bhattacharya (1989) and many others have interpreted a large number of drainage anomalies in the form of compressed meandering in Brahmaputra river and explained them to be due to still ongoing collision of the Indian plate. The anomalous compressed meandering in otherwise 1000 km long rectilinear Narmada river in its western end near Broach area, Western India, was demonstrated to be due to ongoing tectonic
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activities by three major faults which occur in triangular pattern and caused compressed meandering within them (Ramasamy et al., 1991). Ramasamy et al. (1995a) observed anomalies like compressed meanders in Veller river of Cuddalore region, Tamil Nadu and explained them to be scissor fault movements along two sub parallel NS trending lineaments. Valdiya (2001) has observed compressed meandering in the drainages belonging to major river Cauvery in the area of west of Bangalore and brought out a number of active faults from them. Jain and Sinha (2005) have attributed the acute compressed meandering in river Baghmati, Himalayan foreland basin due to active block faulting. The interpretation has revealed such compressed meanders in 14 locations out of which Veppadi ar or Thoppai ar is very strikingly show meandering over a length of nearly 30km within the Toppur ghat section up to Mallapuram. This could be correlated to NE-SW trending lineaments with divergent step have opened sag ponds or pull apart basins or rhomb shaped grabens (Fig 2.11CM). The Vaniyar Ar ENE-WSW and NE-SW lineament set
have the control in an alternative fashion and produce step like appearance until NE-SW trending Manjavadighat lineament took control in further north. The Piniyar Ar which flows near Pappireddipatti has NE-SW orientation and aligning with Manjavadighat lineament where it confluences with Vaniyar Ar. Small scale meandering was observed near Kottapatti in Kallar which was aligning themselves to the NE-SW trending Kottapatti shear and Sholiyar Ar a tributary of Kallar aligning with NW SE trending lineaments. Anaimaduvu Ar which is originating from southern Chitteri hills display meandering parallel to NE-SW lineaments and similar pattern and orientation could be observed in Thumbal Ar from near Thumbal to Ramanattam. The Anaimaduvu Ar takes SE turn along a NW-SE lineament. East of Thumbal meandering was observed in the Thumbal Ar along ENE-WSW lineaments. Apart from deflections Tirmanimutthar show meandering south of Ilupili and also near Sellipalayam that was along NE-SW lineaments (Plate-IVE). NE-SW lineaments control Singipuram Ar till Singipuram then NW-SE lineaments
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deflects and sag the drainage and then ENE-WSW
lineaments make the
drainage meander until it reaches the Vashista nadi near Etappur cross road. Swetha nadi meander along ENE-WSW near Kudamalai and a tributary originating in Pachchai hills joins Swetha nadi near Krisnapuram (Ganagvalli) with meandering along NW-SE lineaments. East of the study area the Vellar river shows compressed meandering near east of Neyveli. In this interpretation, all the related lineaments were also brought out by superposing the vector layer of such drainage map over the imagery. The details of such compressed meanders and the related lineaments were taken as symptomatic neotectonic zones. 2.4.5.2.6 Palaeochannels The occurrence of palaeochannels indicates that the river has left these traces and migrated away. The palaeochannels mapping and the evaluation of phenomenon of river migration give excellent information on the Quaternary geological and climatological events viz: Active tectonic movements Sea level changes Climatic changes Flood dynamics Littoral currents, etc. Among these the active tectonic movements seem to play a greater role in river migration when these rivers show preferential migrations only in one direction, the same is inferred to indicate that the land located opposite to the direction of migration is undergoing tectonic emergence (Ramasamy et al., 1992). Many workers have used this as a tool to understand and map the recent tectonic movements. The phenomenal anticlockwise rotational migration of river Sarasvati and its burial in the northern part of the Great Indian Desert was attributed to the rise of Aravalli Mountains (Yashpal et al., 1980, Valdiya 1997, Radhakrishna 1998, Rajawat et al., 2003 and Gupta et al., 2004).
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Ramasamy and Karthikeyan (1998) have observed the southerly migration of Ponnaiyar River in Pondicherry due to ongoing Holocene graben to its south. The anticlockwise rotational migration of river Cauvery in its deltaic regime in Tamil Nadu was explained by the Phenomenon of block faulting of the Mio-Pliocene Sandstone and its upliftment from almost during the last 6000 years (Ramasamy et al., 2006b). The northerly migrations of Manimuttar and Vaigai rivers were inferred to be migrating by the E W cymatogenic arching to their south in RamanathapuramRameswaram area (Ramasamy et al., 1987). Preferential migration of rivers have been used as an indicator for active tectonic movements around the world viz: southerly migration of Echuca river, New South Wales (Bowler and Hard ford 1966, Pels 1966), Charwell river in New Zealand (Bull and Knuepfer 1987), Po river in Italy (Castaldini 1990), Murry river in Australia (Twidale 2004), etc. These palaeodrainages / palaeochannels / buried rivers show spectacular ribbon like, loop like, linear, curvilinear and contorted features with black tone in black and white panchromatic aerial photographs and reddish tone in satellite colour coded FCC images. A faint palaeochannel was observed with an ENE-WSW orientation along Idappadi- Salem-Vazhapadi and connects the present day Cauveri with the present day Vashista nadi which is tributary of Vellar (Fig.2.11). A palaeochannel was observed along Veppadi ar or Thoppai ar near Mallapuram where the stream was taken by ENE-WSW trending sinistral fault. Tirumanimuthar river has developed palaeochannel near Ezizebeth pettai on the southwest flank of Shevaroys where the river originates (PlateIVD). Thick pile of alluvial sediments was observed near Kandashramam where the small streamlet viz. Kannimar odai flows and this could be the alluvial deposits formed by the same sreamlet (Plate-IVF). Further downstream Vellar shows numerous palaeochannels in its deltaic region near Chidambaram (Ramasamy et al., 1992). The ongoing EW grabening to its north was inferred to be the cause for northerly migration of the river Vellar along Pudukkottai coast, Tamil Nadu (Ramasamy 2006a).
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2.4.6 Structure and Trend line Anomalies 2.4.6.1 Trendline Anomalies Structure and trendline are the direct evidences of bygone tectonism and they follow or align themselves parallel to the dragging forces of crustal movement and they get folded when the dragging forces were acting across to them. These rocks leave trails on the top and prominently reflected in the topography as a linear line which thus indicates the trend line (Fig.2.12).
Fig. 2.12 Structure and Trend line Anomalies

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Ramsamy et al. (1993) used the trend line features for groundwater targeting. Mdlina Nicoleta Frnculeasa and Alexandru Istrate (2010) have mapped structural geological elements from the area of Dmbovicioara corridor of Romania using LANDSAT TM data for updating the already existing structural and geological map. The Salem-Attur Shear Zone exhibits imprints of multiphase shearing and domains of meso- to micro-fabrics indicating opposing shear sense, resulting in conflicting interpretations of the regional kinematics (Satheesh Kumar and Prasannakumar, 2009). Since the sense of movement is a major constraint in matching the shear zones in Gondwana fragments, a substantial theory could unravel the enigma of opposing sense of shear. If it is assumed that the Trendline was produced by a tectonic event then their trend tends to remain the same unless it gets disturbed.so, it is presumed that the trend lines are interrupted or detached by later events otherwise it will have a linearity or curvi linearity attained by much earlier events. So, the breaks and shift in the alignments were traced for lineaments. 2.4.6.2 Sense of Shear
Fig.2.13a Schematic Model on Lineaments Pattern and Sense of Shear

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Fig. 2.13b Tectonic Model indicating Sense of Shear Visual interpretation of lineaments clearly indicates sense of shear where many of the earlier lineaments were displaced by later one. NE-SW lineaments show sinistral sense of shear whereas NW-SE and N-S lineaments
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generally display dextral sense of shear. NE-SW trending Chitteri east lineament aligning with the Kottapatti shear zone show dextral sense of shear and suggesting a block faulting which was reflected at the south western end in the deflection of Cauvery River (Fig 2.11). near south of Sitampundi complex
Fig. 2.14 Lineaments from Anomalous Sense of Shear

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Ramsamy and Balaji (1995) have studied the Active tectonics of south India and they came with model indicating NE-SW trending lineaments with sinistral sense and NW-SE with dextral sense are Holocene lineaments and these were resulted due to northerly compression of Indian plate.With this idea and field observation a schematic model was constructed to picturise the lineament pattern and sense of shear in relation to northerly compression
(Fig. 2.13a). NE-SW lineaments with dextral sense and NW-SE lineaments with sinistral sense are much earlier or may be coeval to late Proterozoic alkaline and ultramafic emplacement (Fig. 2.13b). Hence, based on the above model, lineaments with sinistral sense of shear along NE-SW direction and dextral sense of shear along NW-SE were considered anomalous and traced as Neotectonic lineaments (Fig. 2.14). Field study at selected windows also confirms the above model and that the NE-SW lineaments with sinistral sense NW-SE lineaments with dextral sense are Neotectonic lineaments (Plate-VI A-F). 2.4.7 Lineament Anomalies 2.4.7.1 General A topographic line that is structurally controlled is called a lineament (Billings 1972). Kelley (1955) has defined the lineament as a rectilinear
feature of considerable extent on the surface of the earth and a tectonic lineament may be defined as either a general alignment of structural features or a boundary between contrasting structural features. Lineament
identification is often questioned due to the difficulty in showing the structural significance of either individual lineaments, or the observed pattern (Huntington and Raiche, 1978). But, the lineaments have been the matter of greater attraction to the Geoscientists from all over the world, especially more after the advent of modern Remote Sensing technology, as such remotely sensed satellite pictures spectacularly display the lineaments as linear / curvilinear features represented by rectilinear topography, vegetation alignments, rectilinear pattern of river courses, soil tonal linearities, etc. These
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lineaments have been studied by the scientists, the world over, for understanding the general geodynamics of the Earth, of course, primarily on the geodynamics of the older Precambrian rocks and to some extent in the field of Neo Active tectonics and the related seismic vulnerabilities. But not much detailed work has been carried out on various lineament anomalies. Rubke (1974) was the first person to bring out a holistic picture on the lineament system and the geological evolution of Lesser Himalaya. Das and Ray (1977) have prepared the lineament map for entire Deccan volcanic province of Maharastra and therefrom brought out the first time picture on the Post Cretaceous tectonics of Deccan plateau. Bakliwal and Ramasamy (1987) have prepared a lineament map for entire Rajasthan and Gujarat using Landsat imagery and brought out a comprehensive tectonic picture for the Western India on 1:5,00,000 scale. Varadharajan and Ganju (1989) have interpreted the lineament fabric of entire east and west coasts of India and analyzed their signatures in general and also with reference to Quaternary tectonics. Rakshit and Prabhakar Rao (1989) have prepared mega lineament map for Indian Peninsula and in which they have classified the lineaments into four azimuthal groups viz: ENEWSW, NESW, NS and NWSE and further they observed a remarkable coincidence in between the regional lineaments and the earthquakes / geothermal activities in KoynaCambay region, HazaribaghBahneswar area, Bhatrachalam region, NarmadaSon rift and Gondwana graben system and also PugaManikaran zones in Himalayas. Haman (1961) has demonstrated a new technique of how palaeo-stress environment of a region can be brought out by preparing lineament density, lineament intersection density, etc. This technique was widely followed in India too and significant amongst them are, the studies of Bakliwal (1978) to bring out the stress pattern of Ranthambhore Quartzites of Rajasthan; Ramasamy et al. (1983) to evaluate the stress / forces related to the origin of Ishwarakuppam dome, Cuddapah basin, Andhra Pradesh; Ramasamy (1995c) has evaluated the palaeo stress environment and therefrom the tectonic evolution of Vindhyan basin of western India and again by
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Ramasamy et al. (1999) have brought out the tectonic evolution of Eastern and Western Ghats fold belts of South India; Kumanan (1998) and
Ramasamy (1995c, 2006a & 2006b) have done remote sensing and GIS based lineament studies and they identified the possible zones of Neotectonics in parts of Tamil Nadu. Again, from amongst various studies in India, the Son Narmada lineament of Central India was studied by many for its pulsatory tectonism and related issues (Oldham et al., 1901, West 1962, Yellur 1968, Crawford 1978, Murty and Mishra 1981 and many others). However a large number of scientists have used lineaments for various natural resources explorations. Christine A. Powell et al. (1994) has monitored microearthquakes for ten years with a regional seismic network and has revealed the presence of a well-defined, linear zone of seismic activity in eastern Tennessee. The lineaments derived from the satellite data were also studied in many parts of the world to understand the Neotectonic movements also (Blanchet 1957, Gay 1973, Qiang and Zhang 1984, Rust and Stewart 1996, Machette 2000, Calamita et al., 2000, Han et al., 2003 and many more). Hence in the present study, first to start with, the lineaments were interpreted and detailed lineament map was prepared using the raw and digitally processed IRS-1C data for the study window and from such lineament maps, various lineament anomalies viz: the zones of curvilinear lineaments, branch off lineaments,
radial lineaments, lineament bundles, parallel lineaments, lineament density maximas, lineament intersection maxima and lineament number maximas were interpreted and such zones were buffered out as independent GIS layers, integrated together and the probable Neo-Active tectonic zones were brought out (Fig.2.15). 2.4.7.2 Lineament Fabric As stated earlier, primarily by IRS-1C satellite data and supplemented by their digitally processed counter parts, the lineament map was prepared. The lineaments were interpreted on the basis of tonal linearities /
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curvilinearities,
drainage
linearities,
soil
tonal
linearities,
vegetation
linearities, etc. These lineaments were subjected to regional studies in conjunction with published map of Geological Survey of India (Anon 2000) and also the maps prepared by various earlier workers. Detailed field surveys were also undertaken to verify the lineaments and their extensions. The lineaments interpreted so, were mostly observed to be lithological contacts, linear and vertical escarpments in the hills, fracture valleys, rectilinear river courses, inferred faults of Geological Survey of India (Anon 2000), etc. in most of the places. Finally the lineaments related to tectonics were filtered out and the same is shown in Fig.2.15. These lineaments interpreted in general have shown NESW, NNESSW, and NNWSSE, NWSE, EW and NS orientations. 2.4.7.3 Curvilinear Lineaments Lineaments in general will be rectilinear and on certain tectonic conditions they exhibit curvilinear manifestations too. Normally, when the faults are low dipping, then they show curvilinear expressions in the surface. While evaluating the tectonic evolution of the FennoscandianBaltic Shield in Denmark, Liboriussen et al. (1987) have inferred the curvilinear lineaments to signify Late Cretaceous tectonics. In parts of South India too, such curvilinear lineaments were inferred to be related to post drift kinematics of the Indian Peninsula (Prabaharan et al., 1995). Valdiya (2001) has inferred a number of peripheral / curvilinear faults in Anamalai, Palani and Nilgiri hill areas and observed them to be the reflection of recent horst and graben structures on the basis of various geomorphic anomalies. Qureshy (1964) and Gubin (1969) have also observed a number of EW linear and curvilinear faults in southern part of Tamil Nadu in AnamalaiPalghatNilgiri hills and on the basis of geophysical anomalies observed them to be the boundaries of recent horst and graben structures. Ramasamy and Balaji (1995) and Ramasamy et al. (1998) have also reported mud eruption associated with seismic tremors along curivilinear
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lineament near Tiruppattur. Ramasamy and Kumanan (2000) have inferred tectonic subsidence along this curvilinear lineament on the basis of eyed drainage in river Palar, east of Gudiyattam.
Fig. 2.15 Study Window - Lineament Anomalies The curvilinear lineaments trending EW graben are very significant and nearly forms the boundary of the Attur valley which impart adequate evidence to call it Attur graben as proposed by Srinivasan (1974). These lineaments with E-W fabric were very unique to this generally NE-SW terrain. Two of these lineaments, traces the trend of MBSZ along Salem-Attur sector running north and south of Kanjamalai. Another curvilinear lineament with similar trend was running south of Malliyakkarai basin.
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A lineament with southern curvature, a distinctive character differentiates it from other E-W trending curvilinear lineament where they display northern curvature was traced along the northern foot of Kolli and Pachchai hills and follows the Swetha nadi fault of Srinivasan (1974). Another lineament with similar trend was observed that was running on the southern foot of Shevaroys, Chitteri and cutting the southern part of Kalrayan hills via Thummal, Karumanthurai and north of Gomukhi nadi in the east. A set of lineaments with curvilinearity cuts Shevaroys, Chitteri and Kalrayan with ENE-WSW trend were observed running north and south of Manimukta nadi in Kalrayan which shows compressed meandering. Steep escarpments and alluvial fans could be observed on north and south side of Manimukta nadi. Toppal Ar Ponniayar Ar lineament with ESE-WSW trend and passing through a spring at Tirthamalai show curvilinearity. NW-SE trending curvilinear lineaments extending from Pachchai hills to Shevaroys hills in the north impose a NW-SE trend in the Attur valley (Fig. 2.15a). 2.4.7.4 Branch off Lineaments The sub parallel lineaments that meet at acute angles, such branch off lineaments or converging lineaments were interpreted as tear faults, aligned orthogonal to the folds related to the recent fault followed folds in Wheeler ridge of southwestern California by Mueller and Talling (1997). Ramasamy et al. (2009) have observed the coincidence of recent earth tremors along such acutely joining or the branching off lineaments in parts of Tamil Nadu. These Y- shaped structure was supposed to branch off from near Ponnaiyar (E 78 44' 38.40", N 12 7' 22.80"), near Mel Nilavur (E 78 42' 14.40", N 11 53' 56.40") and near Karumantur (E 78 37' 44.4", N 11 50' 13.20"). These lineaments were having a consanguineous character of eastern convexity and thereby possibly signify an anticlockwise rotation of southern peninsular after the near saturated collision with Eurasia. Such three set of branch off lineaments were buffered out from Kalrayan area (Fig. 2.15b).
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2.4.7.5 Parallel lineaments Ramasamy et al. (1999), in their remote sensing based Precambrian tectonic model of South India, observed that the EW fracture swarms of the BangaloreChennai region do not fit in with Precambrian orogeny. Whereas, Chakrapani Naidu and Jayakumar (1979) have doubted the Post Tertiary origin of these dykes filling these fracture swarms. While Ghosh (1976) attributed the EW to ENEWSW fracture swarms of the Saurashtra Peninsula (Western India) to the EW aligned Amerli cymatogenic arch of Post Trappean age, Sychanthavong (1985) and Ramasamy (1995a) have also advocated that these fracture swarms of the Saurashtra Peninsula are related to Post Trappean cymatogenic arching connected to the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. Ramasamy et al. (1987, 1995a), Ramasamy (1989), and Subrahmanya (1994, 1996) have also doubted possible cymatogenic arching in the MangaloreChennai region. Similarly, Kumanan (1998) have observed the EW fractures fracture swarms in the Varushanad hills which coincide with sub parallel EW fractures observed in the area by Ramasmy (2006a) who attributing this to cymatogenic arching along Cochin Ramanathapuram. Ramasamy (2006a) has observed bundles of NWSE trending sub parallel lineaments from the IRS satellite FCC data of at different places of Tamil Nadu controlling Pambar river at its northwestern, the flow of the Ponnaiyar river in its matured and old stages, deflects the Vellar river,
delimits the Jayamkondam Mio-Pliocene Sandstone, and also causes conspicuous compressed meandering in the otherwise northeasterly flowing Coleroon/Cauvery river and along the coast, it abruptly cuts off the beach ridges. Further, he observed wider flood plain of Suruliar in Kambam valley which was a well defined tectonic valley by NE-SW sub parallel lineaments. Ramasamy (2006a) has reiterated N-S and NNE-SSW parallel and sub parallel lineaments, namely, the Stanley reservoirTevaram, KrishnagiriCape Comorin, GudiyattamCape Comorin, TanjoreAvadaiyarkoil, and
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KumbakonamMuttupet lineaments are tectonically active. He also opined the extension block faulting morphology to N-S lineaments wrench faulting signatures to NE-SW and NW-SE faults. Similar, tendency could be observed and applied to this study window. The parallel and sub parallel lineaments in this area could be classified on the basis of orientations in to E-W trending with an azimuth of 86 to 92, N-S trending with an azimuth of 174 -186, NE-SW trending with an azimuth of 42-50, NW SE trending with an azimuth of 46 - 48and 58- 62, and NNESSW trending with an azimuth of 27-30 (Fig. 2.15c). 2.4.7.6 Lineament Density Maxima The total length of lineaments per unit area is called as lineament density. This type of lineament density diagrams were used as potential guide to understand the palaeo stress environment, stress maxima zones and also in assessing the compressive forces involved in generating the folded structures by many around the world (Blanchet 1957, Harris et al 1960, Haman 1961, Marrs and Raines 1984, Berhe and Rothery 1987). Haman (1961) was the first person to demonstrate this technique of lineament analysis for evaluating the palaeo stress environment. Many earlier workers have utilized this tool for groundwater and hydrocarbon explorations in India (Raiverman et al., 1966, Ermenko 1968, Kumar 1983, Usha et al., 1989, Kumanan and Ramasamy 2001, etc.). Bakliwal (1978), Ramasamy et al. (1983), Nair (1990), Ramasamy (1995b) and others have extensively used this method for evaluating the palaeo stress related to the tectonic evolution of respective fold belts. Nair (1990) has even used this technique to identify the pattern of the folds in the Western Ghats of Kerala and he inferred that the circular stress fields were correlatable to surfacial and sub surfacial domal structures and elongated elliptical stress maxima zones indicated the elliptical anticlinal structures. Similarly, Ramasamy et al. (1995b) have identified the pattern of stress on the basis of the shapes of the
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lineament density contours and related them to different fold styles in Aravalli mountains of western India, such as circular stress fields to broad regional domes and basins, elliptical stress fields to anticlines and synclines and rectilinear stress maxima zones to long and linear tight anticlines and synclines. Kumanan (1998) and Ramasamy (2000, 2006a) have used
lineament density maxima to identify the Neotectonic zones in parts of Western Ghats, South India. Hence, in the present study, the total lengths of lineaments were counted per five sq km area and plotted in the respective grid centres and contoured using surfer software. The lineament maxima axes were drawn along the crest of the elliptical contours of maximum values. Such lineament axes so drawn mostly fell along EW directions, NESW directions near NW part of study window and NWSE directions in south centre to NW part of study window. The axes were mostly oriented in E-W and sparsely in NS directions. These lineament density maxima axes were buffered out and GIS image was generated (Fig.2.16 a). 2.4.7.7 Lineament Number Maxima In the same way, the total numbers of lineaments were counted per five sq km grid, plotted in the respective grid centres and such values were contoured, called as isofracture map or lineament number density map. Again the zones of elliptical contours of maximum values were studied and maxima axes were drawn along crest of such elliptical contours. Isofracture pattern in the study window display the general trend of prominent N-S, E-W and NW-SE trend with little NE-SW fabric. Finally the lineament number maxima axes were buffered out as a separate GIS layer (Fig 2.16b). 2.4.7.8 Lineament Intersection Maxima The total numbers of lineaments intersection were counted per five sq km grid, plotted in the respective grid centres and such values were contoured. The zones of elliptical contours of maximum values were studied
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and maxima axes were drawn along crest of such contours. A prominence of NW-SE fabric was observed and it was followed by E-W, N-S and NE-SW fabrics (Fig 2.16c).
Fig. 2.16 Lineament Anomalies from Density, Frequency and Intersection
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2.4.8 Aeromagnetic Anomalies 2.4.8.1 General Aeromagnetic survey is considered as one of the fastest and most economical method of undertaking geophysical reconnaissance of any unexplored or inaccessible regions. Though the use of the method was initially to target ore deposits, its utility in interpreting regional structure was widely realized and hence, it is used for regional tectonic studies. Zietz et al. (1969) have described the existence of the Towanta lineament during an aeromagnetic investigation of crustal structure in western United States. It provides information on structural trends, the position of faults even in areas of extensive soil cover as well as in areas where in the crystalline basement is overlain by sedimentary sequences (Harikumar et al., 2000). Aeromagnetic surveys in India dates back to early nineteen fifties and an area of 18,000 sq. km was covered in Bengal Basin by the Standard Vacuum Oil Co., of USA for Oil exploration during 1951-52, which was followed by a survey in Brahmaputra valley in upper Assam in 1953-54 (Hari Narain, 1965; Bahuleyan, 1997). Atomic Minerals Division (AMD)
conducted radiometric survey in 1955. The aeromagnetic survey on crystalline terrains using multi-sensors was achieved by AMSE Wing of GSI between 1967 and 1971. At the same time, i.e. in 1968, an area of about 25,000 sq. kilometres was flown under the UNDP Mineral Development Programme in northeastern Tamil Nadu. The entire country was covered by systematic aeromagnetic survey by the Geological Survey of India under a National Programme in a period of 15 years starting from 1980. In addition AMD and National Geophysical Research Institute have conducted detailed surveys over areas of mineral deposits. Earlier surveys have generated contour maps and visual interpretation was made to bring out the regional structures and anomalies formed due to ore deposits. While iron' ores were successfully delineated by the surveys,
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other non-magnetic mineral deposits were identified by the structural control of ore localisation and the kimberlite pipes were targeted by the circular features formed. The advent of computer processing has helped in generation of colour - coded images and HariKumar et al. (2000) and Rajaram et al. (2001) have attempted the aeromagnetic study of Peninsular India. The aeromagnetic total intensity anomaly data used in the present study is obtained from AMSE division of GSI in 1: 250,000 scale with the contour interval of 39900 to 40660 gamma and from the Department of Geology and Mining, Government of Tamil Nadu, as a total intensity contoured map in 1:63,360 scale with the contour interval of 50 gamma and 10 gamma contours and the magnetic values range from 42000 to 49200gamma. The survey was made in 1968 under UNDP mineral development programme by Hunting Geology and Geophysics Ltd., England. with a mean flying height of 150 m and mean flight line spacing of 1 km. The flying was carried out in NW-SE direction across the regional trend and flights in NE-SW at mean spacing of 15 kilometres were flown for tie lines. The necessary corrections carried out during Aeromagnetic survey were already made for the preparation of contour map. A mosaic of the six sheets was done and the map was redrawn with the contour interval of 50 gammas, as the 10 gamma contours were too dense to be reproduced. 2.4.8.2 Aeromagnetic Pattern of the Study Area The striking feature of the total intensity aeromagnetic map is the sparsely distributed contour pattern in a linear zone extending diagonally in NE-SW in a northeastern part of the area. This zone coincides with the Kottapatti shear, which divides the Kalrayan and Chitteri hills. Another zone characterized by few contours is curvilinear extending from the southeastern margin to the center up to the foothills of the Shevaroys. The eastern extension of the zone is just south of the Kalrayan massifs and this zone is possibly the Moyar-Bhavani-Salem-Attur Shear zone (MBSASZ). The western extension of this particular shear however, is not clearly brought out, which
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can be attributed to the complex pattern formed due to the BMQ deposit at Kanjamalai and intrusion of the Chalk hills ultramafic complex. In addition, three parallel NW-SE trending linear magnetic anomalies dissect the area and the magnetic trends in these linear zones are oblique to the regional magnetic trends and these are considered as major magnetic breaks. Further, the iron ore occurrence in Godumalai and Kanjamalai produced a strong dipole anomaly pattern, which is typical of iron ore Provinces. 2.4.8.3 Interpretation of the Aeromagnetic Total Intensity Anomaly Data Total intensity value contour map, was used to generate image (Fig. 2.17) as well as shaded relief maps (Fig. 2.18). In general, the southern part of the area in the vicinity of the MBSASZ is characterized by the lower values relative to the area located in the north. Curvilinear magnetic trends in east - west direction are also faintly brought out. The NW-SE trending linears are also faintly displayed in the image, but the breaks are very prominent. The shaded relief map produced with illumination located in the NW at an angle of 45 and an altitude of 30 gives a smooth picture (Fig. 2.18). The dark areas in the figure correspond to lower values and the bright areas are higher in magnetic susceptibility. The major feature observed is the influence of the BMQ occurrence in Kanjamalai. A strong negative linear is observed east of Salem town. The area south of Attur also displays alternating magnetic low and high axes. The Shevaroys and charnockite massifs generally characterized by a smooth pattern, on the other hand alternating lows and highs trending NESW to NNE-SSW are observed in Kalrayan massif. The area south of the massifs is characterised by curvilinear trend lines in E- W to ENE-WSW direction with alternating highs and lows. The Kottapatti shear is characterized by a subdued fabric forming a NE-SW trending zone. When the illumination is changed to SW, in addition to the features displayed prominent NW-SE trending lineament are visible. These lineaments cross-cut Kottappatti shear and extend into the Attur area suggesting that they are
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younger to Attur as well as Kottappatti shears. However, offsetting of these lineament are noticed when they extend from the massifs into the Attur shear. The lower magnetic susceptibility of the rocks in Attur area is clearly seen.
Fig. 2.17 Aeromagnetic Total Intensity Anomaly Map The shaded relief map with the illumination at NW gives a very good picture with intricate details of the magnetic trends and breaks when compared with the earlier map (which includes 'Kanjamalai data). The Kottappatti' shear is clearly brought out and is characterised by subdued fabric. The change in magnetic trends to E-W in MBSASZ is also well illustrated. East-west trending magnetic break appears on the northern
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margin of the area, which coincides, with the northern margin of the massif. Few east-west lineaments are also noticed in the satellite imageries in this locality. Magnetic linears trending NW-SE are also observed in the shaded relief map. These lineaments are found as parallel lines cross-cutting and deflecting the magnetic trends. The lineament extends diagonally from NW to SE and is prominent in the northern part comprising the charnockites and becomes faint in the Attur area. Its influence is also visible in the Kottappatti shear area suggesting that the NW-SE trending breaks are younger. Study of the aerial photographs reveals that the massifs as well as Shevaroys are dissected by NW-SE trending faults along which the marker beds are displaced. As in the image using the total magnetic field, the Kanjamalai BMQ occurrence is distinctly seen as a basin. The NE-SW regional grain in the northern part of the area is obvious. The southern part of the area is characterised by curvilinear E-W to ENE-WSW trend, with well defined alternating high and low magnetic axes. Similar low - high pairing of magnetic axes is also found in Kalrayans and Chitteri hills. The Kottappatti shear forms a zone with minimum variation in the residuals. NW-SE trending lineaments are also observed faintly. In addition to the magnetic lineament noticed in the image generated with total magnetic intensity, NNW-SSE trending magnetic breaks are noticed in the eastern margin of the area. These breaks truncate the magnetic axes and deflect them and transect the MBSASZ as well as the charnockite massifs. Among these the most prominent is located in the eastern margin of the area. From the southeastern margin the break has a NNW-SSE trend and when it dissects the Kalrayan, a minor dextral shift is observed. A number of breaks are found parallel to the one described are also noticed. This magnetic break/linear coincides with the set of N-S trending lineaments are noticed in the eastern margin of the area in the Kalrayan massif. Similar N-S breaks are also noticed in the central part of the area on the eastern part of the area crossing hills and also along the eastern flanks of Kanjamalai.
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Fig. 2.18 Aeromagnetic Total Intensity Anomaly Shaded Relief Map The magnetic pattern is grossly controlled by structure and charnockites, gneisses, mafic granulites and dolerite dykes cannot be separated. This is mainly due to the fact that the mafic granulites and dolerite dykes though they are mafic rocks with high magnetic content occur as narrow bands, rarely exceeding 200m in width. Hence, they are not separable in the aeromagnetic data measured at the present image. 2.4.8.4 Interpretation of Magnetic Profiles 2.4.8.4.1 Profile A-B The N-S profile (Fig. 2.19a) in the eastern boundary from Kalrayan Pachchai hills near 7842' shows that the magnetic intensities are
characterised by alternating highs and lows upto lat. 1138', and further
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south, the values dropped up to 41050 gamma corresponding to Attur valley. Many deep valleys were observed on the top of Kalrayan which were representing NE-SW lineaments. The Gangavalli shear does not display prominent anomaly and a gently sloping magnetic low is noticed to the southeast of the shear. This coincides with a prominent N-S magnetic break observed in the image. 2.4.8.4.2 Profile C-D Magnetic profile drawn across the Kanjamalai hill (Fig. 2.19b) along the anomalies located on the west shows that the peak-to-peak amplitude of the anomaly is 41700 gammas in the north and 42,400 gammas in the south. The valley may represent dipping nature of the beds. 2.4.8.4.3 Profile E-F The Chitteri- Kolli profile (Fig. 2.19c) the first two dents in the profile represent NE-SW trending lineaments and further south the values were reaching as low as 41300 gamma corresponding to Attur valley. The Swetha nadi fault was strongly displayed by the very steep and deep valley at the south of the profile. 2.4.8.4.4 Profile G-H The profile G-H across Chalk hill ultramafic complex displays a distinct magnetic high, which corresponds with the serpentinised dunites (Fig. 2.19d). The ultramafic body is bounded by two magnetic lows with the magnetic values reducing to 41350 gamma and values steeply rise to 41800 gammas in the ultramafic body. Further south, the magnetic values reduce with fluctuations and a prominent magnetic low was observed which coincide with the Attur valley passing through Salem. The Attur valley that was observed south of Chalk hills, exhibit branching (Anastomosis) nature of the MBSASZ. South of Bodamalai, there is a steep decline in the value up to 41050 gamma represent ENE-WSW lineament south of Bodamalai.
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Fig. 2.19 Aeromagnetic Total Intensity Anomaly Map -Profiles

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2.4.8.4.5 Profile I-J The magnetic profile across the Shevaroys -Kalrayan (Fig. 2.19e) shows varying amplitude of the anomaly. The western Shevaroys was marked with valleys of NW-SE trend and eastern side with NE-SW lineaments. Relatively higher anomaly values were observed for Chitteri hills and easternside of this hill a broad valley of Kottapatti shear zone was observed. The steep valley at the eastern side of profile corresponds to NE-SW trend lineament in Kalrayan. 2.4.9 Demarcations of Neotectonic Lineaments The present study encompass the analysis of significant lithology, analysis of geomorphic anomalies and topography, drainage anomalies, structural trend analysis, visually interpreted lineament analysis and aeromagnetic anomalies to identify the neotectonic lineaments. This DEM constitutes the basis for geomorphic analysis at regional scale. The faults we have mapped can be considered as the main ones because they are clearly displayed on such an image. The topographic analysis with the shaded relief map from SRTM was used to study the anomalous relief variations, gaps in between hills, linear shadows, steep slope sides and deeps in the topographic profiles were interpreted for places of active tectonism. Alkaline rocks, ultramafic rocks, dykes, granites and pegmatites, pseudotachylytes and mylonites were taken as significant lithologies and their orientation and location have been considered as representations of the tectonic history or recurrence of tectonic events these will give us clue on the orientation of then tectonics weak zones and possible zones of reactivation. Neotectonic faults can be identied by (1) their morphology, forming asymetric ranges with one side corresponding to breaks in slope or scarps, (2) the displacement of recent sediment boundaries, structural or erosional surfaces, and (3) the occurrence of straight lines of several tens of kilometers in length dislocating and controlling the drainages. Image of the study window was systematically compared with geological maps in order to carefully separate the scarps formed by fault planes (active) from those
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resulting from differential erosion of contrasted lithology (ancient). The active fault scarps, even eroded, are much higher and longer than the scarps formed by lithological contrasts. When possible the strike-slip, normal or reverse nature of the faults was identied. Strike-slip faults have rectilinear traces and they locally bound push-up hills or extensional basins at step-over or bends of the fault trace. They can be associated with typical patterns such as tail-crack or horse-tail structures at fault ends. Reverse faults have sinuous traces and they are associated with half-cylindrical-shaped hills of the uplifted blocks due to drag folds deforming ancient planar erosion surface in the hanging wall. Normal faults are recognized by the following geomorphic characters: (1) they generally have a widely arched trace, concave (mainly) or convex towards the footwall, in contrast to the strike-slip faults whose trace is generally straighter; (2) they bound tilted plateaus (tilted blocks); (3) as is also the case for the strike-slip faults, they are not related to half-cylindrical-shaped hills corresponding to recent drag folds, which accompany active reverse faulting. Harikumar et al. (2000), through long wavelength magnetic anomaly studies up to 17N, identified charnockitic rocks as the main source of magnetic anomalies in the Southern Granulite Terrane and Banded Iron Formation (BIF) in the Dharwar craton. Reddy et al. (1988) analysed the aeromagnetic data up to 12N and showed the usefulness of aeromagnetic data in deciphering the crustal structure. From the study of aeromagnetic data from 12 to 17N, Anand and Rajaram (2002) showed that the difference in magnetic signatures of the Eastern and Western Dharwar craton was related to the difference in metamorphic grades. So, the aeromagnetic data acts as an excellent tool to decipher litho contact and magnetic lineaments which in agreement with morphological expressions were traced as neotectonic lineaments. Magnetic break has provided the geometry and trace of NW-SE lineaments than any other tools we have used in the present study.
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Fig. 2.20 Neotectonic Lineament Map Thus, 99 lineaments were deduced from various anomalies and the same were taken for all the subsequent studies by considering their importance in control over natural resources and natural hazards. Neotectonic map was produced by filtering out 53 lineaments (Fig.2.20)
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which were significantly showing coincidences of atleast three or more

anomalous characters observed in topography, geomorphology, drainage, lithology, trendline, shear sense, lineaments and aeromagnetic data (Table 2.1). 2.5 VALIDATION OF NEOTECTONIC MODEL 2.5.1 General Neotectonic zonation mapping cannot be used to provide a firm baseline data for earthquake mitigation unless it is properly validated. The various anomalies studied have been corroborated with each other and a new methodology was evolved to detect the Neotectonic zones. Neotectonic
model deduced from the study was validated with historical seismicity data, alignment of springs and multi-depth resistivity data. 2.5.2 Historical Seismicity and Identification of Seismotectonic Lineaments The historical seismicity data is again one of the best tools for validating such neotectonic models. Hence, such historical seismicity data published by Geological Survey of India (Anon 2000) was scanned and over 250 epicenters of more than 2.5 magnitudes were picked out and seismic data published by Ramalingeswara Rao (1992) are compiled and a GIS data base was generated for the study area as well as for the adjoining area (Fig.2.21). These data were compared with neotectonic lineaments and the lineaments which cutting the epicenters and or proximal to the lineaments were taken as seismotectonic lineaments ( Fig. 2.21). The earthquake epicentres of the study area showed a dominant N-S, NESW and WNWESE to NWSE alignments confirming respectively active sinistral and dextral faults. Isoseismal lines were drawn by feeding the above epicentres data into the Surfer 8 for entire study area (Fig.2.22). Then the resultant data was exported to ARCGIS environment, from such isoseismal lines, isoseismal maxima axes were drawn along the crest of maximum values.
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Fig. 2.21 Seismotectonic Lineament Map Again using 3D Analyst Module of ArcGIS, 3D visualized GIS image was generated on the isoseismal pattern and similar isoseismal maxima axes were drawn along the elliptical isoseismal ridges. Amongst these, the NS to NNESSW oriented isoseismal maxima axes were found to have great agreement with the fall in parallelism and proximity to NS / NNESSW trending regional Pleistocene faults inferred by Ramasamy and Balaji (1995). Whereas the NESW oriented isoseismal maximas fell in proximity and parallelism to the NESW Pleistocene sinistral faults.
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Fig. 2.22 Iso-Seismal Map and Iso-Seismal Maxima Thus, the historical seismicity data have shown excellent validation of the Neotectonicmodel evolved in the present study and the various active faults of NS, NESW and NWSE azimuthal frequencies (Table 2.1). Though the maxima axes were restricted to northeastern side of the study window, the minimum value recorded is 2.8 and hence no area can be left as seismically safe.The recent tremor in parts of Salem-Namkkal (Mw2.9), Krishnagiri (Mw3.12, Annexure-IA), Thalaivasal (Annexure-IB), Ambur
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earthquake (Mw3.8, 07-06-2008, E 78 47' 59.94", N 12 48' 0", Annexure-IC), largest instrumented Earthquake in Tamil Nadu & Puducherry, - Off the coast of Puducherry, (Mw5.5, 2609-2001, E8013'30", N1159'2.4", Annexure-ID&E) have confirmed that the Neotectonic lineaments and their northern
extensions have a greater coincidences with lineaments NL19, NL46-NL47, NL37and NL1 respectively. 2.5.3 Neotectonic Lineaments Vs Springs Springs are points where ground water, recharged at higher elevations, emerges at the surface. Depending on the nature of the recharge and of the storage/transmission characteristics of the aquifer through which the water has flowed, they may be permanent (perennial), seasonal or intermittent. Springs are found at many elevations from high in mountains to beneath sea level, the Vrulja of the Mediterranean being an example of the latter (Goudie, 2004). Besides this springs are one of the best geomorphic indicators of strike slip faulting. Springs were mapped from topographic sheets and the neotectonic lineament map was overlaid and their alignment with the springs provides the evidences of strike slip faults (Fig.2.23, Table 2.1). 2.5.4 Multi-depth Resistivity data Many people have identified the lineaments based on geophysical resistivity data. Having realizied the credentials of geophysical resistivity in evaluating the subsurface geological and structural data, the geophysical resistivity data were also analysed in the present study. Again, a new attempt was made to visualize the multi-depth resistivity data three dimensionally using GIS. The geophysical resistivity data collected for 30m, 50m, 80m 100m and 150m depths from 1300 number of locations for Salem region were analyzed by preparing isoresistivity contours of different depths using SURFER 8 and exported to ARCGIS. From such 3D GIS images the rectilinear resistivity lows and breaks were buffered and correlated with neotectonic lineaments.
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The same has revealed that the NE SW, NW SE and N S trends indicating probable tectonic weak zones in these directions.
Fig. 2.23 Neotectonic Lineaments Vs Springs 2.5.4.1 Resistivity at 30 Meter Depth Isoresistivity contours were drawn in SURFER 8 and exported to ARCGIS, then the 3D GIS image generated for 30m depth was interpreted in the computer, (Fig.2.24) and the resistivity lows and breaks were compared with neotectonic lineaments.
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Fig. 2.24 Neotectonic Lineaments Vs 30m depth Isoresistivity The resistivity lows and breaks interpreted from the isoresistivity contours and 3D GIS have mostly corroborated with neotectonic lineaments. The lineaments L1, L8, L9, L10, L12, L17, L22, L27, L28, L32, L33, L36, L38, L39, L40, L41, L42, L46, L53, L63, L65, L66, L67, L69, L70, L71, L72, L74, L75, L78, L79, L82, L84, L87, L89, L97 and L99 were aligning with resistivity valleys and breaks (Fig. 2.24a). 2.5.4.2 Resistivity at 50 Meter Depth Similar isoresistivity contours drawn in SURFER 8 was exported to ARCGIS and the 3D GIS image generated there from for the apparent resistivity values at 50m depth are shown in Fig2.25b. Again the lows and breaks were correlated with Neotectonic lineaments (Table 2.1).
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The broad resistivity valleys were observed with NE-SW, NW-SE and E W trend and these valleys represent the concentration of lineaments in these directions.
Fig 2.25 Neotectonic Lineaments Vs 50m and 80m depth Isoresistivity
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2.5.4.3
Resistivity at 80 Meter Depth The generated 3D image of 80m depth isoresistivity show higher
degree of correlation with the
neotectonic lineaments and has good
agreement with that of 30m and 50m lows and breaks. An NW-SE trending valley was observed along L74 and L75 lineaments with intermittent resistivity hills. E-W trending resistivity valley was observed along L5 and L81 which in turn coincides with Swetha nadi fault (Fig.2.25c). Similar valley was observed along NE-SW trend and aligning with L47. Other lineament matching with resistivity breaks were also observed and tabulated (Table 2.1). 2.5.4.4 Resistivity at 100 Meter Depth Similar resistivity breaks and lows were interpreted from 100m depth isoresistivity and compared with Neotectonic lineaments and their alignment with Neotectonic lineaments was much sharper than shallower depth isoresistivity data. The valley with contour values of 50 Ohm was observed which must be corresponding to zones of intersection of multi-oriented lineaments (Fig.2.26e). The NS oriented anomalies were mostly concentrated in central parts, NESW in south eastern part of the area and NW SE in western parts of area (Table 2.1). 2.5.4.5 Resistivity at 150 Meter Depth 150m depth resistivity isolines were prepared as said above and correlated with the Neotectonic lineaments. Higher degree of coincidence could be observed and the broad valleys in the central part of the study area was aligning with L67 and L38 whereas the L 77 and L83 aligning with the valley in the northern part of study area (Fig.2.26f). L12 was aligning with NW-SE trending valley and L32 and L79 were aligning with NE-SW trending valleys. Value as low as 100 ohms was observed in these valleys. The lineaments which are characteristically aligning with the resistivity lows and breaks were tabulated (Table 2.1).
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Fig. 2.26 Neotectonic Lineaments Vs 100m and 150m depth Isoresistivity
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2.5.5 Field Validation Attur valley is a physiographic expression of a major deep seated lineament, hence the name "Attur valley Lineament"; named after a small town located in the eastern part of the lineament. This is considered as important lineament as it forms a part of the complex shear system which practically divides Tamil Nadu into northern and southern blocks - an observation based on physiography. Srinivasan (1974) considered the Attur valley as a rift zone between Shevaroys-ChitteriKalrayan and Kolli - Pachchai hill massifs. Drury and Holt (1980) interpreted Attur Valley lineament as a branch of their complete curvilinear shear system, which incorporates Moyar-Bhavani, Palghat-Cauvery and several other northerly trending lineaments. Though the importance of Attur lineament is widely known in Tamil Nadu Geology, no detailed work on how this lineament has affected the earlier lithologies, structure and associated features is available. The earlier analyses were based on LANDSAT imagery and aerial photo interpretations without any ground control (Grady, 197l; Srinivasan, 1974; Katz, l978; and Drury and Holt, 1980). The area was manifesting excellent structures and exotic lithologies and the field based study would provide valid evidences for the reactivation of tectonic zones. Five locations were selected so as to cover the Attur valley in part and adjoining area. In these locations most of the earlier structures like fold, faults, shears and other minor feature were modified by the later structures. Reactivation involves the accommodation of geologically separable displacement events (intervals >1 Ma) along pre-existing structures. The denition of a signicant period of quiescence is central to this phenomenological denition and the duration of the interval chosen represents the resolution limit of reactivation criteria found in most ancient settings. In neotectonic environments, reactivation can be further dened as
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the accommodation of displacements along structures that formed prior to the onset of the current tectonic regime. This mechanistic denition cannot always be applied to ancient settings due to the uncertainties in constraining relative plate motion vectors. Four sets of criteria may be used to recognize reactivation in the geological record: Stratigraphic, Structural, Geochronological and Neotectonic. Some structural criteria may not be reliable if used in isolation to identify reactivated structures. Much of the previously published evidence cited to invoke structural inheritance is equivocal as it uses similarities in trend, dip or three-dimensional shape of structures. Numerous fault and shear zone processes can cause signicant weakening both synchronously with deformation and in the long term and may be invoked to explain reactivation. The collage of fault-bounded blocks forming most continents therefore carries a long-term architecture of inheritance which can explain much of the observed complexity of continental deformation zones. 2.5.5.1 Tiruchengode 2.5.5.1.1 Thrust structure in Amphibolite near Tiruchengode The study site lies between 110 3650 to 110 2730 latitudes and 770 58 20 to 780 00 50 longitudes forms parts of Toposheet no 58 E/14 and E/15 published by government of India in 1972. The area is well connected by Salem-Tiruchengode-Erode road and railways. The nearest railway station is Sankagiri RS. 2.5.5.1.2 Kinematic Analysis The area is mainly covered with amphibolite, granitic gneiss; hornblende biotite gneiss and younger granites .Extensive field work were made and traversed parallel to foliation and across the strike of the rocks. The
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samples were collected for thin section study.The rocks were mapped and structural details are plotted on the base map to produce structural map of the area (Fig.2.27). The amphibolites strike N 100 to 200 degrees and dip 150 to 300 degrees towards east. The pitch of the lineation varies from 300 to 350 degrees towards NE. but there is striking variation in the dip direction two km west of Semmampalayam, where the amphibolite rocks lie at the vicinity of road. There the rocks show N150W strike and dipping towards the NE with 300 to 400. The 100 symmetrical rose diagram of the strike trends N100 to 200. The scatter plot of the foliation planes and 1% area contour are concentrating near the centre of the primitive circle. This suggests very low dipping or subhorizontal nature of the amphibolite rocks. In well cuttings near Kallukadai shows layered amphibolite and hornblende biotite gneiss with dip amount much steeper than the surface outcrops. The hornblende biotite gneiss shows concordant bedding nature with amphibolite. The general trend of the hornblende biotite gneiss varies from N100 W to N200E and the dip amount ranges from 650 to 800 E. The pitch of the lineation ranges from 180 to 340 NE. The 100 symmetrical rose diagram of strike shows N100W to N200E. The scatter plot and 1%area contour shows bimodal symmetry and suggesting a broad open and northerly plunging fold structure. The granitic gneiss lies west of amphibloite and is having direct contact with younger granites further west. The general trend of the granitic gneiss is N 00 to N140 and the dip is 220 to 640 E. the pitch of the lineation is 120 to 45 0 NE and the plunge ranges from 90 to 410 NE. The 100 symmetrical rose diagram indicates the strike ranges from 00 to 300 N. The scatter plot and 1% area contour show great variation in clustering of foliation values. This suggest the granitic gneiss is syntectonic in origin and lit par lit injected
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granitic melt into amphibolite with shear texture of and type clasts are noted (Plate VI A-F). and are showing dextral sense near Morepalayam
Fig 2.27 Thrust Structure in Amphibolite near Morepalayam, Tiruchengode
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The mylonite zone near Morepalayam village, Namakkal District is ~5 km length and ~ 50- 75 m width and narrows down in the south and it trends NNE-SSW and dips nearly vertical. In field the sense of shear is identified by very big feldspar porphyroclast, S-C fabric and asymmetric fold where as in thin section its not showing any kind of sense of shear, it suggest s that after shearing one more phase of metamorphism has happened and the micro clasts are recrystallized and the mesostructures are remained as such. Conjugate Kink bands are also observed in the same outcrops with the orientations of 45 with the dip of 69 and 95 with the dip of 68. The acute bisectrix of the conjugate orients 70 i.e. 1 the primary stress field has the above said orientation. This evidence suggests later to Sankagiri granite emplacement there must be reactivation. 2.5.5.1.3 Geometric model of Amphibolite Thrust
The structural orientation of all the kinds of rocks mapped near Tiruchengode superficially shows concordant strike orientation but the dip of all three rocks varies. The amphibolites are dipping very gently towards east possibly represent a thrust structure. This schematic block diagram is constructed based on its structural orientation. (Fig.2.27) The sheet of rocks might have formed by the recumbent folding of amphibolite and hornblende biotite gneiss rocks due to the thrusting emplacement of Sankagiri Granite from SW side of the terrain pushing the rocks NE part of the area to ride over the igneous plutons and thus creating a ramp thrust sheet.
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2.5.5.2 Western Kanjamalai 2.5.5.2.1 Structure of the Area The hill has a basin shaped structure, as already observed by King and Foote (1864). The average dip of the rocks was about 55 but on the northern side it may be anything from 500 upwards. The long axis of the structure lies just north of the main ridge at the top of the hill. The dip was eastward on its western side, while in the ridge marked by the north of the Siddheswaran kovil, the dip varies from 75 to 80 towards the S and SE direction. An irregular depression is found on the east of Sidhar kovil, and this depression is backed by the main mass of Kanjamalai in the easterly direction. A low broken ridge forms the northern boundary of this depression while Chinnakanjamalai (Small Kanjamalai) is its southern boundary rising to the heights of 200 to 300 m forming the continuation of the main ridge of the mountain. The slope on the northern side is somewhat gentle and has less vegetation. Contrary to the northern slope, the southern slope of the hill is clothed thickly with thorny bushes and shrubs. The slope is steeper and scarred by ridges and valleys thus presenting a diversified morphological aspect Kanjamalai, by virtue of its situation, stands out as gigantic hill on the plains of the Attur valley. The bold relief of the flanks of the hill exhibits dark bands which stand out as ribs. The first detailed account on the structure and geology of Kanjamalai was given by King and Foote (1864). They interpreted the structure of Kanjamalai as a basin and dunite pockets with veins of magnesite regarded as the later intrusive in the earlier gneisses. Some sort of dislocation is noticed near Sidhar kovil adjacent to dunite. From all the directions the rocks dip towards the mountain, the amount of dip varies from 600 to 900. Rapid variation is noticed in the amount of dip of the iron ore bands along the northern portion of Kanjamalai. There is a small anticlinical structure exposed on the north-eastern foot hills of Kanjamalai.
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The appearance of anticlinal structure at the border can be explained owing to the intrusion of dunite and later granites. The force of intrusion might have buckled the northern limb of the already folded syncline. The plunging nature of the syncline is further supported by the outcrop pattern on the eastern end of the foot hills. Here the outcrops on either side of the flanks are not connected up around the terminal slopes, but they are separated by the country rocks. This is an evidence for the easterly plunge of the fold axis. In some cases, great difficulty is experienced in ascertaining the dip from lineation direction on a more or less elliptical and rounded surface of the area. Sidhar kovil is situated on the north-western foot hills. Here the hill shows clearly that the rocks around the places are eroded away to give a notch like look to the land. Southern cliffs of the hill show scarps of the prominent rock bands. The iron one bands of these western peaks suddenly end in this cliff. Above all, east of this area is depression, there is a dunite intrusion. This dunite intrusion is in line with the chalk Hills (North East of Kanjamalai) and this was observed from the top of the Shevaroy. Hence it is assumed that the north-western part of the hill around Sidhar kovil was uplifted by the dunite intrusion. In this process the plunging structure of Kanjamalai seems to be disrupted but broken up owing to faulting. The absence of the iron band in this area is easily explained as due to the erosion of the uplifted masses. The evidence for the dunite intrusion was also very well observed in Nagaramalai northeast of Kanjamalai. The dunite of the southern portion of the chalk hills (near Nagaramalai) has been reported to cut across the country rocks including the garnet pyroxene rock bands. The separation of, originally adjacent points on the bands are now more than half a kilometer apart separated by the dunitic intrusion. The gneisses occur extensively in the plains and often carry varigated lenticular patches of older rocks and often show interaction along their contacts with older rocks which has given rise to migmatites. The formation of these peninsular gneisses has brought about certain retrogressive changes in all the older igneous members of Dharwars.
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Granites, pegmatites and aplites veins are very scarce and outcrop predominantly along the disturbed one of the north-western portion of Kanjamalai. The intrusion of these younger granites further induced retrogressive changes in older Dharwarian rocks. Dolerites are very rare and petrologically unimportant by the absence of its differentiated members. The general structure of the study area in doubly plunging syncline fold with the fold axes F1, F2 and F3. The associated rocks charactistically exhibits shear fold structure (Plate-VIIE). Folds and faults often occur together and small folds are often related to drag effects along the faults in this area, most of these combinations occur in the area near Veerapandi, Sevampalayam and near Perumampatti. (i) The maximum stress axis was in the N-S direction and intermediate, minimum stress axes are EW and vertical downwards. (ii) The later folding activity was directed in SE and SW direction of maximum stress axis. (iii) F3 fold axis was represented in the same direction as the F2 axis, this type of folding activity is responsible for the high amplititude and unharmonic folding commonly found in both mylonitised hornblende biotite gneiss (Plate- VII A-F). 2.5.5.2.2 Fracture Patterns Related to Folds Well defined fractures are often displayed by BIF. The fractures are found on folds formed by a type of folding mechanism in which individual layers in a sequence flex, and bedding plane slippage occurs as folding proceeds to allow development of concentric folds. The fracture direction occurs parallel to the axis along the strike and in particularly well developed along the crest. Sheeting fractures also found in BIF which is referred to as a form of large scale exfoliation.
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Among the ideas which have been put forward to explain the origin of these fractures are, a) Earth tides (these appear too weak at the present time to cause fracture initially, but they might be effective in propagating basement fractures upward into the cover and tides may have been stronger in early Pre-Cambrian) b) Oscillatory response to a non-oscillatory force such as earthquakes, c) Crustal compression at depth. d) Isostatic adjustment causing extension. e) Expansion of the earths interior causing extension in the crust. 2.5.5.2.3 Structural Pattern The characters of many strike slip and normal faults are variable in the areas, in and around Veerapandi, Sevampalayam and Perumampatti. Establishment of strike-slip displacement on faulting is most conclusive when linear features are cut and displayed by the fault. The movements have taken place near Sevampalayam, Veerapandi and Perumampatti. Later
displacement in the BIF is noted by the physiographical effects, i.e., Stream terrace deposits. The strike-slip faults are mainly seen in western part of the foot hill of the Kanjamalai crossing through the dunite outcrop to Siddeswaran kovil and opened a way in the ring of metagabbros (Plate-IIIF). 2.5.5.2.4 Macroscopic Fabrics The fabric elements most commonly used to define macroscopic fabrics are macroscopic S-Surfaces lineations and axes and axial planes of folds. Microscopic structures, though less intensively studied by many geologists, may also build arrays that are homogenous on a large scale, thus contributing to the fabric of macroscopic domain. Rarely homogeneity on the macroscopic scale is demonstrable by simple inspection. By contrast, in many deformed bodies superposed
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structures are so complex that simple inspection of an outcrop or of a structural map reveals an apparently chaotic structure. Yet even in such bodies the existence of a macroscopic sub fabric, homogenous with respect to one or more kinds of structure, can emerge from a well-planned geometric analysis. 1. Data are collected from a large number of stations uniformly distributed (within the limits imposed by the nature of the exposure) on the topographic surface. 2. A number of small domains are chosen, each encompassing some 20 or 50 stations and having a uniform or simple outcrop pattern on the map. 3. Strong preferred orientation in any diagram shows that the domain is homogenous with respect to the corresponding structure. 4. Comparison of the sub-fabrics of the various domains now reveals which structures, if any, maintain a constant orientation throughout the whole body. 5. At suitable locations N-S traverses were made to understand the nature of repetition of beds. 2.5.5.2.5 Structure of the Western Kanjamalai The various structural elements present in the area under investigation. The following structural elements have been discussed. (1) Planar Structures (2) Folds and joints and (3) Linear structures Bedding planes are observed in various metasedimentary units. Bedding plane was observed in Banded Magnetite Quartzite in the area. It was identified on the basis of color banding and crenulated folded bandings.
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The bedding plane in BIF has been identified on the basis of color banding both the sides of Kanjamalai area. Gneissosity is observed mainly in metagabbros. Due to regional metamorphism, some granitic rocks are converted into gneissose rocks and gneissosity is also developed in metagabbros. The general strike trends of the rocks fall in N800- N850 direction. Poles of different parts of the Kanjamalai area are plotted in Schmidts equal area net. It indicates that the foliation is of the same generation in both the metagabbros and gneissose rocks. The orientation of 154 reading of western side of the Kanjamalai area in plotted in Schmidts equal area net (Fig.2.28) and then density contour diagrams are prepared using STEREO software (Fig. 2.28 insert). It is inferred from these foliation plots indicate that the plunging syncline structure exist in western Kanjamalai. The rocks in the area under investigation exhibit megascopic fold of both the small scale and those of regional scale which have been inferred after interpretation of structural data. Many of the Ptigmatic folds are present in the Banded Magnetite Quartzite rocks. Western Kanjamalai shows clear evidence of folding. The fold axis is very clear on NNE-SSW direction (Fig.2.28). The minor folds are very common in BIF and also in garnetiferous metagabbros and mylonitised Hb-biotite gneiss (Plate-VII A-F). Rootless fold and inter-folial fold are other characteristic features present as an evidence of multi phase deformations (Plate-VIID). Joints are observed in quartzites, garnet bearing meta gabbro rocks and gneisses. Mylonites which occur west of Kanjamalai, has closely spaced
horizontal joints with joint spacing ranging from few cm to 20 cm or so, and the contact is very clearly seen in shear zones. Mineral lineation is commonly observed in gneissose rocks which occur near the Sidhar kovil. The mineral lineation is defined by the preferred
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orientation of elongated felsic grains. It generally reads 400-500 SE near Siddheswaran kovil and 450-550 NE. and the plunge of the lineation is 500-600 in average towards SE. Another fault trending 3500 N is observed along which 50m (approx.) down throw in the garnetiferous meta- gabbro is noticed.
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Fig. 2.28 Structure of Western Kanjamalai, Salem Detailed field study revealed the Kanjamalai was bounded by mylonitised gneisses on either side at the basement for a width of nearly 2 km in the southern side and 1-1.5 km in the northern side with near E-W trend. F1, F2 and F3 foldings are prevalent in the mylonitised gneisses on the southernside of Kanjamali near Chinnasirangapadi. The F2 fold axis trend is 55-65 dipping 65-70 NW and with a rake of N45E and with the plunge of
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80. The F1 folds form rootless folds or boudinaged folds and the axial planes of which are aligning parallel to the S2 foliations. F2 folds are open folds and the S2 foliations were developed parallel to the F2 folding. These second generation folds seem to be corresponding to the structural fabric of the region. F3 folding are having conjugate fold axes and develops box folds with the trend of 358 and 82 SW and another axis of the trend 40 and 84 NE. At places F3 folds forms explosion folds (high amplitude folds) in mafic components and lesser stretching in felsic components and thus the differential stretching produces cavities in the hinges and filled with Gash veins of quartz. The axis orients 92 with 72 northern dip and with the rake of 72 and plunge of 84 for the lineation (Plate-VII A-F). Shear bands orients 100 and dip of 75 and with the rake of lineation measures 85 were observed near the GPS location E 78 02 40.3 and N 11 34 45.6. Micro faults with sinistral sense were observed near E 78 2 59.4 and N 11 36 12.2 with the trend of 345 and dip of 85 west. Pyrite mineralization was observed along these micro faults. 2.5.5.3 Udayappatti The traverse was made along the stream in Namam hill around Udayappatti, Kandasamam temple and Masinyakanpatti in NE SW direction at different locations, which is ~ 7-8 km away from Salem town. The traverse was taken along nala section near temple (N 113938.6, E 7812 37.3). This location contains highly weathered & sheared mylonites rocks that are in contact with chlorite schist along the eastern flank of ridge. The chlorite schists are greenish in nature & schistosity is not well developed. The mylonitic foliation shows trend of NE-SW direction and dips 40-80 towards NW direction. Some lineation has been observed that shows plunge towards NE direction in varying amounts 40-60.In another location of Namam hill (N 113936.1, E 781239.2) and also along the nala section mylonites are exposed, which are highly weathered & sheared. Foliation of NE-SW & dips toward south direction & lineation 35-80 toward SE direction. In another
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location on the same hill (N 113921.3, E 781237.1) charnockite shows gneissic foliation and close contact with mylonites. Near Kandasramam temple (N 113856.5, E 781238.1) gneissic banding is well developed at the foothills and rocks are highly Mylonitised.
Fig. 2.29 Study on Mylonites of Udayarppatti (Biswal et al., 2010)

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Charnockites is intruded by granitic as well as pegmatite veins. The granitic & quartz veins are more or less parallel to the foliation plane. Pegmatite veins showing cross cut relationship to charnockites. Foliation plane have a NW-SE trend & dipping towards SW in varying amount 10-50. Some lineations show 15-30 plunge toward SE direction. Within the mylonites small patches of charnockites are present which contain dark coloured basic enclaves. Next traverse was taken along Namam hill (N 113837.3, E 78127.7) towards SW direction from Kandasramam temple. The road cutting shows mylonite rock having contact with charnockite in the foothills. At this location rocks are intruded by quartz veins trending NE-SW. In last location SW direction from Kandasramam temple (N 113818.4, E 781153.7) along the hill pseudotachylyte veinlets has been observed within the charnockite. This pseudotachylyte veinlet shows sharp boundaries, having length less than 1cm -to 1 m. The host rock shows trend NE-SW dipping toward NW direction & intruded by quartz veins (Fig.2.29). 2.5.5.4 Sarkarnattar Mangalam The Sarkarnattar Mangalam (N 1141.349& E 7817.756) is ~ 24 km away from Salem town in NE direction .The traverse was taken along the eastern end of Godumalai hill called Sarkarnattar Mangalam & Chinna Agraharam. It is also shows weathered & sheared mylonite. In Sarkarnattar Mangalam (N 114110.2& E 781717.8) along the foothill mylonite shows NE-SW & EW trend, dipping toward NW to North direction in varying amount of 20-80.The mylonite shows well developed stretching lineation which is down dipping. Along the foothill, lineation measured shows amount 20-65 toward NE-SE direction. At another location (N114113.9 & E781727.4) the right side of road, an open pit quarry shows good outcrop. The foliation plane shows E-W trend & dips towards North in almost 30 -40 dip amount. One recumbent, tight fold observed shows plunge of 20 towards SE & axial plane orientation of 130. In the same outcrop, Z-shaped
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fold observed in charnockite. This outcrop is rich in garnet. In this outcrop lineations are well developed, shows nearly 20 -30 plunge in NW direction.
Fig. 2.30 Study on Mylonites of S.Nattarmangalam (Biswal et al., 2010) Mylonites are highly weathered, sheared and intruded by pegmatite & quartz veins, one has trend nearly E-W & another N-S direction. The mylonite
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contains porphyroclast of quartz & feldspar with quartz ribbons. Another traverse was taken from Agraharam (N 114056.5& E 781725.9) towards the south direction through Karumapuram, Minnampalli, Karipatti (N 113955.4& E 78173.3) & Chinna Kavundapuram (N 1139.423& E 7816.042) places across the strike of shear zone. The mylonitised zone extends from Sarkarnattar Mangalam to Karipatti area and has E-W trending foliation plane dips 40 -80 towards north. Again at this location the lineation shows 50 -60 plunge toward NW direction. In Chinna Kavundapuram area only charnockite exposed shows trends NE-SW dips 30 -75 towards NW direction. Some exposer shows SE dipping. A recumbent fold shows 20 plunge towards 105 direction. In this outcrop, small pyroxene porphyroclast occur within the Charnockite 34 shows right lateral shearing. The S-C angle measured 32 towards SW direction. One set of joint are observed, shows trend 35 - 40 dipping 70-72 towards SE (Fig.2.30). 2.5.5.5 Attur (Gangavalli Shear Zone) Field work was carried in the Attur area ~60 km away from Salem town. Traverse were taken following locations Kattukkottai (N 1136.410& E 7840.414), Chenni Malai (N 1134.858& E 7839.955), Odiyattur L-14 (N (N 113255.4& E 1133.58.9& E 783919.6) & Kannndiyan Malai
783833). All These locations have pseudotachylytes which shows trend East to SW direction. In Kattukkottai village, highly jointed & sheared pseudotachylytes has exposed in a river section, which are highly jointed & sheared. The pseudotachylyte is dark coloured, highly fractured and jointed. Foliation plane shows NW-SE trend, dipping 40-45 toward NE direction and joint pattern trends NE-SW dipping towards NW. The Vellar river section shows pink granite intrusions. The North Chenni Malai hill range shows full length of pseudotachylyte as well as cataclastic brecciated rock which is sheared and fractured shows quartz and feldspars porphyroclast. In Chennimalai near the Government College, exposer of pseudotachylyte vein shows trend of NE SW dips 70-80 toward NW. It has an S-C angle of 50 towards SE. The outcrop shows two prominent joint directions, one in NW & another in NE making acute angle. Some veins are detached due to left lateral
190
shearing. The joints are trending E-W & NW-SE direction. At certain location (N 113419.8 E 783924.7) brecciated rocks are exposed (Fig.2.31).
Fig. 2.31 Study on Mylonites of Gangavalli (Biswal et al., 2010) In Odiyattur, well rounded porphyroclast are observed within the pseudotachylyte that has contact with charnockites. The porphyroclast is big in size, ranging < 1mm to > 3cm .The foliation plane shows NE-SW direction , dips 70-72 toward SE direction. At location-15 Odiyattur (N 11333.5E 783841.4) highly foliated magnetite bearing charnockite has been observed
191
shows NW-SE foliation & dips 30-70 towards NE direction. At the last location-17 (N 113255.3E 783833), several small veins of pseudotachylyte has been found within the charnockites. Few vein detached shows right lateral shearing in small scale. Along with two sets of joint observed, one has NE-SW trend dips vertically and another has NW-SE trend with SW dips. The pseudotachylyte veins show prominent NE-SW trend within the charnockite. 2.5.5.6 Small Scale Structures The charnockites are marked by penetrative ENE-WSW gneissic fabric (S1) which is axial planar to a set of isoclinal recumbent folds (F1) that have folded the primary foliation (layering). Another set of recumbent folds, though more open than the former, have folded the gneissic foliation within the shear zone and shear fractures (C -fabric) are developed parallel to the axial plane of such recumbent folds along ENE WSW directions . These folds are identified as SF1 folds and explained to be developed on the gneissic bandings of the charnockites during shearing. The C-fabric in the shear zone is developed parallel to such shear fractures and remains absolutely horizontal at several sections as in Udayarppatti. The gneissic fabric (S1) and the C-fabric are involved in open to tight upright F2 folding along E-W axial plane. A crude axial planar fabric (S2) is associated with F2 folds along E-W direction. The mylonitic foliation is marked by lineations in the form of grooves and ribs which are more akin to ductile slickenside striae (Lin et al. 2007) than stretching lineation. However, the trend of the ductile slickenside striae and the stretching lineation is parallel in the study area. Hence, the term mylonitic lineation is used hereafter to describe these linear features. The mylonitic lineations have a low plunge towards NE or are subhorizontal in that direction on subhorizontal C-surfaces or parting planes. However, where the linear features are folded by F2 folds, the lineations plunge down dip on F2 limbs in these situations, the F2 fold axis and intersection lineation
produced from the intersection between S2 and S1, and S2 and C fabric are subhorizontal. Thus two types of lineation namely mylonitic lineation and intersection lineation, coexists at several places. F2 folds show plunge reversal
192
and at places they are vertical. In such localities, the intersection lineation and fold axis become vertical while mylonitic lineation remains horizontal. Therefore it is quite difficult to distinguish these two sets of lineations purely based on orientation. At several localities, pseudotachylites occur as millimeter to centimeter scale dark coloured bands or veins along fractures in the charnockite. At places they occur as angular patches and are cut by close spaced fractures. In hand specimen and at the outcrop scale angular clast fragments of charnockitic composition set in a dark colored matrix could be identified within the pseudotachylyte. Under the microscope microlites are identified (Plate-VIIIC). From the bulk chemistry determined by XRF (Thirukumaran et al., 2010) the pseudotachylites are inferred to have been formed as a result of nearly complete melting of the former quartz, feldspar, pyroxene and mica dominated rock i.e., from the charnockite. 2.5.5.7 Micro fabric study of Mylonite The microfabric analysis of the mylonites was carried out on thin sections oriented parallel to the mylonitic lineation and perpendicular to the foliation, which is referred as the Vorticity Profile Plane (Passchier and Coelho, 2006). The clasts are dominantly alkali feldspars, which have undergone both plastic and plasticcataclastic deformation. Hence, many feldspar porphyroclasts are observed along the mylonitic foliation (Plate-VIIIA). The porphyroclasts show rotation indicative of dextral top-to-the-NE sense of shear. Microfaults inside the feldspar porphyroclast, as they are at high angle to C planes, show sinistral shearing antithetic to main shearing. In phyllonites, hornblende fish are observed showing distinct tails that also suggests dextral top-to-the-NE sense of shear. In addition to these, S-C fabric is observed in phyllonite where the C-fabric is defined by shear bands marked by growth of mica and polygonized thin quartz ribbons (PlateVIIIB) while the S-fabric is defined by an oblique growth of quartz and biotite to C-fabric. The angularity between S- and C- suggests a thrust slip shearing. This is further substantiated by asymmetric folds developed in the quartz ribbons where the S-fabric remains axial planar to the folds.
193
194
2.5.5.8 Large scale structures `The Salem-Attur shear zone has been mapped in detail in two areas, namely Udayappatti and S. Nattarmangalam. The Udayappatti area shows
the charnockitic rocks forming very high hills. Along the hill slopes the mylonitic rocks are exposed at several places, more distinctly at one locality where they occur as a low dipping zone. The variations in orientation are due to F2 folding of the foliation. This is clearly seen in a stereogram of poles to foliation. The plot shows a girdle distribution with E-W axial plane and westerly plunging axis (fold axis). The lineations detail collected from the shear zone as well as the country rock and plotted in the show diverse orientation; this is partly due to F2 folding and partly to the association of intersection with mylonites. At Udayappatti, the shear zone appears to be
bifurcating; in fact this is due to gently dipping shear zone intersecting steep topography. The area around S. Nattarmangalam, farther east of Udyappatti, is dominated by charnockite. The Salem- Attur shear zone passes within the charnockite and trends in an E-W direction. Due to extremely weathered character, the shear zone occupies low lying topography. A stereogram of foliation poles (Biswal et al., 2010.) shows the E-W stike distributed on a girdle. This is because of F2 folding which has an axial plane striking E-W and -axis plunging to WSW. The lineations plunge due E or W. This suggests that in this area, the lineations are more uniform than in the Udayappatti area. Farther towards the east, near Chenni Malai Hill, the Gangavalli shear zone is exposed. It is a NNE-SSW trending brittle shear zone where the charnockite is extremely fractured and shows various sets of shear fractures. Rose diagram reveals that the approximately E-W and N-S oriented fractures dominate (Fig.2.32, Biswal et al., 2010). Pseudotachylite veins and bands are emplaced along these shear fractures and in turn they are also sheared. The pseudotachylites are derived from the melting of the charnockitic rock and contain microlites (Plate-VIIIC). It is inferred that the Gangavalli shear zone developed subsequent to the upliftment of the charnockites to the upper part of the crust.
195
2.5.5.9 Tectonic Implications Considering all these observations, an attempt has been made to interpret the kinematics of the Salem-Attur shear zone. Where the mylonitic foliation is subhorizontal, it shows northeasterly oriented lineations. This implies that the Salem- Attur shear zone is a northeasterly verging subhorizontal thrust (Biswal et al., 2010). The overprinting of the gneissic foliation by a mylonitic fabric suggests that the thrusting event postdates the granulite facies metamorphism, so that the charnockites were uplifted due to thrusting. The thrust zone is fairly wide with splays that branch and rejoin, encompassing lenses of low strain charnockitic blocks within the mylonites. Since the thrusting developed on a well banded charnockite, shear folds (SF1) were developed on the bandings due to buckling instability followed by shearing, and subhorizontal shear fractures were developed parallel to the axial plane of the folds. Subsequently, the thrust plane was folded by E W trending upright fold (F2) which has resulted in variation in attitude of the thrust plane and mylonitic foliation. Thus the mylonitic foliations show dip variation from north to south. The mylonitic lineations are also folded to show down dip plunge where the mylonitic foliation is steep.
Superimposition of F2 fabric on mylonitic zones has complicated the interpretation of shear sense indicators. This is reflected in the earlier work where various models have been suggested for the Salem-Attur shear zone. 2.6 SYNTHESIS Thus, the Neotectonic lineaments were derived from various anomalies like Geomorphology, Topography, Drainage, Aeromagnetic, Structural trend, Lineaments and Siginificant lithologies and unique tectonic model has been developed for the Attur valley with the E-W thrusting towards north, N-S open fractures NE-SW and NW- SE wrench faults. Validation was done with geophysical multi-depth isoresistivity data, alignment of springs and with historic seismicities data and thereby SeismoGeoinformatic Modelling for Certain Georesources and Geohazards of Attur Valley, Tamil Nadu, India.
196
tectonic lineaments were identified. 40 out of 53 Neotectonic lineaments are significantly seismogenic in characters and they align with the epicenter of recent earthquakes. Field study was made at selective windows and evidences of reactivation in terms reversal of shear sense and microfaulting of sheared rocks and related changes were observed. The table 2.1 displays the characteristic anomalies on which the lineaments were designated as Neotectonic and their validation tool and depth of Lineaments.
A) Total 99 azimuthal values Largest Petal 8 values Largest Petal 7% of all values
B) Total 53 azimuthal values Largest Petal 5 values Largest Petal 8% of all values
C) Total 40 azimuthal values Largest Petal 4 values Largest Petal 10% of all values
D)
Fig. 2.32 Rose diagram- Azimuth of Significant, Neotectonic and Seismoectonic Lineaments and Structures Associated with Transpression Rose diagram of the azimuth of the significant lineaments numbering 99 show the dominant E-W trend and NWSE (Fig. 2.32A) followed by N-S and NE-SW lineaments. Out of 53 Neotectonic lineaments mapped, as
197
maximum as 5 are aligning along N-S direction (Fig. 2.32B). E-W trending and NW-SE neotectonic lineaments were also dominant in Attur valley. Rose diagram (Fig. 2.32C) clearly indicates E-W and NW-SE trending lineaments are dominantly seismogenic. This clearly drew certain conclusions that, N-S trending lineaments are acting as stress releaser and they may be the tear faults resulting from the thrust related to arching of this part of region. Evidences of decompression structures (Plate-VIIIF) and Eclogite Gabbro contact rocks along Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone for about 70km arcuate stretch, suggests thrusting and exhumation of deep seated rocks. The E- W trend seems very significant and this region possess some associated structures like folds, thrust faults tensional frctures, pull-apart basin or rhomb shaped grabens (Sag ponds, Fig. 2.11CM) and riedal shears and hence they may be attributed to transpression related to crustal shortening (Fig. 2.32 D) and the dominance of E-W trending seismogenic and neotectonic lineaments confirms the same.
198
Table 2-1 Characteristic Anomalies and Orientations of Significant and Neotectonic Lineaments.
Seismogenic Neotectonic Lineaments Lineaments Azimuth 88 175 66 157 266 56 30 93 86 131 133 143 46 50 123 125 140 84 84 183 181 179 266 129 128 72 199 Depth Resistivity 150 m 0 0 NL16 SL D L 100m Lineament Length in km 121.12 71.71 188.65 66.97 NL4 NL5 NL6 NL7 NL8 NL9 NL10 NL11 SL SL SL SL SL SL SL D L D L D L D L D L D L D L 145.08 243.88 127.62 191.29 98.30 66.66 78.62 275.41 98.03 172.81 NL12 NL13 NL14 93.80 109.39 58.07 53.85 20.26 13.69 9.50 NL15 SL 60.37 86.24 41.12 131.73 86.32
30m
50m
1
2
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 L11 L12 L13 L14 L15 L16 L17 L18 L19 L20 L21 L22 L23 L24 L25 L26
ED,LD,FV,UM, CL AM,LD,FV,E LD,AD,T, FV LD, AR LD,AM LD,AM ,E, AF,GR CM,LD,T,FV, AF, CAR,PL PD,AM , E, MY,CL PD,AM ,E, MY, M,CG,CL LD,AM , FV, CL LD,AM ,FV,CL LD,AM, T,AF,PL E,FV,PL LD,AR LD,AM ,FV LD,ED,AD,AM, FV AM ,AF,PL LD,AR AM,AR FV,AR LD,AR CM, PL LD,CM,AM, E,AF,FV,CL AM ,PL LD,E,PL CM,AM ,CL
NL1 NL2 NL3
SL SL SL
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
80m
Characteristic Anomalies
Springs
S.No
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
L27 L28 L29 L30 L31 L32 L33 L34 L35 L36 L37 L38 L39 L40 L41 L42 L43 L44 L45 L46 L47 L48 L49 L50 L51 L52 L53 L54 L55 L56 L57 L58 L59
LD,E,FV,BL AD,LD,BD,AM, FV,P,BL PL,AR LD,AR LD,AR CM,LD,AF,MY, EG,PL LD,T,FV,CL PL,AR PL,AR LD,FV,SY,CL LD,FV,GG,PL ED,LD,AM ,E, P, UM LD,AM ,FV,CL LD,AM ,E, T, UM,CAR,CL LD,T,AF,FV, LD,FV,SY,UM, CL LD,T, UM,GG,PL CM,LD,AD, AM, FV,UM CM,FV,MY,PL LD,AM, Sy,CG,GR T,PL LD,CM AM ,AR PL,AR,AM PL,AR FV,PL E, LD,AM ,CL E,FV,P T,PL LD,AR PD,LD,P P, BL LD,ED
NL17 NL18
SL SL
D L D L D L
164.40 120.16 75.50 73.11 44.52
179 179 49 70 119 29 182 49 43 180 41 99 176 91 194 186 41 62 27 233 43 84 128 126 127 128 135 208 50 20 90 187 200 200
NL19 NL20 SL D L
142.76 171.19 76.19 120.56 166.77 159.79 118.53 156.23 127.89
NL21 NL22 NL23 NL24 NL25 NL26 NL27 NL28 NL29 NL30 NL31
SL D L D L
SL SL SL SL
119.40 107.37 141.53 143.90 114.90 103.76 96.90 68.00 50.83 47.75 109.60 41.44
SL SL SL
D L
D L
NL32 SL
NL33
SL D L D L D L D L
84.35 62.18 58.49 63.98 60.62 77.97 153.99
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95
L60 L61 L62 L63 L64 L65 L66 L67 L68 L69 L70 L71 L72 L73 L74 L75 L76 L77 L78 L79 L80 L81 L82 L83 L84 L85 L86 L87 L88 L89 L90 L91 L92 L93 L94 L95
LD,AF E, LD,T, PL ED,LD CM,AM LD,AR LD,AM CM,E LD,MY, AM ED,LD PD,LD,T,PL LD,CM,PD,AM ,FV, E,EG,PL LD,AM ,T,FV, PL FV,BL LD,AM ,FV LD,AM ,PL LD,AM, AF,UM,PL ED,LD,AM ,E LD,CM LD,AD,AM ,FV,CL ED,LD,FV, CAR CM,FV,BL LD,BD,AM ,T, LD,FV,PL E, AF,CL PD,LD,AM ,T, E,FV,EG,PL CM,AM ,CL LD,MY,AM,SS LD,PD,E,PL LD,AM E, UM ED,BL LD,FV LD,T CM,AM E,PL FV,E, NL47 NL48 NL49 NL50 NL51 SL SL SL D L D L NL39 NL40 NL41 NL42 NL43 NL44 NL45 NL46 SL SL SL SL D L D L SL SL D L NL36 NL37 NL38 SL SL SL D L D L D L NL35 SL D L NL34
148.41 51.51 60.94 81.97 42.36 209.03 66.04 94.32 79.94 207.17 191.16 169.17 66.72 151.35 75.56 116.37 111.54 76.16 100.39 127.38 86.24 108.73 66.55 88.71 137.06 151.05 56.30 105.57 67.12 95.35
8 44 159 144 141 29 80 75 133 209 210 182 5 60 138 139 89 78 82 244 180 273 181 85 213 69 16 212 125 32 168 178 197 89 147 54 201
43.27 137.49 38.49 92.48 58.31
64.48
96 97 98 99
L96 L97 L98 L99
LD,E, LD,AM LD,AM LD,CM,FV,EG, PL NL52 NL53 SL SL
45.63 41.19 127.53 182.33
49 238 71 210
Read as: AM-Aeromagnetic; EEscarpment; LD-Lineament Controlled/Deflected Drainage; PD-Parallel Drainage; ED-Eyed Drainage; CM-Compressed Meander; PC-Palaeochannel; AD-Annular Drainage; TTriangular facets; FV-Fracture Valley; AF-Alluvial Fan; UM-Ultramafics; GRGranite; CAR-Carbonatite; My-Mylonite: P-Pseudotachylyte; CG-Carbonate gneiss; EG-Epidote-Hornblende Gneiss; M-Migmatite; GG- Garnet Gabbro; Sy-Syenite; NL-Neotectonic lineaments; PL- Parallel Lineaments; CLCurvilinear Lineaments; BL- Branch off Lineaments; AR- Anomalous Relief; DL Discharge Lineament; SS-Sense of Shear/Structure.
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Chapter - 2 TECTONIC FRAMEWORK-NEOTECTONICS AND SEISMOTECTONICS

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Fig 2.1 Tectonic framework of Southern Granulites Terrain (SGT)

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Fig. 2.3 Regional Study - Significant Lithologies

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

accompanied with metamorphism. The rocks near Vellalakundam expresses a

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Fig. 2.6a Regional Study Structural and Lineament Anomalies

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

NEOTECTONIC AND SEISMOTECTONIC ZONATION MAPPING

Structural Trend Anomalies

Through Multi Depth Resistivity Data

Through Historical Seismicity Data

Through Alignment of Springs

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Fig 2.8b Topographic Profiles along Major Hills

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Fig. 2.10 Geomorphic Anomalies within Study Window

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....

Chapter 2 - Tectonic Framework-Neotectonics.....