Exercises in

atmosphere - ocean dynamics

by
Tore Furevik
Geophysical Institute
University of Bergen, Norway
Bergen, December 2005
CONTENTS i
Contents
1 The equation of state 1
2 Hydrostatic balance and static stability 3
3 Local and total time derivatives 6
4 Diusion 7
5 Coriolis force 9
6 Inertial Oscillations 11
7 Short and long waves 13
8 Dispersion 15
9 Shallow water waves 17
10 Tides in channels and bays 19
11 Internal waves 22
12 A oating bridge 25
13 Internal waves in a continuously stratied uid 27
14 Lee waves 29
15 Normal modes 31
16 Geostrophic adjustment in a two-layer uid 35
17 Long waves in a uid that is rotating 38
18 Tsunami 40
19 Thermal wind I: The Denmark Strait overow 42
20 Thermal wind II: The Norwegian Coastal Current 44
21 Available potential energy 47
22 Vorticity dynamics 49
23 Ekman spiral 51
24 Ekman transports and Ekman pumping 53
25 Storm surge 55
26 Coastal upwelling with weak winds 56
27 Coastal upwelling with strong winds 57
28 Topographic waves 59
CONTENTS ii
29 Equatorial Kelvin Waves 61
30 Planetary waves 64
1
1 The equation of state
The equation of state is fundamental in both atmospheric and ocean dynamics. Usually it
relates the density to the pressure, temperature and the chemical composition in the uid. We
will here look at some of the properties for the atmosphere and ocean. The motivation for
this exercise is to get used to functions of more than one variable, and to assess some of the
fundamental properties of air and sea water density.
A. Air density
Use Figure 1(a) to answer the following questions:
1a) How is air density changing with increasing temperature (T) or humidity (q)? Mathe-
matically, that is

T
and

q
.
1b) Can you by looking at the gure explain why the air is rising in the low latitudes (near
Equator), and sinking at the poles?
1c) What is (approximately) the virtual temperature of saturated air at 25

C?
1d) What do you think happens if saturated air at 5

C comes in contact with (mixes with)

saturated air at 15

C?
B. Ocean density
Use Figure 1(b) to answer the following questions:
1e) How is ocean density changing with increasing salinity, temperature or pressure (

S
,

T
,
or

p
)?
1f) How is

T
changing with salinity, temperature or pressure (

2

TS
,

2

T
2
, or

2

Tp
)?
1g) For what temperatures are the density change with pressure, the compressibility, largest
(this eect is know as the thermobaric eect)?
1h) In the gure we have marked two water masses with crosses. They represent typical
TS values for water masses in the Greenland Sea (cold, fresh) and in the Mediterranean
(warm, salty). Which of the two is heaviest at surface pressure? Which is heaviest at
3000m depth? Do you think this has any implications for the temperatures in the deep
ocean?
1i) What do you think may happen if two water masses having the same density, but dierent
temperatures and salinities, mix (this eect is know as caballing)?
1j) In the Antarctica melting and freezing processes exist down to almost 2000m depths
beneath the oating ice shelves. What can you say about the temperatures of the water
masses formed under these extreme conditions?
1k) The deepest water masses in the World Oceans are formed in the Antarctica (Weddell
Sea). Can you suggest why this is so?
2
(a)
40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
Temperature (

C)
S
p
e
c
i
f
i
c

h
u
m
i
d
i
t
y

(
k
g
/
k
g
)
Air density (kg m
3
) at 1000 mb
1
.
1
1
.
1
5
1
.
2
1
.
2
5
1
.
3
1
.
3
5
1
.
4
1
.
4
5
(b)
33 34 35 36 37 38 39
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Salinity (psu)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(

C
)
Ocean density (kg m
3
) at surface and 3000 db (~3000m)
1
0
2
5
1
0
2
6
1
0
2
7
1
0
2
8
1
0
2
9
1
0
3
0
1
0
3
1
1
0
3
7
1
0
3
8
1
0
3
9
1
0
4
0
1
0
4
1
1
0
4
1
1
0
4
2
1
0
4
3
1
0
4
4
1
0
4
5
Figure 1: (a) Air density (thin curves) as functions of temperature and specic humidity at
1000 mb (near sea level). Thick line shows the humidity at saturation. (b) Ocean density
(thin curves) as functions of salinity and temperature at surface pressure (solid lines) and
at approximately 3000m depths (dashed lines). The two solid lines show the freezing point
temperatures at the two depths. The two stars represent water masses in the Greenland Sea
(cold, fresh) and in the Mediterranean (warm, salty).
3
2 Hydrostatic balance and static stability
By the standard denition of a (x, y, z) coordinate system, the acceleration of gravity (g) is
always pointing in the negative z direction. For an atmosphere or an ocean at rest, or where
vertical accelerations are small, there will be a balance between the gravity and the pressure
forces on the uid. In this exercise we will learn more about the hydrostatic balance and the
concept of static stability.
A. Hydrostatic balance
We start by making a sketch of the pressure forces acting on a small volume element with
length, width and height given by x, y, and z (see Fig. 3.1 in Gill).
2a) Show that the net pressure force in the z direction will be given by xyz
p
z
, and that
the net pressure force per unit mass is
1

p, where (

x
,

y
,

z
).
2b) Explain that if the uid parcel (volume element) is going to be at rest, there has to be a
balance between pressure forces and gravity given by
p
z
= g, or written as gradients
of pressure and geopotential as p + = 0.
2c) What is the air pressure 1000m above ground, if mean air density is 1.2 kgm
3
and the
air pressure at the ground is 1000 mb (= 10
5
Nm
2
)?
2d) What is the water pressure at 1000 m depth if mean ocean density is 1030 kgm
3
and the
water pressure at the surface is 1000 mb?
B. Static Stability
Often it is of great interest to get a measure for the stability of the air column or of the ocean
column. If for instance the air column is heated from below (during a sunny day), the air near
the ground will loose density, and may start to rise and mix with the air above. Similarly, if
the water column is cooled from the top (winter cooling), the water near the surface will gain
density, and may start to sink. The process of mixing air or water by vertical motion, is known
as convection.
2e) Can you think of other meteorological or oceanographic processes that may contribute to
change the stability of the air or water column?
2f) Consider the forces acting on a small uid parcel that is vertically displaced from its
equilibrium level, and show that a uid column is statically stable if
(
dT
dz
+ )
dS
dz
> 0,
where
1

T
is the thermal expansion coecient,
1

S
the haline expansion coef-
cient, and
dT
dz
is the adiabatic lapse rate (a measure for how fast the temperature
will decrease due to decreased pressure with height).
4
2g) Show that if a uid element in a statically stable water column is displaced vertically, it
will start to oscillate with a frequency N given by
N
2
= g(
dT
dz
+ ) g
dS
dz
.
What do we call this frequency?
2h) In Figure 2 we have shown measurements of (potential) temperature, salinity, and (po-
tential) density from a station between Greenland and Spitsbergen. Use the approximate
expression for the frequency above,
N
2
=
g

d
dz
,
where is the potential density, to calculate the frequency (N) over the intervals 0-50 m,
50-80m, and 2000-2500m (suggestion: instead of using d/dz in the equation above, use
nite dierences, for instance 0.1 kgm
3
and z = 50 m for the rst case).
2i) What are the three corresponding period of oscillations?
2j) What can you say about the stability in the three cases?
5
(a)
4 5 6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Pot. temperature (

C)
34.8 35 35.2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Salinity (psu)
CTD profile in the Fram Strait
27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

t
(kg m
3
)
(b)
2 0 2 4 6
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Pot. temperature (

C)
34.8 35 35.2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Salinity (psu)
CTD profile in the Fram Strait
27.6 27.8 28 28.2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000

t
(kg m
3
)
Figure 2: Measured prole of potential temperature, salinity and potential density (in terms of

t
units, i.e. 1000 kgm
3
) at a station in the Fram Strait. (a) shows the upper 100 meters,
and (b) shows the entire water column.
6
3 Local and total time derivatives
When a uid is in motion, its properties (speed, temperature, chemical compositions, etc) will
be a function of both spatial position (x xi +yj +zk) and time (t). Here we will illuminate
the dierences and properties of the local and total time derivatives
1
.
3a) Show that the total derivative of a property is given by
D
Dt


t
+u .
3b) At a station the temperature is measured to be 15

C, and it is falling at a constant rate of

2

C per hour. The wind is 15ms

1
straight from the north. At the same time a station 100
km to the north measures 5

C. The temperature is falling with the same rate everywhere.

Estimate the rate of temperature change (

C per hour) of the air particles as they move

towards south.
3c) Another day the station above measure the wind speed to be 10ms
1
straight from the
north, and it is increasing at a rate of 5ms
1
per hour. At the same time the station
100km to the north measures a wind speed of only 6ms
1
, again straight from the north.
The increase in wind speed is the same everywhere. What is the mean accelleration of
the particles as they move towards the south?
3d) During a 1-hour period, two boats pass close to a shing boat who is laying still. The
speed of the boats and the recorded pressure changes at the three boats during the passage
(1 hour interval) are:
Boat Speed Pressure change
1 5m/s straight north no change
2 10 m/s straight east -2 mb
3 no speed +1 mb
What is the magnitude and the direction of the maximum change in pressure (suggestion:
calculate the pressure gradient p and use Pythagoras)?
1
This exercise is partly from Wallace and Hobbs.
7
4 Diusion
Despite the fact that this course is mainly about dynamics, atmospheric and ocean dynamics
are closely connected to the distribution of the density eld. Horizontal density contrasts will
set up horizontal pressure forces which again will lead to accelerations and motion. At the
same time diusion and mixing between the dierent water masses will always act to reduce
density gradients and thus the pressure forces. Here we will have a brief look at the diusion
equations
2
.
4a) Consider the balance of salt (or specic humidity) for a small volume element xed in
space. If the density is , the salinity (or specic humidity) is S, and the diusivity of
salt in sea water (or water vapour in the atmosphere) is
D
, show that the mass balance
for the salinity in the xed volume becomes
S
t
+ (Su
D
S) = 0.
4b) Show that when variations in density and in the diusivity can be neglected, the equation
can be written
DS
Dt
=
D

2
S.
Typical values for the diusivity is 1.510
9
m
2
s
1
for salt in water and 2.410
5
m
2
s
1
for water vapour in the atmosphere.
4c) Similar to the equation for the diusion of salinity, a simplied equation for heat (or
temperature) diusion may be written
DT
Dt
=
H

2
T,
where
H
is the diusivity of heat. Typical values are 210
5
m
2
s
1
for air and
1.410
7
m
2
s
1
for sea water. Show that
T = T
0
+T
1
e
z
cos(z +t +),
where , , and are constants, is a solution of the heat diusion equation (suggestion:
substitute the solution into the equation and dierentiate).
4d) At z = 0, the solution above will represent a periodic boundary condition,
T = T
0
+T
1
cos(t +).
For the temperatures in the ocean, the period will typically be a year, that is
= 2/yr = 1.99 10
7
s
1
.
From the plots given in Figure 3a and b, estimate T
0
, T
1
, and for the two positions.
4e) Use the time of maximum temperature at dierent depths to estimate the constant .
What is the diusivity of heat
H
for the two cases? Why do you think the values are
much larger than the molecular diusivities cited above?
2
This exercise is partly from previous exercises in GFO110.
8
(a)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Month of year
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Annual cycle in temperature at 50

N, 30

W
1
0
1
0
1
0
10
1
1
1
1
11
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
3
1
4 1
4
15
(b)
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Month of year
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Annual cycle in temperature at 70

N, 0

W
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
9
Figure 3: Annual cycle in temperatures at a position in (a) The North Atlantic, and (b) The
Norwegian Sea.
9
5 Coriolis force
In this exercise we investigate the relations between acceleration in a rotating coordinate system
and acceleration in a xed system. In particular, we will look at the two terms known as the
centrifugal and Coriolis accelerations.
We let be the vector dening the rotation of the Earth. Thus the magnitude of the vector
denotes the angular velocity and the direction is dened such that the rotation is clockwise
when looking in the direction of the vector. A point P is dened by the position vector x
f
relative to a xed coordinate system (non-rotating), and by the position vector x
r
relative to a
rotating system (see Figure 4).
5a) Explain why we have the relationship between the velocities
Dx
f
Dt
=
Dx
r
Dt
+x
r
.
The mean radius of the Earth is 6371 km, and the rotation rate is = 7.292 10
5
s
1
.
What is the speed of a hard working, still-sitting student in Bergen (60.40

N), relative to
a xed coordinate system?
5b) Explain why we have the relationship between the accelerations
D
2
x
f
Dt
2
=
D
2
x
r
Dt
2
+ 2
Dx
r
Dt
+(x
r
).
What is the physical interpretation of each term? What will be the acceleration for the
same student as above? How large is this compared to the gravitational acceleration?
5c) Show that for a local coordinate system, having the x, y, z axes pointing respectively
east, north and upward, the Coriolis term becomes
2
Dx
r
Dt
= (2cos w 2sin v)i + 2sin uj 2cos uk,
where (i, j, k) are the unit vectors and (u, v, w) the velocities along the three axes of
direction, and is the latitude.
5d) Assume that a cannonball is shot straight west from Bergen at an average horizontal speed
of 200 ms
1
. After 30s the cannonball hits the water. Neglecting friction, how far from
the latitude of Bergen does the cannonball hit the water? (suggestion: Assume constant
u, and calculate the acceleration and the distance travelled in the north-south direction
during the ight).
5e) The Sotra Bridge outside Bergen (same latitude as Bergen) has a height of 30m. If you
drop a coin from the bridge, how far from the vertical line will the coin hit the water?
10
P
x
r
r

x
r
Figure 4: A point P with xed position x
r
in a frame of reference rotating with angular velocity
about an axis through O, will move in the circular path shown. Velocity will be 2x
r
and
acceleration (
1
2

2
r
2
) (redrawn from Gill, g. 4.5).
11
6 Inertial Oscillations
In some of the previous exercises we looked on the eects of a rotating Earth on the motions
of a particle relative to the Earth. When looking at relatively small time scales with original
velocity being along axis 1 (x direction), we only have to consider the eect the velocity in
this direction has on the acceleration and velocity in the directions normal to it, for instance
along axis 2 (y direction). If, however, time scales are large, the velocity along axis 2 will give
a feedback to the velocity along axis 1. This give rise to circular motion, known as inertial
oscillations.
6a) The equation of motion is
Du
Dt
+ 2u =
1

p g +
2
u.
Explain what the dierent terms in the equation represent.
6b) Show that if no external forces are acting on a particle, and we assume no vertical motion,
the equation of motion simplies to
u
t
fv = 0, and
v
t
+fu = 0,
where f = 2sin is the Coriolis parameter ( is latitude).
6c) Show that the equation of motion for each of the components may be written

2
u
t
2
+f
2
u = 0, and

2
v
t
2
+f
2
v = 0.
6d) Show by inserting into the equations above that the solutions become
u = U sin(ft +), and v = U cos(ft +),
where U and are constants.
6e) Integrate the two solutions for u and v to get the variations in x and y positions as function
of time (this we call trajectories). Show that the trajectories become circles, given by the
equation
(x x
0
)
2
+ (y y
0
)
2
= (
U
f
)
2
.
Such motion is known as inertial oscillation.
6f) At the latitude of Bergen (60.40

N), what is the period of such rotations? And what is

the radius of the circles if the ow speed is 0.1 ms
1
? What is the radius at the North
Pole or at the Equator?
6g) In Figure 5 we show some famous current meter measurements taken in the Baltic Sea (at
57.8

N) in 1936. What is the theoretical period of the inertial oscillations at this location?
What is the typical speed of the current? Why do you think the radius of the inertial
oscillations decreases with time?
12
Figure 5: Current measurements in the Baltic in 1936. The plot show trajectories (progressive
vector diagram) based on current meter measurements in a xed point. The time interval
between each tick is 12 hours (Gill, g. 8.3).
13
7 Short and long waves
We will in this exercise look at the properties of non-rotating surface gravity waves. As all
surface perturbations (deviations from equilibrium) can be viewed as a superposition of an
innite number of trigonometric functions (Fourier components), many general properties of
waves can be derived from looking at an individual component.
For simplicity, we put the x axis along the direction of the wave propagation, and assume
constant air pressure (p
0
), sea water density (
0
), and depth (H). A sketch of the system is
given in Figure 6.
7a) The equations that determine this problem, are the equation of motion for the x and z
directions, and the continuity equation,
u
t
=
1

0
p
x
,
w
t
=
1

0
p
z
g,
u
x
+
w
z
= 0.
Explain what assumptions that have been made to simplify the general equations of
motion to the three equations above.
7b) Write the pressure in the uid p as a sum of the equilibrium pressure p
0
(z) and the
perturbation pressure p

(x, z, t), and derive the Laplace equation for the perturbation
pressure

2
p

x
2
+

2
p

z
2
= 0.
7c) Give the physical explanation for the kinematic and dynamic boundary conditions for this
system, that is w(0) = /t, w(H) = 0, and p

(0) =
0
g.
7d) We write the surface elevation on the form =
0
cos(kx t), where
0
is amplitude,
k = 2/ the wavenumber ( is the wave length), and is the frequency. We further
assume that the pressure perturbation is proportional to , that is
p

= F(z)
0
cos(kx t).
Show that Laplace equation gives
F(z) = C cosh[k(z +)],
where C and are integration constants to be determined by the boundary condition.
7e) Use the dynamic boundary condition to determine the constant C.
7f) Find the solution for the vertical velocity w, and use the kinematic boundary condition
at the bottom to show that the total solution for the perturbation pressure becomes
p

=

0
g
0
cosh[k(z +H)] cos(kx t)
cosh(kH)
.
14
z=0
z=H

0
p
0
x
=(x,t)
Figure 6: Sketch of a surface gravity wave.
7g) Use the last boundary condition to derive the dispersion relation

2
= gk tanh(kH).
What is the velocity of the wave?
7h) We shall now look at two extreme cases, one where wave lengths are long compared to
bottom depth, kH 1, and one where wave lengths are short compared to bottom depth,
kH 1. What are the frequencies and phase speeds of the two types of waves?
7i) What are the two velocity components u, and w for the short waves (kH 1)?
7j) Integrate the two velocity components with respect to time, and show that the paths of
the uid particles become circles with radius decreasing exponentially with depth. At
what depth is the radius reduced to exp(1) of the surface value (reduced to 37%)? How
deep will a 10 m long wave reach? What about a 100 m long wave?
7k) Sitting at the coast west of Bergen, you notice that waves coming in from a storm center in
the North Atlantic are typically 100 m long. 12 hours later, wave lengths have decreased
to 50 m. Assuming that the waves are short compared to the depth, what is the distance
to the storm center?
15
8 Dispersion
In the previous exercise we looked at a single wave. We will now extend the analysis to two
waves, dene the group velocity, and investigate more properties of short and long waves.
8a) We will look at two waves with almost equal wave numbers, k
1
and k
2
(see Figure 7).
What are the corresponding frequencies
1
and
2
for a depth of 10 m (short waves) and
for a depth of 1 cm (long waves)?
8b) What are the phase velocities c of the two waves for the deep- and shallow water cases?
8c) Let k
1
= k + k, k
2
= k k,
1
= + , and
2
= , and show that the
superposition of the two waves

1
=
0
cos(k
1
x
1
t), and
2
=
0
cos(k
2
x
2
t)
can be written
= 2
0
cos(kx t) cos(kx t).
What are the group velocities (c
g
) of the superposition of the two waves for the deep- and
shallow water cases? How is the group velocity c
g
compared to the phase velocity c. Do
your results agree with Figure 7?
8d) Use the denition of the group velocity,
c
g
/k
and the dispersion relation

2
= gk tanh(kH)
to derive the group velocity for short and long waves. What can you say about the
dispersion properties of the two types of waves?
16
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Two waves, k
1
=2.0m
1
and k
2
=2.1m
1
Superposition of the two waves
10 s later for H=10m
10 s later for H=0.01m
Distance (m)
Figure 7: Two waves with almost equal wave numbers (upper plot), the superposition of the
two waves (second plot), the group after 10 seconds for short waves (third plot) and for long
waves (last plot).
17
9 Shallow water waves
We will now study the adjustment processes that take place when we have an initial disturbancy
of the surface elevation. We will only consider waves that are long compared to depth. For
simplicity, we look at the two-dimensional case, and neglect friction, non-linear terms, and
rotation.
9a) Start with the general equations of momentum and mass conservation and explain the
assumptions we use to get the following set of equations

u
t
=
p
x
,
v
t
=
p
y
,
p
z
+g = 0, and
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0.
9b) We will now study waves with motion in the xz plane (v = 0 and

y
= 0). Show that the
equations above can be written as the shallow water equations
u
t
= g

x
and

t
+H
u
x
= 0,
where is surface elevation, g gravity and H the constant depth.
9c) Derive a single equation for and seek a solution on the form =
0
cos k(x ct). What
is the constant c? Are such waves dispersive?
9d) Show that the equation for the energy associated with this wave, is given by

t
(
1
2
Hu
2
+
1
2
g
2
) +

x
(gHu) = 0.
Explain (using few words!) what the terms represent.
9e) Average over a wave length to show that the sum of the kinetic and the potential energy
equals
E = E
k
+E
p
=
1
2
g
2
0
.
How is the energy divided between the kinetic (E
k
) and the potential (E
p
) forms?
9f) Consider the situation illustrated in Figure 8. Initially the uid is at rest (u = 0) and
the surface elevation is given by = G(x) where G(x) =
0
for L x L and zero
elsewhere. Show that every functions on the form = G
1
(xct)+G
2
(x+ct) are solutions
to the shallow water equations and calculate the velocity component u.
9g) Use the initial conditions to show that
G
1
(x) = G
2
(x) =
1
2
G(x),
and that the evolution with time is given by
=
_

_
0 : |x ct| > L and |x +ct| > L

0
: |x ct| < L and |x +ct| < L

0
/2 : otherwise
9h) Find the corresponding expressions for u and make a sketch of the surface elevation at
times ct = L/2 and ct = 3L/2.
18
z
x
z=H
x=L x=L

0
=const u=0
Figure 8: The initial conditions for the shallow water waves exercise. The uid is at rest (u = 0)
and the surface elevation is given by = G(x) where G(x) =
0
for L x L and zero
elsewhere.
19
10 Tides in channels and bays
For narrow gulfs and channels, the propagation of tidal waves is to a good approximation
described by the shallow water equations. We will here look at a special case known as resonance.
Resonance occurs when the forcing has a frequency that matches the frequency of one of the
natural modes of oscillations for the system. In certain areas, like the Bay of Fundy (see map
in Figure 9a), resonance eects make the tides become almost 10 meters in amplitude.
10a) We will model the Bay of Fundy system as a two-dimensional problem, with the coordinate
system located at the head (inner end) of the bay, where we have a vertical wall, the mouth
of the bay is located at x = L, and we assume constant air pressure, ocean density and
ocean depth. The governing equations for the problem may be written
u
t
= g

x
, and

t
+H
u
x
= 0,
where is surface elevation and u the velocity component along the horizontal axis.
Explain what simplications we have made.
10b) A general wave solution of a wave propagating from the mouth of the bay towards it inner
wall is =
1
cos(kx + t). What is the relation between wave number k and frequency
?
10c) A wave that has been reected at the inner wall, will propagate out (towards right) given
by =
2
cos(kx t). Show that when
1
=
2
=
0
/2, the superposition of the two
waves is given by
=
0
cos kxcos t, and u =
c
H

0
sin kxsin t,
where c is the phase speed c = /k.
10d) Now we will look at the boundary conditions at the open boundary. To avoid that the
pressure gradient or the divergence are going towards innity, both the perturbation
pressure and mass (volume) transports must be continuous across the mouth of the bay.
Show that this leads to a criteria for the impedance Z,
Z =
g
Au
=
c
A
cot kLcot t,
where cot = cos / sin is the cotangent function and A the area (width times height) at the
mouth of the bay.
10e) If we assume that the ocean just outside the bay is innitely wide and deep compared to
the bay, Z = 0 outside the bay. Show that this implies that waves oscillating freely will
have distinct wave lengths and periods given by
=
4L
2n + 1
, and T =
4L

gH(2n + 1)
,
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... is a counter. Make a sketch of the solution for the rst three modes
(n = 0, 1, 2).
20
10f) From the map in Figure 9a we estimate length L and depth H to be respectively 150 km
and 20 m. What are the period of the rst three natural modes?
10g) Now we go back to the solution for the channel (in 10c) and assume that the tides produce
an oscillating surface elevation at the mouth of the bay given by
T
=
F
cos
F
t, where

F
and
F
is amplitude and frequency of the forcing. Show that with this boundary
condition at the mouth of the bay, the equation for the surface elevation at the head of
the bay becomes

0
=

F
cos
F
t
cos kLcos t
.
What happens if the frequency of the forcing approaches one of the natural frequencies
of the system, that is
F
?
10h) The period of the semi-diurnal (=twice a day) tides is 12.42 hours. Which of the rst
three modes found above does this period correspond to?
21
(a)
68
o
W 67
o
W 66
o
W 65
o
W 64
o
W 63
o
W 62
o
W
43
o
N
30
44
o
N
30
45
o
N
30
46
o
N
USA
Canada
Nova Scotia
B
a
y

o
f

F
u
n
d
y
(b)
z=0
z=H

0
p
0
x=L x=0
=(x,t)
Figure 9: (a) Map of the Bay of Fundy area west of Nova Scotia. Depth contours are drawn at
20 m intervals, with every second dashed. (b) Model of the Bay of Fundy area. The length of
the bay is approximately L = 150 km and the depth is typically H = 20 m.
22
11 Internal waves
We will now turn our attention towards waves propagating on the boundary between uids
of dierent densities. Ordinary surface waves van be viewed as internal waves, but as since
the density dierence between the ocean and atmosphere is very large (
0
1000
a
), we
tend to neglect the atmospheric density and the atmospheric motion set up by the waves, in
that particular kind of problems. Now we will investigate waves on an interface between two
uids, and where the density dierence between the uids are small. Examples may be waves
propagating on a boundary between fresh and more salty waters, or between warm air overlying
cold air (inversion)
3
.
11a) Give the linearised equations for long (hydrostatic) waves.
11b) Show that the horizontal velocities are independent of depth, and integrate the continuity
equation over depth.
11c) We will now look at a model that consists of two, homogeneous, incompressible and fric-
tionless layers with densities
1
and
2
. The thickness of the two layers are H
1
and H
2
respectively, and the total depth is H = H
1
+ H
2
. The interface is perturbed vertically,
given by h(x, t). We further use the rigid lid approximation. That means that we include
the pressure disturbances the wave at the interface will generate at the surface (the baro-
clinic part), but ignore the velocities set up by any travelling waves at the surface (the
barotropic part). Thus the pressure at z = 0 will now depend on distance and time, that
is p
0
= p
0
(x, t) (see Figure 10a). Find an expression for the pressures in the two layers,
p
1
and p
2
.
11d) Show that the equations for the horizontal velocity (momentum equation) in the two
layers become
u
1
t
=
1

1
p
0
x
, and
u
2
t
=
1

2
p
0
x
g

h
x
,
where g

= g(
2

1
)/
2
is the reduced gravity.
11e) Integrate over each layer and linearise to show that the continuity equation gives
H
1
u
1
x

h
t
= 0, and H
2
u
2
x
+
h
t
= 0.
11f) Combine the continuity equations with the momentum equations to nd two expressions
for
2
h/
2
t, and by adding the two equations show that the equation for the disturbance
(wave on the interface) becomes

2
h
t
2
c
2
i

2
h
x
2
= 0, where c
2
i
=

2
H
1
H
2

1
H
2
+
2
H
1
g

.
3
This exercise is partly based on a master thesis by Birgitte Rugaard Furevik, Interne blger i norske farvande
observert med ERS-1 SAR published in 1995.
23
11g) Assume that the wave on the interface can be written h = h
0
cos(kx t), derive the
expressions for the horizontal velocity in the two layers, and show that
H
1
u
1
+H
2
u
2
= 0.
11h) Use the continuity equation and the linearised kinematic boundary condition at the in-
terface (w
1
(H
1
) = w
2
(H
1
) h/t) to derive the expressions for the vertical velocity
component in each the two layers,
w
1
=
c
i
h
0
k
H
1
z sin(kx t), and w
2
=
c
i
h
0
k
H
2
(z +H) sin(kx t).
11i) Make a sketch of the wave and the associated motion, and show where there is convergence
or divergence at the surface.
11j) In this exercise we used the long-wave approximations. Without this approximation, the
corresponding equation for the waves would have become slightly more complicated,
c
2
i
=
g
k
(
2

1
)
tanh(kH
1
) tanh(kH
2
)

1
tanh(kH
2
) +
2
tanh(kH
1
)
.
Show that the phase speed for long waves become the same as given above, and that the
expression for short waves may be written
c
2
i
=

2
g

k(
2
+
1
)
.
Are these waves dispersive?
11k) If you look at the internal waves depicted in Figure 10b, can you use the long wave
approximation to explain what you see?
11l) What information would have been needed in order to nd the area where these waves
are generated?
24
(a)
h=h(x,t)
z=0
z=H
1
z=H

2
P
0
(x,t)
(b)
Figure 10: (a) A simple model of a two-layer system with an xed ice cover on top. (b) A
synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image taken from the European ERS1 satellite. The image
is from the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar (Spain and Gibraltar is the upper
left area, and Morocco the lower left area), and covers roughly 60 km 40 km. The SAR
measures the roughness of the surface, which is essentially the small surface ripples of a few
centimetres. Where the surface water is converging, the ripples become steeper which is seen as
bright areas in the image. Opposite, where the surface water is diverging, the ripples become
smoother, which is detected as darker areas. Note the internal waves propagating eastward
from the strait. The dark winding line is due to oil release from a boat, which destroys the
surface tension and the ripples can not develop.
25
12 A oating bridge
Again we look at a two-layer system. However, this time we will look at the combined eect of
a barotropic (surface) wave and a baroclinic (internal) wave
4
.
12a) In a fjord the tidal wave will have the form of a progressive wave, where the surface
elevation is given by =
0
sin(k
0
xt), and the total depth is H. Use the shallow water
equations to nd the corresponding barotropic velocity u
0
, and express the wave number
k
0
in terms of the frequency , which for the tidal wave is a known constant.
12b) The fjord has a upper layer of thickness H
1
and density
1
, and a lower layer of thickness
H
2
and density
2
. Across the fjord there is going to be built a oating bridge, where the
depth of each of the oating pontoons is reaching below the mixed layer, that is below the
interface between the light surface water and the denser deep water (see Figure 11). We
assume that the barotropic wave can continue without being aected by the pontoon (this
is a good approximation if the upper layer is shallow compared to the total depth), but
that the bridge sets up internal progressive waves on each side of the bridge. We assume
that the horizontal velocities of the internal waves on each side is given by
u
1
= Asin(k
1
x +t) for x < 0, and u
1
= Bsin(k
1
x t) for x > 0.
Integrate the equation of continuity over the upper layer, and nd an expression for the
displacement h of the interface.
12c) Integrate the equation of continuity over the lower layer, and show that the horizontal
velocity in the lower layer becomes
u
2
=
H
1
H
2
u
1
.
12d) Use rigid lid approximation to express the wave number for the waves at the interface k
1
in terms of Suggestion: Use the results you found in part f ) in the previous exercise.
12e) A boundary condition is that the total velocity, which is the sum of the barotropic velocity
(u
0
) and the upper layer velocity associated with the internal wave (u
1
) is zero at x = 0.
Physically u = u
0
+ u
1
= 0 at x = 0, means that there is no ow through the pontoon.
Use this boundary condition to determine the strength of the internal wave, show that
A =

0
k
0
H
, and B =

0
k
0
H
,
and nd the corresponding expressions for the amplitude of the interface displacement.
12f) Use the values
0
= 1 m, H
1
= 5 m, H
2
= 100 m,
1
= 1020 kgm
3
,
2
= 1030 kgm
3
,
and = 1.3 10
4
s
1
, and estimate the wave numbers k
0
and k
1
(or wave lengths), and
the amplitude of the interface displacement h. Make a sketch of the wave.
4
This exercise is modied from exercises in GFO210 by Martin Mork and Frank Nilsen.
26
z=0
z=H
1
z=H

2
x=0
Figure 11: A two layer model with a oating bridge on top. The bridge has a oating device
which goes below the upper mixed layer in the position x = 0.
27
13 Internal waves in a continuously stratied uid
Internal waves can always be present in a stratied uid, even without a discontinuity in density.
In this exercise we will therefore study waves in a continuous, stratied, incompressible uid.
13a) We will look at a situation where the density and pressure is close to their mean depth-
depending values, that is =
0
(z) +

(x, y, z, t) and p = p
0
(z) +p

(x, y, z, t), where

0
and p

p
0
. Show that the Boussinesq approximation together with the assumption
of incompressibility give the following ve equations to describe the motion in the uid

0
u
t
=
p

x
, (1)

0
v
t
=
p

y
, (2)

0
w
t
=
p

g, (3)

t
+w
d
0
dz
= 0, (4)
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0. (5)
13b) Combine equations (1) and (2) with (5), and (3) with (4), to nd the following two
equations for the relationship between the vertical velocity and the pressure perturbations

2
w
zt
=

2
p

x
2
+

2
p

y
2
, (6)

2
w
t
2
=

2
p

tz

0
N
2
w, (7)
where N
2
=
g

0
d
0
dz
. What is the name of the parameter N and what is its physical
meaning?
13c) Dierentiate equation (6) with respect to z and t, (7) twice with respect to x, and (7)
twice with respect to y, assume that the vertical variation in
0
is much less than the
vertical variations in w, and show that a single equation for the vertical velocity is

2
t
2

2
w +N
2

2
H
w = 0, (8)
where
2
=

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
+

2
z
2
and
2
H
=

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
.
13d) Assume a wave component on the form w = w
0
cos(kx + ly + mz t) to derive the
dispersion relation for internal waves in a continuous stratied uid.
13e) Show that the frequency only depends on the stratication and the angle between the wave
number vector and the horizontal plane, = N cos (see Figure 12). Explain what you
are seeing in the gure. Give a physical explanation for why the frequency should depend
on the direction of the wave propagation, and what are the reasons for the frequency to
be between 0 and N?
28
(a) (b)
Figure 12: Internal waves in a continuously stratied uid. The waves are generated with an
oscillating cylinder with periods (a) 4 seconds and (b) 8 seconds. In both cases the stratication
corresponds to 2/N 5s. After P. B. Rhines and E. G. Lindahl, School of Oceanography,
University of Washington.
13f) What is the angle between the direction of the phase propagation and the direction of
the energy propagation (suggestion: use the denition of the group velocity and show it
graphically).
13g) Assume that we have a vibrating cylinder (or oscillating membrane) that oscillates at
a period of 1 hour in waters with the stratication corresponding to N = 0.005s
1
,
N = 0.01s
1
, or N = 0.0005s
1
. What are the corresponding angles between the energy
propagation in the waters, and the horizontal plane.
13h) What do you think may happen if an internal wave with frequency generated in shallow
waters, propagates downward towards waters with N < ? What happens to the group
velocity when approaches N?
29
14 Lee waves
We will now look at waves in a continuously stratied, incompressible uid that are generated
at a boundary. Such waves are called forced waves, in opposition to the free waves we looked
at in the previous exercise. An impressive example of such waves are the mountain waves
that regularly occurs downstream from the island Jan Mayen at the boundary between the
Norwegian and the Greenland Seas (see Figure 13b).
14a) We will rst try to model the ow over varying topography as depicted in Figure 13a. Here
the ow is uniform in the x direction with the speed u
0
. The topography may be viewed
as a series of trigonometric functions (Fourier components), where one of the components
are given as h(x) = h
0
sin(kx). The wave number k is given by 2/ where is the wave
length of the topography. With a coordinate system that follows the ow, the topography
will appear to move towards left with a speed u
0
, and the function for the bottom depth
relative to the moving coordinate system will be
h = h
0
sink(x +u
0
t) = h
0
sin(kx t),
where = ku
0
will be the frequency imposed by the bottom topography. Show that
the linearised boundary condition at the bottom will give w(0) = u
0
kh
0
cos(kx t).
14b) Using complex notation, a wave component on the form w = w
0
cos(kx + mz t) is
written w = w(0) exp[i(kx+mzt)], where the real part of the expression is the physical
part. Insert this solution into the dispersion relation for internal waves in a continuously
stratied incompressible uid (found in the previous exercise), and show that the wave
number m is given by
m
2
= (
N
u
0
)
2
k
2
,
where N
2
=
g

0
d
0
dz
and = u
0
k.
14c) Give a physical interpretation of the solution when m
2
> 0. What does this criteria tell
us about the relationships between stratication, velocity and the wave lengths of the
topographic feature? Make a sketch of the solution.
14d) Give a physical interpretation of the solution when m
2
< 0. What is the frequency
imposed by the bottom topography compared to the N? Make a sketch of the solution.
30
(a)
z
x
u
0
h=h(x)
(b) (c)
Figure 13: (a) Model of a uniform ow of speed u
0
over a mountain where amplitude of a Fourier
component of the topography is h. (b) Satellite picture of a mountain wave cloud patterns in
the wake of Jan Mayen on 25th of January 2000. The wind is blowing from southwest, which is
from the upper left corner of the satellite picture in (b). Note how the waves penetrate hundreds
of kilometres downstream of Mount Beerenberg at Jan Mayen, where it is generated.
31
15 Normal modes
The ocean and the atmosphere are thin sheets of uid in the sense that their horizontal scales
are much larger than the depth or height scales. Also most of the energy associated with motion
lies in components with horizontal scales much larger than the vertical. For such motions we can
use the hydrostatic approximation. In this exercise we will also introduce a common technique
known as separation of variables.
We will here study an example with a tidal ow entering a basin at an open boundary,
setting up motion in a continuously stratied uid (see Figure 14)
5
.
15a) We assume that we have a continously stratied, incompressible uid in a non-rotating
frame, and that we have only motion in the (x, z)-plane. Use Boussinesq and hydrostatic
approximations and set up the four linearized equations that determine the ow.
15b) Show by elimination that two equations relating perturbation pressure p

and vertical
velocity w are

2
w
zt
=

2
p

x
2
and
0
N
2
w =

2
p

tz
,
where N
2
=
g

0
d
0
dz
. What is the physical interpretation of N?
15c) Combine the two equations above to derive one equation for the vertical velocity,

2
t
2
_

z
(
0
w
z
)
_
+
0
N
2

2
w
x
2
= 0.
15d) Assume a solution on the form
w = w(x, t)(z),
and show that a necessary consequence is

2
w
t
2

2
w
x
2
=

0
N
2

z
(
0

z
)
= c
2
,
where c is a constant. Explain why the general solution for w becomes
w(x, t) = F(x ct) +G(x +ct).
What is the physical interpretation of the constant c?
15e) Show that the boundary condition at the bottom gives
(H) = 0,
and that the boundary conditions at the free surface together with the rst equation under
b) gives

3
w
t
2
z
g
0

2
w
x
2
= 0 at z = 0,
and thus
d
dz

g
c
2
= 0 at z = 0.
5
This exercise is modied from exercises in GFO210 by Martin Mork and Frank Nilsen.
32
15f) Use the results under d) to show that the equation for becomes

z
(
0

z
) +
0
(
N
c
)
2
= 0,
and explain why this to a very good approximation can be written

z
2
+ (
N
c
)
2
= 0.
15g) Together with the boundary conditions in e), the equation for above forms a so-called
Sturm-Liouville problem. As we will see, these kind of problems will give an innite
number of solutions for c, so-called eigenvalues, and for each eigenvalue, there will be a
solution for , which is known as the eigenfunction. A general solution for this problem
is
= C sin(z +),
where C is the constant amplitude, and and are constants to be determined. Show
that = N/c and = H, and use the surface boundary condition to show that an
equation for c is given by
tan
NH
c
=
N
2
H/g
NH/c
.
15h) Show that for small values of the argument for the tan function above, the phase speed is
given by c
2
= c
2
0
gH, and that for larger values of the argument, c = c
n

NH
n
, where
n = 1, 2, 3, .... Suggestion: Make a sketch of the tan x and 1/x functions an show where
the curves cross.
15i) Show that the phase speed of the barotropic mode (c
0
) in h) corresponds to the homoge-
neous case with N = 0, and that the phase speeds for the baroclinic modes can be found
by using the rigid lid approximation w(0) = 0. Make a sketch showing how the vertical
velocity of the barotropic and the rst 3 baroclinic modes depend on depth.
15j) Measurements show that the density prole is given by

0
=
_
1
z
H
_
,
where is the mean density, = 0.001, and H = 1000m. Calculate the phase speeds for
the barotropic and the rst 3 baroclinic modes.
15k) Explain why the general solution can be written
w =
n=

n=0
C
n
sin
n
(z +H)[F(x ct) +G(x +ct)].
In order to determine the amplitudes of each of the modes, the constants C
n
, we must
use the boundary conditions. Use the equation of continuity to show that the horizontal
velocity must be on the form
u =
n=

n=0
u
n
(x, t)
d
dz
[
n
(z)] ,
33
where

x
u
n
= w
n
.
15l) Use the simplied equation for (under f) to show that each of the eigenfunctions for u
are orthogonal to each other, that is
_
z=0
z=H
d
n
dz
d
m
dz
dz = 0, for n = m.
Suggestion: Write the equation in f as c
2
n
d
2

n
/d
2
z + N
2

n
= 0, do the same for a com-
ponent
n
, multiply the two equations with d
m
/dz and d
n
/dz respectively, subtract and
intergrate.
15m) At a location x = 0 a tidal current on the form u
0
= U(z) cos t is measured. Assume
that U(z) can be written on the form
U(z) =
n=

n=0
A
n
d
n
dz
,
and show that the constants A
n
are given by
A
n
=
_
z=0
z=H
U(z)
dn
dz
dz
_
z=0
z=H
(
dn
dz
)
2
dz
.
15n) Show that with U(z) = U
0
= constant and H
1
= H/2, the values for the A
n
s become
A
n
=
2U
0
H sin[
n
H
(H H
1
)]
(n)
2
,
and U(z) becomes
U(z) = 2U
0
n=

n=0
sin
n
2
n
cos
n
2
(z +H)
= 2U
0
H(
1

d
1
dz
+
1
9
d
3
dz
+
1
25
d
5
dz
+... +
1
n
2

d
n
dz
).
15o) The assumed solution ts with a tidal current over a sill. For x > 0 the solution becomes
u =
n=

n=0
A
n
d
dz
cos (t
x
c
n
).
Find the corresponding expression for the vertical velocity w and the maximum vertical
displacement associated with each of the modes. With a tidal current of U(z) = 0.1ms
1
at the inowing boundary x = 0, what are the maximum displacements associated with
each of the rst three modes?
34
z
x
u
0
(z,t)
=(x,t)
N
2
=const
depth=H
1 depth=H
Figure 14: Model of a basin with a ow entering at an open boundary. The open boundary is
located at x =, and the ow here is given by u
0
(z, t). The depth of the inow is H
1
and total
depth H. The density is increasing linearly with depth, given a constant buoyancy frequency
N.
35
16 Geostrophic adjustment in a two-layer uid
We are going to look at a simple model for geostrophic adjustment. We assume an innitely
deep ocean, where the density in the surface in one part of the ocean is reduced due to a
warming or a freshening. The density anomaly reaches down to a depth H
1
. Initially, we have a
two-layer system where everything is at rest (u = v = 0), and where the thickness of the upper
layer is given by h = H
1
for x < 0, and h = 0 for x > 0. The density in the two layers are
1
and
2
. There is no variations in the y direction, so we have

y
= 0 everywhere in the uid
6
.
16a) The equations for the motion in the upper layer, is almost the same as those given in the
previous exercise, with the exception that

y
= 0, is replaced by
1
, and we keep the
non-linear terms since the perturbation of the interphase is large (it goes to the surface).
u
t
+u
u
x
fv =
1

1
p
x
(1)
v
t
+u
v
x
+fu = 0 (2)
p
z
= g (3)
u
x
+
w
z
= 0, (4)
Now using the assumption of a motionless abyss (p = 0 in the lower layer), show that
the pressure term can be written
1

1
p
x
= g
h
x
, where g

=

2

2
is the reduced gravity.
Integrate the continuity equation over the upper layer, and show that the three equations
that describe the system are:
u
t
+u
u
x
fv = g

h
x
(5)
v
t
+u
v
x
+fu = 0 (6)
h
t
+

x
(hu) = 0 (7)
16b) Due to the non linear terms (u
u
x
, u
v
x
and hu), the equations above are impossible to
solve analytical. However, much can be said about the state of the uid when the ow
has become stationary. After the adjustment process, the equation of continuity (7) yields

x
(hu) = 0, thus hu must be a constant. Since h = 0 at some points, the constant must be
zero. But, as h = 0 at other points, it follows that u = 0 everywhere after the adjustment.
Use this argument to show that the velocity after the adjustment is given by
v =
g

f
h
x
. (8)
16c) All ows that are in geostrophic balance are solutions to the equation above. In order
to nd an exact solution, we must use our most powerful tool, that is the conservation
6
This exercise is mainly from Benoit Cushman-Roisin: Introduction to geophysical uid dynamics.
36
of vorticity. Dierentiate equation (6) to show that the time evolution of the relative
vorticity of the ow is
D
Dt
+ ( +f)
u
x
= 0, where =
v
x
(9)
(remember that

y
= 0), and use equation (7) to substitute for the divergence of the ow
to get a single equation for the conservation of the potential vorticity of the uid,
D
Dt
(
+f
h
) = 0. (10)
Thus the property ( +f)/h will be a conserved property of the motion, and from knowing
the initial conditions, we are able to derive information for the nal state of the ow,
v
x
+f
h
=
f
H
1
. (11)
16d) Despite the non-linearity of the original equations, we now have two perfectly linear
equations that gives the relationship between velocity v and thickness of the upper layer
h, that is equations (8) and (11). Combine the two to get a single equation for the
thickness of the upper layer h, and show that the solution may be written
h = H
1
(1 exp(
x x
0
a
), and v =
_
g

H
1
exp(
x x
0
a
) (12)
where a =

H
1
/f is known as the internal (or baroclinic) Rossby radius of deforma-
tion, and x
0
is the position where the interface reaches the surface (where the isopycnal
outcrops).
16e) In order to determine the constant x
0
, we use conservation of water masses. To conserve
the volume (remember that travelling waves do not transport water), the loss of surface
water from the left hand side of the x = 0 line, must equal the gain at the other side.
Thus
_
0

(H
1
h)dx =
_
x
0
0
hdx. (13)
Show that the constant is given by x
0
= a. Can you with few words describe the physics
that gives this migration of the interface?
16f) It is rather straight-forward to calculate the energy of the system at the initial state (only
potential energy) and at the nal state (potential and kinetic energy). From initial to nal
stage there is a loss in potential energy given by PE =
1
4
g

H
2
1
a and a gain in kinetic
energy of KE =
1
12
g

H
2
1
a. Thus the system has lost 2/3 of the total energy (potential
+ kinetic) from the initial state to the nal state. Can you explain where the energy has
gone?
37
(a)
z=0
z=H

2
x=0
Heating
(b)
z=0
z=H
1
z=H

2
x=0
(c)
z=0
z=H
1
z=H

2
x=0
h=h(x)
Figure 15: An illustration of a geostrophic adjustment in a two layer case. In (a), atmospheric
heating (or precipitation) reduce the density of the upper layer of the ocean for x < 0, while
the upper ocean for x > 0 remains at the same density as the lower ocean. The result is a two
layer system in one part of the domain, and a one-layer system in the rest of the domain, as
illustrated in (b). In the upper part of the ocean, the water masses are separated by a sharp
front. After geostrophic adjustment, the front between the two water masses will be sloping
from the surface towards its initial depth.
38
17 Long waves in a uid that is rotating
For uid motion (waves) that evolves on a time scale comparable to or longer than the time
scale of the rotation of the Earth (1 day), the Coriolis acceleration must be included in the
equation of motion. Here some of the eects of the rotation will be explored.
17a) In its general form the equation of motion is
Du
Dt
+ 2u =
1

p g +
2
u. (1)
Explain what the dierent terms in the equation represent.
17b) We now linerize the equation, neglect friction, assume hydrostatic balance and a non-
divergent ow, and nally assume that horizontal scales are much larger than the vertical
scales (w u, v). Show that the equations that governs the motion become
u
t
fv =
1

p
x
(2)
v
t
+fu =
1

p
y
(3)
p
z
= g (4)
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0, (5)
where f = 2sin , with being the rotation rate of the Earth and the latitude.
17c) Assume constant density, and show that the equations can be written
u
t
fv = g

x
(6)
v
t
+fu = g

y
(7)

t
+H(
u
x
+
v
y
) = 0. (8)
Which of the terms in equations (6) and (7) will dominate if the motion evolve on a time
scale that is (a) much larger than, (b) comparable to, or (c) much less than the rotation
period of the Earth?
17d) We will now derive a single wave equation for the surface elevation . Dierentiate equa-
tions (6) and (7) and combine to nd a single equation for the time evolution of the
divergence of the velocity eld. Combine this with equation (8) to show that an equation
for the surface elevation may be written

t
2
c
2

2
H
+fH = 0, (9)
where c =

gH is the wave speed for shallow water waves without rotation and =
v
x

u
y
is the relative vorticity.
39
17e) Dierentiate equations (6) and (7) and combine to nd a single equation for the time
evolution of the relative vorticity of the eld. Combine this with equation (8) to show
that the equation for the time evolution of the relative vorticity is

t
=
f
H

t
, and combine
with equation (9) to get the single equation for the surface elevation,

t
(

t
2
c
2

2
H
+f
2
) = 0. (10)
17f) Assume that the surface elevation has the form of a travelling wave, and show that the
dispersion relation gives the solutions
= 0, or
2
= f
2
+c
2
(k
2
+l
2
). (11)
What is the physical interpretation of = 0?
17g) Make a sketch of the solution (for instance of w/f as a function of wave number). Discuss
the solution above for the case when the waves become very small (but still large enough
for the hydrostatic approximation to be valid), and for the case when the waves become
very large. What is the group velocity for the two cases?
40
18 Tsunami
When two continental plates collide, this often leads to an earthquake and a sudden vertical
displacement of one of the plates. When this happens on the bottom of the ocean, it leads
to a sudden dierence in the sea-level and tsunami waves are radiating from the centre of the
earthquake. The tsunami killing 300 000 people in the Indian Ocean 26th of December 2004
is an example of how devastating such waves can be. We will study the adjustment processes
towards equilibrium after such a vertical displacement on the sea oor, and assume that the
surface elevation just after the displacement is given by =
0
sgn(x), where sgn(x) = 1 when
x < 0 and 1 when x > 0
7
.
18a) Explain what assumptions we are using to arrive at the following set of equations:
u
t
fv = g

x
v
t
+fu = g

t
+H(
u
x
+
v
y
) = 0.
18b) Combine the equations and show that the wave equation for the surface elevation can be
written as

t
2
c
2
(

x
2
+

2

y
2
) +fH = 0.
Write down the expressions for c and and give a brief physical explanation for each.
18c) Show that /f /H is constant with time, and that the wave equation thus may be
written

t
2
c
2
(

x
2
+

2

y
2
) +f
2
= f
2

0
sgn(x).
18d) In order to study what kind of waves the discontinuity in the surface elevation sets up, we
rst look at the homogeneous part of the equation above (i. e. the right hand side is set
to zero). Assume a solution on the form =
0
cos(kx +ly t) (or use complex form if
you wish), and show that the dispersion relation is given by

2
= f
2
+ (k
2
+l
2
)c
2
.
18e) Make a sketch that shows how the frequency depends on the wave number, and discuss
the phase- and group velocities for very short and very long waves. What happens to
the frequency when the wave length goes towards innity, and what is the name of such
waves?
18f) We will now look at the stationary part of the wave equation given in c. As the initial
condition is independent of y, we may assume that the solution will be independent of y
7
This exercise was given at the GEOF330 exam 8. December 2004.
41
at all times. Solve for and v and use the boundary condition that both are continuous
in x = 0 to show that the surface elevation is given by
=
0
(1 e
x/a
) for x > 0, and =
0
(1 +e
x/a
) for x < 0.
What is the expression for a and what is the name of this parameter?
18g) If we calculate the change in potential and kinetic energy from the initial state to the
nal equilibrium state, we nd that only one third of the released potential energy has
been used to increase the kinetic energy of the system. Can you comment on this? What
is special with adjustment to equilibrium in rotating systems compared to non-rotating
systems?
42
19 Thermal wind I: The Denmark Strait overow
For large scale ow in the atmosphere and ocean, the motion is generally close to geostrophic
balance, that is there is a simple balance between the Coriolis and the pressure terms. If
the velocity is measured at a certain height or depth, and we have information of the density
structure in the atmosphere or in the ocean, it is possible to nd the velocity at all levels using
the thermal wind equations. This is the topic for the following exercise.
19a) Start with the geostrophic balance and derive the thermal wind equations for the vertical
velocity shear in the x and y directions,
u
z
=
g

0
f

y
, and
v
z
=
g

0
f

x
. (1)
19b) In the case of a pronounced density contrast (strong pycnocline), a two layer system may
be applicable. Show that in this case the thermal wind equation for the north-south
velocity component may be written
v
1
v
2
=
g

0
f
(
2

1
)
z
x
, (2)
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the upper and lower layers, and z/x will be the slope
of the interphase between the two layers (suggestion: discretize the derivatives in the
equation for the vertical velcity shear in the y direction, and multiply with z).
19c) Measurements from the strait between Greenland and Iceland (Denmark Strait) show a
density prole that to a good approximation can be described as a 3-layer system, as
shown in Figure 16. We rst assume that there is no ow in the middle layer in the strait,
and use the values g = 10 ms
2
,
0
= 10
3
kgm
3
, and f = 10
4
s
1
. Calculate the
velocities in the two other layers, and make a sketch of the results.
19d) From other measurements we know that the total transport through the strait is 6 10
6
m
3
s
1
. What is the velocity in the middle layer assuming that it is the same everywhere
in that layer?
19e) Use the results above to make a sketch of the surface topography. What is the dierence
in the sea surface height between Iceland and Greenland?
43
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

1
=1027.0

2
=1027.5

3
=1028.0
Greenland Iceland
Distance (km)
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
Figure 16: Density distribution in the Denmark Strait between Greenland and Iceland.
44
20 Thermal wind II: The Norwegian Coastal Current
In Figure 17 we have shown the distribution of temperature, salinity, and potential density in
a section going from Sviny (just north of Stadt at the west coast of Norway) and towards
northwest. From the observations taken in March we can recognize the relatively warm and
saline waters of the Norwegian Atlantic Current over the deepest parts of the section, and
the cold and fresh waters of the Norwegian Coastal Current over the more shallow continental
shelf
8
.
20a) Start with the general form of the equation of motion, and show which assumptions that
are made in the geostrophic approximation,
fv =
1

p
x
, fu =
1

p
y
, and
p
z
g = 0. (1)
20b) Let the x axis be directed eastward towards the coast in Figure 17, and the y axis point
northward into the section, and show that the vertical derivative of the northward ow is
given by
v
z
=
g

0
f

x
,
where
0
is a reference density (Boussinesq approximation).
20c) Give a rough estimate of the dierence in velocity between the surface and the 200m
depth at station 280 (Figure 17). In which parts of the section do we have the strongest
baroclinicity?
20d) In order to get an estimate of the volume transport of the Norwegian Coastal Current,
we simplify the density structure to a two-layer system with constant density (
1
and

2
) in each layer. We choose the interphase between the two layers to be dened by the

t
= 27.2 isopycnal, and assume that the upper layer is in geostrophic balance and that
the lower layer is at rest. The coast we simplify to a vertical wall at the position x = 0.
The total depth of the upper layer is H = +h where is the height of the surface (z = )
and h the depth of the interphase (z = h). Make a sketch of the situation and nd the
pressure in each of the two layers expressed by and h.
20e) Use that the lower layer is motionless to nd a relation between the displacement of the
surface elevation and the thickness of the upper layer.
20f) Show that the current in the upper layer is given by
v =
g

f
H
x
,
where g

= g(
2

1
)/
2
is the reduced gravity.
20g) Show that the volume transport in the upper layer becomes
V =
g

2f
H
2
0
,
where H
0
is the thickness of the upper layer at the coast (in x = 0).
8
This exercise was given at the GEOF110 exam 15. December 2003.
45
20h) From Figure 17 nd suitable values for
1
,
2
, and layer thickness H
0
and nd the surface
elevation at the coast and the total volume transport in the ow.
20i) In this model many approximations have been used. Mention the two you believe will
have the largest impacts on your answers in h).
46
Figure 17: Measurements of temperature (upper panel), salinity (middle panel), and potential
density (lower panel) from the Sviny section 30. March 1978. The depth is given in meters,
and the horizontal length scale is given in the lower panel (20 nm = 37 km). The numbers
above each plot refer to the station numbers where the measurements are taken.
47
21 Available potential energy
If the surface and all internal surfaces of constant density are at, there will be no horizontal
pressure gradients in a uid. In that case there is no potential energy in the uid that can
be converted to kinetic energy, and we say that the available potential energy (APE) is zero.
If, however, there are internal density gradients, a relaxation of the wind eld or ow that is
causing the pressure gradients will always lead to a conversion of energy from the potential to
the kinetic forms. Thus some of the APE will be released. In this exercise we will study the
concept of APE, and also a case with a conversion from kinetic to potential energy.
21a) Calculate the potential energy for the two cases (a) and (b) in Figure 18 and show that
the available potential energy in (a) is given by
1
12
(
2

1
)gH
2
L.
21b) Due to conservation of mass, the constant density in Figure 18d must be the same as the
mean density in (c), that is = 0.5(
1
+
2
). What is the increase in potential energy
from (c) to (d). Is the APE increasing? Compare with (a) and explain the answer.
21c) We have earlier discussed adjustment towards equilibrium for a case without (Fig 5.9 in
Gill and exercise 9) and with (Fig 7.3 in Gill) rotation. What can you say about the
fraction of the APE that is converted to kinetic energy in the two cases?
21d) Due to continuity (and conservation of momentum in absence of other external forcings),
the vertical integrated ow in Figure 18d must be the same as it is in (c), that is u =
0.5(u
1
+u
2
). It is clear that the energy used to increase the potential energy from Figure 18c
to (d) must come from the change in kinetic energy. Show that complete vertical mixing
is only possible if
(
2

1
)gH

0
(u
2
u
1
)
2
<
1
2
,
where we have applied the Boussinesq approximation when calculating the kinetic en-
ergy (
1

2

0
). Discuss the physical meaning of this result (in terms of density
stratication and velocity shear).
48
(a)
0 L
H
=
1
+(
2

1
)x/L
(b)
0 L
H
=
2
+(
1

2
)z/H
(c)
0 L
H
=
2
+(
1

2
)z/H
u=u
1
+(u
2
u
1
)z/H
(d)
0 L
H
=0.5*(
1
+
2
)
u=0.5*(u
1
+u
2
)
Figure 18: Dierent congurations of a density eld in a uid of width L and height H. In
(a) the density is increasing towards right, and in (b) it is increasing with depth. The latter
situation is also shown in (c) where we also put on a depth-dependent ow u. If the shear of
the ow is large, vertical instabilities may occur, leading to a strong mixing of the uid and the
situation shown in (d).
49
22 Vorticity dynamics
In this section we will derive one of the most powerful tools in geophysical uid dynamics,
namely the equation for the conservation of potential vorticity. This equation will then be
used to estimate the changes in a ow along a coast, when the water depth changes in the
along-stream direction
9
.
22a) With the non-linear terms included, the shallow water equations are
Du
Dt
fv = g

x
(1)
Dv
Dt
+fu = g

y
(2)
D
Dt
( +H) + ( +H)(
u
x
+
v
y
) = 0, (3)
where u and v are the two horizontal velocity components, the surface elevation, H =
H(x, y) the bottom depth, f = f(y) the Coriolis parameter, g the gravity, and the operator
D
Dt


t
+u

x
+v

y
.
Show that the change in the absolute vorticity becomes
D
Dt
(f +) + (f +)(
u
x
+
v
y
) = 0, (4)
where =
v
x

u
y
is the relative vorticity. Explain with words what will happen if there
is divergence or convergence in the horizontal ow?
22b) Combine with the equation of continuity to show that the conservation of potential vor-
ticity is given by
D
Dt
(
f +
H +
) = 0. (5)
We will now investigate a coastal current as it moves from an area with deep water to a
more shallow area (Figure 19). Current maximum is at the coast and it decreases linearly
to 0 (zero) at a distance L
1
from the coast. In the deep area the current at the coast
is U
1
=0.5 ms
1
, the width of the current L
1
=10 km, and the water depth is 200 m.
The Coriolis parameter is f = 10
4
s
1
. Calculate the potential vorticity and the volume
transport in the deep area.
22c) Use the above ndings to calculate the maximum speed U
2
and the width of the ow L
2
as the water depth reduces to 160 m (see Figure 19).
22d) Try to calculate U
2
and L
2
if the depth is reduced to as little as 100 m. Do you get a
physical solution? What do you think will happen to the ow?
9
This exercise is mainly adapted from Benoit Cushman-Roisin: Introduction to geophysical uid dynamics.
50
Figure 19: A a coastal current moving from an area with deep water to a more shallow area.
22e) What will the current prole look like if the ow enters an area where the depth increases
linearly with the distance from the coast? Calculate the current prole and make a sketch
of the solution if the depth increases at a rate of 10 m / km outwards (suggestion; write
depth as H = H
0
+y, use the conservation of vorticity to nd an expression for
u
y
, and
integrate. Finally, use conservation of mass transport to nd the position where U = 0,
which will be the width of the ow).
51
23 Ekman spiral
For large scale ows in the atmosphere or the ocean, we can usually neglect the friction terms
in the equation of motion. However, this is not the case for the ow near a boundary where
strong gradients in the vertical stress will slow down or accelerate the uid. The region where
the friction is important is known as the Ekman layer. The ow properties in this layer will be
the topic for this study.
23a) The linearised equations that describe a stationary ow driven by pressure gradients and
friction are given by
fv =
1

0
p
x
+

2
u
z
2
(1)
fu =
1

0
p
y
+

2
v
z
2
(2)
0 =
1

0
p
z
g (3)
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0, (4)
where density
0
is assumed to be constant. Show that the geostrophic part of the ow
is independent of depth, and explain how the Ekman equations
fv
e
=

2
u
e
z
2
, and fu
e
=

2
v
e
z
2
(5)
are derived.
23b) We now introduce the complex velocity u
e
= u
e
+iv
e
, where i =
_
( 1) is the imaginary
unit vector. Show that a single equation for u
e
is

2
u
e
z
2
=
if

u
e
, (6)
and that the general solution becomes
u
e
(z) = Ae
(1+i)z/De
, where D
e
=
_
(
2
f
), (7)
and A is an integration constand which may be complex.
23c) We will now look at the special case with a steady ow below the sea ice. We assume that
the ice is moving with velocity u
0
and that the water at the underside is moving with the
ice. Let the ice-ocean interphase be at z = 0 and show that the solution is given by
u
e
(z) = u
0
e
z/De
e
iz/De
. (8)
Make a sketch of the solution at z = 0, z = D
e
/2, z = D
e
, z = 3D
e
/2 and so
on. Compare your results with the measurements of Miles McPhee (Figure 20), and try
to estimate the kinematic viscosity . Do you think that our use of a constant is
appropriate?
23d) Integrate the ow over the Ekman layer to show that the Ekman transport is directed 45

to the right of the direction of the surface ow (i.e. the ice motion).
52
Figure 20: Measured currents vectors (upper plot) and u and v components (lower plot) relative
to the ow 32 m below the ice during a storm in the Arctic. At 32 m, the ow was less than
0.02 ms
1
from the bottom velocities (from McPhee 1986, The upper ocean, in The Geophysics
of Sea Ice, Plenum, New York).
53
24 Ekman transports and Ekman pumping
While the previous exercise illuminated some of the properties in the relatively thin Ekman
layer, we are here going to look at the more larger scale implications of the Ekman dynamics.
24a) We start with the linearised equations of motion
fv =
1

0
p
x
+
1

x
z
(1)
fu =
1

0
p
y
+
1

y
z
(2)
0 =
1

0
p
z
g (3)
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0, (4)
where density
0
is assumed to be constant, and
x
and
y
are the components of the
horizontal stress vector in the x and y directions respectively. Divide the ow into a
pressure driven and a friction driven part, u = u
g
+ u
e
and v = v
g
+ v
e
, and nd the
corresponding equations for the two parts of the ow.
24b) At the boundary between ocean and atmosphere, the stress is measured to be
s
, and
away from the boundary, in the interior of the uids, the stress is assumed to be zero.
Integrate the equations for the Ekman part of the ow over the boundary layers to show
that the Ekman mass transport is given by |
s
|/f and directed 90

to the left of the wind

stress vector in the atmosphere and 90

to the right of the wind stress vector in the ocean.

24c) Integrate over the continuity equation (4) show that the Ekman pumping velocity in both
the atmosphere and the ocean is given by
w
e
=
1

0
f
k
s
. (5)
24d) Explain (in your own words) what you see in Figure 21.
24e) Estimate the atmospheric and oceanic Ekman mass transports and Ekman pumping ve-
locities associated with an intense cyclone where the surface wind stress 100 km from the
centre is 1 kg m
1
s
2
, the densities in the atmosphere and ocean are respectively 1.25 kg
m
3
and 1025 kg m
3
, and the Coriolis parameter is 10
4
s
1
. What will be the vertical
displacement of a water parcel below the centre of the low after 24 hours?
54
Figure 21: Schematic view of the Ekman transports associated with a cyclone over the ocean
(from Gill, 1982).
55
25 Storm surge
A storm surge refers to abnormal high sea level caused by severe meteorological conditions.
If a wind is blowing in an along-shore direction, with the coast to the right (on the northern
hemisphere), there will be an Ekman transport directed towards the coast, causing an increase
in surface elevation and a downwelling motion. Low-lying land areas adjacent to the sea will
then be vulnerable and may be ooded. This happened in the area of the Zuyder Zee in Holland
19 November 1421 when 100 000 drowned, and as late as 31 January 1953, when more than
2000 lost their lives in England and Holland.
25a) We are going to look at a simple model with wind blowing along a straight coast. We let
the x axis be along the coast, and the y axis pointing normal out from the coast, such
that the coast is dened by y = 0. We will further assume that the length scale (L) in
the x direction is so large that we may ignore variations in this direction (

x
= 0). Start
with the linearised equations of motion, integrate and divide by depth to show that the
equations describing the depth-averaged ow is given by
u
t
fv =

0
H
(1)
v
t
+fu = g

y
(2)

t
+H
v
y
= 0, (3)
where the Coriolis parameter f, the gravitational acceleration g, the density
0
=constant,
and the wind stress in positive x direction are all assumed to be constants.
25b) Show that the equation for the v component becomes
(

2
t
2
+f
2
c
2

2
y
2
)v =
f

0
H
, where c
2
= gH. (4)
25c) Equation (4) contains a transient part (a wave solution), and a stationary part. We will
here focus on the stationary part (

t
= 0). Show with the aid of physically boundary
conditions at y = 0 and y that the stationary solution is given by
v =

0
Hf
(1 e
y/a
), where a =
c
f
. (5)
What name do we have for the parameter a?
25d) Derive the corresponding expressions for u and . Make a simple sketch showing the
solutions.
25e) Typical values for the wind stress and the depth on a shallow shelf may be = 1 kg
m
1
s
2
and H = 10 m. How large is the surface elevation at the coast after 3 hours
( 10
4
s)? What happens to the solutions when time goes towards innity? What do you
think we should include in the model in order to adjust for this?
56
26 Coastal upwelling with weak winds
We will here study a two-layer upwelling system (see Figure 22a). Surface elevation is (not
shown in gure), and the displacement of the interphase is h. The densities in the two layers
are
1
and
2
. We assume that there are no variations in the alongshore direction (

y
= 0),
and that the lower layer is innitely deep and motionless. The system is forced with a constant
wind stress in the positive y direction. We assume that all perturbations are small so we can
linearize
10
.
26a) Show that the set of equations governing this system becomes
u
t
fv = g

h
x
,
v
t
+fu =

1
H
1
, and
h
t
H
1
u
x
= 0,
where g

= (
2

1
)g/
1
. What is the name of the parameter g

?
26b) Show that the velocity normal to the shore is given by the equation

2
u
t
2
g

H
1

2
u
x
2
+f
2
u =
f

1
H
1
.
26c) The solution will involve a steady and a transient (wave) part. Use appropriate boundary
conditions at the coast and far oshore (x = 0 and x ) to show that the steady
solution is given by
u =

f
1
H
1
(1 e
x/a
), where a =

H
1
f
.
26d) Find the corresponding expressions for v and h.
26e) Calculate the alongshore velocity and the interphase displacement at the coast 10 hours
after the wind starts to blow. Use g = 10 ms
2
, = 0.1Nm
2
, = 1000kgm
3
, H
1
=100m,
and
2

1
= 1kgm
3
.
10
This exercise was given at the GEOF330 exam 14. December 2005.
57
27 Coastal upwelling with strong winds
Upwelling along coasts brings nutrient rich water to the surface, and is therefore an extremely
important factor for the biological production in the world ocean. We will here study a two-
layer upwelling system (see gure 22). Surface elevation is (not shown in gure), and the
displacement of the interphase is h. The upper layer has density
1
and thickness D = +H
1
h.
Density in the lower layer is
2
. We assume that there are no variations in the alongshore
direction (

y
= 0), and that the lower layer is innitely deep and motionless. The system is
forced with a constant wind stress in the positive y direction.
27a) The set of equations governing the motion of the upper layer is
u
t
+u
u
x
fv =
1

1
p
x
,
v
t
+u
v
x
+fu =
1

z
,
0 =
1

1
p
z
g
u
x
+
w
z
= 0,
where f is the coriolis parameter, p the pressure in the upper layer, and g gravity. Show
that

x
= g
D
x
, where g

= (
2

1
)g/
2
. What is the name of the parameter g

?
27b) Integrate over the upper layer (from H
1
+ h to ) and show that the equations can be
written
u
t
+u
u
x
fv = g

D
x
,
v
t
+u
v
x
+fu =

1
D
,
D
t
+

x
(Du) = 0,
where u and v now represent the mean velocities in the upper layer.
27c) With strong or prolonged wind events, also the non-linear terms will become important.
Although there are no analytical solutions to the equations above, we can calculate the
nal state of the system (see Figure 22b). Show that the potential vorticity is a conserved
quantity in the ow, and that
1
D
(f +
v
x
) =
f
H
1
.
27d) The geostrophic equilibrium after a wind event will be a state of no oshore ow (u = 0
and no acceleration

t
= 0. Use the equations in b) and the conservation of vorticity to
show that the equation for the thickness of the upper layer becomes

2
D
x
2

f
2
g

H
1
D +
f
2
g

= 0.
58
(a) (b)
H
1
+h
h
x
z
y

z=0
z=H
1

2
H
1
+h
h
x
z
y

z=0
z=H
1

2
Figure 22: Coastal upwelling after a longshore wind: (a) After a weak or brief wind event, the
interphase is slightly perturbed. (b) After a strong or prolonged wind event, the interphase has
reached the surface and forms a front some distance oshore.
27e) Show that the thickness and alongshore velocity of the upper layer is given by
D = H
1
Ae
x/a
, and v = A
_
g

/H
1
e
x/a
,
where A is a constant that must be determined by the wind forcing.
27f) Use the second equation in b) to show that
v(t) +fx(t) fx(t = 0) =
_
t
t=0

1
D
dt = I,
where I is called the wind impulse.
27g) Show that a condition for the interphase to reach the surface is
I
_
g

H
1
.
(suggestion: for a particle initially at the coast, the equation in i) becomes v = I. Calcu-
late v(x = 0) and use that D(x = 0) 0).
27h) Show that for larger wind impulses, the front will be located in the position
x = I/f a
(suggestion: for a particle initially at the coast, the equation in i) gives v +fx
f
= I where
x
f
is the location of the front. Calculate v(x
f
) and use that D(x
f
) = 0).
59
28 Topographic waves
We will now study waves that are due to varying depths. For simplicity we assume constant
density , and a depth that is gradually increasing in the positive y direction, H = H
0
+y (see
Figure 23). The surface elevation is given by . Furthermore, we neglect friction, and assume
small perturbations and depth variations so we can linearize the equations
11
.
28a) Show that the governing equations are given by
u
t
fv = g

x
,
v
t
+fu = g

y
,

t
+H
0
(
u
x
+
v
y
) +v = 0,
where f is the coriolis parameter and g gravity.
28b) Show that if depth is constant ( = 0), a steady geostrophic ow will satisfy the set of
equations above. Explain (using few words!) the eects of the term.
28c) Use quasi-geostrophic approximation to show that u and v can be written
u
g
f

y

g
f
2

tx
,
v
g
f

x

g
f
2

ty
,
and identify the geostrophic and ageostrophic terms.
28d) Show that the wave equation for the surface elevation becomes

t
a
2

t
(

x
2
+

2

y
2
) +
g
f

x
= 0,
where a
2
= gH
0
/f
2
. What is the name of the parameter a?
28e) Assume a surface perturbation on the form =
0
cos(kx + ly t), and show that the
dispersion relation for these kind of waves becomes
=
g
f
k
1 +a
2
(k
2
+l
2
)
.
28f) Show that the dispersion relation can be written on the form
(ak
g
2fa
)
2
+ (al)
2
= (
g
2fa
)
2
1,
and make a sketch of the solution.
11
This exercise was given at the GEOF330 exam 14. December 2005.
60
z
y
(x,t)
H
0
y
=const
Figure 23: Sketch of waves over a sloping bottom.
28g) Calculate the maximum frequency when H
0
= 1000m, = 10
3
, g = 10 ms
2
, and
f = 10
4
s
1
. Are our assumptions valid for this frequency (justify your answer)?
28h) What is the frequency and phase velocity for a wave with length 62.8 km propagating in
the positive x direction (l = 0)? What is the direction of the group velocity (justify your
answer)?
28i) Show that the quantity
v
x

u
y

f
H
0

f
H
0
y
is conserved in the motion, and describe (using few words!) the physical mechanism for
the topographic waves.
61
29 Equatorial Kelvin Waves
In this section we will study the strongest natural climate variability signal on the globe, the El
Nin o in the Pacic. During periods of a weakening or even reversal of the trade winds, eastward
propagating equatorial Kelvin waves are generated, that eventually causes anomalous high
surface temperatures in the eastern Pacic (see Figure 24). These situations with anomalously
warm water are known as El Nin o episodes, and they have large impacts on weather over large
parts of the globe.
29a) We assume that we can describe the Equatorial region as a two-layer system, where
density in the upper layer is
1
, density in the lower layer is
2
, and mean thickness of
the upper layer is H. Disturbances on the surface is denoted by (positive upward) and
the thickness of the upper layer is given by h. Show that the hydrostatic pressure in the
lower layer is given by
p
2
=
1
gh +
2
g( h z). (1)
29b) Show that if the lower layer is at rest, the relationship between the surface elevation and
the interphase displacement is
=

2

2
h. (2)
29c) Near the equator the Coriolis parameter f is to a good approximation given as y, where
= f/y 2.3 10
11
m
1
s
1
. Show that the equations that governs the ow in the
upper layer can be written
u
t
yv = g

h
x
(3)
v
t
+yu = g

h
y
(4)
h
t
+H(
u
x
+
v
y
) = 0. (5)
29d) Due to the fact that the Coriolis parameter changes sign at the Equator, these equations
admit a solution that has no ow in the meridional direction, i.e. v = 0. Use this
assumption and derive a wave equation for the amplitude of the interphase h.
29e) We will for wave solutions of the form h = F(y) cos(kx t) +G(y) cos(kx +t). What
is the phase speed of such waves? Are they dispersive?
29f) Derive the u component and then use the relationship between u and h/y to show that
dF
dy
=
y
c
F and
dG
dy
=
y
c
G, (6)
where c = /k is the phase speed of the waves.
29g) Integrate the two equation in (6) to show that the solution to our problem becomes
h = h
0
e
y
2
/2c
cos(kx t), (7)
u =
c
H
e
y
2
/2c
cos(kx t), (8)
v = 0. (9)
62
Why did we have to discard the solution travelling towards west?
29h) Typical densities along the Equator is
1
= 1023 kgm
3
for the upper layer and
2
= 1025
kgm
3
for the lower layer, and the mean depth of the upper layer can be set to H = 200
m. What is the speed of the signal? Compare your results with what you see in Figure 24.
29i) Assume that we have individual measurements showing that the maximum uid velocity
associated with the wave is u=0.5 ms
1
. What will be the corresponding maximum
displacement of the interphase? Is your result comparable to what you see in Figure 24?
63
(a)
(b)
Figure 24: Time-distance plot showing (a) the zonal wind speed in the western Pacic (dense
curve) and the depth of the 20

C isotherm along the Equator, and (b) the sea surface tem-
perature along the Equator. The thick lines indicate when there are evidence of eastward
propagating Kelvin waves, responsible for El Nin o episodes. The strongest episode starts in the
winter of 1991-1992, when the trade winds in the western Pacic reversed, and blowed towards
east for several months. The result was Kelvin waves seen as a deepening of the upper layer
that propagated across the Pacic in less than 2 months ( 2 ms
1
), and the result is seen as
very high surface temperatures in the eastern Pacic during the spring of 1992 (from Kessler
et al 1995, Journal of Geophysical Research, 100(C6), 1061310631).
64
30 Planetary waves
Through a series of publications in the 1930s the Swede C. G. Rossby demonstrated that there
existed a kind of waves in the world oceans that propagates so slowly that they will use several
years or even decades to cross the Pacic or the Atlantic Oceans. It was rst through analysis
of satellite images in the 1990s that one has managed to identify these waves that we now know
as Rossby waves. An example from the North Atlantic is shown in Figure 25.
As such waves has so large horizontal extension, one has to take into account that the
Coriolis parameter f varies with the latitude. We therefore write f = f
0
+ y where f
0
is the
constant value in y = 0 and df/dy is a constant. The equations that describe the Rossby
waves can be written
12
.
u
t
(f
0
+y)v =
1

p
x
v
t
+ (f
0
+y)u =
1

p
y
0 =
1

p
z
g
u
x
+
v
y
+
w
z
= 0.
30a) We will look at a two-layer model with an active upper layer having density
1
and mean
thickness H, and a deep lower layer with density
2
and no ow (u = v = 0). The surface
elevation is given by z = and a perturbation on the interface between the two layers as
z = H +h. Show that the velocities in the upper layer may be written as
u
t
(f
0
+y)v = g

h
x
v
t
+ (f
0
+y)u = g

h
y
h
t
H(
u
x
+
v
y
) = 0,
where g

= (
2

1
)g/
1
and we apply the approximation that we neglect the surface
elevation in the equation of continuity. What is the name of this approximation?
30b) As the Rossby waves have time scales that are much larger than the rotation period of the
Earth, we can use the quasi-geostrophic approximation. Show that this gives the following
equations for the velocity components u and v:
u = +
g

f
0
h
y
+
g

f
2
0

2
h
xt

g

f
2
0
y
h
y
v =
g

f
0
h
x
+
g

f
2
0

2
h
yt
+
g

f
2
0
y
h
x
12
This exercise was given at the GEOF330 exam 8. December 2004.
65
30c) Show that the wave equation becomes
h
t
a
2
(

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
)
h
t
a
2
h
x
= 0, where a
2
=
g

H
f
2
0
.
30d) Assume a wave component on the form h = h
0
cos(kx +ly t) (or use complex form if
you wish), and show that the dispersion relation for the baroclinic Rossby wave is given
as
=
a
2
k
1 +a
2
(k
2
+l
2
)
.
Let the north-south component l = 0, and and discuss the phase- and group velocities for
very short and very long waves.
30e) Use the quasi-geostrophic assumptions for u and v to show that the ratio between the
kinetic and the potential energy per wave length is given as
kinetic energy density
potential energy density
= (k
2
+l
2
)a
2
.
Discuss the solution for short and long wave lengths.
30f) From Figure 25b we read typical wave length and wave period for the waves travelling
along 34

N to be 600 km and 6 months respectively. Calculate the Rossby radius a, the

phase velocity c
p
and the group velocity c
g
. Where do you think the waves are generated?
66
(a)


6
0 o
W

3
0
o
W

0
o



3
0
o
E



6
0
o E



2
4 o
N



3
6 o
N



4
8 o
N



6
0 o
N



7
2 o
N

05Jan2000
(b)
longitude
T
i
m
e
SLA along 34

N
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
Figure 25: (a) Example of anomalies in sea-level height measured from satellites. The plot
shows the anomalies for the week ending at 5th January 2000. The colour code ranges from
25 cm (black) to +25 cm (white). Bottom contours are drawn for 200, 500, 1000, and 3000 m
depths. Note the strong anomalies associated with the Gulf Stream (cyclonic and anti-cyclonic
eddies or so-called warm and cold core rings). Also note the regular pattern with positive and
negative anomalies to the south and east of the Gulf Stream. (b) Time-distance plot of sea-level
anomalies along 34

N from Florida (left) to Morocco (right). Distinct features are a regular

annual cycles in sea-level height on the shelves, and westward propagating Rossby waves in the
interior of the basin.