Effect of mass distribution on cornering dynamics of retrofitted EV

H. Mazumder, M. Ektesabi, A. Kapoor

Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Sciences Swinburne University of Technology Victoria, Australia Email: hmazumder@swin.edu.au

AbstractVehicle dynamics data in different maneuvering

condition is vital for developing more robust control approach. This study includes the calculation of center of gravity (CG) in case of retrofitting of a vehicle to maintain the mass redistribution of the vehicle as existing or to make it better by analyzing the effect on cornering dynamics of the vehicle. It comprises a comparative study on the optimal placement of EV drive train subsystems, such as batteries, power electronics and other accessories. Analysis has been conducted based on different modules of vehicle dynamics as example, lateral load transfer in different mass distribution layouts during cornering, effect of load transfers on tire grip; slip angle, polar moment of inertia etc. Different positioning of drive train components to obtain an optimum solution for vehicle handling and its stability in dynamic condition are proposed and evaluated.
Keywords- Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle, Electric Vehicle, Retrofitting, Mass Distribution, Centre of Gravity, Lateral load Transfer, Slip angle, Polar moment of inertia, Vehicle Handling and Stability.

gravity (CG) position in the vehicle. Architectural orientation of the vehicle determines the mass distribution of a vehicle and as well as the CG. Placement of components along longitudinal, lateral and vertical direction of the vehicle regulates the mass distribution ratio of the vehicle in each direction. Except mass distribution, there are other regulatory factors to control the position of CG. Those are: vehicle track width, vehicle weight, length of wheelbase, suspension system etc. In case of retrofitting, length of wheelbase cannot be changed. A little modification can be achieved in track width by modifying the tire profile. Suspension system can also be changed by adding stiffer spring. So among these factors, mass distribution has an intrinsic effect in case of retrofitted EV. Handling characteristics of a road vehicle are concerned with its response to steering commands and to environmental inputs affecting the direction of motion of the vehicle such as wind and road disturbances. There are two basic concerns in vehicle handling: one is the control of the vehicle to a desired path, the other is the stabilization of the direction of motion against external disturbances [2, 3]. In case of retrofitting, placement of all EV drive train and other sub-systems requires both static and dynamic analysis for change in CG position due to different mass distributions. In this study, re-orientation of drive train components and other subsystems in different places of the vehicle has been considered to demonstrate the effect of mass distribution on dynamics of vehicle in maneuvering condition. The objective of this research is to analyze the effect of changing CG on vehicle path while turning which will be useful to develop more robust control strategy for vehicle stability. II. RETROFITTED EV LAYOUT

I.

INTRODUCTION

EVs (Electric Vehicle) are becoming more popular as an alternative of conventional internal combustion engine vehicles recently because of environmental awareness worldwide. To date, EVs in comparison with ICEVs (Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle) has intrinsic advantages such as zero emission of tailpipe pollutants [1]. Rapid commercialization of EV can has a profound effect on meeting the lower carbon constraints target. But it requires more attention on overcoming its limitations such as limited range, cost and charging infrastructure. In this regard, it involves further research and development in production of new vehicles and as well as in retrofitting of existing ICE vehicles with electric drives to achieve required performance associated with vehicle cost. For the time being, new production of EV is not getting commercialized as required due to cost issue. At this stage, retrofitting of existing vehicles to electric drives is a feasible solution for rapid adaptation of EV as cost and time involved in retrofitting is much lower than that of new production. Mass distribution of the vehicle plays an important role in improving vehicle performance in terms of safe handling and stability. It is one of the dependencies of locating the center of

Different orientations of drive train components and other subsystems in the vehicle has been planned and demonstrated to define different mass distribution layout for analysis using SolidWorks. EV battery, motor and the control system have been considered as added weight items in the replacement of engine and engine driven accessories. Table 1 below shows the removed and added weight items for retrofitting of EV. Three mass distribution conditions have been considered to perform the analysis. Those are: front-loaded (Case 1), mid-loaded (Case 2) and rear-loaded (Case 3) layouts as shown in figure 1, 2 and 3 below.

Controller

Controller

Battery

Front

Front

III.

MASS DISTRIBUTION AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Battery
Rear

Motor

Rear

Motor

CG is the point of equilibrium which is the mean location of all gravitational forces acting on a vehicle. Position of CG plays an important role in improving vehicle performance in terms of safe handling and stability. Determining the center of gravity is a complicated procedure because the mass (and weight) may not be uniformly distributed throughout the object. Mass distribution involves the removal of the engine and the engine driven accessories are replaced by an electric drive train and battery pack. Mass distribution directly affects a variety of characteristics including handling, acceleration, and traction and component life. Placing of different EV components and drive train accessories changes the position of CG along the vehicle and the dynamic stability of the vehicle with it. As this study is concerned about the retrofitting of electric vehicle, mass distribution becomes more important than it is in case of ICE vehicles. In case of conventional ICE vehicles, other factors such as track width, length of wheelbase or suspension system can be changed. But due to the cost effectiveness issues of EV, it is vital to maintain the systems of the car body as existing. From vehicle parameters listed below in table 2 CG position of the vehicle in each condition has been calculated in longitudinal (x) and vertical (z) direction by using equation stated below: (1)

Figure 1: Front-loaded Layout [4]

Figure 2: Mid-loaded Layout [4]

TABLE 1: REMOVED AND ADDED WEIGHT FOR RETROFITTED EV

Removed Items Engine Radiator Gear Box Battery

Weight (kg) 150 10 10 10

Added Items Battery Motors (2) Controllers

Weight (kg) 250 50 30

Front loaded layout comprises the battery pack at the front bay, control unit in rear boot space and motor inside the rear wheel. By this arrangement front loaded layout characterizes the longitudinal mass distribution ratio (Front/Rear) of the vehicle as around 60:40. Mid-loaded layout demonstrates the longitudinal mass distribution (Front/Rear) as around 50:50 with the battery pack at the mid-area of the vehicle under the passenger seats. Controller and motor occupy the same space as the front loaded layout. Controller Battery
Front

(2) Hence, x = Distance of CG from front axle. z = Distance of CG from ground. M = Vehicle weight. n = No. of item. mn= Mass of component. xn = CG distance of component from front axle. zn = CG distance of component from ground.
TABLE 2: VEHICLE PARAMETERS AND RETROFITTING SPECIFICATIONS

Vehicle Parameter and Specification Initial Weight Motor

Rear Figure 3: Rear-loaded Layout [4]

1250 kg 2400 mm 1400 mm 130 mm 1500 mm

Wheel-base Track Length Ground Clearance Vehicle Height

Significant change in the rear-loaded layout is the battery pack at the rear boot space of the vehicle and controller at the front bay. This set-up exhibits the longitudinal mass distribution (Front/Rear) as 40:60 with placement of the motor inside rear wheels.

Lateral mass distribution of the vehicle is an important factor during cornering for easy manoeuver. It is crucial to maintain lateral mass distribution equal to both sides. When

vehicle starts turning, load transfer occurs in lateral direction towards the outside tires of the vehicle. If the mass distribution is not equal in left and right side of the vehicle, one side of tires face intrinsic amount of weight force during either left or right turn which can cause skidding [5, 6]. In this case, all three layouts with different longitudinal mass distributions, lateral placing arrangement of the components has been maintained as 50:50. In each layout, extra weight added during retrofitting is distributed equally in both left and right side of the vehicle so that extra weight added to the vehicle cannot decrease the existing condition of vehicle stability after retrofitting. A. Lateral Load Transfer When setting up a retrofitted chassis with electric drive train and battery pack, it is important to consider the load transfer characteristics of the car. The amount of load on a tire at any given time dramatically affects the traction that tire can generate. There is both positive and negative effect of load transfer in dynamic condition of a vehicle. There are some factors which can regulate the effect of load transfer such as vehicle track width, position of vertical CG, vehicle weight and mass re-distribution within the chassis in case of vehicle retrofitting. Tires behavior under vertical load is one of the important aspects for vehicle handling and stability. Tireresponses follow some patterns such as grip of tire increases with increasing load whereas the amount of grip gained decreases as the load increases as shown in graph 1 [3, 7]. Tire properties also affect vehicle handling in this load situation as tire friction coefficient decreases as load on tire increases and more weight transfer produces less tire grip.

because the outside tires do not gain as much traction force as the inside tires lose. The equation for calculating the amount of lateral load transfer is: LT Lateral = ALateral x W x (CGH/Tr) Where, LT Lateral = Load transfer in lateral direction. = Lateral Acceleration. W = Vehicle weight. CGH = Height of CG. Tr = Track width of the vehicle. In this study, comparative model based on lateral load transfer during cornering for three mass distribution layouts have been generated as presented in graph 2. Table 3 below demonstrates the comparison based on tire grip that inside and outside tires can generate which will be distributed to handle both longitudinal force (for accelerating or braking) and side force (cornering). (3)

Traction (kg)

Graph 2: Load transfer during cornering Vertical Load (kg) Graph 1: Available tire traction as function of vertical load.

In graph 1, as the vertical load on a tire increases, amount of traction goes up, but the percentage of grip gain decreases, effectively reducing grips a vehicle can generate. This line can move around relative to the graph based on several conditions such as camber, ambient temperature, tire temperature and track surface condition, and obviously the type of tire [6]. During cornering of a vehicle, load transfers from the inside tires to the outside tires due to centrifugal force. This reduces the overall traction the front and rear pairs can generate

Lowering the CG can be attained by changing the arrangement of drive train components and subsystems which may require major re-design of the chassis. With the exception of a few heavy items such as battery pack and electric motor itself, most of the components will be small and will only make a minor amount of difference. Increasing track width can be accomplished with wider wheels and/or wheels with more offset or longer control arms, but not significantly while retrofitting. So, mass distribution has intrinsic effect on changing CG in each direction as well as on load transfer. The total weight on all four wheels remains the same. The total load is only distributed differently.

TABLE 3: COMPARISON BASED ON TIRE GRIP

Tire Grip Steady Condition

Front Tire (Each) Front Loaded Layout (Case 1) Mid Loaded Layout (Case 2) Rear Loaded Layout (Case 3) Rear Tire (Each)

Dynamic Condition (Load transfer while cornering)

Outside Front Tire Inside Front Tire Outside Rear Tire Inside Rear Tire

Where, Wf = Total Weight at the front portion D CG = Distance of CG from the front axle, X = Distance of CG from the center of weight concentration. WB = Total Weight at the front portion
TABLE 4: COMPARISON BASED ON POLAR MOMENT

1.024

1.25

0.831

1.463

0.862

2.914

Frontloaded Layout (Case 1) Amount of Weight concentration (EV Components) Distance of weight concentration from CG Polar Moment

Mid-loaded Layout (Case 2)

Rearloaded Layout (Case 3)

330 Kg

330 Kg

330 Kg

1.131

1.071

0.845

1.924

0.839

1.818

381 mm ~ 0.38 m (330x0.38) =125.4 Kgm

231 mm ~ 0.23 m

612 mm ~ 0.61 m (330x0.61) =201.3 Kgm

1.309

0.982

0.949

2.123

0.795

1.418

B. Polar Momemt of Inertia Moment of inertia is another basic module of vehicle handling which is related to the mass distribution and placement of weight components of the vehicle. Balancing the mass evenly in the vehicle provides an even distribution for a balanced response to dynamic changes. Ideal static mass distribution involves maintaining the position of the center of mass or center of gravity (CG) towards the midpoint of the vehicle in each direction, that is, longitudinal, lateral and vertical. This ideal position of the CG ensures that the center of weight concentration is at the midarea of the vehicle, which improves the polar moment of inertia condition in terms of vehicle handling and stability in dynamic conditions [8, 9]. Polar moment of inertia or the centre of weight concentration of the vehicle dictates the willingness of the vehicle to change the directional position to ensure safe handling of the vehicle. While vehicle changes direction in a corner, as far away the centre of weight concentration located from the centre of gravity the moment will be bigger. Polar moment of inertia for each mass distribution layout has been calculated and compared to get a profound view of vehicle characteristics in evaluating optimum placement solution for EV drive train and subsystems. By taking moment of each weight item at the centre of weight concentration, we can get the following equation (6). Table 4 below represents the comparison based on polar moment. Wf x (D CG X) = Wr x (WB - D CG + X) (6)

(330x0.23) =75.9 Kg-m

The weight concentrations at two poles (front and rear ends) of the vehicle away from CG make the vehicle less responsive in handling and resist the changes of direction. C. Slip Angle Another important factor analysed in this paper related to the load transfer is slip angle when the wheels are actually turned slightly more than the actual amount required to go toward the intended path. Slip angle is related to the lateral load or cornering force of the tire. As lateral loads increase due to higher cornering speeds, tires creep to the outside of the turn and therefore move in a direction that is different from their heading [10, 11]. The difference between the tire's heading and the direction of travel is called the slip angle. Slip angle changes proportionally with load transfer but not in a constant rate. Here slip angle, has been calculated by using following equation:

=
Where,

W V 2 C g R

(4)

= Slip angle. W = Weight on tire. V = Velocity of the vehicle. R = Radius of the curved path g = Acceleration of gravity C= Cornering stiffness of the tire.

Here, slip angles produced by inside and outside tires during cornering have been calculated in different vertical load and speed of the vehicle considering three mass distribution layouts. Analysis evaluates these three layouts based on slip angles created by tires while turning to define different handling states such as understeering, oversteering, neutral-steering etc. Figure 4 represents the lateral forces acting on tires, slip angles, vehicle direction and intended path of the vehicle while running in a curved path.

different mass distribution situations considering turn maneuver. To analyze the effect of different mass distribution on vehicle stability while turning, forces are applied on the wheel of the model vehicle in both longitudinal (X) and lateral (Y) directions. Forces applied in X direction have been modeled by following torque generation characteristics of electric motor. In this simulation, vehicle speed and yaw rate are attained by using body sensor in the model. To get the yaw rate this sensor measures angular velocity of the vehicle about its vertical axis. The main purpose of using this sensor is to determine the orientation of the vehicle as it starts to roll over. This determines the radius of the curved path followed by the vehicle while turning. The equation used to calculate the radius of the curved path is:

R=
Where,

Vx Y

(7)

R = Radius of the curved path, V x = Vehicle Speed, Y = Yaw Rate.

Figure 4: Forces on tires while turning [4]

Vertical load on the tires has an effect on the lateral cornering force generated at a given slip angle. In general, cornering force increases as the vertical load increases, but the increase is not proportional to the load. Tire cornering coefficient declines as vertical load increases. The coefficient is determined by the percentage of rated load that is represented by the actual vertical load imposed on the tire. Hence, analysis has been conducted based on effect of different vertical load in different mass distribution conditions for a given cornering coefficient. Cornering force is also affected by the tire's camber angle. When a tire rolls at a camber angle it generates a lateral force in the direction in which it is leaning. Thrust produced by camber angle is not considered in this research as it is much less than the force produced by slip angle. D. Vehicle Model A model based simulation using MATLAB SIMULINK is presented in this paper to demonstrate the effect of different mass distribution in retrofitted EV during cornering of the vehicle in terms of vehicle stability. This model, shown in figure 5 consists of different component blocks such as axle, wheels, body, to simulate the trajectory of the vehicle in

Figure 5: Model of Vehicle.

E. Results and Analysis Different scenarios are taken into consideration incorporating with load distribution in this vehicle simulation. Vehicle parameters and specifications from table 2 are used in this analysis. In simulation, it is assumed that there is no moving load on any of the axle (passenger and luggage) and vehicle is steering on a plain road with zero degree inclined angle. In case of the weight force acting on each tire, only longitudinal load distribution has been considered. X-Y plot demonstrates different effects for different mass distributions

and CG positions on vehicle trajectory as shown in figure 6, 7, 8 below.

IV.

CONCLUSSION AND DISCUSSION

Figure 6: Over steering (Case 1)

Figure 7: Neutral Steering (Case 2)

This research comprises analysis of vehicle dynamics data for control systems that aim to enhance vehicle handling and passenger safety. The objective of this research is to analyze the effect of load orientation and changing CG on the behavior of the vehicle while turning based on calculation of slip angles in different speed or lateral forces acting on tires, tire responses to those forces and polar moment of inertia which will be useful to develop more robust control strategy for vehicle stability. This is a parameter based study which is targeted to obtain an optimum solution for placing EV components in terms of safe handling of the vehicle. Analysis results present a model vehicle on track which shows different handling characteristics in dynamic condition. For three mass distribution conditions, three different vehicle stability situations understeering, neutral steering and oversteering have been signified in this study. ACKNOWLEDGMENT We acknowledge the Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Automotive Technology (AutoCRC), Australia for supporting this research. REFERENCES
[1]

Figure 8: Under steering (Case 3)

For case 1 with 60% of total weight at the front, vehicle gets over steered while turning as shown in figure 6. As front of the vehicle is loaded with the major portion of the vehicle weight, rear tires face greater slip angle (the angle of the vector sum of wheel translational velocity Vx and sideslip velocity Vy) than the front tires due to the amount of weight forces acting on the tires. For case 2 involving 50% of total weight at the front, behaviour of the vehicle while turning is close to neutral with slight over steering as shown in figure 7. That means vehicle nearly follows the estimated path for a given steering angle with this weight distribution layout. In this case front and rear tires face almost equal amount of weight forces in static condition. In dynamic condition, front tires experience more weight than rear tires due to weight transfer effect. Hence, this causes slight over steering. But as the amount of weight forces acting on the front tires in this case is much lower than the layout 1 situation, there is only a little difference between front and rear tire slip angles in architectural layout 2. In the situation of case 3 with only 40% of the total weight acting at the front, vehicle gets under steered as shown in figure 8. Here, rear tires face major portion of the vehicle weight which causes a greater slip angle created by front tires than rear tires while turning. In this situation, vehicle follows a curved path of larger radius than the projected trajectory of the vehicle.

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