Tesla Complete Articles and Patents

Table of Contents
A list of missing articles.............................................................................................................................7 1888-05-16: A New System of Alternating Current Motors an !ransformers.......................................10 1888-05-"6: !esla #e$lies to %r. &ouis %uncan' ()$laining *is Alternating Current Motor..................1+ 1888-06-"": !*e !esla Alternate Current Motor......................................................................................"1 188+-05-"5: Mr. Ni,ola !esla on Alternate Current Motors...................................................................."18+0-0--0+: !*e &osses %ue to .ysteresis in !ransformers..................................................................."7 18+0-0+-"-: Swin/urne0s 1.e ge*og2 !ransformer................................................................................"+ 18+0-0+-"-: !esla0s new Alternating Motors...........................................................................................31 18+1-0"-"1: 4*enomena of Alternating Currents of 5ery .ig* 6re7uency.............................................318+1-03-18: ()$eriments wit* Alternating Currents of .ig* 6re7uency................................................-1 18+1-0--03: Alternate Current Motors.....................................................................................................-18+1-0--03: (lectro-Motors.....................................................................................................................-5 18+1-0--18: 4*enomena of Currents of .ig* 6re7uency........................................................................-6 18+1-05-06: An (lectrolytic Cloc,..........................................................................................................-+ 18+1-05-06: Alternate Current (lectrostatic 8n uction A$$aratus...........................................................50 18+1-05-"0: ()$eriments wit* Alternate Currents of 5ery .ig* 6re7uency an !*eir A$$lication to Met*o s of Artificial 8llumination...........................................................................................................5" 18+1-05-"-: A !al, 9y Ni,ola !esla........................................................................................................75 18+1-07-01: (lectric %isc*arge in 5acuum !u/es...................................................................................76 18+1-0+-0": Notes on an :ni$olar %ynamo............................................................................................81 18+"-0"-03: ()$eriments wit* Alternate Currents of .ig* 4otential an .ig* 6re7uency....................85 18+"-10-08: !*e ;%re*strom; 4atent....................................................................................................1"+ 18+"-1"-17: !*e (wing .ig*-6re7uency Alternator an 4arson0s Steam (ngine.................................131 18+"-1"-"1: <n t*e %issi$ation of (lectrical (nergy of t*e .ert= #esonator.......................................13" 18+3-0"-11: !*e 4*ysiological an <t*er (ffects of .ig* 6re7uency Currents...................................135 18+3-0"-"-: <n &ig*t an <t*er .ig* 6re7uency 4*enomena.............................................................137 8N!#<%:C!<#> ? S<M( !.<:@.!S <N !.( (>(............................................................137 <N !.( A44A#A!:S AN% M(!.<% <6 C<N5(#S8<N.........................................................1-0 <N 4.(N<M(NA 4#<%:C(% 9> (&(C!#<S!A!8C 6<#C(................................................1-7 <N C:##(N! <# %>NAM8C (&(C!#8C8!> 4.(N<M(NA..................................................15" 8M4(%ANC( 4.(N<M(NA..........................................................................................................158 <N (&(C!#8CA& #(S<NANC(...................................................................................................15+ <N !.( &8@.! 4.(N<M(NA 4#<%:C(% 9> .8@.-6#(A:(NC> C:##(N!S <6 .8@. 4<!(N!8A& AN% @(N(#A& #(MA#BS #(&A!8N@ !< !.( S:9C(C!...............................163 18+5-0--00: !esla0s <scillator an <t*er 8nDentions.............................................................................176 18+6-0--01: <n #eflecte #oentgen #ays............................................................................................1+" 18+6-0--08: <n #oentgen #a iations....................................................................................................1+7 18+6-0--"": #oentgen #ay 8nDestigations............................................................................................."00 18+6-05-0+: <n A$$aratus for Cat*ogra$*y.........................................................................................."018+6-07-08: An 8nteresting 6eature of E-ray #a iations......................................................................"06 18+6-08-1": #oentgen #ays or Streams................................................................................................"07 18+6-1"-01: <n t*e #oentgen Streams.................................................................................................."11 18+6-1"-"3: Mr. !esla on !*ermo (lectricity........................................................................................"15 18+6-0"-16: Ni,ola !esla - .e Frites A/out .is ()$eriments in (lectrical .ealing..........................."16 18+6-03-11: <n #oentgen rays G1H........................................................................................................."17 18+6-03-1-: !esla0s &atest #esults - .e Now 4ro uces #a iogra$*s at a %istance of More !*an 6orty
6eet.........................................................................................................................................................""0 18+6-03-18: <n #oentgen rays G"H I &atest #esults..............................................................................""" 18+7-01-"7: <n (lectricity....................................................................................................................""18+7-03-03: !*e Age of (lectricity......................................................................................................."30 18+7-05-0": Nicola !esla </Jects.........................................................................................................."318+7-05-05: <n t*e .urtful Actions of &enar an #oentgen tu/es....................................................."35 18+7-08-11: <n t*e Source of #oentgen #ays an t*e 4ractical Construction an Safe <$eration of &enar !u/es.........................................................................................................................................."-0 18+8-01-05: !esla0s &atest A Dances in 5acuum-!u/e &ig*ting I A$$lication of !u/es of .ig* 8lluminating 4ower to 4*otogra$*y an <t*er 4ur$oses......................................................................."-5 18+8-0"-06: !esla <n Animal !raining /y (lectricity..........................................................................."-8 18+8-11-13: My Su/marine %estroyer.................................................................................................."-+ 18+8-11-17: .ig* 6re7uency <scillators for (lectro-!*era$eutic an <t*er 4ur$oses........................"51 18+8-11-"1: 4lans to %is$ense wit* Artillery of t*e 4resent !y$e........................................................"60 18+8-11-"-: &etter to ( itor.................................................................................................................."61 18+8-11-30: !esla %escri/es *is (fforts in 5arious 6iel s of For,......................................................"6" 18++-03-15: <n Current 8nterru$ters....................................................................................................."618++-03-"+: Some ()$eriments in !eslaKs &a/oratory wit* Currents of .ig* 4otential an .ig* 6re7uency..............................................................................................................................................."66 1+00-06-00: !*e 4ro/lem of 8ncreasing .uman (nergy - Fit* S$ecial #eferences to t*e .arnessing of t*e Sun0s (nergy....................................................................................................................................."7!.( <NFA#% M<5(M(N! <6 MAN?!.( (N(#@> <6 !.( M<5(M(N!?!.( !.#(( FA>S <6 8NC#(AS8N@ .:MAN (N(#@>................................................................................"7!.( 68#S! 4#<9&(M: .<F !< 8NC#(AS( !.( .:MAN MASS?!.( 9:#N8N@ <6 A!M<S4.(#8C N8!#<@(N.........................................................................................................."77 !.( S(C<N% 4#<9&(M: .<F !< #(%:C( !.( 6<#C( #(!A#%8N@ !.( .:MAN MASS?!.( A#! <6 !(&A:!<MA!8CS...................................................................................."80 !.( !.8#% 4#<9&(M: .<F !< 8NC#(AS( !.( 6<#C( ACC(&(#A!8N@ !.( .:MAN MASS?!.( .A#N(SS8N@ <6 !.( S:N0S (N(#@>..............................................................."85 !.( S<:#C( <6 .:MAN (N(#@>?!.( !.#(( FA>S <6 %#AF8N@ (N(#@> 6#<M !.( S:N.........................................................................................................................................."86 @#(A! 4<SS898&8!8(S <66(#(% 9> 8#<N 6<# 8NC#(AS8N@ .:MAN 4(#6<#MANC( ?(N<#M<:S FAS!( 8N 8#<N MAN:6AC!:#(..................................................................."87 (C<N<M8CA& 4#<%:C!8<N <6 8#<N 9> A N(F 4#<C(SS..............................................."87 !.( C<M8N@ A@( <6 A&:M8N8:M?%<<M <6 !.( C<44(# 8N%:S!#>?!.( @#(A! C858&8L8N@ 4<!(NC> <6 !.( N(F M(!A&..........................................................................."88 (66<#!S !<FA#% <9!A8N8N@ M<#( (N(#@> 6#<M C<A&?!.( (&(C!#8C !#ANSM8SS8<N?!.( @AS-(N@8N(?!.( C<&%-C<A& 9A!!(#>.................................."+0 (N(#@> 6#<M !.( M(%8:M?!.( F8N%M8&& AN% !.( S<&A# (N@8N('?M<!85( 4<F(# 6#<M !(##(S!#8A& .(A!?(&(C!#8C8!> 6#<M NA!:#A& S<:#C(S.........."+1 A %(4A#!:#( 6#<M BN<FN M(!.<%S?4<SS898&8!> <6 A ;S(&6-AC!8N@; (N@8N( <# MAC.8N(' 8NAN8MA!(' >(! CA4A9&(' &8B( A &858N@ 9(8N@' <6 %(#858N@ (N(#@> 6#<M !.( M(%8:M?!.( 8%(A& FA> <6 <9!A8N8N@ M<!85( 4<F(#......"+" 68#S! (66<#!S !< 4#<%:C( !.( S(&6-AC!8N@ (N@8N(?!.( M(C.AN8CA& <SC8&&A!<#?F<#B <6 %(FA# AN% &8N%(?&8A:8% A8#............................................."+%8SC<5(#> <6 :N(E4(C!(% 4#<4(#!8(S <6 !.( A!M<S4.(#(?S!#AN@( (E4(#8M(N!S?!#ANSM8SS8<N <6 (&(C!#8CA& (N(#@> !.#<:@. <N( F8#( F8!.<:! #(!:#N?!#ANSM8SS8<N !.#<:@. !.( (A#!. F8!.<:! AN> F8#(..."+6 ;F8#(&(SS; !(&(@#A4.>?!.( S(C#(! <6 !:N8N@?(##<#S 8N !.( .(#!L8AN
8N5(S!8@A!8<NS?A #(C(85(# <6 F<N%(#6:& S(NS8!85(N(SS................................"++ %(5(&<4M(N! <6 A N(F 4#8NC84&(?!.( (&(C!#8CA& <SC8&&A!<#? 4#<%:C!8<N <6 8MM(NS( (&(C!#8CA& M<5(M(N!S?!.( (A#!. #(S4<N%S !< MAN?8N!(#4&AN(!A#> C<MM:N8CA!8<N N<F 4#<9A9&(.......................................301 !#ANSM8SS8<N <6 (&(C!#8CA& (N(#@> !< AN> %8S!ANC( F8!.<:! F8#(S?N<F 4#AC!8CA9&(?!.( 9(S! M(ANS <6 8NC#(AS8N@ !.( 6<#C( ACC(&(#A!8N@ !.( .:MAN MASS................................................................................................................................308 1+01-01-30: !esla0s New %iscoDery......................................................................................................310 1+01-0"-0": !esla0s Fireless &ig*t........................................................................................................313 1+01-0"-0+: !al,ing wit* 4lanets..........................................................................................................315 S8@NA&8N@ A! 100'000'000 M8&(SM............................................................................................315 (E4(#8M(N!S 8N C<&<#A%<...................................................................................................316 !(##868(% 9> S:CC(SS..............................................................................................................316 C<MM:N8CA!8N@ F8!. !.( MA#!8ANS...............................................................................317 1+0"-0"-08: 8nDentor !esla0s 4lant Nearing Com$letion.......................................................................318 1+0"-05-18: Startling 4re iction of t*e Forl 0s @reatest &iDing Scientist in an Article Fritten for t*e Sun ay Nort* American.........................................................................................................................31+ 1+0--01-01: (lectrical oscillator ActiDity !en Million .orse$ower 9urning Atmos$*eric Nitrogen /y .ig*-6re7uency %isc*arges !welDe Million 5olts................................................................................3"1+0--0"-06: A Stri,ing !esla Manifesto................................................................................................3"5 1+0--03-05: !*e !ransmission of (lectrical (nergy Fit*out Fires.....................................................3"6 1+0--11-"7: &etter from Ni,ola !esla....................................................................................................3"+ 1+0--1"-"+: (lectric Autos....................................................................................................................331 1+05-01-07: !*e !ransmission of (lectrical (nergy Fit*out Fires as a Means for 6urt*ering 4eace.33" 1+05-06-"-: !esla on Su/way %angers.................................................................................................338 1+05-07-1-: !esla0s #e$ly to ( ison......................................................................................................33+ 1+05-07-16: !esla on t*e 4eary Nort* 4ole ()$e ition.........................................................................3-0 1+07-03-00: Signalling to Mars I A 4ro/lem of (lectrical (ngineering...............................................3-" 1+07-03-08: !une &ig*tning................................................................................................................3-1+07-03-1+: !esla0s Fireless !or$e o...................................................................................................3-6 1+07-03-"6: Fireless on #ail roa s.......................................................................................................3-7 1+07-05-0": Ni,ola !esla </Jects..........................................................................................................3-8 1+07-05-03: !esla0s !i al FaDe to Ma,e Far im$ossi/le.....................................................................3-+ 1+07-05-1+: Mr. !esla on t*e Fireless !ransmission of 4ower............................................................35" 1+07-06-"3: Can 9ri ge t*e @a$ to Mars..............................................................................................353 1+07-10-1+: Slee$ from (lectricity........................................................................................................355 1+07-10-"": 4ossi/ilities of Fireless.....................................................................................................356 1+07-10-"5: !esla on Fireless...............................................................................................................357 1+07-1"-"0: My A$$aratus' says !esla..................................................................................................358 1+08-00-00: !*e 6uture of Fireless Art................................................................................................35+ 1+08-01-05: Ni,ola !esla0s 6orecast 6or 1+08......................................................................................361 1+08-0--"1: Mr. !esla0s 5ision..............................................................................................................36" 1+08-06-08: &ittle Aero$lane 4rogress..................................................................................................363 1+08-0+-15: !esla on Aero$lanes...........................................................................................................361+0+-05-"3: .ow to Signal to Mars.......................................................................................................365 1+0+-1"-"-: Ni,ola !esla0s New Fireless.............................................................................................368 1+10-01-16: New Mec*anical 4rinci$le for ConserDation of (nergy....................................................36+ 1+11-0+-18: %r. !esla !al,s of @as !ur/ines.........................................................................................371 1+11-10-15: !esla0s New Monarc* of Mac*ines....................................................................................37-
1+1"-05-00: Mr. !esla on t*e 6uture......................................................................................................37+ 1+1"-07-06: !*e %istur/ing 8nfluence of Solar #a iation <n t*e Fireless !ransmission of (nergy...380 1+13-11-0+: Ni,ola !esla0s 4lan to Bee$ ;Fireless !*um/; on S*i$s at Sea.......................................381+1--03-"1: 6rom Ni,ola !esla.............................................................................................................386 1+1--05-"": !esla An Marconi............................................................................................................387 1+1--1"-"0: Ni,ola !esla loo,s to Science to en t*e Far...................................................................388 1+15-0"-07: .ow Cosmic 6orces S*a$e <ur %estinies........................................................................3+6 MAN AS A MAC.8N(.....................................................................................................................3+6 NA!:#A& 6<#C(S 8N6&:(NC( :S...........................................................................................3+7 .<F FA#S A#( S!A#!(%..........................................................................................................3+8 FA# AN% !.( (A#!.A:AB(....................................................................................................3++ 1+15-06-05: Some 4ersonal #ecollections............................................................................................-00 1+15-0+-0+: !*e Fon er Forl to 9e Create 9y (lectricity..............................................................-0(&(C!#8CA& 4<SS898&8!8(S 8N C<A& AN% 8#<N.................................................................-05 .>%#<-(&(C!#8C %(5(&<4M(N!..........................................................................................-06 !.( N(E! @#(A! AC.8(5(M(N!?(&(C!#8CA& C<N!#<& <6 A!M<S4.(#8C M<8S!:#(.......................................................................................................................................-06 (C<N<M> 8N &8@.! AN% 4<F(#?(&(C!#8C 4#<4:&S8<N............................................-07 A 6(F <6 !.( F<N%(#S !< C<M(.........................................................................................-07 !(&(@#A4.8C 4.<!<@#A4.> AN% <!.(# A%5ANC(S...................................................-08 (&(C!#8C 8N5(N!8<NS 8N FA#................................................................................................-08 !.( 4<F(# <6 !.( 6:!:#(.....................................................................................................-08 1+15-10-03: Ni,ola !esla Sees A Fireless 5ision.................................................................................-10 1+15-10-0-: C<##(C!8<N 9> M#. !(S&A <f Fireless A$$aratus .e meant to Say ;8neffectiDe'; not ;8nefficient.;................................................................................................................................-11 1+15-1"-08: !esla0s New %eDice &i,e 9olts of !*or.............................................................................-1" 1+16-00-00: 4re-.earing 8nterDiew.......................................................................................................-13 4reface...............................................................................................................................................-13 8N!#<%:C!8<N.............................................................................................................................-13 88. ()$eriments wit* Fireless !elegra$*y an !ele$*ony................................................................-17 588. !*eory an !ec*ni7ue of (nergy !ransmission.........................................................................-3+ 1+16-1"-0": Fon ers of t*e 6uture.......................................................................................................-51+17-0"-00: %r. Ni,ola !esla an .is Ac*ieDements............................................................................-57 1+17-0"-"5: (lectric %riDe for 9attle S*i$s..........................................................................................-6C<N!#<5(#S8A& C<##(S4<N%(NC(....................................................................................-6!.( .(&8CA& 4#<4(&&(#..........................................................................................................-6A%5AN!A@(S <6 !>4(S.............................................................................................................-65 S<M( 6A!A& M8S!AB(S...............................................................................................................-65 8##(5(#S89&( !:#98N(S..........................................................................................................-65 A M(C.AN8CA& !<:# %( 6<#C(.............................................................................................-65 S:4(#8<#8!> <6 (&(C!#8C %#85(..........................................................................................-66 SA58N@ <6 4<F(#.......................................................................................................................-66 A:(S!8<N <6 F(8@.!................................................................................................................-67 N(F C#:8S(#S0 #(A:8#(M(N!S.............................................................................................-67 %8SA#MAM(N! 8M4<SS89&(.....................................................................................................-67 !< :S( FA# S.84S 8N 4(AC(.....................................................................................................-68 1+17-0--15: Ni,ola !esla !ells of Country0s Far 4ro/lems..................................................................-6+ 1+17-05-18: Minutes of t*e Annual Meeting of t*e American 8nstitute of (lectrical (ngineers' .el at t*e (ngineering Societies 9uil ing' 6ri ay (Dening.............................................................................-71
1+17-08-00: !esla0s 5iews on (lectricity an t*e Far...........................................................................-88 1+18-0"-07: A &ig*ting Mac*ine on NoDel 4rinci$les..........................................................................-+1 1+1+-00-00: My 8nDentions....................................................................................................................-+3 8. My (arly &ife.................................................................................................................................-+3 88. My 6irst (fforts At 8nDention.......................................................................................................-+7 888. My &ater en eaDours...................................................................................................................501 85. !*e %iscoDery of t*e !esla Coil an !ransformer.......................................................................506 5. !*e Magnifying !ransmitter.........................................................................................................511 58. !*e Art of !elautomatics.............................................................................................................516 1+1+-0"-00: 6amous Scientific 8llusions...............................................................................................5"3 4reface N1..........................................................................................................................................5"3 4reface N"..........................................................................................................................................5"3 Article................................................................................................................................................5"3 8. !*e 8llusion of t*e A)ial #otation of t*e Moon. ...........................................................................5"88. !*e 6allacy of 6ran,lin0s 4ointe &ig*tning-#o . ......................................................................5"5 888. !*e Singular Misconce$tion of t*e Fireless...............................................................................5"+ 1+1+-0"-"3: !esla answers Mr. Manierre an furt*er e)$lains t*e a)ial rotation of t*e moon.............533 1+1+-0--00: !*e MoonKs #otation.........................................................................................................531+1+-0--00: !esla on .ig* 6re7uency @enerators................................................................................537 1+1+-05-00: !*e !rue Fireless..............................................................................................................538 1+1+-06-00: !*e MoonKs #otation.........................................................................................................551 1+1+-07-00: Ni,ola !esla !ells .ow Fe May 6ly (ig*t Miles .ig* at 1'000 Miles an .our..............557 1+1+-07-00: (lectrical <scillators.........................................................................................................561 1+1+-10-1": Signals to Mars 9ase on .o$e of &ife on 4lanet............................................................56+ 1+"0-1"-11: %eDelo$ments in 4ractice an Art of !ele$*otogra$*y.....................................................57" 1+"1-0+-"-: 8nter$lanetary Communication..........................................................................................575 1+"1-0+-"6: Ni,ola !esla on (lectrical !ransmission...........................................................................577 1+""-00-00: Far enclyffe 6oreclosure A$$eal 4rocee ings.................................................................578 1+"3-0"-"5: A @iant (ye to See #oun t*e Forl ................................................................................6"5 1+"6-01-30: F*en Foman is 9oss........................................................................................................6"8 1+"7-10-16: Forl System of Fireless !ransmission of (nergy..........................................................631 1+"+-0+-"": Ni,ola !esla !ells of New #a io !*eories........................................................................635 1+"+-11-"+: Mr. !esla S$ea,s <ut.........................................................................................................637 1+30-03-00: 4ossi/ilities of (lectro-Static @enerators..........................................................................63+ 1+30-0--13: &etter to ( itor <n Marconi0s feat.....................................................................................6-1+30-07-06: Man0s @reatest Ac*ieDement.............................................................................................6-5 1+31-07-"0: !esla at 75..........................................................................................................................6-6 1+31-11-00: 6aster !*an &ig*t...............................................................................................................6-7 1+31-11-07: No .ig*-S$ee &imit' Says !esla.....................................................................................6-8 1+31-1"-00: <ur 6uture MotiDe 4ower..................................................................................................6-+ 1+3"-0"-06: %r. !esla Frites of 5arious 4*ases of *is %iscoDery........................................................660 1+3"-0--15: Statement of !esla #elating to 6orce an Matter..............................................................661 1+3"-07-10: !esla' 76' #e$orts .is !alents at 4ea,...............................................................................66" 1+3"-07-10: !esla Cosmic #ay Motor May !ransmit 4ower O#oun (art*..........................................661+3"-08-10: C*ewing @um More 6atal !*an #um' Says !esla............................................................666 1+3"-0+-11: 4ioneer #a io (ngineer @iDes 5iews <n 4ower...............................................................668 1+3"-10-13: !*e (ternal Source of (nergy of t*e :niDerse' <rigin an 8ntensity of Cosmic #ays.....670 1+33-06-05: Mr. !esla Frites.................................................................................................................67" 1+33-0+-10: !remen ous New 4ower Soon !o 9e :nleas*e ..............................................................673
1+33-11-0": !esla 0.arnesses0 Cosmic (nergy......................................................................................676 1+3--03-00: 4ossi/ilities of (lectro-Static @enerators..........................................................................677 1+3--0--00: Ni,ola !esla Frites...........................................................................................................681+3--0--08: !esla Sees (Di ence #a io an &ig*t Are Soun .............................................................685 1+3--07-00: #a io 4ower will #eDolutioni=e t*e F<#&%..................................................................687 1+3--07-00: %eat*-#ay Mac*ine %escri/e .........................................................................................6+" 1+3--07-10: !esla 8nDents 4eace #ay....................................................................................................6+3 1+3--07-11: !esla' At 78' 9ares New 0%eat*-9eam0..............................................................................6+1+3--07-11: 9eam !o Bill Army At "00 Miles' !esla0s Claim <n 78t* 9irt* ay.................................6+5 1+3--07-"-: !esla on 4ower %eDelo$ment an 6uture MarDels............................................................6+8 1+3--10-"1: !ri/ute !o Bing Ale)an er................................................................................................700 1+3--10-"1: %r. !esla 5isions t*e (n <f Aircraft 8n Far....................................................................701 1+35-00-00: !*e New Art of 4roJecting Concentrate Non- is$ersiDe (nergy !*roug* Natural Me ia ................................................................................................................................................................701+35-0"-00: A Mac*ine to (n Far.......................................................................................................711 1+35-03-03: @erman Cosmic #ay !*eory Auestione ..........................................................................711+35-06-05: !esla 4re icts S*i$s 4owere /y S*ore 9eam..................................................................715 1+35-07-0+: 3 !esla 8nDentions..............................................................................................................717 1+35-07-11: Ni,ola !esla' at 7+' :ses (art* to !ransmit SignalsP ()$ects to *aDe Q100'000'000 Fit*in !wo >ears...............................................................................................................................................718 1+35-07-11: !esla0s Controlle (art*7ua,e...........................................................................................7"0 1+35-07-11: !esla' 7+' 4romises !o !ransmit 6orce..............................................................................7"1 1+35-08-18: ()$an ing Sun Fill ()$lo e Some %ay !esla 4re icts...................................................7"3 1+35-0+-"": Ni,ola !esla !ells .ow .e0 %efen (t*io$ia Against 8talian 8nDasion..........................7"1+36-07-11: !esla' 80' #eDeals New 4ower %eDice..............................................................................7"7 1+37-0"-00: A Mac*ine to (n Far.......................................................................................................7"8 1+37-07-10: 4re$are Statement /y Ni,ola !esla..................................................................................731 1+37-07-11: Sen ing of Messages to 4lanets 4re icte /y %r. !esla on 9irt* ay................................731+37-07-1": !esla .as 4lans !o Signal Mars........................................................................................737 1+37-07-"7: %r. !esla0s .onours............................................................................................................73+ 1+37-08-"": 8n t*e #ealm of Science: !esla' F*o 4re icte #a io' Now &oo,s 6orwar to Sen ing FaDes to t*e Moon.................................................................................................................................7-0 1+38-05-1": !e)t of !esla S$eec*..........................................................................................................7-" 1+38-10-08: #eference to Com$ass in 13t* Century 4oem...................................................................7-1+3+-00-00: .otel New >or,er 1+3+ - A Story of >out* !ol 9y Age' %e icate !o Miss 4ola 6otitc*' /y 8ts Aut*or Ni,ola !esla.....................................................................................................................7-5 1+3+-07-"6: !*e SoDiet Sacrifice 6or S$ain..........................................................................................7-7 1+-0-00-00: Mec*anical !*era$y..........................................................................................................7-8 1+-0-07-1": Aerial %efence 1%eat* 9eam2 <ffere to :.S. /y !esla...................................................750 1+-0-0+-"": ;%eat* #ay; 6or 4lanes.....................................................................................................751 1+-0-10-"0: 4ro$osing t*e 1%eat* #ay2 6or %efence..........................................................................75" 0000-00-00: !*e New !esla (lectric .eater..........................................................................................750000-00-00: !esla0 s New System <f 6lui 4ro$ulsion.........................................................................755 1+-8-05-16: Ni,ola !esla.......................................................................................................................758 1++7-05-00: #are notes from !esla on Far enclyffe............................................................................761 Corres$on ence......................................................................................................................................767
A list of missing articles

1891 "Tesla's Alternating Current Generators for High Frequency" (3/18 189! ""lectric #ight an$ "lectric Force" (!/% "Tesla's &on$erful "'(eri)ents" (!/* "Tesla at the +oyal ,nstitution" (3/11 "+e-ie. of Tesla at the +oyal ,nstitution" (3/!% "/r0 Tesla's "'(eri)ents on Alternating Currents of Great Frequency" (3/!% "1i2ola Tesla an$ His 3usiness" (4/!1 1893 "The Action of the "ye" (15/6 1894 "Tesla's #a7oratory 3urne$8" "lectrical +e-ie.8 (3/!5 ",n Tesla's #a7oratory" "Tesla's /agic /otor" (*/8 189% Fro) 1i2ola Tesla9He &rites A7out His "'(eri)ents in "lectrical Healing (!/1% ""arth "lectricity to :ill /ono(oly" (3/8 ";n +oentgen +ays8" <art 18 "lectrical +e-ie. (3/11 ";n +oentgen +ays8" <art !8 "lectrical +e-ie.8 #atest +esults ((3/18 "Turne$ ;n" (11/1% 189* "His &ireless Telegra(h <erfecte$ at #ast" (%/* "/essages 3ut 1o &ires" "Tesla's 1e. =isco-ery" 1898 "/r0 Tesla's 1e. Circuit Controller" (15/19 "Tesla's >yste) of "lectric <o.er Trans)ission Through 1atural /e$ia" (15/!% "A 1e. /ar-el" (11/9 "Tesla's #atest ,n-ention" (11/1% "Tesla's &ireless 3oat"9>cientific A)erican (11/1 8 (0 3!% A #etter fro) /r0 Tesla ?to "$itor of the "lectrical "ngineer@ (11/!3 "An Analysis of Tesla's &or2" (11/35 "Tesla an$ His Auest" (11/35 1899 "The 1e. &iBar$ of the &est" 1955 "Tesla's "lectrical <atents C(hel$" (9/1 1953 "The Triscuit /a2es ,ts 3o." (4/!! "&in$)ills /ust 3e the Future >ource of <o.er" "Tesla Thin2s &in$ <o.er >houl$ 3e Cse$ /ore 1o." ">un's +ays .ill 3e Harnesse$8 >uggests <rofessor #angley" 1956 "Clou$7orn "lectric &a-elets To "ncircle the Glo7e" #etter Fro) Tesla (+efers to su7.ay syste) 195% "&ar$enclyffe &iBar$ 1i2ola Tesla >ue$" (11/!%
195* "Tesla's 3ig To.er to 7e >ol$ for =e7t" (%/1! 1959 "His &ireless #ight a Fact8 >ays Tesla" 1915 "&hat >cience /ay Achie-e This Dear" 1911 "1e. ,n-entions 7y Tesla" (4/!5 "Tesla an$ His &ireless Age" (Eune "1i2ola Tesla 0 0 0 =escri7es His 1e. >yste)" (9/3 "Flui$ <ro(ulsion" (9/9 "Tesla's 1e. /etho$ of an$ A((aratus for Flui$ <ro(ulsion" (9/9 "<ossi7ilities of the Gas Tur7ine" (9/9 "Tesla <oints &ay to Tur7ine" (9/11 "Fro) the Co)(le' to the >i)(le" (9/11 "The Tesla >tea) Tur7ine" (9/11 "Tesla's 1e. "ngine" (9/13 "The Tesla Tur7ine" (9/35 "The Tesla >tea) Tur7ine" (15/1! "Tesla's 1e. /echanical <rinci(le" (15/35 "The Tesla Tur7ine" (11/1 "The Tesla Tur7ine" (=ec0 191% "The Tesla High Frequency ;scillator" (/arch 191* "C0 >0 3lo.s C< Tesla +a$io To.er" (>e(te)7er "=estruction of Tesla's To.er 0 0 0 Hints of >(ies" (4/1* 1919 "The "ffects of >tatics on &ireless Trans)ission"9"lectrical "'(eri)enter8 (Ean0 A letter to the 1e. Dor2 Tri7une "Can +a$io ,gnite 3alloonsF" (;ct0 19!5 "The Tesla Tur7ine" (/ar0 19!6 ",n-entor Clai)s &ireless <o.er000"91e. Dor2 Heral$8 (3/9 Tesla >en$s <o.er in Air (3/9 +a$ioe$ #ight8 Heat an$ <o.er <erfecte$ 7y Tesla (3/!! #ight an$ <o.er 7y &ireless (/ay "Tesla on +ays"91e. Dor2 Heral$8 (*/!6 "1i2ola Tesla's Theory of <o.er Trans)ission" (11/14 19!4 "The =e-elo()ent of the /o$ern Gario9Cou(ler fro) 1895 to 19!40 1i2ola Tesla "lectric +esonator or Tesla Coil is Gran$father of +a$io Transfor)ers" (3/1 ""'(eri)ents .ith Tesla +esonator" (Euly >.eBey8 :0 /0 "A #ogical =iscussion on the Trans)ission of <o.er 7y +a$io" (9/% 19!% "Facts A7out Tesla's "'(eri)ents" (!/!*
19!* ""n-isions <lanes +un 7y &ireless9Tesla Tells of Genuine =eath +ays in Future" (*/1! "Tesla <re$icts Fuelless <lane &ithout "ngine" (*/1! >.eBey8 :0 /0 "<o.er 7y +a$io <re$icte$ for 1ear Future" (*/!6 19!8 "Test Trans)ission of <o.er 7y +a$io" (8/6 19!9 Tesla Too 3usy to 3e honoure$ At +a$io >ho. (9/!4 1935 "Tesla /a(s ;ut ;ur "lectrical Future" (A(r0 193! ">ti)ulus an$ +es(onse" (;2t0 1933 "Tesla Certain of His 1e. <o.er" (*/15 "=r0 Tesla8 At **8 >el$o) >lee(s" (*/11 "3rea2ing u( Torna$oes" (=ec0 1936 "Tesla's &ireless <o.er =rea) 1ears +eality"91e. Dor2 =aily 1e.s (6/! "Tesla's +ay" (*/!3 1934 "1e. A((aratus Trans)its "nergy 9 Tesla Announces /etho$ of +e)ote Control8" (*/15 193% "Tesla ,n-ents &ireless "lectricity9>cientist8 Cnfinance$ Here8 To 3uil$ <lant ,n "uro(e" (*/15 "Tesla <re(ares to >en$ <o.er &ithout &ires" (*/!*
1888-05-16: A New System of Alternating Current Motors and Transformers by Nikola Tesla
Delivered before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
I $esire to e'(ress )y than2s to <rofessor Anthony for the hel( he has gi-en )e in this )atter0 , .oul$ also li2e
to e'(ress )y than2s to /r0 <o(e an$ /r0 /artin for their ai$0 The notice .as rather short8 an$ , ha-e not 7een a7le to treat the su7Hect so e'tensi-ely as , coul$ ha-e $esire$8 )y health not 7eing in the 7est con$ition at (resent0 , as2 your 2in$ in$ulgence8 an$ , shall 7e -ery )uch gratifie$ if the little , ha-e $one )eets your a((ro-al0 ,n the (resence of the e'isting $i-ersity of o(inion regar$ing the relati-e )erits of the alternate an$ continuous current syste)s8 great i)(ortance is attache$ to the question .hether alternate currents can 7e successfully utiliBe$ in the o(eration of )otors0 The transfor)ers8 .ith their nu)erous a$-antages8 ha-e affor$e$ us a relati-ely (erfect syste) of $istri7ution8 an$ although8 as in all 7ranches of the art8 )any i)(ro-e)ents are $esira7le8 co)(arati-ely little re)ains to 7e $one in this $irection0 The trans)ission of (o.er8 on the contrary8 has 7een al)ost entirely confine$ to the use of continuous currents8 an$ not.ithstan$ing that )any efforts ha-e 7een )a$e to utiliBe alternate currents for this (ur(ose8 they ha-e8 u( to the (resent8 at least as far as 2no.n8 faile$ to gi-e the result $esire$0 ;f the -arious )otors a$a(te$ to 7e use$ on alternate current circuits the follo.ing ha-e 7een )entione$I 10 A series )otor .ith su7$i-i$e$ fiel$0 !0 An alternate current generator ha-ing its fiel$ e'cite$ 7y continuous currents0 30 "lihu Tho)son's )otor0 60 A co)7ine$ alternate an$ continuous current )otor0 T.o )ore )otors of this 2in$ ha-e suggeste$ the)sel-es to )e0 10 A )otor .ith one of its circuits in series .ith a transfor)er an$ the other in the secon$ary of the transfor)er0 !0 A )otor ha-ing its ar)ature circuit connecte$ to the generator an$ the fiel$ coils close$ u(on the)sel-es0 These8 ho.e-er8 , )ention only inci$entally0 The su7Hect .hich , no. ha-e the (leasure of 7ringing to your notice is a no-el syste) of electric $istri7ution an$ trans)ission of (o.er 7y )eans of alternate currents8 affor$ing (eculiar a$-antages8 (articularly in the .ay of )otors8 .hich , a) confi$ent .ill at once esta7lish the su(erior a$a(ta7ility of these currents to the trans)ission of (o.er an$ .ill sho. that )any results heretofore unattaina7le can 7e reache$ 7y their useJ results .hich are -ery )uch $esire$ in the (ractical o(eration of such syste)s an$ .hich cannot 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y )eans of continuous currents0 3efore going into a $etaile$ $escri(tion of this syste)8 , thin2 it necessary to )a2e a fe. re)ar2s .ith reference to certain con$itions e'isting in continuous current generators an$ )otors8 .hich8 although generally 2no.n8 are frequently $isregar$e$0 ,n our $yna)o )achines8 it is .ell 2no.n8 .e generate alternate currents .hich .e $irect 7y )eans of a co))utator8 a co)(licate$ $e-ice an$8 it )ay 7e Hustly sai$8 the source of )ost of the trou7les e'(erience$ in the o(eration of the )achines0 1o.8 the currents so $irecte$ cannot 7e utiliBe$ in the )otor8 7ut they )ustK again 7y )eans of a si)ilar unrelia7le $e-iceK7e recon-erte$ into their original state of alternate currents0 The function of the co))utator is entirely e'ternal8 an$ in no .ay $ues it affect the internal .or2ing of the )achines0 ,n reality8 therefore8 all )achines are alternate current )achines8 the currents a((earing as continuous only in the e'ternal circuit $uring their transit fro) generator to )otor0 ,n -ie. si)(ly of this fact8 alternate currents .oul$ co))en$ the)sel-es as a )ore $irect a((lication of electrical energy8 an$ the e)(loy)ent of continuous currents .oul$ only 7e Hustifie$ if .e ha$ $yna)os .hich .oul$ (ri)arily generate8 an$ )otors .hich .oul$ 7e $irectly actuate$ 7y such currents0 3ut the o(eration of the co))utator on a )otor is t.ofol$J firstly8 it re-erses the currents through the )otor8 an$ secon$ly8 it effects8 auto)atically8 a (rogressi-e shifting of the (oles of one of its )agnetic constituents0 Assu)ing8 therefore8 that 7oth of the useless o(erations in the syste)8 that is to say8 the $irecting of the alternate currents on the generator an$ re-ersing the $irect currents on the )otor8 7e eli)inate$8 it .oul$ still 7e necessary8 in or$er to cause a rotation of the )otor8 to (ro$uce a (rogressi-e shifting of the (oles of one of its ele)ents8 an$ the question (resente$ itself8KHo. to (erfor) this o(eration 7y the $irect action of alternate currentsF , .ill no. (rocee$ to sho. ho. this result .as acco)(lishe$0
,n the first e'(eri)ent a $ru)9ar)ature .as (ro-i$e$ .ith t.o coils at right angles to each other8 an$ the en$s of these coils .ere connecte$ to t.o (airs of insulate$ contact9rings as usual0 A ring .as then )a$e of thin insulate$ (lates of sheet9iron an$ .oun$ .ith four coils8 each t.o o((osite coils 7eing connecte$ together so as to (ro$uce free (oles on $ia)etrically o((osite si$es of the ring0 The re)aining free en$s of the coils .ere then connecte$ to the contact9rings of the generator ar)ature so as to for) t.o in$e(en$ent circuits8 as in$icate$ in figure 90 ,t )ay no. 7e seen .hat results .ere secure$ in this co)7ination8 an$ .ith this -ie. , .oul$ refer to the $iagra)s8 figures 1 to 8a0 The fiel$ of the generator 7eing in$e(en$ently e'cite$8 the rotation of the ar)ature sets u( currents in the coils C C18 -arying in strength an$ $irection in the .ell92no.n )anner0 ,n the (osition sho.n in figure 1 the current in coil C is nil .hile coil C1 is tra-erse$ 7y its )a'i)u) current8 an$ the connections )y 7e such that the ring is )agnetiBe$ 7y the coils c1 c1 as in$icate$ 7y the letters 1 > in figure 1a8 the )agnetiBing effect of the coils c c 7eing nil8 since these coils are inclu$e$ in the circuit of coil C0
,n figure ! the ar)ature coils are sho.n in a )ore a$-ance$ (osition8 one9eighth of one re-olution 7eing co)(lete$0 Figure !a illustrates the corres(on$ing )agnetic con$ition of the ring0 At this )o)ent the coil c 1 generates a current of the sa)e $irection as (re-iously8 7ut .ea2er8 (ro$ucing the (oles n1 s1 u(on the ringJ the coil c also generates a current of the sa)e $irection8 an$ the connections )ay 7e such that the coils c c (ro$uce the (oles n s8 as sho.n in figure !a0 The resulting (olarity is in$icate$ 7y the letters 1 >8 an$ it .ill 7e o7ser-e$ that the (oles of the ring ha-e 7een shifte$ one9eighth of the (eri(hery of the sa)e0
,n figure 3 the ar)ature has co)(lete$ one9quarter of one re-olution0 ,n this (hase the current in coil C is )a'i)u)8 an$ of such $irection as to (ro$uce the (oles 1 > in figure 3a8 .hereas the current in coil C1 is nil8 this coil 7eing at its neutral (osition0 The (oles
1>
in figure 3a are thus shifte$ one9quarter of the circu)ference of
the ring0
Figure 6 sho.s the coils C C in a still )ore a$-ance$ (osition8 the ar)ature ha-ing co)(lete$ three9eighths of one re-olution0 At that )o)ent the coil C still generates a current of the sa)e $irection as 7efore8 7ut of less strength8 (ro$ucing the co)(arati-ely .ea2er (oles n s in figure 6a8 The current in the coil C1 is of the sa)e strength8 7ut of o((osite $irection0 ,ts effect is8 therefore8 to (ro$uce u(on the ring the (oles n1 an$ sl as in$icate$8 an$ a (olarity8 1 >8 results8 the (oles no. 7eing shifte$ three9eighths of the (eri(hery of the ring0
,n figure 4 one9half of one re-olution of the ar)ature is co)(lete$8 an$ the resulting )agnetic con$ition of the ring is in$icate$ in figure 4a0 1o.8 the current in coil C is nil8 .hile the coil C1 yiel$s its )a'i)u) current8 .hich is of the sa)e $irection as (re-iouslyJ the )agnetiBing effect is8 therefore8 $ue to the coils Cl Cl alone8 an$8 referring to figure 4a8 it .ill 7e o7ser-e$ that the (oles 1 > are shifte$ one9half of the circu)ference of the ring0 =uring the ne't half re-olution the o(erations are re(eate$8 as re(resente$ in the figures % to 8 a0
A reference to the $iagra)s .ill )a2e it clear that $uring one re-olution of the ar)ature the (oles of the ring are shifte$ once aroun$ its (eri(hery8 an$ each re-olution (ro$ucing li2e effects8 a ra(i$ .hirling of the (oles in har)ony .ith the rotation of the ar)ature is the result0 ,f the connections of either one of the circuits in the ring are re-erse$8 the shifting of the (oles is )a$e to (rogress in the o((osite $irection8 7ut the o(eration is i$entically the sa)e0 ,nstea$ of using four .ires8 .ith li2e result8 three .ires )ay 7e use$8 one for)ing a co))on return for 7oth circuits0
This rotation or .hirling of the (oles )anifests itself in a series of curious (heno)ena0 ,f a $elicately (i-ote$ $isc of steel or other )agnetic )etal is a((roache$ to the ring it is set in ra(i$ rotation8 the $irection of rotation -arying .ith the (osition of the $isc0 For instance8 noting the $irection outsi$e of the ring it .ill 7e foun$ that insi$e the ring it turns in an o((osite $irection8 .hile it is unaffecte$ if (lace$ in a (osition sy))etrical to the ring0 This is easily e'(laine$0 "ach ti)e that a (ole a((roaches it in$uces an o((osite (ole in the nearest (oint on the $isc8 an$ an attraction is (ro$uce$ u(on that (ointJ o.ing to this8 as the (ole is shifte$ further a.ay fro) the $isc a tangential (ull is e'erte$ u(on the sa)e8 an$ the action 7eing constantly re(eate$8 a )ore or less ra(i$ rotation of the $isc is the result0 As the (ull is e'erte$ )ainly u(on that (art .hich is nearest to the ring8 the rotation outsi$e an$ insi$e8 or right an$ left8 res(ecti-ely8 is in o((osite $irections8 figure 90 &hen (lace$ sy))etrically to the ring8 the (ull on o((osite si$es of the $isc 7eing equal8 no rotation results0 The action is 7ase$ on the )agnetic inertia of the ironJ for this reason a $isc of har$ steel is )uch )ore affecte$ than a $isc of soft iron8 the latter 7eing ca(a7le of -ery ra(i$ -ariations of )agnetis)0 >uch a $isc has (ro-e$ to 7e a -ery useful instru)ent in all these in-estigations8 as it has ena7le$ )e to $etect any irregularity in the action0 A curious effect is also (ro$uce$ u(on iron filings0 3y (lacing so)e u(on a (a(er an$ hol$ing the) e'ternally quite close to the ring they are set in a -i7rating )otion8 re)aining in the sa)e (lace8 although the (a(er )ay 7e )o-e$ 7ac2 an$ forthJ 7ut in lifting the (a(er to a certain height .hich see)s to 7e $e(en$ent on the intensity of the (oles an$ the s(ee$ of rotation8 they are thro.n a.ay in a $irection al.ays o((osite to the su((ose$ )o-e)ent of the (oles0 ,f a (a(er .ith filings is (ut flat u(on the ring an$ the current turne$ on su$$enlyJ the e'istence of a )agnetic .hirl )ay 7e easily o7ser-e$0
To $e)onstrate the co)(lete analogy 7et.een the ring an$ a re-ol-ing )agnet8 a strongly energiBe$ electro9 )agnet .as rotate$ 7y )echanical (o.er8 an$ (heno)ena i$entical in e-ery (articular to those )entione$ a7o-e .ere o7ser-e$0 ;7-iously8 the rotation of the (oles (ro$uces corres(on$ing in$ucti-e effects an$ )ay 7e utiliBe$ to generate currents in a close$ con$uctor (lace$ .ithin the influence of the (oles0 For this (ur(ose it is con-enient to .in$ a ring .ith t.o sets of su(eri)(ose$ coils for)ing res(ecti-ely the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary circuits8 as sho.n in figure 150 ,n or$er to secure the )ost econo)ical results the )agnetic circuit shoul$ 7e co)(letely close$8 an$ .ith this o7Hect in -ie. the construction )ay 7e )o$ifie$ at .ill0 The in$ucti-e effect e'erte$ u(on the secon$ary coils .ill 7e )ainly $ue to the shifting or )o-e)ent of the )agnetic actionJ 7ut there )ay also 7e currents set u( in the circuits in consequence of the -ariations in the intensity of the (oles0 Ho.e-er8 7y (ro(erly $esigning the generator an$ $eter)ining the )agnetiBing effect of the (ri)ary coils the latter ele)ent )ay 7e )a$e to $isa((ear0 The intensity of the (oles 7eing )aintaine$ constant8 the action of the a((aratus .ill 7e (erfect8 an$ the sa)e result .ill 7e secure$ as though the shifting .ere effecte$ 7y )eans of a co))utator .ith an infinite nu)7er of 7ars0 ,n such case the theoretical relation 7et.een the energiBing effect of each set of (ri)ary coils an$ their resultant )agnetiBing effect )ay 7e e'(resse$ 7y the equation of a circle ha-ing its center coinci$ing .ith that of an orthogonal syste) of a'es8 an$
in .hich the ra$ius re(resents the resultant an$ the co9or$inates 7oth of its co)(onents0 These are then res(ecti-ely the sine an$ cosine of the angle C 7et.een the ra$ius an$ one of the a'es ( O 0 +eferring to figure 118 .e ha-e r! L x! M y!J .here x L r cos a8 an$ y L r sin a0 Assu)ing the )agnetiBing effect of each set of coils in the transfor)er to 7e (ro(ortional to the currentK.hich )ay 7e a$)itte$ for .ea2 $egrees of )agnetiBationKthen x L !c an$ y L !c18 .here ! is a constant an$ c an$ cl the current in 7oth sets of coils res(ecti-ely0 >u((osing8 further8 the fiel$ of the generator to 7e unifor)8 .e ha-e for constant s(ee$ c1 L !1 sin a an$ c L !1 sin (95o M a L !1 cos a8 .here !1 is a constant0 >ee figure 1!0 Therefore8 x = !c = ! !1 cos a y = !cl = ! !1 sin aJ an$ ! !1 = r0 That is8 for a unifor) fiel$ the $is(osition of the t.o coils at right angles .ill secure the theoretical result8 an$ the intensity of the shifting (oles .ill 7e constant0 3ut fro) r! L x! M y! it follo.s that for y L ;8 r L xJ it follo.s that the Hoint )agnetiBing effect of 7oth sets of coils shoul$ 7e equal to the effect of one set .hen at its )a'i)u) action0 ,n transfor)ers an$ in a certain class of )otors the fluctuation of the (oles is not of great i)(ortance8 7ut in another class of these )otors it is $esira7le to o7tain the theoretical result0 ,n a((lying this (rinci(le to the construction of )otors8 t.o ty(ical for)s of )otor ha-e 7een $e-elo(e$0 First8 a for) ha-ing a co)(arati-ely s)all rotary effort at the start8 7ut )aintaining a (erfectly unifor) s(ee$ at all loa$s8 .hich )otor has 7een ter)e$ synchronous0 >econ$8 a for) (ossessing a great rotary effort at the start8 the s(ee$ 7eing $e(en$ent on the loa$0 These )otors )ay 7e o(erate$ in three $ifferent .aysI 10 3y the alternate currents of the source only0 !0 3y a co)7ine$ action of these an$ of in$uce$ currents0 30 3y the Hoint action of alternate an$ continuous currents0
The si)(lest for) of a synchronous )otor is o7taine$ 7y .in$ing a la)inate$ ring (ro-i$e$ .ith (ole (roHections .ith four coils8 an$ connecting the sa)e in the )anner 7efore in$icate$0 An iron $isc ha-ing a seg)ent cut a.ay on each si$e )ay 7e use$ as an ar)ature0 >uch a )otor is sho.n in figure 90 The $isc 7eing arrange$ to rotate freely .ithin the ring in close (ro'i)ity to the (roHections8 it is e-i$ent that as the (oles are shifte$ it .ill8 o.ing to its ten$ency to (lace itself in such a (osition as to e)7race the greatest nu)7er of the lines of force8 closely follo. the )o-e)ent of the (oles8 an$ its )otion .ill 7e synchronous .ith that of the ar)ature of the generatorJ that is8 in the (eculiar $is(osition sho.n in figure 98 in .hich the ar)ature (ro$uces 7y one re-olution t.o current i)(ulses in each of the circuits0 ,t is e-i$ent that if8 7y one re-olution of the ar)ature8 a greater nu)7er of i)(ulses is (ro$uce$8 the s(ee$ of the )otor .ill 7e corres(on$ingly increase$0 Consi$ering that the attraction e'erte$ u(on the $isc is greatest .hen the sa)e is in close (ro'i)ity to the (oles8 it follo.s that such a )otor .ill )aintain e'actly the sa)e s(ee$ at all loa$s .ithin the li)its of its ca(acity0 To facilitate the starting8 the $isc )ay 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith a coil close$ u(on itself0 The a$-antage secure$ 7y such a coil is e-i$ent0 ;n the start the currents set u( in the coil strongly energiBe the $isc an$ increase the attraction e'erte$ u(on the sa)e 7y the ring8 an$ currents 7eing generate$ in the coil as long as the s(ee$ of the ar)ature is inferior to that of the (oles8 consi$era7le .or2 )ay 7e (erfor)e$ 7y such a )otor e-en if the s(ee$ 7e 7elo.
nor)al0 The intensity of the (oles 7eing constant8 no currents .ill 7e generate$ in the coil .hen the )otor is turning at its nor)al s(ee$0
,nstea$ of closing the coil u(on itself8 its en$s )ay 7e connecte$ to t.o insulate$ sli$ing rings8 an$ a continuous current su((lie$ to these fro) a suita7le generator0 The (ro(er .ay to start such a )otor is to close the coil u(on itself until the nor)al s(ee$ is reache$8 or nearly so8 an$ then turn on the continuous current0 ,f the $isc 7e -ery strongly energiBe$ 7y a continuous current the )otor )ay not 7e a7le to start8 7ut if it 7e .ea2ly energiBe$8 or generally so that the )agnetiBing effect of the ring is (re(on$erating it .ill start an$ reach the nor)al s(ee$0 >uch a )otor .ill )aintain a7solutely the sa)e s(ee$ at all loa$s0 ,t has also 7een foun$ that if the )oti-e (o.er of the generator is not e'cessi-e8 7y chec2ing the )otor the s(ee$ of the generator is $i)inishe$ in synchronis) .ith that of the )otor0 ,t is characteristic of this for) of )otor that it cannot 7e re-erse$ 7y re-ersing the continuous current through the coil0
The synchronis) of these )otors )ay 7e $e)onstrate$ e'(eri)entally in a -ariety of .ays0 For this (ur(ose it is 7est to e)(loy a )otor consisting of a stationary fiel$ )agnet an$ an ar)ature arrange$ to rotate .ithin the sa)e8 as in$icate$ in figure 130 ,n this case the shifting of the (oles of the ar)ature (ro$uces a rotation of the latter in the o((osite $irection0 ,t results therefro) that .hen the nor)al s(ee$ is reache$8 the (oles of the ar)ature assu)e fi'e$ (ositions relati-ely to the fiel$ )agnet an$ the sa)e is )agnetiBe$ 7y in$uction8 e'hi7iting a $istinct (ole on each of the (ole9(ieces0 ,f a (iece of soft iron is a((roache$ to the fiel$ )agnet it .ill at the start 7e attracte$ .ith a ra(i$ -i7rating )otion (ro$uce$ 7y the re-ersals of (olarity of the )agnet8 7ut as the s(ee$ of the ar)ature increasesJ the -i7rations 7eco)e less an$ less frequent an$ finally entirely cease0 Then the iron is .ea2ly 7ut (er)anently attracte$8 sho.ing that the synchronis) is reache$ an$ the fiel$ )agnet energiBe$ 7y in$uction0 The $isc )ay also 7e use$ for the e'(eri)ent0 ,f hel$ quite close to the ar)ature it .ill turn as long as the s(ee$ of rotation of the (oles e'cee$s that of the ar)atureJ 7ut .hen the nor)al s(ee$ is reache$8 or -ery nearly soJ it ceases to rotate an$ is (er)anently attracte$0 A cru$e 7ut illustrati-e e'(eri)ent is )a$e .ith an incan$escent la)(0 <lacing the la)( in circuit .ith the continuous current generator8 an$ in series .ith the )agnet coil8 ra(i$ fluctuations are o7ser-e$ in the light in consequence of the in$uce$ current set u( in the coil at the startJ the s(ee$ increasing8 the fluctuations occur at
longer inter-als8 until they entirely $isa((ear8 sho.ing that the )otor has attaine$ its nor)al s(ee$0 A tele(hone recei-er affor$s a )ost sensiti-e instru)entJ .hen connecte$ to any circuit in the )otor the synchronis) )ay 7e easily $etecte$ on the $isa((earance of the in$uce$ currents0 ,n )otors of the synchronous ty(e it is $esira7le to )aintain the quantity of the shifting )agnetis) constant8 es(ecially if the )agnets are not (ro(erly su7$i-i$e$0 To o7tain a rotary effort in these )otors .as the su7Hect of long thought0 ,n or$er to secure this result it .as necessary to )a2e such a $is(osition that .hile the (oles of one ele)ent of the )otor are shifte$ 7y the alternate currents of the source8 the (oles (ro$uce$ u(on the other ele)ent shoul$ al.ays 7e )aintaine$ in the (ro(er relation to the for)er8 irres(ecti-e of the s(ee$ of the )otor0 >uch a con$ition e'ists in a continuous current )otorJ 7ut in a synchronous )otor8 such as $escri7e$8 this con$ition is fulfille$ only .hen the s(ee$ is nor)al0
The o7Hect has 7een attaine$ 7y (lacing .ithin the ring a (ro(erly su7$i-i$e$ cylin$rical iron core .oun$ .ith se-eral in$e(en$ent coils close$ u(on the)sel-es0 T.o coils at right angles as in figure 168 are sufficient8 7ut greater nu)7er )ay he a$-antageously e)(loye$0 ,t results fro) this $is(osition that .hen the (oles of the ring are shifte$8 currents are generate$ in the close$ ar)ature coils0 These currents are the )ost intense at or near the (oints of the greatest $ensity of the lines of force8 an$ their effect is to (ro$uce (oles u(on the ar)ature at right angles to those of the ring8 at least theoretically soJ an$ since action is entirely in$e(en$ent of the s(ee$K that is8 as far as the location of the (oles is concerne$Ka continuous (ull is e'erte$ u(on the (eri(hery of the ar)ature0 ,n )any res(ects these )otors are si)ilar to the continuous current )otors0 ,f loa$ is (ut on8 the s(ee$8 an$ also the resistance of the )otor8 is $i)inishe$ an$ )ore current is )a$e to (ass through the energiBing coils8 thus increasing the effort0 C(on the loa$ 7eing ta2en off8 the counter9electro)oti-e force increases an$ less current (asses through the (ri)ary or energiBing coils0 &ithout any loa$ the s(ee$ is -ery nearly equal to that of the shifting (oles of the fiel$ )agnet0 ,t .ill 7e foun$ that the rotary effort in these )otors fully equals that of the continuous current )otors0 The effort see)s to 7e greatest .hen 7oth ar)ature an$ fiel$ )agnet are .ithout any (roHectionsJ 7ut as in such $is(ositions the fiel$ cannot 7e -ery concentrate$8 (ro7a7ly the 7est results .ill 7e o7taine$ 7y lea-ing (ole (roHections on one of the ele)ents only0 Generally8 it )ay 7e state$ that the (roHections $i)inish the torque an$ (ro$uce a ten$ency to synchronis)0 A characteristic feature of )otors of this 2in$ is their ca(acity of 7eing -ery ra(i$ly re-erse$0 This follo.s fro) the (eculiar action of the )otor0 >u((ose the ar)ature to 7e rotating an$ the $irection of rotation of the (oles to 7e re-erse$0 The a((aratus then re(resents a $yna)o )achine8 the (o.er to $ri-e this )achine 7eing the )o)entu) store$ u( in the ar)ature an$ its s(ee$ 7eing the su) of the s(ee$s of the ar)ature an$ the (oles0 ,f .e no. consi$er that the (o.er to $ri-e such a $yna)o .oul$ 7e -ery nearly (ro(ortional to the thir$ (o.er of the s(ee$8 for this reason alone the ar)ature shoul$ 7e quic2ly re-erse$0 3ut si)ultaneously .ith the re-ersal another ele)ent is 7rought into action8 na)ely8 as the )o-e)ent of the (oles .ith res(ect to the ar)ature is
re-erse$8 the )otor acts li2e a transfor)er in .hich the resistance of the secon$ary circuit .oul$ 7e a7nor)ally $i)inishe$ 7y (ro$ucing in this circuit an a$$itional electro)oti-e force0 ;.ing to these causes the re-ersal is instantaneous0 ,f it is $esira7le to secure a constant s(ee$8 an$ at the sa)e ti)e a certain effort at the start8 this result )ay 7e easily attaine$ in a -ariety of .ays0 For instance8 t.o ar)atures8 one for torque an$ the other for synchronis)8 )ay 7e fastene$ on the sa)e shaft8 an$ any $esire$ (re(on$erance )ay 7e gi-en to either one8 or an ar)ature )ay 7e .oun$ for rotary effort8 7ut a )ore or less (ronounce$ ten$ency to synchronis) )ay 7e gi-en to it 7y (ro(erly constructing the iron coreJ an$ in )any other .ays0 As a )eans of o7taining the require$ (hase of the currents in 7oth the circuits8 the $is(osition of the t.o coils at right angles is the si)(lest8 securing the )ost unifor) actionJ 7ut the (hase )ay 7e o7taine$ in )any other .ays8 -arying .ith the )achine e)(loye$0 Any of the $yna)os at (resent in use )ay 7e easily a$a(te$ for this (ur(ose 7y )a2ing connections to (ro(er (oints of the generating coils0 ,n close$ circuit ar)atures8 such as use$ in the continuous current syste)s8 it is 7est to )a2e four $eri-ations fro) equi9$istant (oints or 7ars of the co))utator8 an$ to connect the sa)e to four insulate$ sli$ing rings on the shaft0 ,n this case each of the )otor circuits is connecte$ to t.o $ia)etrically o((osite 7ars of the co))utator0 ,n such a $is(osition the )otor )ay also 7e o(erate$ at half the (otential an$ on the three9.ire (lan8 7y connecting the )otor circuits in the (ro(er or$er to three of the contact rings0 ,n )ulti(olar $yna)o )achines8 such as use$ in the con-erter syste)s8 the (hase is con-eniently o7taine$ 7y .in$ing u(on the ar)ature t.o series of coils in such a )anner that .hile the coils of one set or series are at their )a'i)u) (ro$uction of current8 the coils of the other .ill 7e at their neutral (osition8 or nearly so8 .here7y 7oth sets of coils )ay 7e su7Hecte$ si)ultaneously or successi-ely to the in$ucing action of the fiel$ )agnets0
Generally the circuits in the )otor .ill 7e si)ilarly $is(ose$8 an$ -arious arrange)ents )ay 7e )a$e to fulfill the require)entsJ 7ut the si)(lest an$ )ost (ractica7le is to arrange (ri)ary circuits on stationary (arts of the )otor8 there7y o7-iating8 at least in certain for)s8 the e)(loy)ent of sli$ing contacts0 ,n such a case the )agnet coils are connecte$ alternately in 7oth the circuitsJ that is 18 38 4 0 0 0 in one8 an$ !8 68 % 0 0 0 in the other8 an$ the coils of each set of series )ay 7e connecte$ all in the sa)e )anner8 or alternately in o((ositionJ in the latter case a )otor .ith half the nu)7er of (oles .ill result8 an$ its action .ill 7e corres(on$ingly )o$ifie$0 The figures 148 1% an$ 1*8 sho. three $ifferent (hases8 the )agnet coils in each circuit 7eing connecte$ alternately in o((osition0 ,n this case there .ill 7e al.ays four (oles8 as in figures 14 an$ 1*8 four (ole (roHections .ill 7e neutral8 an$ in figure 1% t.o a$Hacent (ole (roHections .ill ha-e the sa)e (olarity0 ,f the coils are connecte$ in the sa)e )anner there .ill 7e eight alternating (oles8 as in$icate$ 7y the letters nN s' in fig0140 The e)(loy)ent of )ulti(olar )otors secures in this syste) an a$-antage )uch $esire$ an$ unattaina7le in the continuous current syste)8 an$ that is8 that a )otor )ay 7e )a$e to run e'actly at a (re$eter)ine$ s(ee$ irres(ecti-e of i)(erfections in construction8 of the loa$8 an$8 .ithin certain li)its8 of electro)oti-e force an$ current strength0 ,n a general $istri7ution syste) of this 2in$ the follo.ing (lan shoul$ 7e a$o(te$0 At the central station of su((ly a generator shoul$ 7e (ro-i$e$ ha-ing a consi$era7le nu)7er of (oles0 The )otors o(erate$ fro) this generator shoul$ 7e of the synchronous ty(e8 7ut (ossessing sufficient rotary effort to insure their starting0 &ith the o7ser-ance of (ro(er rules of construction it )ay 7e a$)itte$ that the s(ee$ of each )otor .ill 7e in so)e in-erse (ro(ortion to its siBe8 an$ the nu)7er of (oles shoul$ 7e chosen accor$ingly0 >till e'ce(tional $e)an$s )ay )o$ify this rule0 ,n -ie. of this8 it .ill 7e a$-antageous to (ro-i$e each )otor .ith a greater nu)7er of (ole (roHections or coils8 the nu)7er 7eing (refera7ly a )ulti(le of t.o an$ three0 3y this )eans8 7y si)(ly changing the connections of the coils8 the )otor )ay 7e a$a(te$ to any (ro7a7le $e)an$s0 ,f the nu)7er of the (oles in the )otor is e-en8 the action .ill he har)onious an$ the (ro(er result .ill 7e o7taine$J if this is not the case the 7est (lan to 7e follo.e$ is to )a2e a )otor .ith a $ou7le nu)7er of (oles
an$ connect the sa)e in the )anner 7efore in$icate$8 so that half the nu)7er of (oles result0 >u((ose8 for instance8 that the generator has t.el-e (oles8 an$ it .oul$ 7e $esire$ to o7tain a s(ee$ equal to 1!/* of the s(ee$ of the generator0 This .oul$ require a )otor .ith se-en (ole (roHections or )agnets8 an$ such a )otor coul$ not 7e (ro(erly connecte$ in the circuits unless fourteen ar)ature coils .oul$ 7e (ro-i$e$8 .hich .oul$ necessitate the e)(loy)ent of sli$ing contacts0 To a-oi$ this the )otor shoul$ 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith fourteen )agnets an$ se-en connecte$ in each circuit8 the )agnets in each circuit alternating a)ong the)sel-es0 The ar)ature shoul$ ha-e fourteen close$ coils0 The action of the )otor .ill not 7e quite as (erfect as in the case of an e-en nu)7er of (oles8 7ut the $ra.7ac2 .ill not 7e of a serious nature0 Ho.e-er8 the $isa$-antages resulting fro) this unsy))etrical for) .ill 7e re$uce$ in the sa)e (ro(ortion as the nu)7er of the (oles is aug)ente$0 ,f the generator has8 say8 n8 an$ the )otor n1 (oles8 the s(ee$ of the )otor .ill 7e equal to that of the generator )ulti(lie$ 7y n/n10
The s(ee$ of the )otor .ill generally 7e $e(en$ent on the nu)7er of the (oles8 7ut there )ay 7e e'ce(tions to this rule0 The s(ee$ )ay 7e )o$ifie$ 7y the (hase of the currents in the circuits or 7y the character of the current i)(ulses or 7y inter-als 7et.een each or 7et.een grou(s of i)(ulses0 >o)e of the (ossi7le cases are in$icate$ in the $iagra)s8 figures 188 198 !5 an$ !18 .hich are self9e'(lanatory0 Figure 18 re(resents the con$ition generally e'isting8 an$ .hich secures the 7est result0 ,n such a case8 if the ty(ical for) of )otor illustrate$ in figure 9 is e)(loye$8 one co)(lete .a-e in each circuit .ill (ro$uce one re-olution of the )otor0 ,n figure 19 the sa)e result .ill 7e effecte$ 7y one .a-e in each circuit8 the i)(ulses 7eing successi-eJ in figure !5 7y four8 an$ in figure !1 7y eight .a-es0 3y such )eans any $esire$ s(ee$ )ay 7e attaine$J that is8 at least .ithin the li)its of (ractical $e)an$s0 This syste) (ossesses this a$-antage 7esi$es others8 resulting fro) si)(licity0 At full loa$s the )otors sho. efficiency fully equal to that of the continuous current )otors0 The transfor)ers (resent an a$$itional a$-antage in their ca(a7ility of o(erating )otors0 They are ca(a7le of si)ilar )o$ifications in construction8 an$ .ill facilitate the intro$uction of )otors an$ their a$a(tation to (ractical $e)an$s0 Their efficiency shoul$ 7e higher than that of the (resent transfor)ers8 an$ , 7ase )y assertion on the follo.ingI ,n a transfor)er as constructe$ at (resent .e (ro$uce the currents in the secon$ary circuit 7y -arying the strength of the (ri)ary or e'citing currents0 ,f .e a$)it (ro(ortionality .ith res(ect to the iron core the in$ucti-e effect e'erte$ u(on the secon$ary coil .ill 7e (ro(ortional to the nu)erical su) of the -ariations in the strength of the e'citing current (er unit of ti)eJ .hence it follo.s that for a gi-en -ariation any (rolongation of the (ri)ary current .ill result in a (ro(ortional loss0 ,n or$er to o7tain ra(i$ -ariations in the strength of the current8 essential to efficient in$uction8 a great nu)7er of un$ulations are e)(loye$0 Fro) this (ractice -arious $isa$-antages result0 These are8 increase$ cost an$ $i)inishe$ efficiency of the generator8 )ore .aste of energy in heating the cores8 an$ also $i)inishe$ out(ut of the transfor)er8 since the core is not (ro(erly utiliBe$8 the re-ersals 7eing too ra(i$0 The in$ucti-e effect is also -ery s)all in certain (hases8 as .ill 7e a((arent fro) a gra(hic re(resentation8 an$ there )ay 7e (erio$s of inaction8 if there are inter-als 7et.een the succee$ing current i)(ulses or .a-es0 ,n (ro$ucing a shifting of the (oles in the transfor)er8 an$ there7y in$ucing currents8 the in$uction is of the i$eal character8 7eing al.ays )aintaine$ at its )a'i)u) action0 ,t is also reasona7le to assu)e that 7y a shifting of the (oles less energy .ill 7e .aste$ than 7y re-ersals0
1888-05-"6: Tesla #e$lies to %r& 'ouis %un(an) *+$laining ,is Alternating Current Motor by Nikola Tesla
Electrical !evie" To the "$itor of "lectrical +e-ie.I , fin$ in your issue of last .ee2 a note of /r0 =uncan referring to )y syste) of alternate current )otors0 As , see that =r0 =uncan has not as yet 7een )a$e acquainte$ .ith the real character of )y in-ention8 , cannot consi$er his article in the light of a serious criticis) an$ .oul$ thin2 it unnecessary to res(on$J 7ut $esiring to e'(ress )y consi$eration for hi) an$ the i)(ortance .hich , attach to his o(inion8 , .ill (oint out here 7riefly the characteristic features of )y in-ention8 inas)uch as they ha-e a $irect 7earing on the article a7o-e referre$ to0 The (rinci(le of action of )y )otor .ill 7e .ell un$erstoo$ fro) the follo.ingI 3y (assing alternate currents in (ro(er )anner through in$e(en$ent energiBing circuits in the )otor8 a (rogressi-e shifting or rotation of the (oles of the sa)e is effecte$0 This shifting is )ore of less continuous accor$ing to the construction of the )otor an$ the character an$ relati-e (hase of the currents e)(loye$8 an$ , ha-e in$icate$ the theoretical con$itions .hich shoul$ e'ist in or$er to secure the )ost (erfect action0 ,f a la)inate$ ring 7e .oun$ .ith four coils8 an$ the sa)e 7e connecte$ in (ro(er or$er to t.o in$e(en$ent circuits of an alternate current generator a$a(te$ for this (ur(ose8 the (assage of the currents through the coils (ro$uces theoretically a rotation of the (oles of the ring8 an$ in actual (ractice in a series of e'(eri)ents8 , ha-e $e)onstrate$ the co)(lete analogy 7et.een such a ring an$ a re-ol-ing0 )agnet0 Fro) the a((lication of this (rinci(le to the o(eration of )otors8 to for)s of )otor of a character .i$ely $iffering ha-e resulte$8 one $esigne$ for constant an$ the other for -aria7le loa$0 The )isun$erstan$ing of =r0 =uncan is $ue to the fact that the (ro)inent features of each of these t.o for)s ha-e not 7een s(ecifically state$0 ,n illustration of a re(resentati-e of the secon$ class8 , refer to Fig0 18 on (age 1 of "#"CT+,CA# +"G,"& of /ay 1!th0 ,n this instance8 the ar)ature of the )otor is (ro-i$e$ .ith t.o coils at right angles0 As it )ay 7e 7elie-e$ that a sy))etrical arrange)ent of the coils .ith res(ect to the (oles is require$0 , .ill assu)e that the ar)ature is (ro-i$e$ .ith a great nu)7er of $ia)etrically .oun$ coils or con$uctors close$ u(on the)sel-es8 an$ for)ing as )any in$e(en$ent circuits0 #et it no. 7e su((ose$ that the ring is (er)anently )agnetiBe$ so as to sho. t.o (oles (1 an$ > at t.o (oints $ia)etrically o((osite8 an$ that it is rotate$ 7y )echanical (o.er0 The ar)ature 7eing stationary8 the rotation of the ring )agnet .ill set u( currents in the close$ ar)ature coils0 These currents .ill 7e )ost intense at or near the (oints of the greatest $ensity of the force8 an$ they .ill (ro$uce (oles u(on the ar)ature core at right angles to those of the ring0 ;f course there .ill 7e other ele)ents entering into action .hich .ill ten$ to )o$ify this8 7ut for the (resent they )ay 7e left unconsi$ere$0 As far as the location of the (oles u(on the ar)ature core is concerne$8 the currents generate$ in the ar)ature coils .ill al.ays act in the sa)e )anner8 an$ .ill )aintain continuously the (oles of the core in the sa)e (osition8 .ith res(ect to those of the ring in any (osition of the latter an$ in$e(en$ently of the s(ee$0 Fro) the attraction 7et.een the core an$ the ring8 a continuous rotary effort8 constant in all (ositions8 .ill result8 the sa)e as in a continuous current )otor .ith a great nu)7er of ar)ature coils0 ,f the ar)ature 7e allo.e$ to turn8 it .ill re-ol-e to the $irection of rotation of the ring )agnet8 the in$uce$ current $i)inishing as the s(ee$ increases8 until u(on the ar)ature reaching .ery nearly the s(ee$ of the )agnet8 Hust enough current .ill flo. through the coils to 2ee( u( the rotation0 ,f8 instea$ of rotating the ring 7y )echanical (o.er the (oles of the sa)e are shifte$ 7y the action of the alternate currents in the t.o circuits8 the sa)e results are o7taine$0 1o. co)(are this syste) .ith a continuous current syste)0 ,n the latter .e ha-e alternate currents in the generator an$ )otor coils8 an$ inter-ening $e-ices for co))utating the currents8 .hich on the )otor 7esi$es effect auto)atically a (rogressi-e shifting or rotation of the (oles of the ar)atureJ here .e ha-e the sa)e ele)ents an$ i$entically the sa)e o(eration8 7ut .ithout the co))utating $e-ices0 ,n -ie. of the fact that these $e-ices are entirely unessential to the o(eration8 such alternate current syste) .ill K at least in )any res(ects K sho. a co)(lete si)ilarity .ith a continuous current syste)8 an$ the )otor .ill act (recisely li2e a continuous current )otor0 ,f the loa$ is aug)ente$ the s(ee$ is $i)inishe$ an$ the rotary effort corres(on$ingly increase$8 as )ore current is )a$e to (ass through energiBing circuitsJ loa$ 7eing ta2en off the s(ee$ increases an$ the current8 an$ consequently the effort8 is lessene$0 The effort8 of course8 is greatest .hen the ar)ature is in the state of rest0 3ut since the analogy is co)(lete8 ho. a7out the )a'i)u) efficiency an$ current (assing through the circuits .hen the )otor is running .ithout any loa$8 one .ill naturally inquireF ,t )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that .e ha-e to $eal .ith alternate currents0 ,n this for) the )otor si)(ly re(resents a transfor)er in .hich currents are in$uce$ 7y a $yna)ic action instea$ of 7y re-ersals8 an$ as it )ight 7e e'(ecte$ the efficiency .ill 7e )a'i)u) at full
loa$0 As regar$s the current8 there .ill 7e K at least un$er (ro(er con$itions K as .i$e a -ariation in its strength as in a transfor)er8 an$ 7y o7ser-ing (ro(er rules8 it )ay 7e re$uce$ to any $esire$ quantity0 /oreo-er0 the current (assing through the )otor .hen running free8 is no )easure for the energy a7sor7e$ since the instru)ents in$icate only the nu)erical su) of the $irect an$ in$uce$ electro9)oti-e forces an$ currents instea$ of sho.ing their $ifference0 +egar$ing the other class of these )otors8 $esigne$ for constant s(ee$8 the o7Hections of =r0 =uncan are8 in a )easure8 a((lica7le to certain constructions8 7ut it shoul$ 7e consi$ere$ that such )otors are not e'(ecte$ to run .ithour any8 or .ith a -ery light loa$8 an$8 if so8 they $o not8 .hen (ro(erly constructe$8 (resent in this res(ect any )ore $isa$-antage than transfor)ers un$er si)ilar con$itions0 3esi$es8 7oth features8 rotary effort an$ ten$ency to constant s(ee$8 )ay he co)7ine$ in a )otor8 an$ any $esire$ (re(on$erance )ay 7e gi-en to either one8 an$ in this )anner a )otor )ay 7e o7taine$ (ossessing any $esire$ character an$ ca(a7le of satisfying all (ossi7le $e)an$ in (ractice0 ,n conclusion8 , .ill re)ar28 .ith all res(ect to =r0 =uncan8 that the a$-antages clai)e$ for )y syste) are not )ere assu)(tions8 7ut results actually o7taine$8 an$ that for this (ur(ose e'(eri)ents ha-e 7een con$ucte$ through a long (erio$8 an$ .ith an assi$uity such as only a $ee( interest in the in-ention coul$ ins(ireJ ne-ertheless8 although )y )otor is the fruit of long la7or an$ careful in-estigation8 , $o not .ish to clai) any other )erit 7eyon$ that of ha-ing in-ente$8 an$ , lea-e it to )en )ore co)(etent than )yself to $eter)ine the true la.s of the (rinci(le an$ the 7est )o$e of its a((lication0 &hat the result of these in-estigations .ill 7e the future .ill tellJ 7ut .hate-er they )ay 7e an$ to .hate-er this (rinci(le )ay lea$8 , shall 7e sufficiently reco)(ense$ if later it .ill 7e a$)itte$ that , ha-e contri7ute$ a share8 ho.e-er s)all8 to the a$-ance)ent of science0 1,:;#A T">#A 1e. Dor28 /ay !%8 1888
1888-06-"": T,e Tesla Alternate Current Motor by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer The interest ta2en in /0 Tesla's contri7utions to electrical a((aratus an$ to electrical literature is so great8 an$ the su7Hect is so i)(ortant8 that .e $o not hesitate to gi-e further s(ace to the su7Hect0 ;n /ay !% a co))unication on the su7Hect fro) =r0 #ouis =uncan8 of Eohns Ho(2ins Cni-ersity8 a((eare$ in our A)erican conte)(orary8 the "lectrical +e-ie.8 to the effectI "&e )ay8 for our (resent (ur(oses8 $i-i$e )otors into t.o classesJ Continuous8 in .hich the ar)ature coils are unsy))etrical .ith res(ect to the (oles8 an$ .hich8 therefore8 gi-e a (ractically constant torque8 an$ alternating )otors8 in .hich the ar)ature coils are sy))etrical .ith res(ect to the (oles8 an$ .hich8 therefore8 gi-e a torque -arying 7oth in )agnitu$e an$ sign $uring a (erio$ of the counter "0/0F0 The Tesla )otor 7elongs to this latter class0 ",n e-ery )otor the torque is equal to the rate of change of lines of in$uction through the ar)ature circuit for a s)all angular $is(lace)ent8 )ulti(lie$ 7y the ar)ature current8 or $)/$t0 ,n the Tesla )otor the first of these ter)s is greatest .hen the coil is o((osite a (ole an$ the fiel$ currents ha-e their greatest a)(litu$e0 ,t is Bero at a (oint a7out 64 $eg0 Fro) this8 su((osing .e neglect ar)ature reactions0 ,t $e(en$s on se-eral things0 The "0/0F0 .hich $eter)ines it is $ue to changes in the nu)7er of lines of force (assing through the ar)ature circuit cause$ 7y (1 changes in the fiel$ currentsJ (! the )otion of the ar)ature0 The current $e(en$s on these "0/0F0's8 an$ on the re$uce$ self9in$uction an$ resistance of its circuit0 The )otor can only $o .or2 .hen the first cause of "0/0F0 is the greater8 for a current in the $irection of the or$inary counter "0/0F0 .oul$ sto( the )otion0 ,n so)e (arts of a re-olution the t.o "0/0F0's .or2 together8 retar$ing the )otionJ in others8 the in$uce$ "0/0F0 (ro$uces a current causing the )otor to re-ol-e0 ,t is i)(ossi7le for )e8 .ith only a )eagre $escri(tion of the (rinci(les of the )achine8 to gi-e an i$ea of the relati-e )agnitu$e of these effects0 >o)e of the results8 ho.e-er8 are the follo.ingI Ha-ing gi-en a $efinite nu)7er of re-ersals of the $yna)o8 there are a nu)7er of s(ee$s8 )ulti(les of these re-ersals8 at .hich the )otor .ill go-ern itself .hen it is $oing a certain a)ount of .or20 At one of these s(ee$s8 $e(en$ing on the construction of the )otor8 the out(ut .ill 7e a )a'i)u)0 1o. , see the state)ent that 'there is no $ifficulty .hate-er atten$ant u(on starting the )otor un$er loa$0' , cannot reconcile this .ith the a7o-e facts0 That the torque for a s)aller nu)7er of re-olutions than or$inarily use$8 )ight 7e greater8 one can rea$ily see8 since the counter "0/0F0 is less in (ro(ortion to the in$uce$ "0/0F08 7ut it )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that for certain s(ee$s e-en the in$uce$ current .oul$ ten$ to sto( the )otionJ ho. the )otor is to (ass these critical s(ee$s , $o not see0 Again8 if the )a'i)u) loa$ is su$$enly thro.n on .hile the )otor is running at its (ro(er s(ee$8 then8 if the inertia 7e great8 the )otor .ill fall 7ehin$ its (oint of )a'i)u) .or28 an$ either sto( or ta2e u( so)e slo.er s(ee$0 "&hat the (ossi7le efficiency an$ out(ut of the )otor )ay 7e8 only e'(eri)ent .ill tell0 , ha-e sho.n (,nst0 "lec0 "ngineers8 Fe708 18880 that the out(ut of an or$inary alternating current )otor is equal to that of a continuous current )otor8 su((lie$ .ith a corres(on$ing "0/0F0 The efficiency )ight 7e great8 7ut is has the $isa$-antage that a7out the sa)e current flo.s for no .or2 an$ )a'i)u) .or28 so for light loa$s the efficiency can har$ly 7e -ery high0 "&ith our (resent 2no.le$ge of alternating currents it is useless to atte)(t to calculate fro) the si)(le though )islea$ing assu)(tions or$inarily )a$e8 the out(ut8 con$itions of )a'i)u) .or28 Oc08 of this )achine0 "'(eri)ent alone can $eter)ine its -alue8 an$ one (ro(erly con$ucte$ an$ inter(rete$ set of e'(eri)ents shoul$ ena7le us to Hu$ge 7oth the )erit of the in-ention an$ its 7est (ossi7le for)0 , cannot see8 ho.e-er8 ho.8 in the for) $escri7e$ in the last issue of this Hournal the )otor can .or2 un$er con$itions of a su$$enly -arying loa$ as satisfactorily as continuous current )otors0" To the a7o-e /r0 Tesla re(lie$ on Eune ! as follo.sI ", fin$ in your issue of last .ee2 a note of /r0 =uncan referring to )y syste) of alternate current )otors0 "As , see that =r0 =uncan has not as yet 7een )a$e acquainte$ .ith the real character of )y in-ention8 , cannot consi$er his article in the light of a serious criticis)8 an$ .oul$ thin2 it unnecessary to res(on$J 7ut $esiring to e'(ress )y consi$eration for hi) an$ the i)(ortance .hich , attach to his o(inion8 , .ill (oint out here 7riefly the characteristic features of )y in-ention8 inas)uch as they ha-e a $irect 7earing on the article a7o-e referre$ to0 "The (rinci(le of action of )y )otor .ill 7e .ell un$erstoo$ fro) the follo.ingI 3y (assing alternate currents in (ro(er )anner through in$e(en$ent energising circuits in the )otor8 a (rogressi-e shifting or rotation of the (oles of the sa)e is effecte$0 This shifting is )ore or less continuous accor$ing to the construction of the )otor an$ the character an$ relati-e (hase of the currents .hich shoul$ e'ist in or$er to secure the )ost (erfect
action0 ",f a la)inate$ ring 7e .oun$ .ith four coils8 an$ the sa)e 7e connecte$ in (ro(er or$er to t.o in$e(en$ent circuits of an alternate current generator a$a(te$ for this (ur(ose8 the (assage of the currents through the coils (ro$uces theoretically a rotation of the (oles of the ring8 an$ in actual (ractice8 in a series of e'(eri)ents8 , ha-e $e)onstrate$ the co)(lete analogy 7et.een such a ring an$ a re-ol-ing )agnet0 Fro) the a((lication of this (rinci(le to the o(eration of )otors8 t.o for)s of )otor of a character .i$ely $iffering ha-e resulte$ K one $esigne$ for constant an$ the other for -aria7le loa$0 The )isun$erstan$ing of =r0 =uncan is $ue to the fact that the (ro)inent features of each of these t.o for)s ha-e not 7een s(ecifically state$0 ,n illustration of a re(resentati-e of the secon$ class8 , refer to Fig0 18 gi-en here.ith0 ,n this instance8 the ar)ature of the )otor is (ro-i$e$ .ith t.o coils at right angles0 As it )ay 7e 7elie-e$ that a sy))etrical arrange)ent of the coils .ith res(ect to the (oles is require$8 , .ill assu)e that the ar)ature is (ro-i$e$ .ith a great nu)7er of $ia)etrically .oun$ coils or con$uctors close$ u(on the)sel-es8 an$ for)ing as )any in$e(en$ent circuits0 #et it no. 7e su((ose$ that the ring is (er)anently )agnetiBe$ so as to sho. t.o (oles (1 an$ > at t.o (oints $ia)etrically o((osite8 an$ that it is rotate$ 7y )echanical (o.er0 The ar)ature 7eing stationary8 the rotation of the ring )agnet .ill set u( currents in the close$ ar)ature coils0 These currents .ill 7e )ost intense at or near the (oints of the greatest $ensity of the force8 an$ they .ill (ro$uce (oles u(on the ar)ature core at right angles to those of the ring0 ;f course there .ill 7e other ele)ents entering into action .hich .ill ten$ to )o$ify this8 7ut for the (resent they )ay 7e left unconsi$ere$0 As far as the location of the (oles u(on the ar)ature core is concerne$8 the currents generate$ in the ar)ature coils .ill al.ays act in the sa)e )anner8 an$ .ill )aintain continuously the (oles of the core in the sa)e (osition8 .ith res(ect to those of the ring in any (osition of the latter8 an$ in$e(en$ently of the s(ee$0 Fro) the attraction 7et.een the core an$ the ring8 a continuous rotary effort8 constant in all (ositions8 .ill result8 the sa)e as in a continuous current )otor .ith a great nu)7er of ar)ature coils0 ,f the ar)ature 7e allo.e$ to turn8 it .ill re-ol-e in the $irection of rotation of the ring )agnet8 the in$uce$ current $i)inishing as the s(ee$ increases8 until u(on the ar)ature reaching -ery nearly the s(ee$ of the )agnet8 Hust enough current .ill flo. through the coils to 2ee( u( the rotation0 ,f8 instea$ of rotating the ring 7y )echanical (o.er8 the (oles of the sa)e are shifte$ 7y the action of the alternate currents in the t.o circuits8 the sa)e results are o7taine$0 "1o. co)(are this syste) .ith a continuous current syste)0 ,n the latter .e ha-e alternate currents in the generator an$ )otor coils8 an$ inter-ening $e-ices for co))utating the currents8 .hich on the )otor 7esi$es effect auto)atically a (rogressi-e shifting or rotation of the (oles of the ar)atureJ here .e ha-e the sa)e ele)ents an$ i$entically the sa)e o(eration8 7ut .ithout the co))utating $e-ices0 ,n -ie. of the fact that these $e-ices are entirely unessential to the o(eration8 such alternate current syste) .ill K at least in )any res(ects K sho. a co)(lete si)ilarity .ith a continuous current syste)8 an$ the )otor .ill act (recisely li2e a continuous current )otor0 ,f the loa$ is aug)ente$8 the s(ee$ is $i)inishe$ an$ the rotary effort corres(on$ingly increase$8 as )ore current is )a$e to (ass through the energising circuitsJ loa$ 7eing ta2en off8 the s(ee$ increases8 an$ the current8 an$ consequently the effort8 is lessene$0 The effort8 of course8 is greatest .hen the ar)ature is in the state of rest0 "3ut8 since the analogy is co)(lete8 ho. a7out the )a'i)u) efficiency an$ current (assing through the circuits .hen the )otor is running .ithout any loa$F one .ill naturally inquire0 ,t )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that .e ha-e to $eal .ith alternate currents0 ,n this for) the )otor si)(ly re(resents a transfor)er8 in .hich currents are in$uce$ 7y a $yna)ic action instea$ of 7y re-ersals8 an$8 as it )ight 7e e'(ecte$8 the efficiency .ill 7e )a'i)u) at full loa$0 As regar$s the current8 there .ill 7e K at least8 un$er (ro(er con$itions K as .i$e a -ariation in its strength as in a transfor)er8 an$8 7y o7ser-ing (ro(er rules8 it )ay 7e re$uce$ to any $esire$ quantity0 /oreo-er8 the current (assing through the )otor .hen running free8 is no )easure for the energy a7sor7e$8 since the instru)ents in$icate only the nu)erical su) of the $irect an$ in$uce$ electro)oti-e forces an$ currents instea$ of sho.ing their $ifference0 "+egar$ing the other class of these )otors8 $esigne$ for constant s(ee$8 the o7Hections of =r0 =uncan are8 in a )easure a((lica7le to certain constructions8 7ut it shoul$ 7e consi$ere$ that such )otors are not e'(ecte$ to run .ithout any8 or .ith a -ery light loa$J an$8 if so8 they $o not8 .hen (ro(erly constructe$8 (resent in this res(ect any )ore $isa$-antage than transfor)ers un$er si)ilar con$itions0 3esi$es8 7oth features8 rotary effort an$ ten$ency to constant s(ee$8 )ay 7e co)7ine$ in a )otor8 an$ any $esire$ (re(on$erance )ay 7e gi-en to either one8 an$ in this )anner a )otor )ay 7e o7taine$ (ossessing any $esire$ character an$ ca(a7le of satisfying any (ossi7le $e)an$ in (ractice0 ",n conclusion8 , .ill re)ar28 .ith all res(ect to =r0 =uncan8 that the a$-antages clai)e$ for )y syste) are not )ere assu)(tions8 7ut results actually o7taine$8 an$ that for this (ur(ose e'(eri)ents ha-e 7een con$ucte$ through a long (erio$8 an$ .ith an assi$uity such as only a $ee( interest in the in-ention coul$ ins(ireJ ne-ertheless8 although )y )otor is the fruit of long la7our an$ careful in-estigation8 , $o not .ish to clai) any other )erit 7eyon$ that of ha-ing in-ente$ it8 an$ , lea-e it to )en )ore co)(etent than )yself to $eter)ine the true la.s of the (rinci(le an$ the 7est )o$e of its a((lication0 &hat the result of these in-estigations .ill 7e the
future .ill tellJ 7ut .hate-er they )ay 7e8 an$ to .hate-er this (rinci(le )ay lea$8 , shall 7e sufficiently reco)(ense$ if later it .ill 7e a$)itte$ that , ha-e contri7ute$ a share8 ho.e-er s)all8 to the a$-ance)ent of science0"
188--05-"5: Mr& Ni.ola Tesla on Alternate Current Motors by Nikola Tesla

Electrical #orld To the Editor of The Electrical #orld$ >irI A7out a year ago , ha$ the (leasure of 7ringing 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers the results of so)e of )y .or2 on alternate curent )otors0 They .ere recei-e$ .ith the interest .hich no-el i$eas ne-er fail to e'cite in scientific circles8 an$ elicite$ consi$era7le co))ent0 &ith truly A)erican generosity8 for .hich8 on )y (art8 , a) e-er than2ful8 a great $eal of (raise through the colu)ns of your estee)e$ (a(er an$ other Hournals has 7een 7esto.e$ u(on the originator of the i$ea8 in itself insignificant0 At that ti)e it .as i)(ossi7le for )e to 7ring 7efore the ,nstitute other results in the sa)e line of thought0 /oreo-er8 , $i$ not thin2 it (ro7a7le 9 consi$ering the no-elty of the i$ea 9 that any7o$y else .oul$ 7e li2ely to (ursue .or2 in the sa)e $irection0 3y one of the )ost curious coinci$ences8 ho.e-er8 <rofessor Ferraris not only ca)e in$e(en$ently to the sa)e theoretical results8 7ut in a )anner i$entical al)ost to the s)allest $etail0 Far fro) 7eing $isa((ointe$ at 7eing (re-ente$ fro) calling the $isco-ery of the (rinci(le e'clusi-ely )y o.n8 , ha-e 7een e'cessi-ely (lease$ to see )y -ie.s8 .hich , ha$ for)e$ an$ carrie$ out long 7efore8 confir)e$ 7y this e)inent )an8 to .ho) , consi$er )yself ha((y to 7e relate$ in s(irit8 an$ to.ar$ .ho)8 e-er since the 2no.le$ge of the facts has reache$ )e8 , ha-e entertaine$ feelings of the )ost sincere sy)(athy an$ estee)0 ,n his a7le essay <rof0 Ferraris o)itte$ to )ention -arious other .ays of acco)(lishing si)ilar results8 so)e of .hich ha-e later 7een in$icate$ 7y 50 30 >hallen7erger8 .ho so)e ti)e 7efore the (u7lication of the results o7taine$ 7y <rof0 Ferraris an$ )yself ha$ utiliBe$ the (rinci(le in the construction of his no. .ell 2no.n alternate current )eter8 an$ at a still later (erio$ 7y <rof0 "lihu Tho)son an$ /r0 /0 E0 &ight)an0 >ince the original (u7lications8 for o7-ious reasons8 little has 7een )a$e 2no.n in regar$ to the further (rogress of the in-entionJ ne-ertheless the .or2 of (erfecting has 7een carrie$ on in$efatiga7ly .ith all the intelligent hel( an$ )eans .hich a cor(oration al)ost unli)ite$ in its resources coul$ co))an$8 an$ )ar2e$ (rogress has 7een )a$e in e-ery $irection0 ,t is therefore not sur(rising that )any unaquainte$ .ith this fact8 in e'(ressing their -ie.s as to the results o7taine$8 ha-e grossly erre$0 ,n your issue of /ay 6 , fin$ a co))unication fro) the electricians of GanB O Co08 of 3u$a(est8 relating to certain results o7ser-e$ in recent e'(eri)ents .ith a no-el for) of alternate current )otor0 , .oul$ ha-e nothing to say in regar$ to this co))unication unless it .ere to sincerely congratulate these gentle)en on any goo$ results .hich they )ay ha-e o7taine$8 7ut for the article8 see)ingly ins(ire$ 7y the)8 .hich a((eare$ in the #on$on "lectrical +e-ie. of A(ril !%8 .herein certain erroneous -ie.s are in$orse$ an$ so)e ra$ically false assertions )a$e8 .hich8 though they )ay 7e quite unintentional8 are such as to create (reHu$ice an$ affect )aterial interests0 As to the results (resente$8 they not only $o not sho. anything e'traor$inary8 7ut are8 in fact8 consi$era7ly 7elo. so)e figures o7taine$ .ith )y )otors a long ti)e ago0 The )ain stress 7eing lai$ u(on the (ro(osition 7et.een the a((arent an$ real energy su((lie$8 or (erha(s )ore $irectly8 u(on the ratio of the energy a((arently su((lie$ to8 an$ the real energy $e-elo(e$ 7y8 the )otor8 , .ill here su7)it8 .ith your (er)ission8 to your rea$ers8 the results res(ecti-ely arri-e$ at 7y these gentle)en an$ )yself0
"nergy a((arently su((lie$ in .atts0 GanB O Co0 188555 !68!55 !98855 000000 000000 000000 &estinghouse Co0 !18865 358!94 638%!6 4%8855 %*8455 *98155
&or2 (erfor)e$ in .atts0 GanB O Co0 118555 168%55 !!8*55 000000 000000 000000 &estinghouse Co0 1*8494 !483%4 3%8914 688%*4 498665 %*83%4
+atio of energy a((arently su((lie$ to the real energy $e-elo(e$0 GanB O Co0 50%11 50%53 50*%1 00000 00000 00000 &estinghouse Co0 50854 5083% 5081% 5084% 5088 50841
,f .e co)(are these figures .e .ill fin$ that the )ost fa-ora7le ratio in GanB O Co's )otor is 50*%18 .hereas in the &estinghouse8 for a7out the sa)e loa$8 it is 5083%8 .hile in other instances8 as )ay 7e seen8 it is still )ore fa-ora7le0 1ot.ithstan$ing this8 the con$itions of the test .ere not such as to .arrant the 7est (ossi7le results0 The factors u(on .hich the a((arent energy is )ainly $e(en$ent coul$ ha-e 7een 7etter $eter)ine$ 7y a (ro(er construction of the )otor an$ o7ser-ance of certain con$itions0 ,n fact8 .ith such a )otor a current regulation )ay 7e o7taine$ .hich8 for all (ractical (ur(oses8 is as goo$ as that of the $irect current )otors8 an$ the only $isa$-antage8 if it 7e one8 is that .hen the )otor is running .ithout loa$ the a((arent energy cannot 7e re$uce$ quite as lo. as )ight 7e $esira7le0 For instance8 in the case of this )otor the s)allest a)ount of a((arent energy .as a7out 38555 .atts8 .hich is certainly not -ery )uch for a )achine ca(a7le of $e-elo(ing 95 h0 (0 of .or2J 7esi$es8 the a)ount coul$ ha-e 7een re$uce$ -ery li2ely to !8555 .atts or less0 ;n the other han$8 these )otors (ossess the 7eautiful feature of )aintaining an a7solutely constant s(ee$ no )atter ho. the loa$ )ay -ary0 This feature )ay 7e illustrate$ 7est 7y the follo.ing e'(eri)ent (erfor)e$ .ith this )otor0 The )otor .as run e)(ty8 an$ a loa$ of a7out !55 h0 (008 far e'cee$ing the nor)al loa$8 .as thro.n on su$$enly0 3oth ar)atures of the )otor an$ generator .ere seen to sto( for an instant8 the 7elts sli((ing o-er the (ulleys8 .hereu(on 7oth ca)e u( to the nor)al s(ee$ .ith the full loa$8 not ha-ing 7een thro.n out of synchronis)0 The e'(eri)ent coul$ 7e re(eate$ any nu)7er of ti)es0 ,n so)e cases8 the $ri-ing (o.er 7eing sufficient8 , ha-e 7een ena7le$ to thro. on a loa$ e'cee$ing 8 to 9 ti)es that .hich the )otor .as $esigne$ to carry8 .ithout affecting the s(ee$ in the least0 This .ill 7e easily un$erstoo$ fro) the )anner in .hich the current regulation is effecte$0 Assu)ing the )otor to 7e running .ithout any loa$8 the (oles of the ar)ature an$ fiel$ ha-e a certain relati-e (osition .hich is that of the highest self9in$uction or counter electro)oti-e force0 ,f loa$ 7e thro.n on8 the (oles are )a$e to rece$eJ the self9in$uction or counter electro)oti-e force is there7y $i)inishe$ an$ )ore current (asse$ trough the stationary or )o-a7le ar)ature9coils0 This regulation is -ery $ifferent fro) that of a $irect current )otor0 ,n the latter the current is -arie$ 7y the )otor losing a certain nu)7er of re-olutions in (ro(ortion to the loa$8 an$ the regulation .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7le if the s(ee$ .oul$ 7e )aintaine$ constantJ here the .hole regulation is (ractically effecte$ $uring a fraction of one re-olution only0 Fro) this it is also a((arent that it is a (ractical i)(ossi7ility to thro. such a )otor out of synchronis)8 as the .hole .or2 )ust 7e $one in an instant8 it 7eing e-i$ent that if the loa$ is not sufficient to )a2e a )otor lose a fraction of the first re-olution it .ill not 7e a7le to $o so in the succee$ing re-olutions0 As to the efficiency of these )otors8 it is (erfectly (ractica7le to o7tain 96 to 94 (er cent0 The results a7o-e gi-en .ere o7taine$ on a three9.ire syste)0 The sa)e )otor has 7een starte$ an$ o(erate$ on t.o .ires in a -ariety of .ays8 an$ although it .as not ca(a7le of (erfor)ing quite as )uch .or2 as on three .ires8 u( to a7out %5 h0 (0 it ga-e results (ractically the sa)e as those a7o-e9)entione$0 ,n fairness to the electricians of GanB O Co08 , )ust state here that the s(ee$ of this )otor .as higher than that use$ in their e'(eri)ents8 it 7eing a7out 184550 , cannot )a2e $ue allo.ance for this $ifference8 as the $ia)eter of the ar)ature an$ other (articulars of the GanB O Co0 )otor .ere not gi-en0 The )otor teste$ ha$ a .eight of a7out 48555 l7s0 Fro) this it .ill 7e seen that the (erfor)ance e-en on t.o .ires .as quite equal to that of the 7est $irect current )otors0 The )otor 7eing of a synchronous ty(e8 it )ight 7e i)(lie$ that it .as not ca(a7le of starting0 ;n the contrary8 ho.e-er8 it ha$ a consi$era7le torque on the start an$ .as ca(a7le of starting un$er fair loa$0
,n the article a7o-e referre$ to the assertion is )a$e that the .eight of such alternate current )otor8 for a gi-en ca(acity8 is "se-eral ti)es" larger than that of a $irect current )otor0 ,n ans.er to this , .ill state here that .e ha-e )otors .hich .ith a .eight of a7out 845 (oun$s $e-elo( 15 h0 (0 .ith an efficiency of -ery nearly 95 (er cent8 an$ the s(ectacle of a $irect current )otor .eighing8 say !55 P 355 (oun$s an$ (erfor)ing the sa)e .or28 .oul$ 7e -ery gratifying for )e to 7ehol$0 The )otor .hich , ha-e Hust )entione$ ha$ no co))utator or 7rushes of any 2in$ nor $i$ it require any $irect current0 Finally8 in or$er to refute -arious assertions )a$e at ran$o)8 (rinci(ally in the foreign (a(ers8 , .ill ta2e the li7erty of calling to the attention of the critics the fact that since the $isco-ery of the (rinci(le se-eral ty(es of )otors ha-e 7een (erfecte$ an$ of entirely $ifferent characteristics8 each suite$ for a s(ecial 2in$ of .or28 so that .hile one )ay 7e (refera7le on account of its i$eal si)(licity8 another )ight 7e )ore efficient0 ,t is e-i$ently i)(ossi7le to unite all i)agina7le a$-antages in one for)8 an$ it is equally unfair an$ unreasona7le to Hu$ge all $ifferent for)s accor$ing to a co))on stan$ar$0 &hich for) of the e'isting )otors is 7est8 ti)e .ill sho.J 7ut e-en in the (resent state of the art .e are ena7le$ to satisfy any (ossi7le $e)an$ in (ractice0 1i2ola Tesla <itts7urgh8 <a0
18-0-0/-0-: T,e 'osses %ue to 0ysteresis in Transformers by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer ,n your issue of A(ril !8 in referring to certain re)ar2s )a$e 7y )e at the recent )eeting of the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers on the su7Hect of hysteresis you )a2e the state)entI ",t is this constancy of relation that8 as /r0 Tesla (ointe$ out Q Q Q )ay ulti)ately esta7lish the correctness of the hy(othesis a$-ance$8 that in reality there is no loss $ue to hysteresis8 an$ that the changes of )agnetiBation re(resent a charging an$ $ischarging of )olecular energy .ithout entailing an actual e'(en$iture of energy0" , $o not recollect ha-ing )a$e such a state)ent8 an$ as , .as e-i$ently )isun$erstoo$8 you .ill greatly o7lige )e in inserting the follo.ing fe. lines8 .hich e'(ress the i$ea , )eant to a$-anceI C( to the (resent no satisfactory e'(lanation of the causes of hysteresis has 7een gi-en0 ,n the )ost e'hausti-e an$ co)(etent treatise on the theory of transfor)ers8 7y Fle)ing8 static hysteresis is e'(laine$ 7y su((osing that "the )agnetic )olecules or )olecular )agnets8 the arrange)ent of .hich constitutes )agnetiBation8 )o-e stiffly8 an$ the $issi(ation of energy is the .or2 $one in )a2ing the necessary )agnetic $is(lace)ent against a sort of )agnetic friction0" Co))only it is state$ that this is a $istinct ele)ent in the loss of energy in an iron core un$ergoing )agnetic changes entirely in$e(en$ent of any currents generate$ therein0 1o. it is $ifficult to reconcile these -ie.s .ith our (resent notions on the constitution of )atter generally0 The )olecules or iron cannot 7e connecte$ together 7y anything 7ut elastic forces8 since they are se(arate$ 7y an inter-ening elastic )e$iu) through .hich the forces actJ an$ this 7eing the case is it not reasona7le to assu)e that if a gi-en a)ount of energy is ta2en u( to 7ring the )olecules out of their original (osition an equi-alent a)ount of energy shoul$ 7e restore$ 7y the )olecules reassu)ing their original (ositions8 as .e 2no. is the case in all )olecular $is(lace)entsF &e cannot i)agine that an a((recia7le a)ount of energy shoul$ 7e .aste$ 7y the elastically connecte$ )olecules s.inging 7ac2 an$ forth fro) their original (ositions8 .hich they )ust constantly ten$ to assu)e8 at least .ithin the li)it of elasticity8 .hich in all (ro7a7ility is rarely sur(asse$0 The losses cannot 7e attri7ute$ to )ere $is(lace)ent8 as this .oul$ necessitate the su((osition that the )olecules are connecte$ rigi$ly8 .hich is quite unthin2a7le0 A current cannot act u(on the (articles unless it acts u(on currents in the sa)e8 either (re-iously e'isting or set u( 7y it8 an$ since the (articles are hel$ together 7y elastic forces the losses )ust 7e ascri7e$ .holly to the current generate$0 The re)ar2a7le $isco-ery of ".ing that the )agnetiBation is greater on the $escent than on the ascent for the sa)e -alues of )agnetiBing force strongly (oints to the fact that hysteresis is inti)ately connecte$ .ith the generation of currents either in the )olecules in$i-i$ually or in grou(s of the) through the s(ace inter-ening0 The fact o7ser-e$ accor$s (erfectly .ith our e'(erience on current in$uction8 for .e 2no. that on the $escent any current set u( )ust 7e of the sa)e $irection .ith the in$ucing current8 an$8 therefore8 )ust Hoin .ith the sa)e in (ro$ucing a co))on effectJ .hereas8 on the ascent the contrary is the case0 =r0 =uncan state$ that the ratio of increase of (ri)ary an$ secon$ary current is constant0 This state)ent is8 (erha(s8 not sufficiently e'(ressi-e8 for not only is the ratio constant 7ut8 o7-iously8 the $ifferential effect of (ri)ary an$ secon$ary is constant0 1o. any current generate$ 9 )olecular or Foucault currents in the )ass 9 )ust 7e in a)ount (ro(ortionate to the $ifference of the in$ucti-e effect of the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary8 since 7oth currents a$$ alge7raically 9 the ratio of .in$ings $uly consi$ere$8 9 an$ as this $ifference is constant the loss8 if .holly accounte$ for in this )anner8 )ust 7e constant0 ;7-iously , )ean here the transfor)ers un$er consi$eration8 that is8 those .ith a close$ )agnetic circuit8 an$ , -enture to say that the a7o-e .ill 7e )ore (ronounce$ .hen the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary are .oun$ one on to( of the other than .hen they are .oun$ si$e 7y si$eJ an$ generally it .ill 7e the )ore (ronounce$ the closer their in$ucti-e relation0 =r0 =uncan's figures also sho. that the loss is (ro(ortionate to the square of the electro)oti-e force0 Again this ought to 7e so8 for an increase$ electro)oti-e force causes a (ro(ortionately increase$ current .hich8 in accor$ance .ith the a7o-e state)ents8 )ust entail a loss in the (ro(ortion of the square0 Certainly8 to account for all the (heno)ena of hysteresis8 effects of )echanical -i7ration8 the 7eha-iour of steel an$ nic2el alloy8 etc08 a nu)7er of su((ositions )ust 7e )a$eJ 7ut can it not 7e assu)e$ that8 for instance8 in the case of steel an$ nic2el alloys the $issi(ation of energy is )o$ifie$ 7y the )o$ifie$ resistanceJ an$ to e'(lain the a((arent inconsistency of this -ie. .e only nee$ to re)e)7er that the resistance of a 7o$y as a .hole is not a )easure of the $egree of con$ucti-ity of the (articles of .hich it is co)(ose$0 10 Tesla
1e. Dor2 City
18-0-0--"/: Swin1urne2s 30edge,og4 Transformer by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer >o)e ti)e ago /r0 >.in7urne a$-ance$ certain -ie.s on transfor)ers .hich ha-e elicite$ so)e co))ent0 ,n The "lectrical "ngineer of >e(t0 150 there are 7rought out further argu)ents on 7ehalf of his o(en circuit8 or8 as he calls it8 "he$gehog" transfor)er8 clai)ing for this ty(e a higher a-erage efficiency than is attaina7le .ith the close$ circuit for)s0 ,n regar$ to this8 , say .ith Goethe8 =ie 3otschaft hRr' ich .ohl8 allein )ir fehlt $er Glau7e K , hear the )essage8 7ut , lac2 7elief0" /any of /r0 >.in7urne's argu)ents are in )y o(inion erroneous0 He saysI ",n calculating the efficiencies of transfor)ers8 the loss in the iron has generally 7een left co)(letely out of account8 an$ the loss in co((er alone consi$ere$J hence8 the efficiencies of 9* an$ 98 (er cent0 clai)e$ for close$ iron circuit for)s0" This is a state)ent little co)(li)entary to those .ho ha-e )a$e such esti)ates8 an$ (erha(s /r0 >.in7urne .oul$ 7e -ery )uch e)7arasse$ to cite na)es on 7ehalf of his argu)ent0 He assu)es the loss in the iron in the close$ circuit for)s to 7e 15 (er cent0 of the full loa$8 an$ further "that in )ost stations the a-erage use of la)(s is less than t.o hours a $ay8 inclu$ing all la)(s installe$8" an$ arri-es at so)e interesting figures in regar$ to efficiency0 /r0 >.in7urne see)s not to 7e a.are of the i)(ro-e)ents )a$e in the iron0 The loss .ith the 7est quality of iron .ill8 , 7elie-e8 not reach 8 (er cent0 of the full loa$ 7y an intelligent use of the transfor)er8 an$ there is no $ou7t that further i)(ro-e)ents .ill 7e )a$e in that $irection0 As regar$s the secon$ (art of his assu)(tion8 , thin2 that it is e'aggerate$0 ,t )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that in )ost central stations or large (lants $ue care is ta2en that the loa$ is fa-ora7ly $istri7ute$ an$ in )any cases the .iring is such that entire circuits )ay 7e shut off at certain hours so that there is $uring these hours no loss .hate-er in the transfor)ers0' ,n his "he$gehog" for) of transfor)er /r0 >.in7urne re$uces the iron consi$era7ly an$ co)es to the conclusion that e-en in s)all transfor)ers the iron loss is un$er one (er cent0 of the full loa$8 .hile in the close$ circuit for)s8 it is8 accor$ing to hi)8 15 (er cent0 ,t .oul$ strengthen this argu)ent if the iron .oul$ 7e $is(ense$ .ith altogether0 /r0 >.in7urne $oes not a((reciate fully the $isa$-antages .hich the o(en circuit for)8 o(erate$ at the usual (erio$8 entails0 ,n or$er that the loss in tire iron shoul$ 7e re$uce$ to one9tenth8 it is necessary to re$uce the .eight of the iron core to one9tenth an$ su7Hect e-ery unit length of the sa)e to the sa)e )agneto9 )oti-e force0 ,f a higher )agneto9)oti-e force is use$ the loss in the core .ill K .ithin certain li)its8 at least K 7e (ro(ortionate to the square of tire )agneto9)oti-e force0 The re)ar2 of /r0 >.in7urne8 ",f the iron circuit is o(ene$8 the ai$es of the e)7racing core can 7e re)o-e$8 so the loss 7y hysteresis is $i-i$e$ 7y three8" is therefore not trueJ the loss .ill 7e $i-i$e$ 7y 3 Q (F !/F1! .here F1 S F0 ,f the iron of the o(en circuit for) is )a$e u( in a close$ ring the a$-antage .ill 7e at once a((arent8 for8 since the )agnetic resistance .ill 7e )uch re$uce$8 the )agneto9)oti-e force require$ .ill 7e corres(on$ingly s)aller0 ,t is (ro7a7le that8 say8 four >.in7urne transfor)ers )ay 7e Hoine$ in such a .ay as to for) a close$ )agnetic circuit0 ,n this case the a)ount of iron an$ co((er .oul$ re)ain the sa)e8 7ut an a$-antage .ill 7e gaine$ as as the total )agnetic resistance .ill 7e $i)inishe$0 The four transfor)ers .ill no. $e)an$ less e'citation an$ since K un$er other.ise equal con$itions K the gain $e(en$s on the square of the e'isting current8 it in 7y no )eans insignificant0 Fro) the a7o-e co)(arison it is e-i$ent that the core of such o(en circuit transfor)er shoul$ 7e -ery short8 7y far shorter than it a((ears fro) the cut in TH" "#"CT+,CA# "1G,1""+0 /r0 >.in7urne is in error as to the )oti-es .hich ha-e cause$ the ten$ency to shorten the )agnetic circuit in close$ circuit transfor)ers0 ,t .as (rinci(ally on account of (ractical consi$erations an$ not to re$uce the )agnetic resistance8 .hich has little to $o .ith efficiency0 ,f a ring 7e )a$e of8 say8 15 centi)etres )ean length an$ 15 square centi)etres cross section8 0an$ if it 7e .oun$ all o-er .ith the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary .ires8 it .ill 7e foun$ that it .ill gi-e the 7est result .ith a certain nu)7er of alternations0 ,f8 no.8 a ring is )a$e of the sa)e quality of iron 7ut ha-ing8 say8 !5 centi)etres )ean length an$ 15 square centi)etres section it .ill gi-e again the 7est result .ith the sa)e nu)7er of alternations8 an$ the efficiency .ill 7e the sa)e as 7efore8 (ro-i$e$ that the ring is .oun$ all o-er .ith the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary .ires0 The s(ace insi$e of the ring .ill8 in the secon$ case8 7e increase$ in (ro(ortion to the square of the $ia)eter8 an$ there .ill 7e no $ifficulty in .in$ing on it all the .ire require$0 >o the length )ay 7e in$efinitely increase$ an$ a transfor)er of any ca(acity )a$e8 as long as the ring is co)(letely co-ere$ 7y the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary .ires0 ,f the .ires 7e .oun$ si$e 7y si$e the ring of s)aller $ia)eter .ill gi-e a 7etter result8 an$ the sa)e .ill 7e the case if a certain fraction of the ring is not co-ere$ 7y the .ires0 ,t then 7eco)es i)(ortant to shorten the
)agnetic circuit0 3ut8 since in (ractice it is necessary to enclose the transfor)er in a casting8 if such a ring 7e tra$e8 it .oul$ ha-e to 7e (rotecte$ .ith a layer of la)inate$ iron8 .hich .oul$ increase the cost an$ loss0 ,t )ay 7e inclose$ in Hars of so)e8 insulating )aterial8 as /r0 >.in7urne $oes8 7elt this is less (ractica7le0 ;.ing to this8 the constructors of the )ost (ractical for)s8 such8 for instance8 as the &estinghouse transfor)er8 to .hich the >.in7urne reasoning a((lies8 ha-e 7een (ro)(te$ to enclose the .ires as )uch as (ossi7le .ith the la)inate$ iron8 an$ then it 7eca)e i)(ortant to shorte$ the )agnetic circuit8 7ecause in this for) only a (art of the )agnetic circuit is surroun$e$ 7y the .ires8 as .ell as for other (ractical consi$erations0 ,n (ractice it is $esira7le to get along .ith the least length of co((er con$uctor on account of chea(ness an$ regulation0 /r0 >.in7urne states that in his transfor)er the loss in iron is un$er one (er cent0 of the full loa$J all the 7alance of loss )ust8 therefore8 7e in the co((er0 3ut since8 accor$ing to hi)8 the .ires are of larger section8 his transfor)er can har$ly 7e an i)(ro-e)ent in that $irection0 The gun9)etal casting is also o7Hectiona7le0 There is no $ou7t so)e loss going on in the ca)e8 an$ 7esi$e8 it increases the resistance of the .ires 7y a factor T(>/>1 .here > is the total cross9section of the core an$ >1 the section of the iron .ires0 There is one i)(ortant (oint .hich see)s to ha-e esca(e$ /r0 >.in7urne's attention0 &hether the o(en circuit transfor)er is an i)(ro-e)ent8 or not8 .ill $e(en$ (rinci(ally on the (erio$0 The e'(erience of )ost electrical engineers has resulte$ in the a$o(tion of the close$ circuit transfor)er0 , 7elie-e that , .as the first to a$-ocate in o(en circuit for)8 7ut to i)(ro-e its efficiency , ha$ to use a )uch higher (erio$J at usual (erio$s the close$ circuit for) is (refera7le0 /r0 >.in7urne )a2es so)e other o7scure state)ents u(on .hich , nee$ not $.ell8 as they ha-e no 7earing on the )ain question0
18-0-0--"/: Tesla2s new Alternating Motors by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer %ETTE!& T' T(E EDIT'!. ?1390@ K , ho(e you .ill allo. )e the (ri-ilege8 to say in the colu)ns of your estee)e$ Hournal a fe. .or$s in regar$ to an article .hich a((eare$ in ,n$ustries of August !!8 to .hich )y attention has 7een calle$0 ,n this article an atte)(t is )a$e to criticise so)e of )y in-entions8 nota7ly those .hich you ha-e $escri7e$ in your issue of August %8 18950 The .riter 7egins 7y statingI "The )otor $e(en$s on a shifting of the (oles un$er certain con$itions8 a (rinci(le .hich has 7een alrea$y e)(loye$ 7y /r0 A0 &right in his alternating current )eter0" This is no sur(rise to )e0 ,t .oul$ rather ha-e sur(rise$ )e to learn that /r0 &right has not yet e)(loye$ the (rinci(le in his )eter8 consi$ering .hat8 7efore its a((earance8 .as 2no.n of )y .or2 on )otors8 an$ )ore (articularly of that of >challen7erger on )eters0 ,t has cost )e years of thought to arri-e at certain results8 7y )any 7elie-e$ to 7e unattaina7le 8 for .hich there are no. nu)erous clai)ants8 an$ the nu)7er of these is ra(i$ly increasing8 li2e that of the colonels in the >outh after the .ar0 The .riter then goo$9nature$ly e'(lains the theory of action of the )oti-e $e-ice in &right's )eter8 .hich has greatly 7enefite$ )e8 for it is so long since , ha-e arri-e$ at this8 an$ si)ilar theories8 that , ha$ al)ost forgotten it0 He then saysI " /r0 Tesla has .or2e$ out so)e )ore or less co)(licate$ )otors on this (rinci(le8 7ut the curious (oint is that he has co)(letely )isun$erstoo$ the theory of the (heno)ena8 an$ has got hol$ of (the ol$ fallacy of screening0" This )ay 7e curious8 7ut ho. )uch )ore curious it is to fin$ that the .riter in ,n$ustries has co)(letely )isun$erstoo$ e-erything hi)self0 , li2e nothing 7etter than Hust criticis) of )y .or28 e-en if it 7e se-ere8 7ut .hen the critic assu)es a certain " l'Utat c'est )oi" air of unquestione$ Co)(etency , .ant hi) to 2no. .hat he is .riting a7out0 Ho. little the .riter in ,n$ustries see)s to 2no. a7out the )atter is (ainfully a((arent .hen ho connects the (heno)enon in &right's )eter .ith the su7Hect he has un$er consi$eration0 His further re)ar28 "He (/r0 Tesla .in$s his secon$ary of iron instea$ of co((er an$ thin2s the effect is (ro$uce$ )agnetically8" is illustrati-e of the care .ith .hich he has (eruse$ the $escri(tion of the $e-ices containe$ in the issue of The "lectrical "ngineer a7o-e referre$ to0 , ta2e a )otor ha-ing8 say eight (oles8 an$ .ra( the e'citing coils of four alternate cores .ith fine insulate$ iron .ire0 &hen the current is starte$ in these coils it encounters the effect of the close$ )agnetic circuit an$ is retar$e$0 The )agnetic lines set u( at the start close to the iron .ire aroun$ the coils an$ no free (oles a((ear at first at the en$s of the four cores0 As the current rises in the coils )ore lines are set u(8 .hich cro.$ )ore an$ )ore in the fine iron .ire until finally the sa)e 7eco)es saturate$8 or nearly so8 .hen the shiel$ing action of the iron .ire ceases an$ free (oles a((ear at the en$s of the four (rotecte$ cores0 The effect of the iron .ire8 as .ill 7e seen8 is t.o9fol$0 First8 it retar$s the energiBing currentJ an$ secon$8 it $elays the a((earance of the free (oles0 To (ro$uce still greater $ifference of (hase in the )agnetiBation of the (rotecte$ an$ un(rotecte$ cores8 , connect the iron .ire surroun$ing the coils of the for)er in series .ith the coils of the latter8 in .hich case8 of course8 the iron .ire is (refera7ly .oun$ or connecte$ $ifferentially8 after the fashion of the resistance8 coils in a 7ri$ge8 so as to ha-e no a((recia7le self9in$uction0 ,n other cases , o7tain the $esire$ retar$ation in the a((earance of the free (oles on one set of cores 7y a )agnetic shunt8 .hich (ro$uces a greater retar$ation of the current an$ ta2es u( at the start a certain nu)7er of the lines set u(8 7ut 7eco)es saturate$ .hen the current in the e'citing coils reaches a (re$eter)ine$ strength0 ,n the transfor)er the sa)e (rinci(le of shiel$ing is utiliBe$0 A (ri)ary con$uctor is surroun$e$ .ith a fine layer of la)inate$ iron8 consisting of fine iron .ire or (lates (ro(erly insulate$ an$ interru(te$0 As long as the current in the (ri)ary con$uctor is so s)all that the iron enclosure can carry all the lines of force set u( 7y the current8 there is -ery little action e'erte$ u(on a secon$ary con$uctor (lace$ in -icinity to the firstJ 7ut Hust as soon as the iron enclosure 7eco)es saturate$8 or nearly so8 it loses the -irtue of (rotecting the secon$ary an$ the in$ucing action of the (ri)ary (ractically 7egins0 &hat8 )ay , as28 has all this to $o .ith the "ol$ fallacy of screeningF" &ith certain o7Hects in -ie. K the enu)eration of .hich .oul$ lea$ )e too far K an arrange)ent .as sho.n in The "lectrical "ngineer8 a7out .hich the .riter in ,n$ustries says I " A ring of la)inate$ iron is .oun$ .ith a secon$ary0 ,t is then encase$ in iron la)inate$ in the .rong $irection an$ the (ri)ary is .oun$ outsi$e of this0 The layer of iron 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary is su((ose$ to screen the coil0 ;f course it cannot $o so8 such a thing ,s unthin2a7le0" This re)in$s )e of the )an .ho ha$ co))itte$ so)e offense an$ engage$ the
ser-ices of an attorney0 "They cannot co))it you to (rison for that8" sai$ the attorney0 Finally the )an .as i)(risone$0 He sent for the attorney0 " >ir8" sai$ the latter8 " , tell you they cannot i)(rison you for that0" "3ut8 sir8" retorte$ the (risoner8 "they ha-e i)(risone$ )e0" ,t )ay not screen8 in the o(inion of the .riter in ,n$ustries8 7ut Hust the sa)e it $oes0 Accor$ing to the arrange)ent the (rinci(al effect of the screen )ay 7e either a retar$ation of the action of the (ri)ary current u(on the secon$ary circuit or a $efor)ation of the secon$ary current .a-e .ith si)ilar results for the (ur(oses inten$e$0 ,n the arrange)ent referre$ to 7y the .riter in ,n$ustries 7e see)s to 7e certain that the iron layer acts li2e a cho2ing coilJ there again he is )ista2enJ it $oes not act li2e a cho2ing coil8 for then its ca(acity for )aintaining constant current .oul$ 7e -ery li)ite$0 3ut it acts )ore li2e a )agnetic shunt in constant current transfor)ers an$ $yna)os8 as8 in )y o(inion8 it ought to act0 There are a goo$ )any )ore things to 7e sai$ a7out the re)ar2s containe$ in ,n$ustries0 ,n regar$ to the )agnetic ti)e lag the .riter saysI " ,f a 7ar of iron has a coil at one en$8 an$ if the core is (erfectly la)inate$8 on starting a current in the coil the in$uction all along the iron corres(on$s to the e'citation at that instant8 unless there is a )icrosco(ic ti)e lag8 of .hich there is no e-i$ence0" Det a )otor .as $escri7e$8 the -ery o(eration of .hich is $e(en$ent on the ti)e lag of )agnetiBation of the $ifferent (arts of a core0 ,t is true the .riter uses the ter) "(erfectly la)inate$" (.hich8 7y the .ay8 , .oul$ li2e hi) to e'(lain 8 7ut if he inten$s to )a2e such a "(erfectly la)inate$" core , -enture to say there is trou7le in store for hi)0 Fro) his re)ar2s , see that the .riter cco)(letely o-erloo2s the i)(ortance of the siBe of the core an$ of the nu)7er of the alternations (ointe$ outJ 7e fails to see the stress lai$ on the saturation of the screen8 or shunt8 in so)e of the cases $escri7e$J he $oes not see) to recogniBe the fact that in the cases consi$ere$ the for)ation of current is re$uce$ as far as (ractica7le in the screen8 an$ that the sa)e8 therefore8 so far as its quality of screening is concerne$8 has no role to (erfor) as a con$uctor0 , also see that he .oul$ .ant consi$era7le infor)ation a7out the ti)e lag in the )agnetiBation of the $ifferent (arts of a core8 an$ an e'(lanation .hy8 in the transfor)er he refers to8 the screen is la)inate$ in the .rong $irection8 etc0 K 7ut the eluci$ation of all these (oints .oul$ require )ore ti)e than , a) a7le to $e-ote to the su7Hect0 ,t is $istressing to fin$ all this in the colu)ns of a lea$ing technical Hournal0 ,n conclusion8 the .riter sho.s his true colors 7y )a2ing the follo.ing .ithering re)ar2sI ",t is questiona7le .hether the Tesla )otor .ill e-er 7e a success0 >uch )otors .ill go roun$8 of course8 an$ .ill gi-e out(uts8 7ut their efficiency is $ou7tfulJ an$ if they nee$ three9.ire circuits an$ s(ecial generators there is no o7Hect in using the)8 as a $irect current )otor can 7e run instea$ .ith a$-antage0" 1o )an of 7roa$ -ie.s .ill feel certain of the success of any in-ention8 ho.e-er goo$ an$ original8 in this (erio$ of fe-erish acti-ity8 .hen e-ery $ay )ay 7ring ne. an$ unforseen $e-elo()ents0 At the (ace .e are (rogressing the (er)anence of all our a((aratus it its (resent for)s 7eco)es )ore an$ )ore (ro7le)atical0 ,t is i)(ossi7le to foretell .hat ty(e of )otor .ill crystaliBe out of the unite$ efforts of )any a7le )enJ 7ut it is )y con-iction that at no $istant ti)e a )otor ha-ing co))utator an$ 7rushes .ill 7e loo2e$ u(on as an antiquate$ (iece of )echanis)0 Eust ho. )uch the last quote$ re)ar2s of the .riter of ,n$ustries K consi$ering the (resent state of the art K are Hustifie$8 , .ill en$ea-our to sho. in a fe. lines0 First8 ta2e the trans)ission of (o.er in isolate$ (laces0 A case frequently occurring in (ractice an$ attracting )ore an$ )ore the attention of engineers is the trans)ission of large (o.ers at consi$era7le $istances0 ,n such a case the (o.er is -ery li2ely to 7e chea(8 an$ the car$inal require)ents are then the re$uction of the cost of the lea$s8 chea(ness of construction an$ )aintenance of )achinery an$ constant s(ee$ of the )otors0 >u((ose a loss of only !4 (er cent in the lea$s8 at full loa$8 7e allo.e$0 ,f a $irect current )otor 7e use$8 there .ill 7e8 7esi$es other $ifficulties8 consi$era7le -ariation in the s(ee$ of the )otor K e-en if the current is su((lie$ fro) a series $yna)o K so )uch so that the )otor )ay not 7e .ell a$a(te$ for )any (ur(oses8 for instance8 in cases .here $irect current transfor)ation is conte)(late$ .ith the o7Hect of running lights or other $e-ices at constant (otential0 ,t is true that the con$ition )ay 7e 7ettere$ 7y e)(loying (ro(er regulating $e-ices8 7ut these .ill only further co)(licate the alrea$y co)(le' syste)8 an$ in all (ro7a7ility fail to secure such (erfection as .ill 7e $esire$0 ,n using an or$inary single9circuit alternate current )otor the $isa$-antage is that the )otor has no starting torque an$ that8 for equal .eight8 its out(ut an$ efficiency are )ore or less 7elo. that of a $irect current )otor0 ,f8 on the contrary8 the ar)ature of any alternator or $irect current )achine K large8 lo.9s(ee$8 t.o9(ole )achines .ill gi-e the 7est results K is .oun$ .ith t.o circuits8 a )otor is at once o7taine$ .hich (ossesses sufficient torque to start un$er consi$era7le loa$I it runs in a7solute synchronis) .ith the generator K an a$-antage )uch $esire$ an$ har$ly e-er to 7e attaine$ .ith regulating $e-icesJ it ta2es current in (ro(ortion to the loa$8 an$ its (lant efficiency .ithin a fe. (er cent is equal to that of a $irect current )otor of the sa)e siBe0 ,t .ill 7e a7le8 ho.e-er8 to (erfor) )ore .or2 than a $irect current )otor of the sa)e siBe8 first8 7ecause there .ill 7e no change of s(ee$8 e-en if the loa$ 7e $ou7le$ or tri(le$8 .ithin the li)its of a-aila7le generator (o.erJ an$ secon$8 7ecause it can 7e run at a higher electro)oti-e force8 the co))utator an$ the co)(lication an$ $ifficulties it in-ol-es in the construction an$ o(eration of the generators an$ )otors 7eing eli)inate$ fro) the
syste)0 >uch a syste) .ill8 of course8 require three lea$s8 7ut since the (lant efficiency is (ractically equal to that of the $irect current syste)8 it .ill require the sa)e a)ount of co((er .hich .oul$ 7e require$ in the latter syste)8 an$ the $isa$-antage of the thir$ lea$ .ill 7e co)(arati-ely s)all8 if any8 for three lea$s of s)aller siBe )ay (erha(s 7e )ore con-enient to (lace than t.o larger lea$s0 &hen )ore )achines ha-e to 7e use$ there )ay 7e no $isa$-antage .hate-er connecte$ .ith the thir$ .ire J ho.e-er8 since the si)(licity of the generators an$ )otors allo.s the use of higher electro)oti-e forces8 the cost of the lea$s )ay 7e re$uce$ 7elo. the figure (ractica7le .ith the $irect current syste)0 Consi$ering all the (ractical a$-antages offere$ 7y such an alternating syste)8 , a) of an o(inion quite contrary to that of the author of the article in ,n$ustries8 an$ thin2 that it can quite successfully stan$ the co)(etition of any $irect current syste)8 an$ this the )ore8 the larger the )achines 7uilt an$ the greater the $istances0 Another case frequently occurring in (ractice is the trans)ission of s)all (o.ers in nu)erous isolate$ (laces8 such as )ines8 etc0 ,n )any of these cases si)(licity an$ relia7ility of the a((aratus are the (rinci(al o7Hects0 , 7elie-e that in )any (laces of this 2in$ )y )otor has so far (ro-e$ a (erfect success0 ,n such cases a ty(e of )otor is use$ (ossessing great starting torque8 requiring for its o(eration only alternating current an$ ha-ing no sli$ing contacts .hate-er on the ar)ature8 this a$-antage o-er other ty(es of )otors 7eing highly -alue$ in such (laces0 The (lant efficiency of this for) of )otor is8 in the (resent state of (erfection8 inferior to that of the for)er for)8 7ut , a) confi$ent that i)(ro-e)ents .ill 7e )a$e in that $irection0 3e9si$es8 (lant efficiency is in these cases of secon$ary i)(ortance8 an$ in cases of trans)ission at consi$era7le $istances8 it is no $ra.7ac28 since the electro)oti-e force )ay 7e raise$ as high as (ractica7le on con-erters0 , can not lay enough stress on this a$-antageous feature of )y )otors8 an$ shoul$ thin2 that it ought to 7e fully a((reciate$ 7y engineers8 for to high electro)oti-e forces .e are surely co)ing8 an$ if they )ust 7e use$8 then the fittest a((aratus .ill 7e e)(loye$0 , 7elie-e that in the trans)ission of (o.er .ith such co))utatorless )achines8 158555 -olts8 an$ e-en )ore8 )ay 7e use$8 an$ , .oul$ 7e gla$ to see /r0 Ferranti's enter(rise succee$0 His .or2 is in the right $irection8 an$8 in )y o(inion8 it .ill 7e of great -alue for the a$-ance)ent of the art0 As regar$s the su((ly of (o.er fro) large central stations in cities or centres of )anufacture8 the a7o-e argu)ents are a((lica7le8 an$ , see no reason .hy the three9.ire )otor syste) shoul$ not 7e successful0 ,n (utting u( such a station8 the thir$ .ire .oul$ 7e 7ut a -ery slight $ra.7ac28 an$ the syste) (ossesses enough a$-antages to o-er97alance this an$ any other $isa$-antage0 3ut this question .ill 7e settle$ in the future8 for as yet co)(arati-ely little has 7een $one in that $irection8 e-en .ith the $irect current syste)0 The (lant efficiency of such a three9.ire syste) .oul$ 7e increase$ 7y using8 in connection .ith the or$inary ty(e of )y )otor8 other ty(es .hich act )ore li2e inert resistances0 The (lant efficiency of the .hole syste) .oul$8 in all cases8 7e greater than that of each in$i-i$ual )otor K if li2e )otors are use$ K o.ing to the fact that they .oul$ (ossess $ifferent self9in$uction8 accor$ing to the loa$0 The su((ly of (o.er fro) lighting )ains is8 , 7elie-e8 in the o(inion of )ost engineers8 li)ite$ to co)(arati-ely s)all (o.ers8 for o7-ious reasons0 As the (resent syste)s are 7uilt on the t.o9.ire (lan8 an efficient t.o9.ire )otor .ithout co))utator is require$ for this (ur(ose8 an$ also for traction (ur(oses0 A large nu)7er of these )otors8 e)7o$ying ne. (rinci(les8 ha-e 7een $e-ise$ 7y )e an$ are 7eing constantly (erfecte$0 ;n lighting stations8 ho.e-er8 )y three9.ire syste) )ay 7e a$-antageously carrie$ out0 A thir$ .ire )ay 7e run for )otors an$ the ol$ connections left un$istur7e$0 The ar)atures of the generators )ay 7e re.oun$8 .here7y the out(ut of the )achines .ill 7e increase$ a7out 34 (er cent8 or e-en )ore in )achines .ith cast iron fiel$ )agnets0 ,f the )achines are .or2e$ at the sa)e ca(acity8 this )eans an increase$ efficiency0 ,f (o.er is a-aila7le at the station8 the gain in current )ay 7e use$ in )otors0 Those .ho o7Hect to the thir$ .ire8 )ay re)e)7er that the ol$ t.o9.ire $irect syste) is al)ost entirely su(erse$e$ 7y the three9.ire syste)8 yet )y three9.ire syste) offers to the alternating syste) relati-ely greater a$-antages8 than the three9.ires $irect (ossesses o-er the t.o9.ire0 <erha(s8 if the .riter in ,n$ustries .oul$ ha-e ta2en all this in consi$eration8 he .oul$ ha-e 7een less hasty in his conclusions0 1i2ola Tesla 1"& D;+:8 >e(t0 1*8 18950
18-1-0"-"1: 5,enomena of Alternating Currents of 6ery 0ig, 7re8uen(y by Nikola Tesla

Electrical #orld "lectrical Hournals are getting to 7e )ore an$ )ore interesting0 1e. facts are o7ser-e$ an$ ne. (ro7le)s s(ring u( $aily .hich co))an$ the attention of engineers0 ,n the last fe. nu)7ers of the "nglish Hournals8 (rinci(ally in the "lectrician there ha-e 7een se-eral ne. )atters 7rought u( .hich ha-e attracte$ )ore than usual attention0 The a$$ress of <rofessor Croo2es has re-i-e$ the interest in his 7eautiful an$ s2illfully (erfor)e$ e'(eri)ents8 the effect o7ser-e$ on the Ferranti )ains has elicite$ the e'(ressions of o(inion of so)e of the lea$ing "nglish electricians8 an$ /r0 >.in7urne has 7rought out so)e interesting (oints in connection .ith con$ensers an$ $yna)o e'citation0 The .riter's o.n e'(eriences ha-e in$uce$ hi) to -enture a fe. re)ar2s in regar$ to these an$ other )atters8 ho(ing that they .ill affor$ so)e useful infor)ation or suggestion to the rea$er0 A)ong his )any e'(eri)ents <rofessor Croo2es sho.s so)e (erfor)e$ .ith tu7es $e-oi$ of internal electro$es8 an$ fro) his re)ar2s it )ust 7e inferre$ that the results o7taine$ .ith these tu7es are rather unusual0 ,f this 7e so8 then the .riter )ust regret that <rofessor Croo2es8 .hose a$)ira7le .or2 has 7een the $elight of e-ery in-estigator8 shoul$ not ha-e a-aile$ hi)self in his e'(eri)ents of a (ro(erly constructe$ alternate current )achine 9 na)ely8 one ca(a7le of gi-ing8 say 158555 to !58555 alternations (er secon$0 His researches on this $ifficult 7ut fascinating su7Hect .oul$ then ha-e 7een e-en )ore co)(lete0 ,t is true that .hen using such a )achine in connection .ith an in$uction coil the $istincti-e character of the electro$es 9.hich is $esira7le8 if not essential8 in )any e'(eri)ents 9 is lost8 in )ost cases 7oth the electro$es 7eha-ing ali2eJ 7ut on the other han$8 the a$-antage is gaine$ that the effects )ay 7e e'alte$ at .ill0 &hen using a rotating s.itch or co))utator the rate of change o7taina7le in the (ri)ary current is li)ite$0 &hen the co))utator is )ore ra(i$ly re-ol-e$ the (ri)ary current $i)inishes8 an$ if the current 7e increase$8 the s(ar2ing8 .hich cannot 7e co)(letely o-erco)e 7y the con$enser8 i)(airs consi$era7ly the -irtue of the a((aratus0 1o such li)itations e'ist .hen using an alternate current )achine as any $esire$ rate of change )ay 7e (ro$uce$ in the (ri)ary current0 ,t is thusJ (ossi7le to o7tain e'cessi-ely high electro)oti-e forces in the secon$ary circuit .ith a co)(arati-ely s)all (ri)ary currentJ )oreo-er8 the (erfect regularity in the .or2ing of the a((aratus )ay 7e relie$ u(on0 The .riter .ill inci$entally )ention that any one .ho atte)(ts for the first ti)e to construct such a )achine .ill ha-e a tale of .oe to tell0 He .ill first start out8 as a )atter of course8 7y )a2ing an ar)ature .ith the require$ nu)7er of (olar (roHections0 He .ill then get the satisfaction of ha-ing (ro$uce$ an a((aratus .hich is fit to acco)(any a thoroughly &agnerian o(era0 ,t )ay 7esi$es (ossess the -irtue of con-erting )echanical energy into heat in a nearly (erfect )anner0 ,f there is a re-ersal in the (olarity of the (roHections8 he .ill get heat out of the )achineJ if there is no re-ersal8 the heating .ill 7e less8 7ut the out(ut .ill 7e ne't to nothing0 He .ill then a7an$on the iron in the ar)ature8 an$ he .ill get fro) the >cylla to the Chary7$is0 He .ill loo2 for one $ifficulty an$ .ill fin$ another8 7ut8 after a fe. trials8 he )ay get nearly .hat he .ante$0 A)ong the )any e'(eri)ents .hich )ay 7e (erfor)e$ .ith such a )achine8 of not the least interest are those (erfor)e$ .ith a high9tension in$uction coil0 The character of the $ischarge is co)(letely change$0 The arc is esta7lishe$ at )uch greater $istances8 an$ it is so easily affecte$ 7y the slightest current of air that it often .riggles aroun$ in the )ost singular )anner0 ,t usually e)its the rhyth)ical soun$ (eculiar to the alternate current arcs8 7ut the curious (oint is that the soun$ )ay 7e hear$ .ith a nu)7er of alternations far a7o-e ten thousan$ (er secon$8 .hich 7y )any is consi$ere$ to 7e8 a7out the li)it of au$ition0 ,n )any res(ects the coil 7eha-es li2e a static )achine0 <oints i)(air consi$era7ly the s(ar2ing inter-al8 electricity esca(ing fro) the) freely8 an$ fro) a .ire attache$ to one of the ter)inals strea)s of light issue8 as though it .ere connecte$ to a (ole of a (o.erful Toe(ler )achine0 All these (heno)ena are8 of course8 )ostly $ue to the enor)ous $ifferences of (otential o7taine$0 As a consequence of the self9in$uction of the coil an$ the high frequency8 the current is )inute .hile there is a corres(on$ing rise of (ressure0 A current i)(ulse of so)e strength starte$ in such a coil shoul$ (ersist to flo. no less than four ten9thousan$ths of a secon$0 As this ti)e is greater than half the (erio$8 it occurs that an o((osing electro)oti-e force 7egins to act .hile the current is still flo.ing0 As a consequence8 the (ressure rises as in a tu7e fille$ .ith liqui$ an$ -i7rate$ ra(i$ly aroun$ its a'is0 The current is so s)all that8 in the o(inion an$ in-oluntary e'(erience of the .riter8 the $ischarge of e-en a -ery large coil cannot (ro$uce seriously inHurious effects8 .hereas8 if the sa)e coil .ere o(erate$ .ith a current of lo.er frequency8 though the electro)oti-e force .oul$ 7e )uch s)aller8 the $ischarge .oul$ 7e )ost certainly inHurious0 This result8
ho.e-er8 is $ue in (art to the high frequency0 The .riter's e'(eriences ten$ to sho. that the higher the frequency the greater the a)ount of electrical energy .hich )ay 7e (asse$ through the 7o$y .ithout serious $isco)fortJ .hence it see)s certain that hu)an tissues act as con$ensers0 ;ne is not quite (re(are$ for the 7eha-iour of the coil .hen connecte$ to a #ey$en Har0 ;ne8 of course8 antici(ates that since the frequency is high the ca(acity of the Har shoul$ 7e s)all0 He therefore ta2es a -ery s)all Har8 a7out the siBe of a s)all .ine glass8 7ut he fin$s that e-en .ith this Har the coil is (ractically short9 circuite$0 He then re$uces the ca(acity until he co)es to a7out the ca(acity of t.o s(heres8 say8 ten centi)etres in $ia)eter an$ t.o to four centi)etres a(art0 The $ischarge then assu)esJ the for) of a serrate$ 7an$ e'actly li2e a succession of s(ar2s -ie.e$ in a ra(i$ly re-ol-ing )irrorJ the serrations8 of course8 corres(on$ing to the con$enser $ischarges0 ,n this case one )ay o7ser-e a queer (heno)enon0 The $ischarge starts at the nearest (oints8 .or2s gra$ually u(8 7rea2s so)e.here near the to( of the s(heres8 7egins again at the 7otto)J an$ so on0 This goes on so fast that se-eral serrate$ 7an$s are seen at once0 ;ne )ay 7e (uBBle$ for a fe. )inutes8 7ut the e'(lanation is si)(le enough0 The $ischarge 7egins at the nearest (ointsJ the air is heate$ an$ carries the arc u(.ar$ until it 7rea2s8 .hen it is re9esta7lishe$ at the nearest (oints8 etc0 >ince the current (asses easily through a con$enser of e-en s)all ca(acity8 it .ill 7e foun$ quite natural that connecting only one ter)inal to a 7o$y of the sa)e siBe8 no )atter ho. .ell insulate$8 i)(airs consi$era7ly the stri2ing $istance of the arc0 "'(eri)ents .ith Geissler tu7es are of s(ecial interest0 An e'hauste$ tu7e8 $e-oi$ of electro$es of any 2in$8 .ill light u( at so)e $istance fro) the coil0 ,f a tu7e fro) a -acuu) (u)( is near the coil the .hole of the (u)( is 7rilliantly lighte$0 An incan$escent la)( a((roache$ to the coil lights u( an$ gets (erce(ti7ly hot0 ,f a la)( ha-e the ter)inals connecte$ to one of the 7in$ing (osts of the coil an$ the han$ is a((roache$ to the 7ul78 a -ery curious an$ rather un(leasant $ischarge fro) the glass to the han$ ta2es (lace8 an$ the fila)ent )ay 7eco)e incan$escent0 The $ischarge rese)7les to so)e e'tent the strea) issuing fro) the (lates of a (o.erful Toe(ler )achine8 7ut is of inco)(ara7ly greater quantity0 The la)( in this case acts as a con$enser8 the rarefie$ gas 7eing one coating8 the o(erator's han$ the other0 3y ta2ing the glo7e of a la)( in the han$8 an$ 7y 7ringing the )etallic ter)inals near t$ or in contact .ith a con$uctor connecte$ to the coil8 the car7on is 7rought to 7right incan$escence an$ the glass is ra(i$ly heate$0 &ith a 1559-olt 15 c0(0 la)( one )ay .ithout great $isco)fort stan$ as )uch current as .ill 7ring the la)( to a consi$era7le 7rilliancyJ 7ut it can 7e hel$ in the han$ only for a fe. )inutes8 as the glass is heate$ in an incre$i7ly short ti)e0 &hen a tu7e is lighte$ 7y 7ringing it near to the coil it )ay 7e )a$e to go out 7y inter(osing a )etal (late on the han$ 7et.een the coil an$ tu7eJ 7ut if the )etal (late 7e fastene$ to a glass ro$ or other.ise insulate$8 the tu7e )ay re)ain lighte$ if the (late 7e inter(ose$8 or )ay e-en increase in lu)inosity0 The effect $e(en$s on the (osition of the (late an$ tu7e relati-ely to the coil8 an$ )ay 7e al.ays easily foretol$ 7y assu)ing that con$uction ta2es (lace fro) one ter)inal of the coil to the other0 Accor$ing to the (osition of the (late8 it )ay either $i-ert fro) or $irect the current to the tu7e0 ,n another line of .or2 the .riter has in frequent e'(eri)ents )aintaine$ incan$escent la)(s of 45 or 155 -olts 7urning at any $esire$ can$le (o.er .ith 7oth the ter)inals of each la)( connecte$ to a stout co((er .ire of no )ore than a fe. feet in length0 These e'(eri)ents see) interesting enough8 7ut they are not )ore so than the queer e'(eri)ent of Fara$ay8 .hich has 7een re-i-e$ an$ )a$e )uch of 7y recent in-estigators8 an$ in .hich a $ischarge is )a$e to Hu)( 7et.een t.o (oints of a 7ent co((er .ire0 An e'(eri)ent )ay 7e cite$ here .hich )ay see) equally interesting0 ,f a Geissler tu7e8 the ter)inals of .hich are Hoine$ 7y a co((er .ire8 7e a((roache$ to the coil8 certainly no one .oul$ 7e (re(are$ to see the tu7e light u(0 Curiously enough8 it $oes light u(8 an$8 .hat is )ore8 the .ire $oes not see) to )a2e )uch $ifference0 1o. one is a(t to thin2 in the first )o)ent that the i)(e$ance of the .ire )ight ha-e so)ething to $o .ith the (heno)enon0 3ut this is of course i))e$iately reHecte$8 as for this an enor)ous frequency .oul$ 7e require$0 This result8 ho.e-er8 see)s (uBBling only at firstJ for u(on reflection it is quite clear that the .ire can )a2e 7ut little $ifference0 ,t )ay 7e e'(laine$ in )ore than one .ay8 7ut it agrees (erha(s 7est .ith o7ser-ation to assu)e that con$uction ta2es (lace fro) the ter)inals of the coil through the s(ace0 ;n this assu)(tion8 if the tu7e .ith the .ire 7e hel$ in any (osition8 the .ire can $i-ert little )ore than the current .hich (asses through the s(ace occu(ie$ 7y the .ire an$ the )etallic ter)inals of the tu7eJ through the a$Hacent s(ace the current (asses (ractically un$istur7e$0 For this reason8 if the tu7e 7e hel$ in any (osition at right angles to the line Hoining the 7in$ing (osts of the coil8 the .ire )a2es har$ly any $ifference8 7ut in a (osition )ore or less (arallel .ith that line it i)(airs to a certain e'tent the 7rilliancy of the tu7e an$ its facility to light u(0 1u)erous other (heno)ena )ay 7e e'(laine$ on the sa)e assu)(tion0 For instance8 if the en$s of the tu7e 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith .ashers of sufficient siBe an$ hel$ in the line Hoining the ter)inals of the coil8 it .ill not light u(8 an$ then nearly the .hole of the current8 .hich .oul$ other.ise (ass unifor)ly through the s(ace 7et.een the .ashers8 is $i-erte$ through the .ire0 3ut if the tu7e 7e incline$ sufficiently to that line8 it .ill light u( in s(ite of the .ashers0 Also8 if a )etal (late 7e fastene$ u(on a glass ro$ an$ hel$ at right angles to the line Hoining the
7in$ing (osts8 an$ nearer to one of the)8 a tu7e hel$ )ore or less (arallel .ith the line .ill light u( instantly .hen one of the ter)inals touches the (late8 an$ .ill go out .hen se(arate$ fro) the (late0 The greater the surface of the (late8 u( to a certain li)it8 the easier the tu7e .ill light u(0 &hen a tu7e is (lace$ at right angles to the straight line Hoining the 7in$ing (osts8 an$ then rotate$8 its lu)inosity stea$ily increases until it is (arallel .ith that line0 The .riter )ust state8 ho.e-er8 that he $oes not fa-or the i$ea of a lea2age or current through the s(ace any )ore than as a suita7le e'(lanation8 for he is con-ince$ that all these e'(eri)ents coul$ not 7e (erfor)e$ .ith a static )achine yiel$ing a constant $ifference of (otential8 an$ that con$enser action is largely concerne$ in these (heno)ena0 ,t is .ell to ta2e certain (recautions .hen o(erating a +uh)2orff coil .ith -ery ra(i$ly alternating currents0 The (ri)ary current shoul$ not 7e turne$ on too long8 else the core )ay get so hot as to )elt the guta9(ercha or (araffin8 or other.ise inHure the insulation8 an$ this )ay occur in a sur(risingly short ti)e8 consi$ering the current's strength0 The (ri)ary current 7eing turne$ on8 the fine .ire ter)inals )ay 7e Hoine$ .ithout great ris28 the i)(e$ance 7eing so great that it is $ifficult to force enough current through the fine .ire so as to inHure it8 an$ in fact the coil )ay 7e on the .hole )uch safer .hen the ter)inals of the fine .ire are connecte$ than .hen they are insulate$J 7ut s(ecial care shoul$ 7e ta2en .hen the ter)inals are connecte$ to the coatings of a #ey$en Har8 for .ith any.here near the critical ca(acity8 .hich Hust counteracts the self9in$uction at the e'isting frequency8 the coil )ight )eet the fate of >t0 <olycar(us0 ,f an e'(ensi-e -acuu) (u)( is lighte$ u( 7y 7eing near to the coil or touche$ .ith a .ire connecte$ to one of the ter)inals8 the current shoul$ 7e left on no )ore than a fe. )o)ents8 else the glass .ill 7e crac2e$ 7y the heating of the rarefie$ gas in one of the narro. (assages 9 in the .riter's o.n e'(erience )uod erat demonstrandum0 There are a goo$ )any other (oints of interest .hich )ay 7e o7ser-e$ in connection .ith such a )achine0 "'(eri)ents .ith the tele(hone8 a con$uctor in a strong fiel$ or .ith a con$enser or arc8 see) to affor$ certain (roof that soun$s far a7o-e the usual acce(te$ li)it of hearing .oul$ 7e (ercei-e$0 A tele(hone .ill e)it notes of t.el-e to thirteen thousan$ -i7rations (er secon$J then the ina7ility of the core to follo. such ra(i$ alternations 7egins to tell0 ,f8 ho.e-er8 the )agnet an$ core 7e re(lace$ 7y a con$enser an$ the ter)inals connecte$ to the high9tension secon$ary of a transfor)er8 higher notes )ay still 7e hear$0 ,f the current 7e sent aroun$ a finely la)inate$ core an$ a s)all (iece of thin sheet iron 7e hel$ gently against the core8 a soun$ )ay 7e still hear$ .ith thirteen to fourteen thousan$ alternations (er secon$8 (ro-i$e$ the current is sufficiently strong0 A s)all coil8 ho.e-er8 tightly (ac2e$ 7et.een the (oles of a (o.erful )agnet8 .ill e)it a soun$ .ith the a7o-e nu)7er of alternations8 an$ arcs )ay 7e au$i7le .ith a still higher frequency0 The li)it of au$ition is -ariously esti)ate$0 ,n >ir &illia) Tho)son's .ritings it is state$ so)e.here that ten thousan$ (er secon$8 or nearly so8 is the li)it0 ;ther8 7ut less relia7le8 sources gi-e it as high as t.enty9four thousan$ (er secon$0 The a7o-e e'(eri)ents ha-e con-ince$ the .riter that notes of an inco)(ara7ly higher nu)7er of -i7rations (er secon$ .oul$ 7e (ercei-e$ (ro-i$e$ they coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ .ith sufficient (o.er0 There is no reason .hy it shoul$ not 7e so0 The con$ensations an$ rarefactions of the air .oul$ necessarily set the $ia(hrag) in a corres(on$ing -i7ration an$ so)e sensation .oul$ 7e (ro$uce$8 .hate-er 9 .ithin certain li)its 9 the -elocity8 of trans)ission to their ner-e centres8 though it is (ro7a7le that for .ant of e'ercise the ear .oul$ not 7e a7le to $istinguish any such high note0 &ith the eye it is $ifferentJ if the sense of -ision is 7ase$ u(on so)e resonance effect8 as )any 7elie-e8 no a)ount of increase in the intensity of the ethereal -i7ration coul$ e'ten$ our range of -ision on either si$e of the -isi7le s(ectru)0 The li)it of au$ition of an arc $e(en$s on its siBe0 The greater the surface 7y a gi-en heating effect in the arc8 the higher the li)it of au$ition0 The highest notes are e)itte$ 7y the high9tension $ischarges of an in$uction coil in .hich the arc is8 so to s(ea28 all surface0 ,f + 7e the resistance of an arc8 an$ C the current8 an$ the linear $i)ensions 7e n ti)es increase$8 then the resistance is +/n 8 an$ .ith the sa)e current $ensity the current .oul$ 7e n!CJ hence the heating effect is n3 ti)es greater8 .hile the surface is only n! ti)es as8 great0 For this reason -ery large arcs .oul$ not e)it any rhyth)ical soun$ e-en .ith a -ery lo. frequency0 ,t )ust 7e o7ser-e$8 ho.e-er8 that the soun$ e)itte$ $e(en$s to so)e e'tent also on the co)(osition of the car7on0 ,f the car7on contain highly refractory )aterial8 this8 .hen heate$8 ten$s to )aintain theV te)(erature' of the arc unifor) an$ the soun$ is lessene$J for this reason it .oul$ see) that an alternating arc requires such car7onsI &ith currents of such high frequencies it is (ossi7le to o7tain noiseless arcs8 7ut the regulation of the la)( is ren$ere$ e'tre)ely $ifficult on account of the e'cessi-ely s)all attractions or re(ulsions 7et.een con$uctors con-eying these currentsI An interesting feature of the arc (ro$uce$ 7y these ra(i$ly alternating currents is its (ersistency0 There are t.o causes for it8 one of .hich is al.ays (resent8 the other so)eti)es only0 ;ne is $ue to the character of the current an$ the other to a (ro(erty of the )achine0 The first cause is the )ore i)(ortant one8 an$ is $ue $irectly to the ra(i$ity of the alternations0 &hen an arc is for)e$ 7y a (erio$ically un$ulating current8 there8 is8 a
corres(on$ing un$ulation in the te)(erature of the gaseous colu)n8 an$8 therefore8 a corres(on$ing un$ulation in the resistance of the arc0 3ut the resistance of the arc -aries enor)ously .ith the te)(erature of the gaseous colu)n8 7eing8 (ractically infinite .hen the gas 7et.een the electro$es is col$0 The (ersistence of the arc8 therefore8 $e(en$s on the ina7ility of the colu)n to cool0 ,t is for this reason i)(ossi7le to )aintain an arc .ith the current alternating only a fe. ti)es a secon$0 ;n the other han$8 .ith a (ractically continuous current8 the arc is easily )aintaine$8 the colu)n 7eing constantly8 2e(t at a high te)(erature an$ lo. resistance0 The higher the frequency the s)aller the ti)e inter-al $uring .hich the arc )ay cool' an$ increase consi$era7ly in resistance0 &ith a frequency of 158555 (er secon$ or )ore in any arc of equal8 siBe e'cessi-ely s)all -ariations of te)(erature are su(eri)(ose$ u(on a stea$y te)(erature8 li2e ri((les on the surface of a $ee( sea0 The heating effect is (ractically continuous an$ the arc 7eha-es li2e one (ro$uce$8 7y a continuous current8 .ith the e'ce(tion8 ho.e-er8 that it )ay not 7e quite as easily starte$8 an$ that the electro$es are equally consu)e$J though the .riter has o7ser-e$ 'so)e irregularities in this res(ect0 The secon$ cause allu$e$ to8 .hich (ossi7ly )ay not 7e (resent8 is $ue to the ten$ency of a8 )achine of such high frequency t$ )aintain a (ractically constant current0 &hen the arc is lengthene$8 the electro)oti-e force rises in (ro(ortion an$ the arc a((ears to 7e )ore (ersistent0 >uch a )achine is e)inently a$a(te$ to )aintain a constant current8 7ut it is -ery unfit for a constant (otential0 As a )atter of fact8 in certain ty(es of such )achines a nearly constant current is an al)ost una-oi$a7le result0 As the nu)7er of (oles or (olar (roHections is greatly increase$8 the clearance 7eco)es of great i)(ortance0 ;ne has really to $o .ith' a great nu)7er of -ery s)all )achines0 Then there is the i)(e$ance in the ar)ature8 enor)ously aug)ente$ 7y the high frequency0 Then8 again8 the )agnetic lea2age is facilitate$0 ,f there are' three or four hun$re$ alternate (oles8 the lea2age is so great that it is -irtually the sa)e as connecting8 in a t.o9(ole )achine8 the (oles 7y a (iece of iron0 This $isa$-antage88 it is true8 )ay 7e o7-iate$ )ore or less 7y using a fiel$ throughout of the sa)e (olarity8 7ut then one encounters $ifficulties8 of a $ifferent natureI All these things ten$ to )aintain a constant' current in the ar)ature circuit0 ,n this connection it is interesting to notice that e-en to9$ay engineers are astonishe$ at the (erfor)ance of a constant current )achine8 Hust as8 so)e years ago8 they use$ to consi$er it an e'traor$inary (erfor)ance if a )achine .as ca(a7le of )aintaining a constant8 (otential $ifference 7et.een the ter)inals0 Det one result is Hust as easily secure$ as the other0 ,t )ust only 7e re)e)7ere$ that in an in$ucti-e a((aratus of any 2in$8 if constant (otential is require$8 the in$ucti-e relation 7et.een the (ri)ary or e'citing an$ secon$ary or ar)ature circuit )ust 7e the closest (ossi7leJ .hereas8 in an a((aratus for constant current Hust the o((osite is require$0 Further)ore8 the o((osition to the current's flo. in the in$uce$ circuit )ust 7e as s)all as (ossi7le in the for)er an$ as great as (ossi7le in the latter case0 3ut o((osition to a current's flo. )ay 7e cause$ in )ore than one .ay0 ,t )ay 7e cause$ 7y oh)ic resistance of self9in$uction0 ;ne )ay )a2e the in$uce$ circuit of a $yna)o )achine or transfor)er of such high resistance that .hen o(erating $e-ices of consi$era7ly s)aller resistance .ithin -ery .i$e li)its a nearly constant current is )aintaine$0 3ut such high resistance in-ol-es a great loss in (o.er8 hence it is not (ractica7le0 1ot so self9in$uction0 >elf9in$uction $oes not necessarily )ean loss of (o.er0 The )oral is8 use self9in$uction instea$ of resistance0 There is8 ho.e-er8 a circu)stance .hich fa-ors the a$o(tion of this (lan8 an$ this is8 that a -ery high self9in$uction )ay 7e o7taine$ chea(ly 7y surroun$ing a co)(arati-ely s)all length of .ire )ore or less co)(letely .ith iron8 an$8 further)ore8 the effect )ay 7e e'alte$ at .ill 7y causing a ra(i$ un$ulation of the current0 To su) u(8 the require)ents for constant current areI &ea2 )agnetic connection 7et.een the in$uce$ an$ in$ucing circuits8 greatest (ossi7le self9in$uction .ith the least resistance8 greatest (ractica7le rate of change of the current0 Constant (otential8 on the other han$8 requiresI Closest )agnetic connection 7et.een the circuits8 stea$y in$uce$ current8 an$8 if (ossi7le8 no reaction0 ,f the latter con$itions coul$ 7e fully satisfie$ in a constant (otential )achine8 its out(ut .oul$ sur(ass )any ti)es that of a )achine (ri)arily $esigne$ to gi-e constant current0 Cnfortunately8 the ty(e of )achine in .hich these con$itions )ay 7e satisfie$ is of little (ractical -alue8 o.ing to the s)all electro)oti-e force o7taina7le an$ the $ifficulties in ta2ing off the current0 &ith their 2een in-entor's instinct8 the no. successful arc9light )en ha-e early recogniBe$ the $esi$erata of a constant current )achine0 Their arc light )achines ha-e .ea2 fiel$s8 large ar)atures8 .ith a great length of co((er .ire an$ fe. co))utator seg)ents to (ro$uce great -ariations in the current's strength an$ to 7ring self9 in$uction into (lay0 >uch )achines )ay )aintain .ithin consi$era7le li)its of -ariation in the resistance of the circuit a (ractically constant current0 Their out(ut is of course corres(on$ingly $i)inishe$8 an$8 (erha(s .ith the o7Hect in -ie. not to Cut $o.n the out(ut too )uch8 a si)(le $e-ice co)(ensating e'ce(tional -ariations is e)(loye$0 The un$ulation of the current is al)ost essential to the co))ercial success of an arc9light syste)0 ,t intro$uces in the circuit a stea$ying ele)ent ta2ing the (lace of a large oh)ic resistance8 .ithout in-ol-ing a great loss in (o.er8 an$8 .hat is )ore i)(ortant8 it allo.s the use of si)(le clutch la)(s8 .hich .ith a current of a certain nu)7er of i)(ulses (er secon$8 7est suita7le for each (articular la)(8 .ill8 if (ro(erly atten$e$ to8
regulate e-en 7etter than the finest cloc29.or2 la)(s0 This $isco-ery has 7een )a$e 7y the .riter 9 se-eral years too late0 ,t has 7een asserte$ 7y co)(etent "nglish electricians that in a constant9current )achine or transfor)er the regulation is effecte$ 7y -arying the (hase of the secon$ary current0 That this -ie. is erroneous )ay 7e easily (ro-e$ 7y using8 instea$ of la)(s8 $e-ices each (ossessing self9in$uction an$ ca(acity or self9in$uction an$ resistance 9 that is8 retar$ing an$ accelerating co)(onents 9 in such (ro(ortions as to not affect )aterially the (hase of the secon$ary current0 Any nu)7er of such $e-ices )ay 7e inserte$ or cut out8 still it .ill 7e foun$ that the regulation occurs8 a constant current 7eing )aintaine$8 .hile the electro)oti-e force is -arie$ .ith the nu)7er of the $e-ices0 The change of (hase of the secon$ary current is si)(ly a result follo.ing fro) the changes in resistance8 an$8 though secon$ary reaction is al.ays of )ore or less i)(ortance8 yet the real cause of the regulation lies in the e'istence of the con$itions a7o-e enu)erate$0 ,t shoul$ 7e state$8 ho.e-er8 that in the case of a )achine the a7o-e re)ar2s are to 7e restricte$ to the cases in .hich the )achine is in$e(en$ently e'cite$0 ,f the e'citation 7e effecte$ 7y co))utating the ar)ature current8 then the fi'e$ (osition of the 7rushes )a2es any shifting of the neutral line of the ut)ost i)(ortance8 an$ it )ay not 7e thought i))o$est of the .riter to )ention that8 as far as recor$s go8 he see)s to ha-e 7een the first .ho has successfully regulate$ )achines 7y (ro-i$ing a 7ri$ge connection 7et.een a (oint of the e'ternal circuit an$ the co))utator 7y )eans of a thir$ 7rush0 The ar)ature an$ fiel$ 7eing (ro(erly (ro(ortione$8 an$ the 7rushes (lace$ in their $eter)ine$ (ositions8 a constant current or constant (otential resulte$ fro) the shifting of the $ia)eter of co))utation 7y the -arying loa$s0 ,n connection .ith )achines of such high frequencies8 the con$enser affor$s an es(ecially interesting stu$y0 ,t is easy to raise the electro)oti-e force of such a )achine to four or fi-e ti)es the -alue 7y si)(ly connecting the con$enser to the circuit8 an$ the .riter has continually use$ the con$enser for the (ur(oses of regulation8 as suggeste$ 7y 3la2esley in his 7oo2 on alternate currents8 in .hich he has treate$ the )ost frequently occurring con$enser (ro7le)s .ith e'quisite si)(licity an$ clearness0 The high frequency allo.s the use of s)all ca(acities an$ ren$ers in-estigation easy0 3utJ although in )ost of the e'(eri)ents the result )ay 7e foretol$8 so)e (heno)ena o7ser-e$ see) at first curious0 ;ne e'(eri)ent (erfor)e$ three or four )onths ago .ith such a )achine an$ a con$enser )ay ser-e as an illustration0 A )achine .as use$ gi-ing a7out !58555 alternations (er secon$0 T.o 7are .ires a7out t.enty feet long an$ t.o )illi)etres in $ia)eter8 in close (ro'i)ity to each other8 .ere connecte$ to the ter)inals of the )achine at the one en$8 an$ to a con$enser at the other0 A s)all transfor)er .ithout an iron core8 of course8 .as use$ to 7ring the rea$ing .ithin range of a Car$e. -olt)eter 7y connecting the -olt)eter to the secon$ary0 ;n the ter)inals of the con$enser the electro)oti-e force .as a7out 1!5 -olts8 an$ fro) there inch 7y inch it gra$ually fell until at the ter)inals of the )achine it .as a7out %4 -olts0 ,t .as -irtually as though the con$enser .ere a generator8 an$ the line an$ ar)ature circuit si)(ly a resistance connecte$ to it0 The .riter loo2e$ for a case of resonance8 7ut he .as una7le to aug)ent the effect 7y -arying the ca(acity -ery carefully an$ gra$ually or 7y changing the s(ee$ of the )achine0 A case of (ure resonance he .as una7le to o7tain0 &hen a con$enser .as connecte$ to the ter)inals of the )achine 9 the self9in$uction of the ar)ature 7eing first $eter)ine$ in the )a'i)u) an$ )ini)u) (osition an$ the )ean -alue ta2en 9 the ca(acity .hich ga-e the highest electro)oti-e force corres(on$e$ )ost nearly to that .hich Hust counteracte$ the self9in$uction .ith the e'isting frequency0 ,f the ca(acity .as increase$ or $i)inishe$8 the electro)oti-e force fell as e'(ecte$0 &ith frequencies as high as the a7o-e )entione$8 the con$enser effects are of enor)ous i)(ortance0 The con$enser 7eco)es a highly efficient a((aratus ca(a7le of transferring consi$era7le energy0 The .riter has thought )achines of high frequencies )ay fin$ use at least in cases .hen trans)ission at great $istances is not conte)(late$0 The increase of the resistance )ay 7e re$uce$ in the con$uctors an$ e'alte$ in the $e-ices .hen heating effects are .ante$8 transfor)ers )ay 7e )a$e of higher efficiency an$ greater out(uts an$ -alua7le results )ay 7e secure$ 7y )eans of con$ensers0 ,n using )achines of high frequency the .riter has 7een a7le to o7ser-e con$enser effects .hich .oul$ ha-e other.ise esca(e$ his notice0 He has 7een -ery )uch intereste$ in the (heno)enon o7ser-e$ on the Ferranti )ain .hich has 7een so )uch s(o2en of0 ;(inions ha-e 7een e'(resse$ 7y co)(etent electricians8 7ut u( to the (resent all still see)sI to 7e conHecture0 Cn$ou7te$ly in the -ie.s e'(resse$ the truth )ust 7e containe$8 7ut as the o(inions $iffer so)e )ust 7e erroneous0 C(on seeing the $iagra) of /0 Ferranti in the "lectrician of =ec0 19 the .riter has for)e$ his o(inion of the effect0 ,n the a7sence of all the necessary $ata he )ust content hi)self to e'(ress in .or$s the (rocess .hich8 in his o(inion8 )ust un$ou7te$ly occur0 The con$enser 7rings a7out t.o effectsI (1 ,t changes the (hases of the currents in the 7ranchesJ (! it changes the strength of the currents0 As regar$s the change in (hase8 the effect of the con$enser is to accelerate the current in the secon$ary at =e(tfor$ an$ to retar$ it in the (ri)ary at #on$on0 The for)er has the effect $i)inishing the self9in$uction in the =e(tfor$ (ri)ary8 an$ this
)eans lo.er electro)oti-e force on the $yna)o0 The retar$ation of the (ri)ary at #on$on8 as far as )erely the (hase is concerne$8 has little or no effect since the (hase of the current in the secon$ary in #on$on is not ar7itrarily 2e(t0 1o.8 the secon$ effect of the con$enser is to increase the current in 7oth the 7ranches0 ,t is i))aterial .hether there is equality 7et.een the currents or notJ 7ut it is necessary to (oint out8 in or$er 0 to see the i)(ortance of the =e(tfor$ ste(9u( transfor)er8 that an increase of the current in 7oth the 7ranches (ro$uces o((osite effects0 At =e(tfor$ it )eans further lo.ering of the electro)oti-e force at the (ri)ary8 an$ at #on$on it )eans increase of the electro)oti-e force0 at the secon$ary08 Therefore8 all the things co9act to 7ring a7out the (heno)enon o7ser-e$0 >uch actions8 at least8 ha-e 7een for)e$ to ta2e (lace un$er si)ilar con$itions0 &hen the $yna)o is connecte$ $irectly to the )ain8 one can see that no such action can ha((en0 The .riter has 7een (articularly intereste$ in8 the suggestions an$ -ie.s e'(resse$ 7y /r0>.in7urne0 /r0>.in7urne has frequently honoure$ hi) 7y $isagreeing .ith his -ie.s0 Three years ago8 .hen the .riter8 against the (re-ailing o(inion of engineers8 a$-ance$' an o(en circuit transfor)er8 /r0>.in7urne .as the first to con$e)n it 7y stating in the ElectricianI "The (Tesla transfor)er )ust 7e inefficientJ it has )agnetic (oles re-ol-ing8 an$ has thus an o(en )agnetic circuit0" T.o years later /r0>.in7urne 7eco)es the cha)(ion of the o(en circuit transfor)er8 an$ offers to con-ert hi)0 3ut8 tem*ora mutantur+ et nos mutamur in illis 0 The .riter cannot 7elie-e in the ar)ature reaction theory as e'(resse$ in ,n$ustries8 though un$ou7te$ly there is so)e truth in it0 /r0>.in7urne's inter(retation8 ho.e-er8 is so 7roa$ that it )ay )ean anything0 /r0>.in7urne see)s to ha-e 7een the first .ho has calle$ attention to the heating of the con$ensers0 The astonish)ent e'(resse$ at that 7y the a7lest electrician is a stri2ing illustration of 'the $esira7ility to e'ecute e'(eri)ents on a large scale0 To the scientific in-estigator8 .ho $eals .ith the )inutest quantities8 .ho o7ser-es the faintest effects8 far )ore cre$it is $ue 0than to one .ho e'(eri)ents .ith a((aratus on an in$ustrial scaleJ an$ in$ee$ history of science has recor$e$ e'a)(les of )ar-elous s2ill8 (atience an$ 2eenness of o7ser-ation0 3ut ho.e-er great the s2ill8 an$ ho.e-er 2een the o7ser-er's (erce(tion8 it can only 7e of a$-antage to )agnify an effect an$ thus facilitate its stu$y0 Ha$ Fara$ay carrie$ out 7ut one of his e'(eri)ents on $yna)ic in$uction on a large scale it .oul$ ha-e resulte$ in an incalcula7le 7enefit0 ,n 'the o(inion of the .riter8 the heating of the con$ensers is $ue to three $istinct causesI first8 lea2age or con$uctionJ secon$8 i)(erfect elasticity in the $ielectric8 an$8 thir$8 surging of the charges in the con$uctor0 ,n )any e'(eri)ents he has 7een confronte$ .ith the (ro7le) of transferring the greatest (ossi7le a)ount of energy across a $ielectric0 For instance8 he has )a$e incan$escent la)(s the en$s of the fila)ents 7eing co)(letely seale$ in' glass8 7ut attache$ to interior con$enser coatings so that all the energy require$ ha$ to 7e transferre$ across the glass .ith a con$enser surface of no )ore than a fe. centi)etres square0 >uch la)(s .oul$ 7e a (ractical success .ith sufficiently high frequencies0 &ith alternations as high as 148555 (er secon$ it .as easy to 7ring the fila)ents to incan$escence0 &ith lo.er frequencies this coul$ also 7e effecte$8 7ut the (otential $ifference ha$8 of course8 to 7e increase$0 The .riter has then foun$ that the glass gets8 after a .hile8 (erforate$ an$ the -acuu) is i)(aire$0 The higher the frequency the longer the la)( can .ithstan$0 >uch a $eterioration of the $ielectric al.ays ta2es (lace .hen the a)ount of energy transferre$ across a $ielectric of $efinite $i)ensions an$ 7y a gi-en frequency is too great0 Glass .ithstan$s 7est8 7ut e-en glass is $eteriorate$0 ,n this case the (otential $ifference on the (lates is of course too great an$ losses 7y con$uction an$ i)(erfect elasticity result0 ,f it is $esira7le to (ro$uce con$ensers ca(a7le to stan$ $ifferences of (otential8 then the only $ielectric .hich .ill in-ol-e no losses is a gas un$er (ressure0 The .riter has .or2e$ .ith air un$er enor)ous (ressures8 7ut there are a great )any (ractical $ifficulties in that $irection0 He thin2s that in or$er to )a2e the con$ensers of consi$era7le (ractical utility8 higher frequencies shoul$ 7e use$I though such a (lan has 7esi$es others the great $isa$-antage that the syste) .oul$ 7eco)e -ery unfit for the o(eration of )otors0 ,f the .riter $oes not err /r0>.in7urne has suggeste$ a .ay of e'citing an alternator 7y )eans of a con$enser0 For a nu)7er of years (ast the .riter has carrie$ on e'(eri)ents .ith the o7Hect in -ie. of (ro$ucing a (ractical self9e'citing alternatorI He has in a 8-ariety of .ays succee$e$ in (ro$ucing so)e e'citation of the )agnets 7y )eans of alternating currents8 .hich .ere not co))utate$ 7y )echanical $e-ices0 1e-ertheless8 his e'(eri)ents ha-e re-eale$ a fact .hich stan$s as soli$8 as the roc2 of Gi7raltar0 1o (ractical e'citation can 7e o7taine$ .ith a single (erio$ically -arying an$ not co))utate$ current0 The reason is that the changes in the strength of the e'citing current (ro$uce corres(on$ing changes in the fiel$ strength8 .ith the result of in$ucing currents in the ar)atureJ an$ these currents interfere .ith these (ro$uce$ 7y the )otion of the ar)ature through the fiel$8 the for)er 7eing a quarter (hase in a$-ance of the latter0 ,f the fiel$ 7e la)inate$8 no e'citation can 7e (ro$uce$J if it 7e not la)inate$8 so)e e'citation is (ro$uce$8 7ut 0the )agnets are heate$0 3y co)7ining t.o e'citing currents 9 $is(lace$ 7y a quarter (hase8 e'citation )ay 7e (ro$uce$ in 7oth cases8 an$ if the )agnet 7e
not la)inate$ the heating effect is co)(arati-ely s)all8 as a unifor)ity in the fiel$ strength is )aintaine$8 an$8 .ere it (ossi7le to (ro$uce a (erfectly unifor) fiel$8 e'citation on this (lan .oul$ gi-e quite (ractical results0 ,f such results are to 7e secure$ 7y the use of a con$enser8 as suggeste$ 7y /r0>.in7urne8 it is necessary to co)7ine t.o circuits se(arate$ 7y a quarter (haseJ that is to say8 the ar)ature coils )ust 7e .oun$ in t.o sets an$ connecte$ to one or t.o in$e(en$ent con$ensers0 The .riter has $one so)e .or2 in that $irection8 7ut )ust $efer the $escri(tion of the $e-ices for so)e future ti)e0
18-1-09-18: *+$eriments wit, Alternating Currents of 0ig, 7re8uen(y by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer , N. -. ,1 TH" "#"CT+,CA# "1G,1""+ issue of 11th inst08 , fin$ a note of <rof0 "lihu Tho)son relating to so)e of )y e'(eri)ents .ith alternating currents of -ery high frequency0 <rof0 Tho)son calls the attention of your rea$ers to the interesting fact that he has (erfor)e$ so)e e'(eri)ents in the sa)e line0 , .as not quite un(re(are$ to hear this8 as a letter fro) hi) has a((eare$ in the "lectrician a fe. )onths ago8 in .hich he )entions a s)all alternate current )achine .hich .as ca(a7le of gi-ing8 , 7elie-e8 48555 alternations (er secon$8 fro) .hich letter it li2e.ise a((ears that his in-estigations on that su7Hect are of a )ore recent $ate0 <rof0 Tho)son $escri7es an e'(eri)ent .ith a 7ul7 enclosing a car7on fila)ent .hich .as 7rought to incan$escence 7y the 7o)7ar$)ent of the )olecules of the resi$ual gas .hen the 7ul7 .as i))erse$ in .ater0 " ren$ere$ slightly con$ucting 7y salt $issol-e$ therein8" (F an$ a (otential of 18555 -olts alternating 48555 ti)e a secon$ a((lie$ to the car7on stri(0 >i)ilar e'(eri)ents ha-e8 of course8 7een (erfor)e$ 7y )any e'(eri)enters8 the only $istincti-e feature in <rof0 Tho)son's e'(eri)ent 7eing the co)(arati-ely high rate of alternation0 These e'(eri)ents can also 7e (erfor)e$ .ith a stea$y $ifference of (otential 7et.een the .ater an$ the car7on stri( in .hich case8 of course8 con$uction through the glass ta2es (lace8 the $ifference of (otential require$ 7eing in (ro(ortion to the thic2ness of the glass0 &ith 48555 alternations (er secon$8 con$uction still ta2es (lace8 7ut the con$enser effect is (re(on$erating0 ,t goes8 of course8 .ithout saying that the healing of the glass in such a case is (rinci(ally $ue to the 7o)7ar$)ent of the )olecules8 (artly also to lea2age or con$uction8 7ut it is an un$enia7le fact that the glass )ay also 7e heate$ )erely 7y the )olecular $is(lace)ent0 The interesting feature in ray e'(eri)ents .as that a la)( .oul$ light u( .hen 7rought near to an in$uction coil8 an$ that it coul$ 7e hel$ in the han$ an$ the fila)ent 7rought to incan$escence0 "'(eri)ents of the 2in$ $escri7e$ , ha-e follo.e$ u( for a long ti)e .ith so)e (ractical o7Hects in -ie.0 ,n connection .ith the e'(eri)ent $escri7e$ 7y <rof0 Tho)son8 if )ay 7e of interest to )ention a -ery (retty (heno)enon .hich )ay 7e o7ser-e$ .ith an incan$escent la)(0 ,f a la)( 7e i))erse$ in .ater as far as (ractica7le an$ the fila)ent an$ the -essel connecte$ to the ter)inals of an in$uction coil o(erate$ fro) a )achine such as , ha-e use$ in )y e'(eri)ents8 one )ay see the $ull re$ fila)ent surroun$e$ 7y a -ery lu)inous glo7e aroun$ .hich there is a less lu)inous s(ace0 The effect is (ro7a7ly $ue to reflection8 as the glo7e is shar(ly $efine$8 7ut )ay also 7e $ue to a "$ar2 s(aceJ" at any rate it is so (retty that it )ust 7e seen to 7e a((reciate$0 <rof0 Tho)son has )isun$erstoo$ )y state)ent a7out the li)it of au$ition0 , .as (erfectly .ell a.are of the fact that o(inions $iffer .i$ely on this (oint0 1or .as , sur(rise$ to fin$ that arcs of a7out 158555 i)(ulses (er secon$8 e)it a soun$0 /y state)ent " the curious (oint is8" etc0 .as only )a$e in $eference to an o(inion e'(resse$ 7y >ir &illia) Tho)son0 There .as a7solutely no stress lai$ on the (recise nu)7er0 The (o(ular 7elief .as that so)ething li2e 158555 to !58555 (er secon$8 or !58555 to 6585558 at the ut)ost .as the li)it0 For )y argu)ent this .as i))aterial0 , conten$e$ that soun$s of an inco)(ara7ly greater nu)7er8 that is8 )any ti)es e-en the highest nu)7er8 coul$ 7e hear$ if they coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ .ith sufficient (o.er0 /y state)ent .as only s(eculati-e8 7ut , ha-e $e-ise$ )eans .hich , thin2 )ay allo. )e to learn so)ething $efinite on that (oint0 , ha-e not the least $ou7t that it is si)(ly a question of (o.er0 A -ery short arc )ay 7e silent .ith 158555 (er secon$8 7ut Hust as soon as it is lengthene$ it 7egins to e)it a soun$0 The -i7rations are the sa)e in nu)7er8 7ut )ore (o.erful0 <rof0 Tho)son states that , a) ta2ing as the li)it of " au$ition soun$s fro) 48555 to 158555 co)(lete .a-es (er secon$0" There is nothing in )y state)ents fro) .hich the a7o-e coul$ 7e inferre$8 7ut <rof0 Tho)son has (erha(s not thought that there are t.o soun$ -i7rations for each co)(lete current .a-e8 the for)er 7eing in$e(en$ent of the $irection of the current0 , a) gla$ to learn that <rof0 Tho)son agrees .ith )e as to the causes of the (ersistence of the arc0 Theoretical consi$erations consi$era7le ti)e since ha-e le$ )e to the 7elief that arcs (ro$uce$ 7y currents of such high frequency .oul$ (ossess this an$ other $esira7le features0 ;ne of )y o7Hects in this $irection has 7een to (ro$uce a (ractica7le s)all arc0 &ith these8 currents8 for )any reasons8 )uch s)aller arcs are (ractica7le0 The inter(retation 7y <rof0 Tho)son of )y state)ents a7out the arc syste) lea$s )e no.8 he .ill (ar$on )e for saying so8 to 7elie-e that .hat is )ost essential to the success of an arc syste) is a goo$ )anage)ent0 1e-ertheless , feel confi$ent of the correctness of the -ie.s e'(resse$0 The con$itions in (ractice are so )anifol$ that it is i)(ossi7le for any ty(e of )achine to (ro-e 7est in all the $ifferent con$itions0
,n one case8 .here the circuit is )any )iles long8 it is $esira7le to e)(loy the )ost efficient )achine .ith the least internal resistance J in another case such a )achine .oul$ not 7e the 7est to e)(loy0 ,t .ill certainly 7e a$)itte$ that a )achine of any ty(e )ust ha-e a greater resistance if inten$e$ to o(erate arc lights than if it is $esigne$ to su((ly incan$escent la)(s in series0 &hen arc lights are o(erate$ an$ the resistance is s)all8 the la)(s are unstea$y8 unless a ty(e of la)( is e)(loye$ in .hich the car7ons are se(arate$ 7y a )echanis) .hich has no further influence u(on the fee$8 the fee$ing 7eing effecte$ 7y an in$e(en$ent )echanis) J 7ut e-en in this case the resistance )ust 7e consi$era7ly greater to allo. a quiet .or2ing of the la)(s0 1o.8 if the )achine 7e such as to yiel$ a stea$y current8 there is no .ay of attaining the $esire$ result e'ce(t 7y (utting the require$ resistance so)e.here either insi$e or outsi$e of the )achine0 The latter is har$ly (ractica7le8 for the custo)er )ay stan$ a hot )achine8 7ut he loo2s .ith sus(icion u(on a hot resistance 7o'0 A goo$ auto)atic regulator of course i)(ro-es the )achine an$ allo.s us to re$uce the internal resistance to so)e e'tent8 7ut not as far as .oul$ 7e $esira7le0 1o.8 since resistance is loss8 .e can a$-antageously re(lace resistance in the )achine 7y an equi-alent i)(e$ance0 3ut to (ro$uce a great i)(e$ance .ith s)all oh)ic resistance8 it is necessary to ha-e self9in$uction an$ -ariation of current8 an$ the greater the self9in$uction an$ the rate of change of the current8 the greater the i)(e$ance )ay 7e )a$e8 .hile the oh)ic resistance )ay 7e -ery s)all0 ,t )ay also 7e re)ar2e$ that the i)(e$ence of the circuit e'ternal to the )achine is li2e.ise increase$0 As regar$s the increase in oh)ic resistance in consequence of the -ariation of the current8 the sa)e is8 in the co))ercial )achines no. in use8 -ery s)all0 Clearly then a great a$-antage is gaine$ 7y (ro-i$ing self in$uction in the )achine circuit an$ un$ulating the current8 for it is (ossi7le to re(lace a )achine .hich has a resistance of8 say8 1% oh)s 7y one .hich has no )ore than ! or 3 oh)s8 an$ the lights .ill .or2 e-en stea$ier0 ,t see)s to )e therefore8 that )y saying that self9in$uction is essential to the co))ercial success of an arc syste) is Hustifie$0 &hat is still )ore i)(ortant8 such a )achine .ill cost consi$era7ly less0 3ut to realiBe fully the 7enefits8 it is (refera7ly to e)(loy an alternate current )achine8 as in this case a greater rate of change in the current is o7taina7le0 Eust .hat the ratio of resistance to i)(e$ance is in the 3rush an$ Tho)son )achines is no.here state$8 7ut , thin2 that it is s)aller in the 3rush )achine8 Hu$ging fro) its construction0 As regar$s the 7etter .or2ing of clutch la)(s .ith un$ulating currents8 there is8 accor$ing to )y e'(erience8 not the least $ou7t a7out it0 , ha-e (ro-e$ it on a -ariety of la)(s to the co)(lete satisfaction not only of )yself8 7ut of )any others0 To see the i)(ro-e)ent in the fee$ $ne to the Har of the clutch at its 7est it is $esira7le to e)(loy a la)( in .hich an in$e(en$ent clutch )echanis) effects the fee$8 an$ the release of the ro$ is in$e(en$ent of the u( an$ $o.n )o-e)ent0 ,n such a la)( the clutch has a s)all inertia an$ is -ery sensiti-e to -i7ration8 .hereas8 if the fee$ is effecte$ 7y the u( an$ $o.n )o-e)ent of the le-er carrying the ro$8 the inertia of the syste) is so great that it is not affecte$ as )uch 7y -i7ration8 es(ecially if8 as in )any cases8 a $ash (ot is e)(loye$0 =uring the year 1884 , (erfecte$ such a la)( .hich .an calculate$ to 7e o(erate$ .ith un$ulating currents0 &ith a7out 18455 to 18855 current i)(ulses (er )inute the fee$ of this la)( is such that a7solutely no )o-e)ent of the ro$ can 7e o7ser-e$8 e-en if the arc 7e )agnifie$ fifty9fol$ 7y )eans of a lensJ .hereas8 if a stea$y current is e)(loye$8 the la)( fee$s 7y s)all ste(s0 , ha-e8 ho.e-er8 $e)onstrate$ this feature on other ty(es of la)(s8 a)ong the) 7eing a $eri-e$ circuit la)( such as <rof0 Tho)son refers to0 , concei-e$ the i$ea of such a la)( early in 18868 an$ .hen )y first co)(any .as starte$8 this .as the first la)( , (erfecte$0 ,t .as not until the la)( .as rea$y for )anufacture that8 on recei-ing co(ies of a((lications fro) the <atent ;ffice8 , learne$ for the first ti)e8 not ha-ing ha$ any 2no.le$ge of the state of the art in A)erica8 that <rof0 Tho)son ha$ antici(ate$ )e an$ ha$ o7taine$ )any (atents on this (rinci(le8 .hich8 of course8 greatly $isa((ointe$ an$ e)7arrasse$ )e at that ti)e0 , o7ser-e$ the i)(ro-e)ent of the fee$ .ith un$ulating currents on that la)(8 7ut , recogniBe$ the a$-antage of (ro-i$ing a light an$ in$e(en$ent clutch unha)(ere$ in its )o-e)ents0 Circu)stances $i$ not allo. )e to carry out at that ti)e so)e $esigns of )achines , ha$ in )in$8 an$ .ith the e'isting )achines the la)( has .or2e$ at a great $isa$-antage0 , cannot agree .ith <rof0 Tho)son that s)all -i7rations .oul$ 7enefit a cloc2.or2 la)( as )uch as a clutch la)(J in fact8 , thin2 that they $o not at all 7enefit a cloc2.or2 la)(0 ,t .oul$ 7e interesting to learn the o(inion of /r0 Charles F0 3rush on these (oints0 <rof0 Tho)son states that he has run .ith (erfect success clutch la)(s " in circuit .ith coils of such large self9in$uction that any 7ut -ery slight fluctuations .ere .i(e$ out0" >urely <rof0 Tho)son $oes not )ean to say that self9in$uction .i(e$ out the (erio$ical fluctuations of the current0 For this8 Hust the o((osite quality8 na)ely8 ca(acity8 is require$0 The self9in$uction of the coils in this case si)(ly aug)ente$ the i)(e$ance an$ (re-ente$ the great -ariations occurring at large ti)e inter-als8 .hich ta2e (lace .hen the resistance in circuit .ith the la)(s is too s)all8 or e-en .ith larger resistance in circuit .hen the $ash (ots either in the la)(s or else.here are too loose0 <rof0 Tho)son further states that in a la)( in .hich the fee$ )echanis) is un$er the control of the $eri-e$ circuit )agnet only8 the fluctuations (ass through the arc .ithout affecting the )agnet to a (erce(ti7le $egree0 ,t is true that the -ariations of the resistance of the arc8 in consequence of the -ariations in the current strength8 are such as to $a)(en the fluctuation0 1e-ertheless8 the (erio$ical fluctuations are trans)itte$ through the $eri-e$
circuit8 as one )ay con-ince hi)self easily of8 7y hol$ing a thin (late of iron against the )agnet0 ,n regar$ to the (hysiological effects of the currents , )ay state that u(on rea$ing the )e)ora7le lecture of >ir &illia) Tho)son8 in .hich he a$-ance$ his -ie.s on the (ro(agation of the alternate currents through con$uctors8 it instantly occurre$ to )e that currents of high frequencies .oul$ 7e less inHurious0 , ha-e 7een loo2ing for a (roof that the )o$e of $istri7ution through the 7o$y is the cause of the s)aller (hysiological effects0 At ti)es , ha-e thought to ha-e 7een a7le to locate the (ain in the outer (ortions of the 7o$y8 7ut it is -ery uncertain0 ,t is )ost certain8 ho.e-er8 that the feeling .ith currents of -ery high frequencies is so)e.hat $ifferent fro) that .ith lo. frequencies0 , ha-e also note$ the enor)ous i)(ortance of one 7eing (re(are$ for the shoc2 or not0 ,f one is (re(are$8 the effect u(on the ner-es is not nearly as great as .hen un(re(are$0 &ith alternations as high as 158555 (er secon$ an$ u(.ar$s8 one feels 7ut little (ain in the central (ortion of the 7o$y0 A re)ar2a7le feature of such currents of high tension is that one recei-es a 7urn instantly he touches the .ire8 7ut 7eyon$ that the (ain is har$ly noticea7le0 3ut since the (otential $ifference across the 7o$y 7y a gi-en current through it is -ery s)all8 the effects can not 7e -ery .ell ascri7e$ to the surface $istri7ution of the current8 an$ the e'cessi-ely lo. resistance of the 7o$y to such ra(i$ly -arying currents s(ea2 rather for a con$enser action0 ,n regar$ to the suggestion of =r0 Tatu)8 .hich <rof0 Tho)son )entions in another article in the sa)e issue8 , .oul$ state that , ha-e constructe$ )achines u( to 685 (oles8 fro) .hich it is (ossi7le to o7tain a7out 358555 alternations (er secon$8 an$ (erha(s )ore0 , ha-e also $esigne$ ty(es of )achines in .hich the fiel$ .oul$ re-ol-e in an o((osite $irection to the ar)ature8 7y .hich )eans it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le to o7tain fro) a si)ilar )achine %58555 alternations (er secon$ or )ore0 , highly -alue the a((reciation of <rof0 Tho)son of )y .or28 7ut , )ust confess that in his conclusion he )a2es a )ost astoun$ing state)ent as to the )oti-es of his critical re)ar2s0 , ha-e ne-er for a )o)ent thought that his re)ar2s .oul$ 7e $ictate$ 7y anything 7ut frien$ly )oti-es0 ;ften .e are force$ in $aily life to re(resent o((osing interests or o(inions8 7ut surely in the higher ai)s the feelings of frien$shi( an$ )utual consi$eration shoul$ not 7e affecte$ 7y such things as these0
18-1-0/-09: Alternate Current Motors by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer , N. -. >ir K ,n your issue of /arch % , fin$ the (assageI "/r0 :a(( $escri7e$ the (osition as it e'ists0 He sho.e$ ho. Ferraris first of all (ointe$ out the right .ay to get an alternating9current )otor that .as self9starting8 an$ ho. Tesla an$ others ha$ .or2e$ in the $irection in$icate$ 7y Ferraris8" etc0 , .oul$ 7e -ery gla$ to learn ho. /r0 :a(( succee$e$ in sho.ing this0 , )ay call his attention to the fact that the $ate of filing of )y A)erican (atent antici(ates the (u7lication of the results of <rof0 Ferraris in ,taly 7y so)ething li2e si' )onths0 The $ate of filing of )y a((lication is8 therefore8 the first (u7lic recor$ of the in-ention0 Consi$ering this fact8 it see)s to )e that it .oul$ 7e $esira7le that /r0 :a(( shoul$ )o$ify his state)ent0 KDours8 etc0 1,:;#A T">#A Ne" -ork+ 1.th /arch + 1011.
18-1-0/-09: *le(tro-Motors by Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" 2'!!E&3'NDEN2E. Fifteen or si'teen years ago8 .hen , .as (ursuing )y course at the college8 , .as tol$ 7y an e)inent (hysicist that a )otor coul$ not he o(erate$ .ithout the use of 7rushes an$ co))utators8 or )echanical )eans of so)e 2in$ for co))utating the current0 ,t .as then , $eter)ine$ to sol-e the (ro7le)0 After years of (ersistent thought , finally arri-e$ at a solution0 , .or2e$ out the theory to the last $etail8 an$ confir)e$ all of )y theoretical conclusions 7y e'(eri)ents0 +ecognising the -alue of the in-ention8 , a((lie$ )yself to the .or2 of (erfecting it8 an$ after long continue$ la7our , (ro$uce$ se-eral ty(es of (ractical )otors0 1o. all this , $i$ long 7efore anything .hate-er trans(ire$ in the .hole scientific literature K as far as it coul$ 7e ascertaine$ K .hich .oul$ ha-e e-en (ointe$ at the (ossi7ility of o7taining such a result8 7ut quite contrary at a ti)e .hen scientific an$ (ractical )en ali2e consi$ere$ this result unattaina7le0 ,n all ci-ilise$ countries (atents ha-e 7een o7taine$ al)ost .ithout a single reference to anything .hich .oul$ ha-e in the least $egree ren$ere$ questiona7le the no-elty of the in-ention0 The first (u7lishe$ essay K an account of so)e la7oratory e'(eri)ents 7y <rof0 Ferraris K .as (u7lishe$ in ,taly si' or se-en )onths after the $ate of filing of )y a((lications for the foun$ation (atents0 The $ate of filing of )y (atents is thus the first (u7lic recor$ of the in-ention0 Det in your issue of /arch %th , rea$ the (assage I " For se-eral years (ast8 fro) the $ays of <rof0 Ferraris's in-estigations8 .hich .ere follo.e$ 7y those of Tesla8 Wi(erno.s2y an$ a host of i)itators8" Oc0 1o one can say that , ha-e not 7een free in ac2no.le$ging the )erit of <rof0 Ferraris8 an$ , ho(e that )y state)ent of facts .ill not 7e )isinter(rete$0 "-en if <rof0 Ferraris's essay .oul$ ha-e antici(ate$ the $ate of filing of )y a((lication8 yet8 in the o(inion of all fair)in$e$ )en8 , .oul$ ha-e 7een entitle$ to the cre$it of ha-ing 7een the first to (ro$uce a (ractical )otor J for <rof0 Ferraris hi)self $enies in his essay the -alue of the in-ention for the trans)ission of (o.er8 an$ only (oints out the (ossi7ility of using a (ro(erly9constructe$ generator8 .hich is the only .ay of o7taining the require$ $ifference of (hase .ithout lossesJ for e-en .ith con$ensers K 7y )eans of .hich it is (ossi7le to o7tain a quarter (hase K there are consi$era7le losses8 the cost of the con$ensers not consi$ere$0 Thus8 in the )ost essential features of the syste) K the generators .ith the t.o or three circuits of $iffering (hase8 the three9.ire syste)8 the close$ coil ar)ature8 the )otors .ith $irect current in the fiel$8 Oc0 K , .oul$ stan$ alone8 e-en ha$ <rof0 Ferraris's essay 7een (u7lishe$ )any years ago0 As regar$s the )ost (ractica7le for) of t.o9.ire )otor8 na)ely8 one .ith a single energising circuit an$ in$uce$ circuits8 of .hich there are no. thousan$s in use8 , li2e.ise stan$ alone0 /ost of these facts8 if not all8 are (erfectly .ell 2no.n in "nglan$J yet8 accor$ing to so)e (a(ers8 one of the lea$ing "nglish electricians $oes not hesitate to say that , ha-e .or2e$ in the $irection in$icate$ 7y <rof0 Ferraris8 an$ in your issue a7o-e referre$ to it see)s , a) calle$ an i)itator0 1o.8 , as2 you .here is that .orl$9 2no.n "nglish fairness F , a) a (ioneer8 an$ , a) calle$ an i)itator0 , a) not an i)itator0 , (ro$uce original .or2 or none at all0 1i2ola Tesla0 1e. Dor28 /arch 1.th8 18910
18-1-0/-18: 5,enomena of Currents of 0ig, 7re8uen(y by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer #"TT"+> T; TH" "=,T;+ , cannot (ass .ithout co))ent the note of <rof0 Tho)son in your issue of A(ril 18 although , $isli2e -ery )uch to engage in a (rolonge$ contro-ersy0 , .oul$ gla$ly let <rof0 Tho)son ha-e the last .or$8 .ere it not that so)e of his state)ents ren$er a re(ly fro) )e necessary0 , $i$ not )ean to i)(ly that8 .hate-er .or2 <rof0 Tho)son has $one in alternating currents of -ery high frequency8 he ha$ $one su7sequent to his letter (u7lishe$ in the Electrician0 , thought it (ossi7le8 an$ e-en (ro7a7le8 that he ha$ )a$e his e'(eri)ents so)e ti)e 7efore8 an$ )y state)ent in regar$ to this .as )eant in this general .ay0 ,t is )ore than (ro7a7le that quite a nu)7er of e'(eri)enters ha-e 7uilt such )achines an$ o7ser-e$ effects si)ilar to those $escri7e$ 7y <rof0 Tho)son0 ,t is $ou7tful8 ho.e-er8 .hether8 in the a7sence of any (u7lication on this su7Hect8 the lu)inous (heno)ena $escri7e$ 7y )e ha-e 7een o7ser-e$ 7y others8 the )ore so8 as -ery fe. .oul$ 7e li2ely to go to the trou7le , $i$8 an$ , .oul$ )yself not ha-e $one so ha$ , not ha$ 7eforehan$ the fir) con-iction8 gaine$ fro) the stu$y of the .or2s of the )ost a$-ance$ thin2ers8 that , .oul$ o7tain the results sought for0 1o.8 that , ha-e in$icate$ the $irection8 )any .ill (ro7a7ly follo.8 an$ for this -ery (ur(ose , ha-e sho.n so)e of the results , ha-e reache$0 <rof0 Tho)son states $ecisi-ely in regar$ to e'(eri)ents .ith the incan$escent la)( 7ul7 an$ the fila)ent )ounte$ on a single .ire8 that he cannot agree .ith )e at all that con$uction through the glass has anything to $o .ith the (heno)enon o7ser-e$0 He )entions the .ell92no.n fact that an incan$escent la)( acts as a #ey$en Har an$ says that " if con$uction through the glass .ere a (ossi7ility this action coul$ not occur0" , thin2 , )ay confi$ently assert that -ery fe. electricians .ill share this -ie.0 For the (ossi7ility of the con$enser effect ta2ing (lace it is only necessary that the rate at .hich the charges can equaliBe through the glass 7y con$uction shoul$ 7e so)e.hat 7elo. the rate at .hich they are store$0 <rof0 Tho)son see)s to thin2 that con$uction through the glass is an i)(ossi7ility0 Has he then ne-er )easure$ insulation resistance8 an$ has he then not )easure$ it 7y )eans of a con$uction currentF =oes he thin2 that there is such a thing as a (erfect non9con$uctor a)ong the 7o$ies .e are a7le to (ercei-e F =oes he not thin2 that as regar$s con$ucti-ity there can 7e question only of $egreeF ,f glass .ere a (erfect non9con$uctor8 ho. coul$ .e account for the lea2age of a glass con$enser .hen su7Hecte$ to stea$y $ifferences of (otentialF &hile not $irectly connecte$ .ith the (resent contro-ersy8 , .oul$ here (oint out that there e'ists a (o(ular error in regar$ to the (ro(erties of $ielectric 7o$ies0 /any electricians frequently confoun$ the theoretical $ielectric of /a'.ell .ith the $ielectric 7o$ies in use0 They $o not sto( to thin2 that the only (erfect $ielectric is ether8 an$ that all other 7o$ies8 the e'istence of .hich is 2no.n to us8 )ust 7e con$uctors8 Hu$ging fro) their (hysical (ro(erties0 /y state)ent that con$uction is concerne$ to so)e8 although (erha(s negligi7le8 e'tent in the e'(eri)ent a7o-e $escri7e$ .as8 ho.e-er8 )a$e not only on account of the fact that all 7o$ies con$uct )ore or less8 7ut (rinci(ally on account of the heating of the glass $uring the e'(eri)ent0 <rof0 Tho)son see)s to o-erloo2 the fact that the insulating (o.er of glass $i)inishes enor)ously .ith the increase in te)(erature8 so )uch so8 that )elte$ glass is co)(arati-ely an e'cellent con$uctor0 , ha-e8 )oreo-er8 state$ in )y first re(ly to <rof0 Tho)son in your issue of /arch 188 that the sa)e e'(eri)ent can 7e (erfor)e$ 7y )eans of an un-arying $ifference of (otential0 ,n this case it )ust 7e assu)e$ that so)e such (rocess as con$uction through the glass ta2es (lace8 an$ all the )ore as it is (ossi7le to sho. 7y e'(eri)ent8 that .ith a sufficiently high stea$y $ifference of (otential8 enough current can 7e (asse$ through the glass of a con$enser .ith )ercury coating to light u( a Geissler tu7e Hoine$ in series .ith the con$enser0 &hen the (otential is alternating8 the con$enser action co)es in an$ con$uction 7eco)es insignificant8 an$ the )ore so8 the greater the rate of alternation or change (er unit of ti)e0 1e-ertheless8 in )y o(inion8 con$uction )ust al.ays e'ist8 es(ecially if the glass is hot8 though it )ay 7e negligi7le .ith -ery high frequencies0 <rof0 Tho)son states8 further8 that fro) his (oint of -ie. , ha-e )isun$erstoo$ his state)ent a7out the li)it of au$ition0 He says that 158555 to !58555 alternations corres(on$ to 48555 to 158555 co)(lete .a-es of soun$0 ,n )y first re(ly to <rof0 Tho)son's re)ar2s (in your issue of /arch 188 , a-oi$e$ (ointing out $irectly that <rof0 Tho)son .as )ista2en8 7ut no. , see no .ay out of it0 <rof0 Tho)son .ill (ar$on )e if , call his attention to the fact he see)s to $isregar$8 na)ely8 that 158555 to !58555 alternations of current in an arc K .hich .as the
su7Hect un$er $iscussion K $o not )ean 48555 to 1585558 7ut 158555 to !58555 com*lete "aves of sound0 He says that , ha-e a$o(te$ or suggeste$ as the li)it of au$ition158555 .a-es (er secon$8 7ut , ha-e neither a$o(te$ nor suggeste$ it0 <rof0 Tho)son states that , ha-e 7een .or2ing .ith 48555 to 158555 co)(lete .a-es8 .hile , ha-e no.here )a$e any such state)ent0 He says that this .oul$ 7e .or2ing 7elo. the li)it of au$ition8 an$ cites as an argu)ent that at the Central High >chool8 in <hila$el(hia8 he has hear$ !58555 .a-es (er secon$ J 7ut he .holly o-erloo2s a (oint on .hich , ha-e $.elt at so)e length8 na)ely8 that the li)it of au$ition of an arc is so)ething entirely $ifferent fro) the li)it of au$ition in general0 <rof0 Tho)son further states8 in re(ly to so)e of )y -ie.s e'(resse$ in regar$ to the constant current )achines that fi-e or si' years ago it occurre$ to hi) to try the construction of a $yna)o for constant current8 in .hich " the ar)ature coils .ere of a highly efficient ty(e8 that is8 of co)(arati-ely short .ire length for the -oltage an$ )o-ing in a $ense )agnetic fiel$0" "'teriorly to the coils an$ to the fiel$ he ha$ (lace$ in the circuit of each coil an i)(e$ance coil .hich consiste$ of an iron core .oun$ .ith a consi$era7le length of .ire an$ connecte$ $irectly in circuit .ith the ar)ature coil0 He thus o7taine$8 he thought8 " the (ro(erty of consi$era7le self9 in$uction along .ith efficient current generation0" <rof0 Tho)son says he e'(ecte$ " that (ossi7ly the effects .oul$ 7e -ery )uch the sa)e as those o7taina7le fro) the regularly constructe$ a((aratus0" 3ut he .as $isa((ointe$8 he a$$s0 &ith all the consi$eration $ue to <rof0 Tho)son8 , .oul$ say that8 to e'(ect a goo$ result fro) such a co)7ination8 .as rather sanguine0 "arth is not farther fro) Hea-en than this arrange)ent is fro) one8 in .hich there .oul$ 7e a length of .ire8 sufficient to gi-e the sa)e self9in$uction8 .oun$ on the ar)ature an$ utiliBe$ to (ro$uce useful "0 /0 F08 instea$ of $oing Hust the o((osite8 let alone the loss in the iron cores0 3ut it is8 of course8 only fair to re)e)7er that this e'(eri)ent .as (erfor)e$ fi-e or si' years ago8 .hen e-en the fore)ost electricians lac2e$ the necessary infor)ation in these an$ other )atters0 <rof0 Tho)son see)s to thin2 that self9in$uction .i(es out the (erio$ical un$ulations of current0 1o. self9 in$uction $oes not (ro$uce any such effect8 7ut8 if anything8 it ren$ers the un$ulation )ore (ronounce$0 This is self9e-i$ent0 #et us insert a self9in$uction coil in a circuit tra-erse$ 7y an un$ulating current an$ see .hat ha((ens0 =uring the (erio$ of the greatest rate of change8 .hen the current has a s)all -alue8 the self9in$uction o((oses )ore than $uring the ti)e of the s)all rate of change .hen the current is at8 or near8 its )a'i)u) -alue0 The consequence is8 that .ith the sa)e frequency the )a'i)u) -alue of the current 7eco)es the greater8 the greater the self9in$uction0 As the soun$ in a tele(hone $e(en$s only on the )a'i)u) -alue8 it is clear that self9in$uction is the -ery thing require$ in a tele(hone circuit0 The larger the self9in$uction8 the lou$er an$ clearer the s(eech8 (ro-i$e$ the sa)e current is (asse$ through the circuit0 , ha-e ha$ a)(le o((ortunity to stu$y this su7Hect $uring )y tele(hone e'(erience of se-eral years0 As regar$ the fact that a self9in$uction coil in series .ith a tele(hone $i)inishes the lou$ness of the soun$8 <rof0 Tho)son see)s to o-erloo2 the fact that this effect is .holly $ue to the i)(e$ance of the coil8 i. e.8 to its (ro(erty of $i)inishing the current strength0 3ut .hile the current strength is $i)inishe$ the un$ulation is ren$ere$ only )ore (ronounce$0 ;7-iously8 .hen co)(arisons are )a$e they )ust 7e )a$e .ith the sa)e current0 ,n an arc )achine8 such as that of <rof0 Tho)son's8 the effect is $ifferent0 There8 one has to $eal .ith a )a2e an$ 7rea20 There are then t.o in$uce$ currents8 one in the o((osite8 the other in the sa)e $irection .ith the )ain current0 ,f the function of the )echanis) 7e the sa)e .hether a self9in$uction coil 7e (resent or not8 the un$ulations coul$ not (ossi7ly 7e .i(e$ out0 3ut <rof0 Tho)son see)s8 li2e.ise8 to forget that the effect is .holly $ue to the $efect of the co))utator J na)ely8 the in$uce$ current of the 7rea28 .hich is of the sa)e $irection .ith the )ain current an$ of great intensity8 .hen large self9in$uction is (resent8 si)(ly 7ri$ges the a$Hacent co))utator seg)ents8 or8 if not entirely so8 at least shortens the inter-al $uring .hich the circuit is o(en an$ thus re$uces the un$ulation0 ,n regar$ to the i)(ro-e)ent in the fee$ing of the la)(s 7y -i7rations or un$ulations8 <rof0 Tho)son e'(resses a $ecisi-e o(inion0 He no. says that the -i7rations must i)(ro-e the fee$ing of a cloc29.or2 la)(0 He says that , " contente$ )yself 7y si)(ly saying8" that , cannot agree .ith hi) on that (oint0 1o.8 saying it8 is not the only thing , $i$0 , ha-e (asse$ )any a night .atching a la)( fee$8 an$ , lea-e it to any s2ille$ e'(eri)enter to in-estigate .hether )y state)ents are correct0 /y o(inion is8 that a cloc29.or2 la)(J that is8 a la)( in .hich the $escent of the car7on is regulate$ not 7y a clutch or friction )echanis)8 7ut 7y an esca(e)ent8 cannot fee$ any )ore (erfectly than tooth 7y tooth8 .hich )ay 7e a )o-e)ent of8 say8 1/14 of an inch or less0 >uch a la)( .ill fee$ in nearly the sa)e )anner .hether the current 7e (erfectly s)ooth or un$ulating8 (ro-i$ing the con$itions of the circuit are other.ise sta7le0 ,f there is any a$-antage8 , thin2 it .oul$ 7e in the use of a s)ooth current8 for8 .ith an un$ulating current8 the la)( is li2ely to )iss so)e ti)e an$ fee$ 7y )ore than one tooth0 3ut in a la)( in .hich the $escent of the car7on is regulate$ 7y friction )echanis)8 an in$ulating current of the (ro(er nu)7er of un$ulations (er secon$ .ill al.ays gi-e a 7etter result0 ;f course8 to
realiBe fully the 7enefits of the un$ulating current the release ought to 7e effecte$ in$e(en$ently of the u(9an$9 $o.n )o-e)ent , ha-e (ointe$ out 7efore0 ,n regar$ to the (hysiological effects8 <rof0 Tho)son says8 that in such a co)(arati-ely (oor con$ucti-e )aterial as ani)al tissue the $istri7ution of current cannot 7e go-erne$ 7y self9in$uction to any a((recia7le e'tent8 7ut he $oes not consi$er the t.o9fol$ effect of the large cross9section8 (ointe$ out 7y >ir &illia) Tho)son0 As the resistance of the 7o$y to such currents is lo.8 .e )ust assu)e either con$enser action or in$uction of currents in the 7o$y0 1i2ola Tesla 1"& D;+:8 A(ril 68 18910
18-1-05-06: An *le(trolyti( Clo(. by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer ,f a $elicately an$ (i-ote$ an$ .ell97alance$ )etal $isc or cylin$er 7e (lace$ in a (ro(er (lating solution )i$.ay 7et.een the ano$e an$ catho$e8 one half of the $isc 7eco)es electro (ositi-e an$ the other half electro negati-e0 ;.ing to this fact )etal is $e(osite$ on one8 an$ ta2en off fro) the other half8 an$ the $isc is cause$ to rotate un$er the action of gra-ity0 As the a)ount of )etal $e(osite$ an$ ta2en off is (ro(ortionate to the current strength8 the s(ee$ of rotation8 if it 7e s)all8 is (ro(ortionate to the current0 The first $e-ice of this 2in$ .as o(erate$ 7y )e early in 18888 in the en$ea-our to construct an electric )eter0 C(on learning8 ho.e-er8 that , ha$ 7een antici(ate$ 7y others8 as far as the (rinci(le is concerne$8 , $e-ise$ the a((aratus illustrate$ in the acco)(anying engra-ing0 Here F is a rectangular fra)e of har$ ru77er .hich is fastene$ u(on a .oo$en 7ase0 This fra)e is a7out K inch thic28 % inches long an$ 4 inches high0 ;n 7oth of its u(right si$es are fastene$ thic2 )etal (lates .hich ser-e as the electro$es0 These (lates are hel$ fir)ly against the ru77er fra)e 7y the 7in$ing (osts T T an$ T1 T1 ;n the lateral si$es of the fra)e are fastene$ the 7rass (lates 3 an$ 318 res(ecti-ely8 of the sa)e sha(e as the ru77er fra)e F0 These 7rass (lates ser-e to 2ee( in (lace t.o (lates of (olishe$ glass8 an$ the -essel is her)etically seale$ 7y (lacing a soft ru77er .asher un$er an$ a7o-e each of the glass (lates0 ,n this )anner the (lates )ay 7e scre.e$ on tight .ithout fear of 7rea2ing the)0 The (lating solution8 .hich in this case is a concentrate$ solution of sul(hate of co((er8 is (oure$ in through an o(ening on the to( of the ru77er fra)e8 .hich is close$ 7y a (lug +0 ,n the centre of the -essel is (lace$ a light an$ $elicately 7alance$ co((er $isc =8 the a'is of .hich is su((orte$ 7y a ca(illary glass tu7e .hich is fi'e$ to one of the glass (lates 7y )eans of sealing .a'8 or other )aterial not attac2e$ 7y the liqui$0 To $i)inish the friction as )uch as (ossi7le8 the ca(illary tu7e .hich ser-es as a 7earing contains a $ro( of oil0 The centre of $isc shoul$ 7e equi9$istant fro) 7oth the electro$es0 To one si$e of the a'is of the $isc is fastene$ a -ery light in$icator or (ointer consisting (refera7ly of a thin glass threa$0 The glass (late ne't to this (ointer has a circle .ith the usual hour $i-isions engra-e$ u(on it8 as on a cloc2 $ial0 This circle )ay 7e )o-a7le so that it can 7e (ut in any (osition relati-ely to the (ointer0 ,f the $ial is not )o-a7le then a thin .ire of anneale$ iron )ay 7e use$ as on a (ointer0 The .ire shoul$ then 7e so (lace$ that it is e'actly in the centre of the solution0 3y )eans of a horse9shoe )agnet the $isc )ay then 7e rotate$ an$ set in (ro(er (osition0 The co((er solution 7eing carefully (oure$ in8 an$ the (lug + re(lace$8 the ter)inals of a constant current 7attery are connecte$ to the 7in$ing9(osts TT18 an$ fro) ti)e to ti)e the rotation of the $isc is o7ser-e$0 A shunt is connecte$ to the other t.o 7in$ing9(osts TT18 an$ 7y -arying the resistance of this shunt8 or other $isc8 the s(ee$ of rotation is regulate$ until it is )a$e to corres(on$ to the $i-ision of the $ialJ that is8 until8 for instance8 one turn is )a$e in 1! hours0 ;7-iously this instru)ent .as not $e-ise$ for a (ractical (ur(ose0 1either .ill it 7e quite e'act in its in$ications0 There are certain errors8 una-oi$a7le fro) the (rinci(leJ for instance8 the friction8 .hich cannot 7e co)(letely o-erco)e0 3ut the $e-ice is interesting as a )eans of in$icating ti)e in a no-el )anner0 ,t .ill8 ho.e-er8 7e foun$ that 7y a careful construction8 constant current8 an$ a te)(erature co)(ensator8 it )ay 7e )a$e to rotate .ith al)ost (erfect unifor)ity0 The current $ensity shoul$8 of course8 7e -ery s)all to secure the 7est results8 an$ the $isc of a7out 3 inches $ia)eter shoul$ turn once in % hours0 ,t is (ro7a7le that .ith a sil-er solution an$ a sil-er (late 7etter results .oul$ 7e o7taine$0 ,t is -ery interesting to note the a((earance of the solution an$ $isc in such a narro. trans(arent -essel0 The solution a((ears a clear 7lue8 one si$e of the $isc see)s to 7e sil-er .hite in a certain (osition8 an$ the other half is $ar2 li2e tarnishe$ sil-er0 There is no line of $e)arcation8 7ut the sha$es )elt 7eautifully together0
18-1-05-06: Alternate Current *le(trostati( :ndu(tion A$$aratus by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer A7out a year an$ a half ago .hile engage$ in the stu$y of alternate currents of short (erio$8 it occurre$ to )e that such currents coul$ 7e o7taine$ 7y rotating charge$ surfaces in close (ro'i)ity to con$uctors0 Accor$ingly , $e-ise$ -arious for)s of e'(eri)ental a((aratus of .hich t.o are illustrate$ in the acco)(anying engra-ings0 Figure 10
,n the a((aratus sho.n in Fig0 18 A is a ring of $ry shellac2e$ har$ .oo$ (ro-i$e$ on its insi$e .ith t.o sets of tin9foil coatings8 a an$ 78 all the a coatings an$ all the 7 coatings 7eing connecte$ together8 res(ecti-ely8 7ut in$e(en$ent fro) each other0 These t.o sets of coatings are connecte$ to t.o ter)inals8 T0 For the sa2e of clearness only a fe. coatings are sho.n0 ,nsi$e of the ring A8 an$ in close (ro'i)ity to it there is arrange$ to rotate a cylin$er 38 li2e.ise of $ry8 shellac2e$ har$ .oo$8 an$ (ro-i$e$ .ith t.o si)ilar sets of coatings8 a 1 an$ 718 all the coatings a1 7eing connecte$ to one ring an$ all the others8 7 18 to another )ar2e$ M an$ P0 These t.o sets8 a1 an$ 71 are charge$ to a high (otential 7y a HoltB or a &i)shurst )achine8 an$ )ay 7e connecte$ to a Har of so)e ca(acity0 The insi$e of ring A is coate$ .ith )ica in or$er to increase the in$uction an$ also to allo. higher (otentials to 7e use$0 Figure !0
&hen the cylin$er 3 .ith the charge$ coatings is rotate$8 a circuit connecte$ to the ter)inals T is tra-erse$ 7y alternating currents0 Another for) of a((aratus is illustrate$ in Fig0 !0 ,n this a((aratus the t.o sets of tin9foil coatings are glue$ on a (late of e7onite8 an$ a si)ilar (late .hich is rotate$8 an$ the coatings of .hich are charge$ as in Fig0 18 is (ro-i$e$0
The out(ut of such an a((aratus is -ery s)all8 7ut so)e of the effects (eculiar to alternating currents of short (erio$s )ay 7e o7ser-e$0 The effects8 ho.e-er8 cannot 7e co)(are$ .ith those o7taina7le .ith an in$uction coil .hich is o(erate$ 7y an alternate current )achine of high frequency8 so)e of .hich .ere $escri7e$ 7y )e a short .hile ago0
18-1-05-"0: *+$eriments wit, Alternate Currents of 6ery 0ig, 7re8uen(y and T,eir A$$li(ation to Met,ods of Artifi(ial :llumination by Nikola Tesla
Delivered before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers+ 2olumbia 2ollege+ N.-. There is no su7Hect )ore ca(ti-ating8 )ore .orthy of stu$y8 than nature0 To un$erstan$ this great )echanis)8 to $isco-er the forces .hich are acti-e8 an$ the la.s .hich go-ern the)8 is the highest ai) of the intellect of )an0 1ature has store$ u( in the uni-erse infinite energy0 The eternal reci(ient an$ trans)itter of this infinite energy is the ether0 The recognition of the e'istence of ether8 an$ of the functions it (erfor)s8 is one of the )ost i)(ortant results of )o$ern scientific research0 The )ere a7an$oning of the i$ea of action at a $istance8 the assu)(tion of a )e$iu) (er-a$ing all s(ace an$ connecting all gross )atter8 has free$ the )in$s of thin2ers of an e-er (resent $ou7t8 an$8 7y o(ening a ne. horiBonKne. an$ unforeseen (ossi7ilitiesKhas gi-en fresh interest to (heno)ena .ith .hich .e are fa)iliar of ol$0 ,t has 7een a great ste( to.ar$s the un$erstan$ing of the forces of nature an$ their )ultifol$ )anifestations to our senses0 ,t has 7een for the enlightene$ stu$ent of (hysics .hat the un$erstan$ing of the )echanis) of the firear) or of the stea) engine is for the 7ar7arian0 <heno)ena u(on .hich .e use$ to loo2 as .on$ers 7affling e'(lanation8 .e no. see in a $ifferent light0 The s(ar2 of an in$uction coil8 the glo. of an incan$escent la)(8 the )anifestations of the )echanical forces of currents an$ )agnets are no longer 7eyon$ our gras(J instea$ of the inco)(rehensi7le8 as 7efore8 their o7ser-ation suggests no. in our )in$s a si)(le )echanis)8 an$ although as to its (recise nature all is still conHecture8 yet .e 2no. that the truth cannot 7e )uch longer hi$$en8 an$ instincti-ely .e feel that the un$erstan$ing is $a.ning u(on us0 &e still a$)ire these 7eautiful (heno)ena8 these strange forces8 7ut .e are hel(less no longerJ .e can in a certain )easure e'(lain the)8 account for the)8 an$ .e are ho(eful of finally succee$ing in unra-eling the )ystery .hich surroun$s the)0 ,n ho. far .e can un$erstan$ the .orl$ aroun$ us is the ulti)ate thought of e-ery stu$ent of nature0 The coarseness of our senses (re-ents us fro) recogniBing the ulterior construction of )atter8 an$ astrono)y8 this gran$est an$ )ost (ositi-e of natural sciences8 can only teach us so)ething that ha((ens8 as it .ere8 in our i))e$iate neigh7orhoo$J of the re)oter (ortions of the 7oun$less uni-erse8 .ith its nu)7erless stars an$ suns8 .e 2no. nothing8 3ut far 7eyon$ the li)it of (erce(tion of our senses the s(irit still can gui$e us8 an$ so .e )ay ho(e that e-en these un2no.n .orl$sKinfinitely s)all an$ greatK)ay in a )easure 7eca)e 2no.n to us0 >till8 e-en if this 2no.le$ge shoul$ reach us8 the searching )in$ .ill fin$ a 7arrier8 (erha(s fore-er unsur(assa7le8 to the true recognition of that .hich see)s to 7e8 the )ere a((earance of .hich is the only an$ slen$er 7asis of all our (hiloso(hy0 ;f all the for)s of nature's i))easura7le8 all9(er-a$ing energy8 .hich e-er an$ e-er changing an$ )o-ingJ li2e a soul ani)ates the inert uni-erse8 electricity an$ )agnetis) are (erha(s the )ost fascinating0 The effects of gra-itation8 of heat an$ light .e o7ser-e $aily8 an$ soon .e get accusto)e$ to the)8 an$ soon they lose for us the character of the )ar-elous an$ .on$erfulJ 7ut electricity an$ )agnetis)8 .ith their singular relationshi(8 .ith their see)ingly $ual character8 unique a)ong the forces in nature8 .ith their (heno)ena of attractions8 re(ulsions an$ rotations8 strange )anifestations of )ysterious agentsJ sti)ulate an$ e'cite the )in$ to thought an$ research0 &hat is electricity8 an$ .hat is )agnetis)F These questions ha-e 7een as2e$ again an$ again0 The )ost a7le intellects ha-e ceaselessly .restle$ .ith the (ro7le)J still the question has not as yet 7een fully ans.ere$0 3ut .hile .e cannot e-en to9$ay state .hat these singular forces are8 .e ha-e )a$e goo$ hea$.ay to.ar$s the solution of the (ro7le)0 &e are no. confi$ent that electric an$ )agnetic (heno)ena are attri7uta7le to ether8 an$ .e are (erha(s Hustifie$ in saying that the effects of static electricity are effects of ether un$er strain8 an$ those of $yna)ic electricity an$ electro9)agnetis) effects of ether in )otion0 3ut this still lea-es the question8 as to .hat electricity an$ )agnetis) are8 unans.ere$0 First8 .e naturally inquire8 &hat is electricity8 an$ is there such a thing as electricityF ,n inter(reting electric (heno)enaI .e )ay s(ea2 of electricity or of an electric con$ition8 state or effect0 ,f .e s(ea2 of electric effects .e )ust $istinguish t.o such effects8 o((osite in character an$ neutraliBing each other8 as o7ser-ation sho.s that t.o such o((osite effects e'ist0 This is una-oi$a7le8 for in a )e$iu) of the (ro(erties of ether8 .e cannot (ossi7ly e'ert a strain8 or (ro$uce a $is(lace)ent or )otion of any 2in$8 .ithout causing in the surroun$ing )e$iu) an equi-alent an$ o((osite effect0 3ut if .e s(ea2 of electricity8 )eaning a thing8 .e )ust8 , thin28 a7an$on the i$ea of t.o electricities8 as tie e'istence of t.o such things is highly i)(ro7a7le0 For ho. can .e i)agine that there shoul$ 7e t.o things8 equi-alent in a)ount8 ali2e in their (ro(erties8 7ut of o((osite character8 7oth clinging to )atter8 7oth attracting an$ co)(letely neutraliBing each otherF >uch an assu)(tion8 though
suggeste$ 7y )any (heno)ena8 though )ost con-enient for e'(laining the)8 has little to co))en$ it0 ,f there is such a thing as electricity8 there can 7e only one such thing8 an$J e'cess an$ .ant of that one thin8 (ossi7lyJ 7ut )ore (ro7a7ly its con$ition $eter)ines the (ositi-e an$ negati-e character0 The ol$ theory of Fran2lin8 though falling short in so)e res(ectsJ is8 fro) a certain (oint of -ie.8 after all8 the )ost (lausi7le one0 >till8 in s(ite of this8 the theory of the t.o electricities is generally acce(te$8 as it a((arently e'(lains electric (heno)ena in a )ore satisfactory )anner0 3ut a theory .hich 7etter e'(lains the facts is not necessarily true0 ,ngenious )in$s .ill in-ent theories to suit o7ser-ation8 an$ al)ost e-ery in$e(en$ent thin2er has his o.n -ie.s on the su7Hect0 ,t is not .ith the8 o7Hect of a$-ancing an o(inionJ 7ut .ith the $esire of acquainting you 7etter .ith so)e of the results8 .hich , .ill $escri7e8 to sho. you the reasoning , ha-e follo.e$8 the $e(artures , ha-e )a$eKthat , -enture to e'(ress8 in a fe. .or$s8 the -ie.s an$ con-ictions .hich ha-e le$ )e to these results0 , a$here to the i$ea that there is a thing .hich .e ha-e 7een in the ha7it of calling electricity0 The question is8 &hat is that thingF or8 &hat8 of all things8 the e'istence of .hich .e 2no.8 ha-e .e the 7est reason to call electricityF &e 2no. that it acts li2e an inco)(ressi7le flui$J that there )ust 7e a constant quantity of it in natureJ that it can 7e neither (ro$uce$ nor $estroye$J an$8 .hat is )ore i)(ortant8 the electro9)agnetic theory of light an$ all facts o7ser-e$ teach us that electric an$ ether (heno)ena are i$entical0 The i$ea at once suggests itself8 therefore8 that electricity )ight 7e calle$ ether0 ,n fact8 this -ie. has in a certain sense 7een a$-ance$ 7y =r0 #o$ge0 His interesting .or2 has 7een rea$ 7y e-eryone an$ )any ha-e 7een con-ince$ 7y his argu)ents0 ,sis great a7ility an$ the interesting nature of the su7Hect8 2ee( the rea$er s(ell7oun$J 7ut .hen the i)(ressions fa$e8 one realiBes that he has to $eal only .ith ingenious e'(lanations0 , )ust confess8 that , cannot 7elie-e in t.o electricities8 )uch less in a $ou7ly9constitute$ ether0 The (uBBling 7eha-iour of the ether as a soli$ .a-es of light anti heat8 an$ as a flui$ to the )otion of 7o$ies through it8 is certainly e'(laine$ in the )ost natural an$ satisfactory )anner 7y assu)ing it to 7e in )otion8 as >ir &illia) Tho)son has suggeste$J 7ut regar$less of this8 there is nothing .hich .oul$ ena7le us to conclu$e .ith certainty that8 .hile a flui$ is not ca(a7le of trans)itting trans-erse -i7rations of a fe. hun$re$ or thousan$ (er secon$8 it )ight not 7e ca(a7le of trans)itting such -i7rations .hen they range into hun$re$s of )illion )illions (er secon$0 1or can anyone (ro-e that there are trans-erse ether .a-es e)itte$ fro) an alternate current )achine8 gi-ing a s)all nu)7er of alternations (er secon$J to such slo. $istur7ances8 the ether8 if at rest8 )ay 7eha-e as a true flui$0 +eturning to the su7Hect8 an$ 7earing in )in$ that the e'istence of t.o electricities is8 to say the least8 highly i)(ro7a7le8 .e )ust re)e)7er8 that .e ha-e no e-i$ence of electricity8 nor can .e ho(e to get it8 unless gross )atter is (resent0 "lectricity8 therefore8 cannot 7e calle$ ether in the 7roa$ sense of the ter)J 7ut nothing .oul$ see) to stan$ in the .ay of calling electricity ether associate$ .ith )atter8 or 7oun$ otherJ or8 in other .or$s8 that the so9calle$ static charge of the )olecule is ether associate$ in so)e .ay .ith the )olecule0 #oo2ing at it in that light8 .e .oul$ 7e Hustifie$ in saying8 that electricity is concerne$ in all )olecular actions0 1o.8 (recisely .hat the ether surroun$ing the )olecules is8 .herein it $iffers fro) ether in general8 can only 7e conHecture$0 ,t cannot $iffer in $ensity8 ether 7eing inco)(ressi7leJ it )ust8 therefore8 7e un$er so)e strain or is )otion8 an$ the latter is the )ost (ro7a7le0 To un$erstan$ its functions8 it .oul$ 7e necessary to ha-e an e'act i$ea of the (hysical construction of )atter8 of .hich8 of course8 .e can only for) a )ental (icture0 3ut of all the -ie.s on nature8 the one .hich assu)es one )atter an$ one force8 an$ a (erfect unifor)ity throughout8 is the )ost scientific an$ )ost li2ely to 7e true0 An infinitesi)al .orl$8 .ith the )olecules an$ their ato)s s(inning an$ )o-ing in or7its8 in )uch the sa)e )anner as celestial 7o$ies8 carrying .ith the) an$ (ro7a7ly s(inning .ith the) ether8 or in other .or$sJ carrying .ith the) static charges8 see)s to )y )in$ the )ost (ro7a7le -ie.8 an$ one .hich8 in a (lausi7le )anner8 accounts for )ost of the (heno)ena o7ser-e$0 The s(inning of the )olecules an$ their ether sets u( the ether tensions or electrostatic strainsJ the equaliBation of ether tensions sets u( ether )otions or electric currents8 an$ the or7ital )o-e)ents (ro$uce the effects of electro an$ (er)anent )agnetis) A7out fifteen8 years ago8 <rof0 +o.lan$ $e)onstrate$ a )ost interesting an$ i)(ortant factJ na)ely8 that a static charge carrie$ aroun$ (ro$uces the effects of an electric current0 #ea-ing out of consi$eration the (recise nature of the )echanis)8 .hich (ro$uces the attraction an$ re(ulsion of currents8 an$ concei-ing the electrostatically charge$ )olecules in )otion8 this e'(eri)ental fact gi-es us a fair i$ea of )agnetis)0 &e can concei-e lines or tu7es of force .hich (hysically e'ist8 7eing for)e$ of ro.s of $irecte$ )o-ing )oleculesJ .e can see that these lines )ust 7e close$8 that they )ust ten$ to shorten an$ e'(an$8 etc0 ,t li2e.ise e'(lains in a reasona7le .ay8 the )ost (uBBling (heno)enon of all8 (er)anent )agnetis)8 an$8 in general8 has all the 7eauties of the A)(ere theory .ithout (ossessing the -ital $efect of the sa)e8 na)ely8 the assu)(tion of )olecular currents0 &ithout enlarging further u(on the su7Hect8 , .oul$ say8 that , loo2 u(on all electrostatic8 current an$ )agnetic (heno)ena as 7eing $ue to electrostatic )olecular forces0
The (rece$ing re)ar2s , ha-e $ee)e$ necessary to a full un$erstan$ingJ of the su7Hect as it (resents itself to )y )in$0 ;f all these (heno)ena the )ost i)(ortant to stu$y are the current (heno)ena8 on account of the alrea$y e'tensi-e an$ e-er9gro.ing use of currents for in$ustrial (ur(oses0 ,t is no. a century since the first (ractical source of current .as (ro$uce$8 an$8 e-er since8 the (heno)ena .hich acco)(any the flo. of currents ha-e 7een $iligently stu$ie$8 an$ through the untiring efforts of scientific )en the si)(le la.s .hich go-ern the) ha-e 7een $isco-ere$0 3ut these la.s are foun$ to hol$ goo$ only .hen the currents are of a stea$y character0 &hen the currents are ra(i$ly -arying in strength8 quite $ifferent (heno)ena8 often une'(ecte$8 (resent the)sel-es8 an$ quite $ifferent la.s hol$ goo$8 .hich e-en no. ha-e not 7een $eter)ine$ as fully as is $esira7le8 though through the .or28 (rinci(ally8 of "nglish scientists8 enough 2no.le$ge has 7een gaine$ on the su7Hect to ena7le us to treat si)(le cases .hich no. (resent the)sel-es in $aily (ractice0 The (heno)ena .hich are (eculiar to the changing character of the currents are greatly e'alte$ .hen the rate of change is increase$8 hence the stu$y of these currents is consi$era7ly facilitate$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of (ro(erly constructe$ a((aratus0 ,t .as .ith this an$ other o7Hects in -ie. that , constructe$ alternate current )achines ca(a7le of gi-ing )ore than t.o )illion re-ersals of current (er )inute8 an$ to this circu)stance it is (rinci(ally $ue8 that , a) a7le to 7ring to your attention so)e of the results thus far reache$J .hich , ho(e .ill (ro-e to 7e a ste( in a$-ance on account of their $irect 7earing u(on one of the )ost i)(ortant (ro7le)s8 na)ely8 the (ro$uction of a (ractical an$ efficient source of light0 The stu$y of such ra(i$ly alternating currents is -ery interesting0 1early e-ery e'(eri)ent $iscloses so)ething ne.0 /any results )ay8 of course8 7e (re$icte$8 7ut )any )ore are unforeseen0 The e'(eri)enter )a2es )any interesting o7ser-ations0 For instance8 .e ta2e a (iece of iron an$ hol$ it against a )agnet0 >tarting fro) lo. alternations an$ running u( higher an$ higher .e feel the i)(ulses succee$ each other faster an$ faster8 get .ea2er an$ .ea2er8 an$ finally $isa((ear0 &e then o7ser-e a continuous (ullJ the (ull8 of course8 is not continuousJ it only a((ears so to usJ our sense of touch is i)(erfect0 &e )ay ne't esta7lish an arc 7et.een the electro$es an$ o7ser-e8 as the alternations rise8 that the note .hich acco)(anies alternating arcs gets shriller an$ shriller8 gra$ually .ea2ens8 an$ finally ceases0 The air -i7rations8 of course8 continue8 7ut they are too .ea2 to 7e (ercei-e$J our sense of hearing fails us0 &e o7ser-e the s)all (hysiological effects8 the ra(i$ heating of the iron cores an$ con$uctors8 curious in$ucti-e effects8 interesting con$enser (heno)ena8 an$ still )ore interesting light (heno)ena .ith a high tension in$uction coil0 All these e'(eri)ents an$ o7ser-ations .oul$ 7e of the greatest interest to the stu$ent8 7ut their $escri(tion .oul$ lea$ )e too far fro) the (rinci(al su7Hect0 <artly for this reason8 an$ (artly on account of their -astly greater i)(ortance8 , .ill confine )yself to the $escri(tion of the light effects (ro$uce$ 7y these currents0 ,n the e'(eri)ents to this en$ a high tension in$uction coil or equi-alent a((aratus for con-erting currents of co)(arati-ely lo. into currents of high tension is use$0 ,f you .ill 7e sufficiently intereste$ in the results , shall $escri7e as to enter into an e'(eri)ental stu$y of this su7HectJ if you .ill 7e con-ince$ of the truth of the argu)ents , shall a$-anceKyour ai) .ill 7e to (ro$uce high frequencies an$ high (otentialsJ in other .or$s8 (o.erful electrostatic effects0 Dou .ill then encounter )any $ifficulties8 .hich8 if co)(letely o-erco)e8 .oul$ allo. us to (ro$uce truly .on$erful results0 First .ill 7e )et the $ifficulty of o7taining the require$ frequencies 7y )eans of )echanical a((aratus8 an$8 if they 7e o7taine$ other.ise8 o7stacles of a $ifferent nature .ill (resent the)sel-es0 1e't it .ill 7e foun$ $ifficult to (ro-i$e the requisite insulation .ithout consi$era7ly increasing the siBe of the a((aratus8 for the (otentials require$ are high8 an$8 o.ing to the ra(i$ity of the alternations8 the insulation (resents (eculiar $ifficulties0 >o8 for instance8 .hen a gas is (resent8 the $ischarge )ay .or28 7y the )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent of the gas an$ consequent heating8 through as )uch as an inch of the 7est soli$ insulating )aterial8 such as glass8 har$ ru77er8 (orcelain8 sealing .a'8 etc0J in fact8 through any 2no.n insulating su7stance0 The chief requisite in the insulation of the a((aratus is8 therefore8 the e'clusion of any gaseous )atter0 ,n general )y e'(erience ten$s to sho. that 7o$ies .hich (ossess the highest s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity8 such as glass8 affor$ a rather inferior insulation to others8 .hich8 .hile they are goo$ insulators8 ha-e a )uch s)aller s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity8 such as oils8 for instance8 the $ielectric losses 7eing no $ou7t greater in the for)er0 The $ifficulty of insulating8 of course8 only e'ists .hen the (otentials are e'cessi-ely high8 for .ith (otentials such as a fe. thousan$ -olts there is no (articular $ifficulty encountere$ in con-eying currents fro) a )achine gi-ing8 say8 !58555 alternations (er secon$8 to quite a $istance0 This nu)7er of alternations8 ho.e-er8 is 7y far too s)all for )any (ur(oses8 though quite sufficient for so)e (ractical a((lications0 This $ifficulty of insulating is fortunately not a -ital $ra.7ac2J it affects )ostly the siBe of the a((aratus8 for8 .hen e'cessi-ely high (otentials
.oul$ 7e use$8 the light9gi-ing $e-ices .oul$ 7e locate$ not far fro) the a((aratus8 an$ often they .oul$ 7e quite close to it0 As the air97o)7ar$)ent of the insulate$ .ire is $e(en$ent on con$enser action8 the loss )ay 7e re$uce$ to a trifle 7y using e'cessi-ely thin .ires hea-ily insulate$0 Another $ifficulty .ill 7e encountere$ in the ca(acity an$ self9in$uction necessarily (ossesse$ 7y the coil0 ,f the coil 7e large8 that is8 if it contain a great length of .ire8 it .ill 7e generally unsuite$ for e'cessi-ely high frequenciesJ if it 7e s)all8 it )ay 7e .ell a$a(te$ for such frequencies8 7ut the (otential )ight then not 7e as high as $esire$0 A goo$ insulator8 an$ (refera7ly one (ossessing a s)all s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity8 .oul$ affor$ a t.o9fol$ a$-antage0 First8 it .oul$ ena7le us to construct a -ery s)all coil ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing enor)ous $ifferences of (otentialJ an$ secon$ly8 such a s)all coil8 7y reason of its s)aller ca(acity an$ self9in$uction8 .oul$ 7e ca(a7le of a quic2er an$ )ore -igourous -i7ration0 The (ro7le) then of constructing a coil or in$uction a((aratus of any 2in$ (ossessing the requisite qualities , regar$ as one of no s)all i)(ortance8 an$ it has occu(ie$ )e for a consi$era7le ti)e0 The in-estigator .ho $esires to re(eat the e'(eri)ents .hich , .ill $escri7e8 .ith an alternate current )achine8 ca(a7le of su((lying currents of the $esire$ frequency8 an$ an in$uction coil8 .ill $o .ell to ta2e the (ri)ary coil out an$ )ount the secon$ary in such a )anner as to 7e a7le to loo2 through the tu7e u(on .hich the secon$ary is .oun$0 He .ill then 7e a7le to o7ser-e the strea)s .hich (ass fro) the (ri)ary to the insulating tu7e8 an$ fro) their intensity he .ill 2no. ho. far he can strain the coil0 &ithout this (recaution he is sure to inHure the insulation0 This arrange)ent (er)its8 ho.e-er8 an easy e'change of the (ri)aries8 .hich is $esira7le in these e'(eri)ents0 The selection of the ty(e of )achine 7est suite$ for the (ur(ose )ust 7e left to the Hu$ge)ent of the e'(eri)enter0 There are here illustrate$ three $istinct ty(es of )achines8 .hich8 7esi$es others8 , ha-e use$ in )y e'(eri)ents0 Fig01 re(resents the )achine use$ in )y e'(eri)ents 7efore this ,nstitute0 The fiel$ )agnet consists of a ring of .rought iron .ith 386 (ole (roHections0 The ar)ature co)(rises a steel $isc to .hich is fastene$ a thin8 carefully .el$e$ ri) of .rought iron0 C(on the ri) are .oun$ se-eral layers of fine8 .ell anneale$ iron .ire8 .hich8 .hen .oun$8 is (asse$ through shellac0 The ar)ature .ires are .oun$ aroun$ 7rass (ins8 .ra((e$ .ith sil2 threa$0 The $ia)eter of the ar)ature .ire in this ty(e of )achine shoul$ not 7e )ore than 1/% of the thic2ness of the (ole (roHections8 else the local action .ill 7e consi$era7le0
Fig0! re(resents a larger )achine of a $ifferent ty(e0 The fiel$ )agnet of this )achine consists of t.o li2e (arts .hich either enclose an e'citing coil8 or else are in$e(en$ently .oun$0 "ach (art has 685 (ole (roHections8 the (roHections of one facing those of the other0 The ar)ature consists of a .heel of har$ 7ronBe8 carrying the con$uctors .hich re-ol-e 7et.een the (roHections of the fiel$ )agnet0 To .in$ the ar)ature con$uctors8 , ha-e foun$ it )ost con-enient to (rocee$ in the follo.ing )anner0 , construct a ring of har$ 7ronBe of the require$ siBe0 This ring an$ the ri) a the .heel are (ro-i$e$ .ith the (ro(er nu)7er of (ins8 an$ 7oth fastene$ u(on a (late0 The ar)ature con$uctors 7eing .oun$8 the (ins are cut off an$ the en$s of the con$uctors fastene$ 7y t.o rings .hich scre. to the 7ronBe ring an$ the ri) of the .heel8 res(ecti-ely0 The .hole )ay then 7e ta2en off an$ for)s a soli$ structure0 The con$uctors in such a ty(e of )achine shoul$ consist of sheet co((er8 the thic2ness of .hich8 of course8 $e(en$s on the thic2ness of the (ale (roHectionsJ or else t.iste$ thin .ires shoul$ 7e e)(loye$0 Fig0 3 is a s)aller )achine8 in )any res(ects si)ilar to the for)er8 only here the ar)ature con$uctors an$ the e'citing coil are 2e(t stationary8 .hile only a 7loc2 of .rought iron is re-ol-e$0
,t .oul$ 7e uselessly lengthening this $escri(tion .ere , to $.ell )ore on the $etails of construction of these )achines0 3esi$es8 they ha-e 7een $escri7e$ so)e.hat )ore ela7orately in The "lectrical "ngineer8 of /arch 188 18910 , $ee) it .ell8 ho.e-er8 to call the attention of the in-estigator to t.o things8 the i)(ortance of .hich8 though self e-i$ent8 he is ne-ertheless a(t to un$eresti)ateJ na)ely8 to the local action in the con$uctors .hich )ust 7e carefully a-oi$e$8 an$ to the clearance8 .hich )ust 7e s)all0 , )ay a$$8 that since it is $esira7le to use -ery high (eri(heral s(ee$s8 the ar)ature shoul$ he of -ery large $ia)eter in or$er to a-oi$ i)(ractica7le 7elt s(ee$s0 ;f the se-eral ty(es of these )achines .hich ha-e 7een constructe$ 7y )e8 , ha-e foun$ that the ty(e illustrate$ in Fig0 1 cause$ )e the least trou7le in construction8 as .ell as in )aintenance8 an$ on the .hole8 it has 7een a goo$ e'(eri)ental )achine0 ,n o(erating an in$uction coil .ith -ery ra(i$ly alternating currents8 a)ong the first lu)inous (heno)ena notice$ are naturally those8 (resente$ 7y the high9tension $ischarge0 As the nu)7er of alternations (er secon$ is increase$8 or asKthe nu)7er 7eing highKthe current through the (ri)ary is -arie$8 the $ischarge gra$ually changes in a((earance0 ,t .oul$ 7e $ifficult to $escri7e the )inor changes .hich occur8 an$ the con$itions .hich 7ring the) a7out8 7ut one )ay note fi-e $istinct for)s of the $ischarge0
First8 one )ay o7ser-e a .ea28 sensiti-e $ischarge in the for) of a thin8 fee7le9colore$ threa$ (Fig0 6a 0 ,t al.ays occurs .hen8 the nu)7er of alternations (er secon$ 7eing high8 the current through the (ri)ary is -ery s)all0 ,n s(ite of the e'cessi-ely s)all current8 the rate of change is great8 an$ the $ifference of (otential at the ter)inals of the secon$ary is therefore consi$era7le8 so that the arc is esta7lishe$ at great $istancesJ 7ut the quantity of "electricity" set in )otion is insignificant8 7arely sufficient to )aintain a thin8 threa$li2e arc0 ,t is e'cessi-ely8 sensiti-e an$ )ay 7e )a$e so to such a $egree that the )ere act of 7reathing near the coil .ill affect it8 an$ unless it is (erfectly .ell (rotecte$ fro) currents of air8 it .riggles aroun$ constantly0 1e-ertheless8 it is in this for) e'cessi-ely (ersistent8 an$ .hen the ter)inals are a((roache$ to8 say8 one9thir$ of the stri2ing $istance8 it can 7e 7lo.n out only .ith $ifficulty0 This e'ce(tional (ersistency8 .hen short8 is largely $ue to the arc 7eing e'cessi-ely thinJ (resenting8 therefore8 a -ery s)all surface to the 7last0 ,ts great sensiti-eness8 .hen -ery long8 is (ro7a7ly $ue to the )otion of the (articles of $ust sus(en$e$ in the air0 &hen the current through the (ri)ary is increase$8 the $ischarge gets 7roa$er an$ stronger8 an$ the effect of the ca(acity of the coil 7eco)es -isi7le until8 finally8 un$er (ro(er con$itions8 a .hite fla)ing arc8 Fig0 67 / 15578 often as thic2 as one's finger8 an$ stri2ing across the .hole coil8 is (ro$uce0 ,t $e-elo(s re)ar2a7le heat8 an$ )ay 7e further characteriBe$ 7y the a7sence of the high note .hich acco)(anies the less (o.erful $ischarges0 To ta2e a shoc2 fro) 0the coil un$er these con$itions .oul$ not 7e a$-isa7le8 although un$er $ifferent con$itions the (otential 7eing )uch higherJ a shoc2 fro) the coil )ay 7e ta2en .ith i)(unity0 To (ro$uce this 2in$ of $ischarge the nu)7er of alternations (er secon$ )ust not 7e too great for the coil use$J an$8 generally s(ea2ing8 certain relations 7et.een ca(acity8 self9in$uction an$ frequency )ust 7e o7ser-e$0 &hen the current through the (ri)ary is increase$8 the $ischarge gets 7roa$er an$ stronger8 an$ the effect of the ca(acity of the coil 7eco)es -isi7le until8 finally8 un$er (ro(er con$itions8 a .hite fla)ing arc8 Fig0 67 / 15578 often as thic2 as one's finger8 an$ stri2ing across the .hole coil8 is (ro$uce0 ,t $e-elo(s re)ar2a7le heat8 an$ )ay 7e further characteriBe$ 7y the a7sence of the high note .hich acco)(anies the less (o.erful $ischarges0 To ta2e a shoc2 fro) 0the coil un$er these con$itions .oul$ not 7e a$-isa7le8 although un$er $ifferent con$itions the (otential 7eing )uch higherJ a shoc2 fro) the coil )ay 7e ta2en .ith i)(unity0 To (ro$uce this 2in$ of $ischarge the nu)7er of alternations (er secon$ )ust not 7e too great for the coil use$J an$8 generally s(ea2ing8 certain relations 7et.een ca(acity8 self9in$uction an$ frequency )ust 7e o7ser-e$0 The i)(ortance of these ele)ents in an alternate current circuit is no. .ell92no.n8 an$ un$er or$inary con$itions8 the general rules are a((lica7le0 3ut in an in$uction coil e'ce(tional con$itions (re-ail0 First8 the self9 in$uction is of little i)(ortance 7efore the arc is esta7lishe$8 .hen it asserts itself8 7ut (erha(s ne-er as (ro)inently as in or$inary alternate current circuits8 7ecause the ca(acity is $istri7ute$ all along the coil8 an$ 7y reason of the fact that the coil usually $ischarges through -ery great resistancesJ hence the currents are e'ce(tionally s)all0 >econ$ly8 the ca(acity goes on increasing continually as the (otential rises8 in consequence of a7sor(tion .hich ta2es (lace to a consi$era7le e'tent0 ;.ing to this there e'ists no critical relationshi( 7et.een these quantities8 an$ or$inary rules .oul$ not see)I to 7e a((lica7leI As the (otential is increase$ either in consequence of the increase$ frequency or of the increase$ current through the (ri)ary8 the a)ount of the energy store$ 7eco)es greater an$ greater8 an$ the ca(acity gains )ore an$ )ore in i)(ortance0 C( to a certain (oint the ca(acity is 7eneficial8 7ut after that it 7egins to 7e an enor)ous $ra.7ac20 ,t follo.s fro) this that each coil gi-es the 7est result .ith a gi-en frequency an$ (ri)ary current0 A -ery large coil8 .hen o(erate$ .ith currents of -ery high frequency8 )ay not gi-e as )uch as 1/8 inch s(ar20 3y a$$ing ca(acity to the ter)inals8 the con$ition )ay 7e i)(ro-e$8 7ut .hat the coil really .ants is a lo.er frequency0
&hen the fla)ing $ischarge occurs8 the con$itions are e-i$ently such that the greatest current is )a$e to flo. through the circuit0 These con$itions )ay 7e attaine$ 7y -arying the frequency .ithin .i$e li)its8 7ut the highest frequency at .hich the fla)ing arc can still 7e (ro$uce$8 $eter)ines8 for a gi-en (ri)ary current8 the )a'i)u) stri2ing $istance of the coil0 ,n the fla)ing $ischarge the eclat effect of the ca(acity is not (erce(ti7leJ the rate at .hich the energy is 7eing store$ then Hust equals the rate at .hich it can 7e $is(ose$ of through the circuit0 This 2in$ of $ischarge is the se-erest test for a coilJ the 7rea28 .hen it occurs8 is of the nature of that in an o-ercharge$ #ey$en Har0 To gi-e a rough a((ro'i)ation , .oul$ state that8 .ith an or$inary coil of8 say8 158555 oh)s resistance8 the )ost (o.erful arc .oul$ 7e (ro$uce$ .ith a7out 1!8555 alternations (er secon$0 &hen the frequency is increase$ 7eyon$ that rate8 the (otential8 of course8 rises8 7ut the stri2ing $istance )ay8 ne-ertheless8 $i)inish8 (ara$o'ical as it )ay see)0 As the (otential rises the coil attains )ore an$ )ore the (ro(erties of a static )achine until8 finally8 one )ay o7ser-e the 7eautiful (heno)enon of the strea)ing $ischarge8 Fig0 4 / 1518 .hich )ay 7e (ro$uce$ across the .hole length of the coil0 At that stage strea)s 7egin to issue freely fro) all (oints an$ (roHections0 These strea)s .ill also 7e seen to (ass in a7un$ance in the s(ace 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ the insulating tu7e0 &hen the (otential is e'cessi-ely high they .ill al.ays a((earJ e-en if the frequency 7e lo.8 an$ e-en if the (ri)ary 7e surroun$e$ 7y as )uch as an inch of .a'8 har$ ru77er8 glass8 or any other insulating su7stance0 This li)its greatly the out(ut of the coil8 7ut , .ill later sho. ho. , ha-e 7een a7le to o-erco)e to a consi$era7le e'tent this $isa$-antage in the or$inary coil0 3esi$es the (otential8 the intensity of the strea)s $e(en$s on the frequencyJ 7ut if the coil 7e -ery large they sho. the)sel-es8 no )atter ho. lo. the frequencies use$0 For instance8 in a -ery large coil of a resistance of %*8555 oh)s8 constructe$ 7y )e so)e ti)e ago8 they a((ear .ith as lo. as 155 alternations (er secon$ an$ less8 the insulation of the secon$ary 7eing 3/6 inch of e7onite0 &hen -ery intense they (ro$uce a noise si)ilar to that (ro$uce$ 7y the charging of a HoltB )achine8 7ut )uch )ore (o.erful8 an$ they e)it a strong s)ell of oBone0 The lo.er the frequency8 the )ore a(t they are to su$$enly inHure the coil0 &ith e'cessi-ely high frequencies they )ay (ass freely .ithout (ro$ucing any other effect than to heat the insulation slo.ly an$ unifor)ly0 The e'istence of these strea)s sho.s the i)(ortance of constructing an e'(ensi-e coil so as to (er)it of one's seeing through the tu7e surroun$ing the (ri)ary8 an$ the latter shoul$ 7e easily e'changea7leJ or else the s(ace 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary shoul$ 7e co)(letely fille$ u( .ith insulating )aterial so as to e'clu$e all air0 The non9o7ser-ance of this si)(le rule in the construction of co))ercial coils is res(onsi7le for the $estruction of )any an e'(ensi-e coil0 At the stage .hen the strea)ing $ischarge occurs8 or .ith so)e.hat higher frequencies8 one )ay8 7y a((roaching the ter)inals quite nearly8 an$ regulating (ro(erly the effect of ca(acity8 (ro$uce a -erita7le s(ray of s)all sil-er9.hite s(ar2s8 or a 7unch of e'cessi-ely thin sil-ery threa$s (Fig0 % a)i$st a (o.erful 7rushKeach s(ar2 or threa$ (ossi7ly corres(on$ing to one alternation0 i7is8 .hen (ro$uce$ un$er (ro(er con$itions8 is (ro7a7ly the )ost 7eautiful $ischarge8 an$ .hen an air 7last is $irecte$ against it8 it (resents a singular a((earance0 The s(ray of s(ar2s8 .hen recei-e$ through the 7o$y8 causes so)e incon-enience8 .hereas8 .hen the $ischarge si)(ly strea)s8 nothing at all is li2ely to 7e felt if large con$ucting o7Hects are hel$ in the han$s to (rotect the) fro) recei-ing s)all 7urns0
,f the frequency is still )ore increase$8 then the coil refuses to gi-e any s(ar2 unless at co)(arati-ely s)all $istances8 an$ the fifth ty(ical for) of $ischarge )ay 7e o7ser-e$ (Fig0 * 0 The ten$ency to strea) out an$ $issi(ate is then so great that .hen the 7rush is (ro$uce$ at one ter)inal no s(ar2ing occursJ e-en if8 as , ha-e re(eate$ly trie$8 the han$8 or any con$ucting o7Hect8 is hel$ .ithin the strea)J an$0 .hat is )ere singular8 the lu)inous strea) is not at all easily $eflecte$ 7y the a((roach of a con$ucting 7o$y0
At this stage the strea)s see)ingly (ass .ith the greatest free$o) through consi$era7le thic2nesses of insulators8 an$ it is (articularly interesting to stu$y their 7eha-iour0 For this (ur(ose it is con-enient to connect to the ter)inals of the coil t.o )etallic s(heres .hich )ay 7e (lace$ at any $esire$ $istance8 Fig0 8 >(heres arc (refera7le to (lates8 as the $ischarge can 7e 7etter o7ser-e$0 3y inserting $ielectric 7o$ies 7et.een the s(heres8 7eautiful $ischarge (heno)ena )ay 7e o7ser-e$0 ,f the s(heres 7e quite close an$ the s(ar2 7e (laying 7et.een the)8 7y inter(osing a thin (late of e7onite 7et.een the s(heres the s(ar2 instantly ceases an$ the $ischarge s(rea$J into an intensely lu)inous circle se-eral inches in $ia)eter8 (ro-i$e$ the s(heres are sufficiently large0 The (assage of the strea)s heats8 an$J after a .hile8 softens8 the ru77er so )uch that t.o (lates )ay 7e )a$e to stic2 together in this )anner0 ,f the s(heres are so far a(art that no s(ar2 occurs8 e-en if they are far 7eyon$ the stri2ing $istance8 7y inserting a thic2 (late of )ass the $ischarge is instantly in$uce$ to (ass fro) the s(heres to the glass is the for) of lu)inous strea)s0 ,t a((ears al)ost as though these strea)s (ass through the $ielectric0 ,n reality this is not the case8 as the strea)s are $ue to the )olecules of the air .hich are -iolently agitate$ in the s(ace 7et.een the o((ositely charge$ surfaces of the s(heres0 &hen no $ielectric other than air is (resent8 the 7o)7ar$)ent goes on8 7ut is too .ea2 to 7e -isi7leJ 7y inserting8 a $ielectric the in$ucti-e effect is )uch increase$8 an$ 7esi$es8 the (roHecte$ air )olecules fin$ an o7stacle an$ the 7o)7ar$)ent 7eco)es so intense that the strea)s 7eco)e lu)inous0 ,f 7y any )echanical )eans .e coul$ effect such a -iolent agitation of the )olecules .e coul$ (ro$uce the sa)e (heno)enon0 A Het of air esca(ing through a s)all hole un$er enor)ous (ressure an$ stri2ing against an insulating su7stance8 such as glass8 )ay 7e lu)inous in the $ar28 an$ it )ight 7e (ossi7le to (ro$uce a (hos(horescence of the gloss or other insulators in this )anner0 The greater the s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity of the inter(ose$ $ielectric8 the )ore (o.erful the effect (ro$uce$0 ;.ing to this8 the strea)s sho. the)sel-es .ith e'cessi-ely high (otentials e-en if the glass 7e as )uch as one an$ one9half to t.o inches thic20 3ut 7esi$es the heating $ue to 7o)7ar$)ent8 so)e heating goes on un$ou7te$ly in the $ielectric8 7eing a((arently greater in glass than in e7onite0 , attri7ute this to the greater s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity of the glassJ in consequence of .hich8 .ith the sa)e (otential $ifference8 a greater a)ount of energy is ta2en u( in it than in ru77er0 ,t is li2e connecting to a 7attery a co((er an$ a 7rass .ire of the sa)e $i)ensions0 The co((er .ire8 though a )ore (erfect con$uctor8 .oul$ heat )ore 7y reason of its ta2ing )ore current0 Thus .hat is other.ise consi$ere$ a -irtue of the glass is here a $efect0 Glass usually gi-es .ay )uch quic2er than e7oniteJ .hen it is heate$ to a certain $egree8 the $ischarge su$$enly 7rea2s through at one (oint8 assu)ing then the or$inary for) of an arc0
The heating effect (ro$uce$ 7y )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent of the $ielectric .oul$8 of course8 $i)inish as the (ressure of tile air is increase$8 an$ at enor)ous (ressure it .oul$ 7e negligi7le8 unless the frequency .oul$ increase corres(on$ingly0 ,t .ill 7e often o7ser-e$ in these e'(eri)ents that .hen the s(heres are 7eyon$ the stri2ing $istance8 the a((roach of a glass (late8 for instance8 )ay in$uce the s(ar2 to Hu)( 7et.een the s(heres0 This occurs .hen the ca(acity of the s(heres is so)e.hat 7elo. the critical -alue .hich gi-es the greatest $ifference of (otential at the ter)inals of the coil0 3y a((roaching a $ielectric8 the s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity of the s(ace 7et.een the s(heres is increase$8 (ro$ucing the sa)e effect as if the ca(acity of the s(heres .ere increase$0 The (otential at the ter)inals )ay then rise so high that the air s(ace is crac2e$0 The e'(eri)ent is 7est (erfor)e$ .ith $ense glass or )ica0 Another interesting o7ser-ation is that a (late of insulating )aterial8 .hen the $ischarge is (assing through it8 is strongly attracte$ 7y either of the s(heres8 that is 7y the nearer one8 this 7eing o7-iously $ue to the s)aller )echanical effect of the 7o)7ar$)ent on that si$e8 an$ (erha(s also to the greater electrification0 Fro) the 7eha-iour of the $ielectrics in these e'(eri)entsJ .e )ay conclu$e that the 7est insulator for these ra(i$ly alternating currents .oul$ 7e the one (ossessing the s)allest s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity an$ at the sa)e ti)e one ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing the greatest $ifferences of (otentialJ an$ thus t.o $ia)etrically o((osite .ays of securing the require$ insulation are in$icate$8 na)ely8 to use either a (erfect -acuu) or a gas un$er great (ressureJ 7ut the for)er .oul$ 7e (refera7le0 Cnfortunately neither of these t.o .ays is easily carrie$ out in (ractice0 ,t is es(ecially interesting to note the 7eha-iour of an e'cessi-ely high -acuu) in these e'(eri)ents0 ,f a test tu7e8 (ro-i$e$ .ith e'ternal electro$es an$ e'hauste$ to the highest (ossi7le $egree8 7e connecte$ to the ter)inals of the coil8 Fig0 98 the electro$es of the tu7e are instantly 7rought to a high te)(erature an$ the glass at each en$ of the tu7e is ren$ere$ intensely (hos(horescent8 7ut the )i$$le a((ears co)(arati-ely $ar28 an$ for a .hile re)ains cool0 &hen the frequency is so high that the $ischarge sho.n in Fig0 * / 153 is8 o7ser-e$8 consi$era7le $issi(ation no $ou7t occurs in the coil0 1e-ertheless the coil )ay 7e .or2e$ for a long ti)e8 as the heating is gra$ual0 ,n s(ite of the fact that the $ifference of (otential )ay 7e enor)ous8 little is felt .hen the $ischarge is (asse$ through the 7o$y8 (ro-i$e$ the han$s are ar)e$0 This is to so)e e'tent $ue to the higher frequency8 7ut (rinci(ally to the fact that less energy is a-aila7le e'ternally8 .hen the $ifference of (otential reaches an enor)ous -alue8 o.ing to the circu)stance that8 .ith the rise of (otential8 the energy a7sor7e$ in the coil increases as the square of the (otential0 C( to a certain (oint the energy a-aila7le e'ternally increases .ith the rise of (otential8 then it 7egins to fall off ra(i$ly0 Thus8 .ith the or$inary high tension in$uction coil8 the curious (ara$o' e'ists8 that8 .hile .ith a gi-en current through the (ri)ary the shoc2 )ight 7e fatal8 .ith )any ti)es that current it )ight 7e (erfectly har)less8 e-en if the frequency 7e the sa)e0 &ith high frequencies an$ e'cessi-ely high (otentials .hen the ter)inals are not connecte$ to 7o$ies of so)e siBe8 (ractically all the energy su((lie$ to the (ri)ary is ta2en u( 7y the coil0 There is no 7rea2ing through8 no local inHury8 7ut all the )aterial8 insulating an$ con$ucting8 is unifor)ly heate$0 To a-oi$ )isun$erstan$ing in regar$ to the (hysiological effect of alternating currents of -ery high frequency8 , thin2 it necessary to state that8 .hile it is an un$enia7le fact that they are inco)(ara7ly less $angerous than currents of lo. frequenciesJ it shoul$ not 7e thought that they are altogether har)less0 &hat has Hust 7een sai$ refers only to currents fro) an or$inary high tension in$uction coil8 .hich currents are necessarily -ery s)allJ if recei-e$ $irectly fro) a )achine or fro) a secon$ary of lo. resistance8 they (ro$uce )ore or less (o.erful effects8 an$ )ay cause serious inHury8 es(ecially .hen use$ in conHunction .ith con$ensers0 The strea)ing $ischarge of a high tension in$uction coil $iffers in )any res(ects fro) that of a (o.erful static )achine0 ,n colour it has neither the -iolet of the (ositi-e8 nor the 7rightness of the negati-e8 static $ischarge8 7ut
lies so)e.here 7et.een8 7eing8 of course8 alternati-ely (ositi-e an$ negati-e0 3ut since the strea)ing is )ore (o.erful .hen the (oint or ter)inal is electrifie$ (ositi-ely8 than .hen electrifie$ negati-ely8 it follo.s that the (oint of the 7rush is )ore li2e the (ositi-e8 an$ the root )ore li2e the negati-e8 static $ischarge0 ,n the $ar28 .hen the 7rush is -ery (o.erful8 the root )ay a((ear al)ost .hite0
The .in$ (ro$uce$ 7y the esca(ing strea)s8 though it )ay 7e -ery strongKoften in$ee$ to such a $egree that it )ay 7e felt quite a $istance fro) the coilKis8 ne-ertheless8 consi$ering the quantity of the $ischarge8 s)aller than that (ro$uce$ 7y the (ositi-e 7rush of a static )achine8 an$ it affects the fla)e )uch less (o.erfullyI Fro) the nature of the (heno)enon .e can conclu$e that the higher the frequency8 the s)aller )ust8 of course8 7e the .in$ (ro$uce$ 7y the strea)s8 an$ .ith sufficiently high frequencies no .in$ at all .oul$ 7e (ro$uce$ at the or$inary at)os(heric (ressures0 &ith frequencies o7taina7le 7y )eans of a )achine8 the )echanical effect is sufficiently great to re-ol-e8 .ith consi$era7le s(ee$8 large (in9.heels8 .hich in the $ar2 (resent 7eautiful a((earance o.ing to the a7un$ance of the strea)s (Fig0 15 0 ,n general8 )ost of the e'(eri)ents usually (erfor)e$ .ith a static )achine can 7e (erfor)e$ .ith an in$uction coil .hen o(erate$ .ith -ery ra(i$ly alternating currents0 The effects (ro$uce$8 ho.e-er8 are )uch )ore stri2ingJ 7eing of inco)(ara7ly greater (o.er0 &hen a s)all length of or$inary cotton co-ere$ .ire8 Fig0 118 is attache$ to one ter)inal of the coil8 the strea)s issuing fro) all (oints of the .ire )ay 7e so intense as to (ro$uce a consi$era7le light effect0 &hen the (otentials an$ frequencies are -ery high8 a .ire insulate$ .ith gutta (ercha or ru77er an$ attache$ to one of the ter)inals8 a((ears to 7e co-ere$ .ith a lu)inous fil) A -ery thin 7are .ire .hen attache$ to a ter)inal e)its (o.erful strea)s an$ -i7rates continually to an$ fro or s(ins in a circle8 (ro$ucing a singular effect (Fig0 1! 0 >o)e of these e'(eri)ents ha-e 7een $escri7e$ 7y )e in The "lectrical &orl$8 of Fe7ruary !18 18910 Another (eculiarity of the ra(i$ly alternating $ischarge of the in$uction coil is its ra$ically $ifferent 7eha-iour .ith res(ect to (oints an$ roun$e$ surfaces0 ,f a thic2 .ire8 (ro-i$e$ .ith a 7all at one en$ an$ .ith a (oint at the other8 7e attache$ to the (ositi-e ter)inal of a static )achine8 (ractically all the charge .ill 7e lost through the (oint8 on account of the enor)ously greater tension8 $e(en$ent on the ra$ius of cur-ature0 3ut if such a .ire is attache$ to one of the ter)inals of the in$uction coil8 it8 .ill 7e o7ser-e$ that .ith -ery high frequencies strea)s issue fro) the 7all al)ost as co(iously as fro) the (oint (Fig0 13 0 ,t is har$ly concei-a7le that .e coul$ (ro$uce such a con$ition to an equal $egree in a static )achine8 for the si)(le reason8 that the tension increases as the square of the $ensity8 .hich in turn is (ro(ortional to the ra$ius of cur-atureJ hence8 .ith a stea$y (otential an enor)ous charge .oul$ 7e require$ to )a2e strea)s issue fro) a (olishe$ 7all .hile it is connecte$ .ith a (oint0 3ut .ith0 an in$uction coil the $ischarge of .hich alternates .ith great ra(i$ity it is $ifferentI Here .e ha-e to $eal .ith t.o $istinct ten$encies0 First8 there is the ten$ency to esca(e .hich e'ists in a con$ition of rest8 an$ .hich $e(en$s on the ra$ius of cur-atureJ secon$8 there is the ten$ency to $issi(ate into the surroun$ing air 7y con$enser action8 .hich $e(en$s on the surface0 &hen one of these ten$encies is at a )a'i)u)8 the other is at a )ini)u)0 At the (oint the lu)inous strea) is (rinci(ally $ue to the air )olecules co)ing 7o$ily in contact .ith the (ointJ they are attracte$ an$ re(elle$8 charge$ an$ $ischarge$8 an$8 their ato)ic charges 7eing thus $istur7e$J -i7rate an$ e)it light .a-es0 At the 7all8 on the
contrary8 there is no $ou7t that the effect is to a great e'tent (ro$uce$ in$ucti-ely8 the air )olecules not necessarily co)ing in contact .ith the 7all8 though they un$ou7te$ly $o so0 To con-ince oursel-es of this .e only nee$ to e'alt the con$enser action8 for instance8 7y en-elo(ing the 7all8 at so)e $istance8 7y a 7etter con$uctor than the surroun$ing )e$iu)8 the con$uctor 7eing8 of course8 insulate$J or else 7y surroun$ing it .ith a 7etter $ielectric an$ a((roaching an insulate$ con$uctorJ in 7oth cases the strea)s .ill 7rea2 forth )ore co(iously0 Also8 the larger the 7all .ith a gi-en frequency8 or the higher the frequency8 the )ore .ill the 7all ha-e the a$-antage o-er the (oint0 3ut8 since a certain intensity of action is require$ to ren$er the strea)s -isi7le8 it is o7-ious that in the e'(eri)ent $escri7e$ the 7all shoul$ not 7e ta2en too large0 ,n consequence of this t.o9fol$ ten$ency8 it is (ossi7le to (ro$uce 7y )eans of (oints8 effects i$entical to those (ro$uce$ 7y ca(acity0 Thus8 for instance8 7y attaching to one ter)inal of the coil a s)all length of soile$ .ire8 (resenting )any (oints an$ offering great facility to esca(e8 the (otential of the coil )ay 7e raise$ to the sa)e -alue as 7y attaching to the ter)inal a (olishe$ 7all of a surface )any ti)es greater than that of the .ire0 An interesting e'(eri)ent8 sho.ing the effect of the (oints8 )ay 7e (erfor)e$ in the follo.ing )annerI Attach to one of the ter)inals of the coil a cotton co-ere$ .ire a7out t.o feet in length8 an$ a$Hust the con$itions so that strea)s issue fro) the .ire0 ,n this e'(eri)ent the (ri)ary coil shoul$ 7e (refera7ly (lace$ so that it e'ten$s only a7out half .ay into the secon$ary coil0 1o. touch the free ter)inal of the secon$ary .ith a con$ucting o7Hect hel$ in the han$8 or else connect it to an insulate$ 7o$y of so)e siBe0 ,n this )anner the (otential on the .ire )ay 7e enor)ously raise$0 The effect of this .ill 7e either to increase8 or to $i)inish8 the strea)sI ,f they increase8 the .ire is too shortJ if they $i)inish8 it is too long0 3y a$Husting the length of the .ire8 a (oint is foun$ .here the touching of the other ter)inal $oes not at all affect the strea)s0 ,n this case the rise of (otential is e'actly counteracte$ 7y the $ro( through the coil0 ,t .ill 7e o7ser-e$ that s)all lengths of .ire (ro$uce consi$era7le $ifference in the )agnitu$e an$ lu)inosity of the strea)s0 The (ri)ary coil is (lace$ si$e.ise for t.o reasonsI First8 to increase the (otential at the .ireI an$8 secon$8 to8increase the $ro( through the coil0 The sensiti-eness is thus aug)ente$0 There is still another an$ far )ore stri2ing (eculiarity of the 7rush $ischarge (ro$uce$ 7y -ery ra(i$ly alternating currents0 To o7ser-e this it is 7est to re(lace the usual ter)inals of the coil 7y t.o )etal colu)ns insulate$ .ith a goo$ thic2ness of e7onite0 ,t is also .ell to close all fissures an$ crac2s .ith .a' so that the 7rushes cannot for) any.here e'ce(t at the to(s of the colu)ns0 ,f the con$itions are carefully a$Huste$K.hich8 of course8 )ust 7e left to the s2ill of the e'(eri)enterKso that the (otential rises to an enor)ous -alue8 one )ay (ro$uce t.o (o.erful 7rushes se-eral inches long8 nearly .hite at their roots8 .hich in the $artI 7ear a stri2ing rese)7lance t.o fla)es of a gas esca(ing un$er (ressure (Fig0 16 0 3ut they $o not only rese)7le8 they are -erita7le fla)es8 for they are hot0 Certainly they are not as hot as a gas 7urner8 7ut they .oul$ 7e so if the frequency an$ the (otential .oul$ 7e sufficiently high0 <ro$uce$ .ith8 say8 t.enty thousan$ alternations (er secon$8 the heat is easily (erce(ti7le e-en if the (otential is not e'cessi-ely high0 The heat $e-elo(e$ is8 of course8 $ue to the i)(act of the air )olecules against the ter)inals an$ against each other0 As8 at the or$inary (ressures8 the )ean free (ath is e'cessi-ely s)all8 it is (ossi7le that in s(ite of the enor)ous initial s(ee$ i)(arte$ to each )olecule u(on co)ing in contact .ith the ter)inal8 its (rogressK7y collision .ith other )oleculesKis retar$e$ to such an e'tent8 that it $oes not get a.ay far fro) the ter)inal8 7ut )ay stri2e the sa)e )any ti)es in succession0 The higher the frequency8 the less the )olecule is a7le to get a.ay8 an$ this the )ore so8 as for a gi-en effect the (otential require$ is s)allerJ an$ a frequency is concei-a7leK(erha(s e-en o7taina7leKat .hich (ractically the sa)e )olecules .oul$ stri2e the ter)inal0 Cn$er such con$itions the e'change of the )olecules .oul$ 7e -ery slo.8 an$ the heat (ro$uce$ at8 an$ -ery near8 the ter)inal .oul$ 7e e'cessi-e0 3ut if the frequency .oul$ go on increasing constantly8 the heat (ro$uce$ .oul$ 7egin to $i)inish for o7-ious reasons0 ,n the (ositi-e 7rush of a static )achine the e'change of the )olecules is -ery ra(i$8 the strea) is constantly of one $irection8 an$ there are fe.er collisionsJ hence the heating effect )ust 7e -ery s)all0 Anything that i)(airs the facility of e'change ten$s to increase the local heat (ro$uce$0 Thus8 if a 7ul7 7e hel$ o-er the ter)inal of the coil so as to enclose the 7rush8 the air containe$ in the 7ul7 is -ery quic2ly 7rought to a high te)(erature0 ,f a8 glass tu7e 7e hel$ o-er the 7rush so as to allo. the $raught to carry the 7rush u(.ar$s8 scorching hot air esca(es at the to( of the tu7e0 Anything hel$ .ithin the 7rush is8 of course8 ra(i$ly heate$8 an$ the (ossi7ility of using such heating effects for so)e (ur(ose or other suggests itself0 &hen conte)(lating this singular (heno)enon of the hot 7rush8 .e cannot hel( 7eing con-ince$ that a si)ilar (rocess )ust ta2e (lace in the or$inary fla)e8 an$ it see)s strange that after all these centuries (ast of fa)iliarity .ith the fla)e8 no.8 in this era of electric lighting an$ heatingJ .e are finally le$ to recogniBe8 that since ti)e i))e)orial .e ha-e8 after all8 al.ays ha$ "electric light an$I heat" at our $is(osal0 ,t is also of no little interest to conte)(late8 that .e ha-e a (ossi7le .ay of (ro$ucingK7y other than che)ical )eansKa -erita7le fla)eJ .hich .oul$ gi-e light an$ heat .ithout any )aterial 7eing consu)e$8 .ithout any che)ical (rocess
ta2ing (lace8 an$ to acco)(lish this8 .e only nee$ to (erfect )etho$s of (ro$ucing enor)ous frequencies an$ (otentials0 , ha-e no $ou7t that if the (otential coul$ 7e )a$e to alternate .ith sufficient ra(i$ity an$ (o.er8 the 7rush for)e$ at the en$ of a .ire .oul$ lose its electrical characteristics an$ .oul$ 7eco)e fla)eli2e0 The fla)e )ust 7e $ue to electrostatic )olecular action0 This (heno)enon no. e'(lains in a )anner .hich can har$ly 7e $ou7te$ the frequent acci$ents occurring in stor)s0 ,t is .ell 2no.n that o7Hects are often set on fire .ithout the lightning stri2ing the)0 &e shall (resently see ho. this can ha((en0 ;n a nail in a roof8 for instance8 or on a (roHection of any 2in$8 )ore or less con$ucting8 or ren$ere$ so 7y $a)(ness8 a (o.erful 7rush )ay a((ear0 ,f the lightning stri2es so)e.here in 0the neigh7orhoo$ the enor)ous (otential )ay 7e )a$e to alternate or fluctuate (erha(s )any )illion ti)es a secon$0 The air )olecules are -iolently attracte$ an$ re(elle$8 an$ 7y their i)(act (ro$uce such a (o.erful heating effect that a fire is starte$0 ,t is concei-a7le that a shi( at sea )ay8 in this )anner8 catch fire at )any (oints at once0 &hen .e consi$er8 that e-en .ith the co)(arati-ely lo. frequencies o7taine$ fro) a $yna)o )achine8 an$ .ith (otentials of no )ore than one or t.o hun$re$ thousan$ -olts8 the heating effects are consi$era7le8 .e )ay i)agine ho. )uch )ore (o.erful they )ust 7e .ith frequencies an$ (otentials )any ti)es greaterI an$ the a7o-e e'(lanation see)s8 to say the least8 -ery (ro7a7le0 >i)ilar e'(lanations )ay ha-e 7een suggeste$8 7ut , a) not a.are that8 u( to the (resentJ the heating effects of a 7rush (ro$uce$ 7y a ra(i$ly alternating (otential ha-e 7een e'(eri)entally $e)onstrate$8 at least not to such a re)ar2a7le $egree0 3y (re-enting co)(letely the e'change of the air )olecules8 the local heating effect )ay 7e so e'alte$ as to 7ring a 7o$y to incan$escence0 Thus8 for instance8 if a s)all 7utton8 or (refera7ly a -ery thin .ire or fila)ent 7e enclose$ in an une'hauste$ glo7e an$ connecte$ .ith the ter)inal of the coil8 it )ay 7e ren$ere$ incan$escent0 The (heno)enon is )a$e )uch )ore interesting 7y the ra(i$ s(inning roun$ in a circle of the to( of the fila)ent8 thus (resenting the a((earance of a lu)inous funnel8 Fig0 148 .hich .i$ens .hen the (otential is increase$0 &hen the (otential is s)all the en$ of the fila)ent )ay (erfor) irregular )otions8 su$$enly changing fro) one to the other8 or it )ay $escri7e an elli(seJ 7ut .hen the (otential is -ery high it al.ays s(ins in a circleJ an$ so $oes generally a thin straight .ire attache$ freely to the ter)inal of the coil0 These )otions are8 of course8 $ue to the i)(act of the )olecules8 an$ the irregularity0 in the $istri7ution of the (otential8 o.ing to the roughness an$ $issy))etry of the .ire or fila)ent0 &ith a (erfectly sy))etrical an$ (olishe$ .ire such )otions .oul$ (ro7a7ly not occur0 That the )otion is not li2ely to 7e $ue to other causes is e-i$ent fro) the fact that it is not of a $efinite $irection8 an$ that in a -ery highly e'hauste$ glo7e it ceases altogether0 The (ossi7ility of 7ringing a 7o$y to incan$escence in an e'hauste$ glo7e8 or e-en .hen not at all enclose$8 .oul$ see) to affor$ a (ossi7le .ay of o7taining light effects8 .hich8 in (erfecting )etho$s of (ro$ucing ra(i$ly alternating (otentials8 )ight 7e ren$ere$ a-aila7le for useful (ur(oses8 ,n e)(loying a co))ercial coilJ the (ro$uction of -ery (o.erful 7rush effects is atten$e$ .ith consi$era7le $ifficulties8 for .hen these high frequencies an$ enor)ous (otentials are use$8 the 7est insulation is a(t to gi-e .ay0 Csually the coil is insulate$ .ell enough to stan$ the strain fro) con-olution to con-olution8 since t.o $ou7le sil2 co-ere$ (araffine$ .ires .ill .ithstan$ a (ressure of se-eral thousan$ -oltsJ the $ifficulty lies (rinci(ally in (re-enting the 7rea2ing through fro) the secon$ary to the (ri)ary8 .hich is greatly facilitate$ 7y the strea)s issuing fro) the latter0 ,n the coil8 of course8 the strain is greatest fro) section to sectionX 7ut usually in a larger coil there are so )any sections that the $anger of a su$$en gi-ing .ay is not -ery great0 1o $ifficulty .ill generally 7e encountere$ in that $irection8 an$ 7esi$es8 the lia7ility of inHuring the coil internally is -ery )uch re$uce$ 7y the fact that the effect )ost li2ely to 7e (ro$uce$ is si)(ly a gra$ual heating8 .hich8 .hen far enough a$-ance$8 coul$ not fail to 7e o7ser-e$0 The (rinci(al necessity is then to (re-ent the strea)s 7et.een he (ri)ary an$ the tu7e8 not only on account of the heating an$ (ossi7le inHury8 7ut also 7ecause the strea)s )ay $i)inish -ery consi$era7ly the (otential $ifference a-aila7le at the ter)inals0 A fe. hints as to ho. this )ay 7e acco)(lishe$ .ill (ro7a7ly 7e foun$ useful in )ost of these e'(eri)ents .ith the or$inary in$uction coil0 ;ne of the .ays is to .in$ a short (ri)ary8 Fig0 1%a8 so that the $ifference of (otential is not at that length great enough to cause the 7rea2ing forth of the strea)s through the insulating tu7e0 The length of the (ri)ary shoul$ 7e $eter)ine$ 7y e'(eri)ent0 3oth the en$s of the coil shoul$ 7e 7rought out on one en$ through a (lug of insulating )aterial fitting in the tu7e as illustrate$0 ,n such a $is(osition one ter)inal of the secon$ary is attache$ to a 7o$y8 the surface of .hich is $eter)ine$ .ith the greatest care so as to (ro$uce the greatest rise in the (otential0 At the other ter)inal a (o.erful 7rush a((ears8 .hich )ay 7e e'(eri)ente$ u(on0 The a7o-e (lan necessitates the e)(loy)ent of a (ri)ary of co)(arati-ely s)all siBe8 an$ it is a(t to heat .hen (o.erful effects are $esira7le for a certain length of ti)e0 ,n such a case it is 7etter to e)(loy a larger coil8 Fig0 1%78 an$ intro$uce it fro) one si$e of the tu7e8 until the strea)s 7egin to a((ear0 ,n this case the nearest ter)inal of the secon$ary )ay 7e connecte$ to the (ri)ary or to the groun$8 .hich is (ractically the sa)e thing8 if the (ri)ary is connecte$ $irectly to the )achine0 ,n the case of groun$ connections it is .ell to $eter)ine
e'(eri)entally the frequency .hich is 7est suite$ un$er the con$itions of the test0 Another .ay of o7-iating the strea)s8 )ore or less8 is to )a2e the (ri)ary in sections an$ su((ly it fro) se(arate8 .ell insulate$ sources0 ,n )any of these e'(eri)ents8 .hen (o.erful effects are .ante$ for a short ti)e8 it is a$-antageous to use iron cores .ith the (ri)aries0 ,n such case a -ery large (ri)ary coil )ay 7e .oun$ an$ (lace$ si$e 7y si$e .ith the secon$ary8 an$8 the nearest ter)inal of the latter 7eing connecte$ to the (ri)ary8 a la)inate$ iron core is intro$uce$ through the (ri)ary into the secon$ary as far as the strea)s .ill (er)it0 Cn$er these con$itions an e'cessi-ely (o.erful 7rush8 se-eral inches long8 .hich )ay 7e a((ro(riately calle$ ">t0 "l)o's hot fire"8 )ay 7e cause$ to a((ear at the other ter)inal of the secon$ary8 (ro$ucing stri2ing effects0 ,t is a )ost (o.erful oBoniBer8 so (o.erful in$ee$8 that only a fe. )inutes are sufficient to fill the .hole roo) .ith the s)ell of oBone8 an$ it un$ou7te$ly (ossesses the quality of e'citing che)ical affinities0 For the (ro$uction of oBone8 alternating currents of -ery high frequency are e)inently suite$8 not only on account of the a$-antages they offer in the .ay of con-ersion 7ut also 7ecause of the fact8 that the oBoniBing action of a $ischarge is $e(en$ent on the frequency as .ell as on the (otential8 this 7eing un$ou7te$ly confir)e$ 7y o7ser-ation0 ,n these e'(eri)ents if an iron core is use$ it shoul$ 7e carefully .atche$8 as it is a(t to get e'cessi-ely hot in an incre$i7ly short ti)e0 To gi-e an i$ea of the ra(i$ity of the heating8 , .ill state8 that 7y (assing a (o.erful current through a coil .ith )any turns8 the inserting .ithin the sa)e of a thin iron .ire for no )ore than one secon$s ti)e is sufficient to heat the .ire to so)ething li2e 155 oC0 3ut this ra(i$ heating nee$ not $iscourage us in the use of iron cores in connection .ith ra(i$ly alternating currents0 , ha-e for a long ti)e 7een con-ince$ that in tile in$ustrial $istri7ution 7y )eans of transfor)ers8 so)e such (lan as the follo.ing )ight 7e (ractica7le0 &e )ay use a co)(arati-ely s)all iron core8 su7$i-i$e$8 or (erha(s not e-en su7$i-i$e$0 &e )ay surroun$ this core .ith a consi$era7le thic2ness of )aterial .hich is fire9 (roof an$ con$ucts the heat (oorly8 an$ on to( of that .e )ay (lace the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary .in$ings0 3y using either higher frequencies or greater )agnetiBing forces8 .e )ay 7y hysteresis an$ e$$y currents heat the iron core so far as to 7ring it nearly to its )a'i)u) (er)ea7ility8 .hich8 as Ho(2inson has sho.n8 )ay 7e as )uch as si'teen ti)es greater than that at or$inary te)(eratures0 ,f the iron core .ere (erfectly enclose$8 it .oul$ not 7e $eteriorate$ 7y the heat8 an$8 if the enclosure of fire9(roof )aterial .oul$ 7e sufficiently thic28 only a li)ite$ a)ount of energy coul$ 7e ra$iate$ in s(ite of the high te)(erature0 Transfor)ers ha-e 7een constructe$ 7y )e on that (lan8 7ut for lac2 of ti)e8 no thorough tests ha-e as yet 7een )a$e0 Another .ay of a$a(ting the iron core to ra(i$ alternations8 or8 generally s(ea2ing8 re$ucing the frictional losses8 is to (ro$uce 7y continuous )agnetiBation a flo. of so)ething li2e se-en thousan$ or eight thousan$ lines (er square centi)etre through the core8 an$ then .or2 .ith .ea2 )agnetiBing forces an$ (refera7ly high frequencies aroun$ the (oint of greatest (er)ea7ility0 A higher efficiency of con-ersion an$ greater out(ut are o7taina7le in this )anner0 , ha-e also e)(loye$ this (rinci(le in connection .ith )achines in .hich there is no re-ersal of (olarity0 ,n these ty(es of )achines8 as long as there are only fe. (ole (roHections8 there is no great gainJ as the )a'i)a an$ )ini)a of )agnetiBation are far fro) the (oint of )a'i)u) (er)ea7ilityJ 7ut .hen the nu)7er of the (ole (roHections is -ery great8 the require$ rate of change )ay 7e o7taine$8 .ithout the )agnetiBation -arying so far as to $e(art greatly fro) the (oint of )a'i)u) (er)ea7ility8 an$ the gain is consi$era7le0
The a7o-e $escri7e$ arrange)ents refer only to the use of co))ercial coils as or$inarily constructe$0 ,f it is $esire$ to construct a coil for the e'(ress (ur(ose of (erfor)ing .ith it such e'(eri)ents as , ha-e $escri7e$8 or8 generally8 ren$ering it ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing the greatest (ossi7le $ifference of (otential8 then a construction as in$icate$ in Fig0 1* / 113 .ill 7e foun$ of a$-antage0 The coil in this case is for)e$ of t.o in$e(en$ent (arts
.hich are .oun$ o((ositely8 the connection 7et.een 7oth 7eing )a$e near the (ri)ary0 The (otential in the )i$$le 7eing Bero8 there is not )uch ten$ency to Hu)( to the (ri)ary an$ not )uch insulation is require$0 ,n so)e cases the )i$$le (oint )ay8 ho.e-er8 7e connecte$ to the (ri)ary or to the groun$0 ,n such a coil the (laces of greatest $ifference of (otential are far a(art an$ the coil is ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing an enor)ous strain0 The t.o (arts )ay 7e )o-a7le so as to allo. a slight a$Hust)ent of the ca(acity effect0 As to the )anner of insulating the coil8 it .ill 7e foun$ con-enient to (rocee$ in the follo.ing .ayI First8 the .ire shoul$ 7e 7oile$ in (araffine until all the air is outJ then the coil is .oun$ 7y running the .ire through )elte$ (araffine8 )erely for the (ur(ose of fi'ing the .ire0 The coil is then ta2en off fro) the s(ool8 i))erse$ in a cylin$rical -essel fille$ .ith (ure )elte$ .a' an$ 7oile$ for a long ti)e until the 7u77les cease to a((ear0 The .hole is then left to cool $o.n thoroughly8 an$ then the )ass is ta2en out of the -essel an$ turne$ u( in a lathe0 A coil )a$e in this )anner an$ .ith care is ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing enor)ous (otential $ifferences0 ,t )ay 7e foun$ con-enient to i))erse the coil in (araffine oil or so)e other hin$ of oilJ it is a )ost effecti-e .ay of insulating8 (rinci(ally on account of the (erfect e'clusion of air8 7ut it )ay 7e foun$ that8 after all8 a -essel fille$ .ith oil is not a -ery con-enient thing to han$le in a la7oratory0 ,f an or$inary coil can 7e $is)ounte$8 the (ri)ary )ay 7e ta2en out of the tu7e an$ the latter (lugge$ u( at one en$8 fille$ .ith oil8 an$ the (ri)ary reinserte$0 This affor$s an e'cellent insulation an$ (re-ents the for)ation of the strea)s0 ;f all the e'(eri)ents .hich )ay 7e (erfor)e$ .ith ra(i$ly alternating currents the )ost interesting are those .hich concern the (ro$uction of a (ractical illu)inant0 ,t cannot 7e $enie$ that the (resent )etho$s8 though they .ere 7rilliant a$-ances8 are -ery .asteful0 >o)e 7etter )etho$s )ust 7e in-ente$8 so)e )ore (erfect a((aratus $e-ise$0 /o$ern research has o(ene$ ne. (ossi7ilities for the (ro$uction of an efficient source of light8 an$ the attention of all has 7een turne$ in the $irection in$icate$ 7y a7le (ioneers0 /any ha-e 7een carrie$ a.ay 7y the enthusias) an$ (assion to $isco-er8 7ut in their Beal to reach results8 so)e ha-e 7een )isle$0 >tarting .ith the i$ea of (ro$ucing electro9)agnetic .a-es8 they turne$ their attention8 (erha(s8 too )uch to the stu$y of electro9)agnetic effects8 an$ neglecte$ the stu$y of electrostatic (heno)ena0 1aturally8 nearly e-ery in-estigator a-aile$ hi)self of an a((aratus si)ilar to that use$ in earlier e'(eri)ents0 3ut in those for)s of a((aratus8 .hile the electro9)agnetic in$ucti-e effects are enor)ous8 the electrostatic effects are e'cessi-ely s)all0 ,n the HertB e'(eri)ents8 for instance8 a high tension in$uction coil is short circuite$ 7y an arc8 the resistance of .hich is -ery s)all8 the s)aller8 the )ore ca(acity is attache$ to the ter)inalsJ an$ the $ifference of (otential at these is enor)ously $i)inishe$I ;n the other han$8 .hen the $ischarge is not (assing 7et.een the ter)inals8 the static effects )ay 7e consi$era7le8 7ut only qualitati-ely so8 not quantitati-ely8 since their rise an$ fall is -ery su$$en8 an$ since their frequency is s)all0 ,n neither case8 therefore8 are (o.erful electrostatic effects (ercei-a7le0 >i)ilar con$itions e'ist .hen8 as in so)e interesting e'(eri)ents of =r0 #o$ge8 #ey$en Hars are $ischarge$ $isru(ti-ely0 ,t has 7een thoughtKan$ , 7elie-e asserte$Kthat in such cases )ost of the energy is ra$iate$ into s(ace0 ,n the light of the e'(eri)ents .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ a7o-e8 it .ill no. not 7e thought so0 , feel safe in asserting that in such cases )ost of the energy is (artly ta2en u( an$ con-erte$ into heat0 in the arc of the $ischarge an$ in the con$ucting an$ insulating )aterial of the Har8 so)e energy 7eing8 of course8 gi-en off 7y electrification of the airJ 7ut the a)ount of the $irectly ra$iate$ energy is -ery s)all0 &hen a high tension in$uction coil8 o(erate$ 7y currents alternating only !58555 ti)es a secon$8 has its ter)inals close$ through e-en a -ery s)all Har8 (ractically all the energy (asses through the $ielectric of the Har8 .hich is heate$8 an$ the electrostatic effects )anifest the)sel-es out.ar$ly only to a -ery .ea2 $egree0 1o. the e'ternal circuit of a #ey$en Har8 that is8 the arc an$ the connections of the coatings8 )ay 7e loo2e$ u(on as a circuit generating alternating currents of e'cessi-ely high frequency an$ fairly high (otential8 .hich is close$ through the coatings an$ the $ielectric 7et.een the)8 an$ fro) the a7o-e it is e-i$ent that the e'ternal electrostatic effects )ust 7e -ery s)all8 e-en if a recoil circuit 7e use$0 These con$itions )a2e it a((ear that .ith the a((aratus usually at han$8 the o7ser-ation of (o.erful electrostatic effects .as i)(ossi7le8 an$ .hat e'(erience has 7een gaine$ in that $irection is only $ue to the great a7ility of the in-estigators0 3ut (o.erful electrostatic effects are a sine qua non of light (ro$uction on the lines in$icate$ 7y theory0 "lectro9 )agnetic effects are (ri)arily una-aila7le8 for the reason that to (ro$uce the require$ effects .e .oul$ ha-e to
(ass current i)(ulses through a con$uctorJ .hich8 long 7efore the require$ frequency of the i)(ulses coul$ 7e reache$8 .oul$ cease to trans)it the)0 ;n the other han$8 electro9)agnetic .a-es )any ti)es longer than those of light8 an$ (ro$uci7le 7y su$$en $ischarge of a con$enser8 coul$ not 7e utiliBe$8 it .oul$ see)8 e'ce(t .e a-ail oursel-es of their effect u(on con$uctors as in the (resent )etho$s8 .hich are .asteful0 &e coul$ not affect 7y )eans of such .a-es the static )olecular or ato)ic charges of a gas8 cause the) to -i7rate an$ to e)it light0 #ong trans-erse .a-es cannot8 a((arently8 (ro$uce such effects8 since e'cessi-ely s)all electro9 )agnetic $istur7ances )ay (ass rea$ily through )iles of air0 >uch $ar2 .a-es8 unless they are of the length of true light .a-es8 cannot8 it .oul$ see)8 e'cite lu)inous ra$iation in a Geissler tu7eJ an$ the lu)inous effects8 .hich are (ro$uci7le 7y in$uction in a tu7e $e-oi$ of electro$es8 , a) incline$ to consi$er as 7eing of an electrostatic nature0 To (ro$uce such lu)inous effects8 straight electrostatic thrusts are require$J these8 .hate-er 7e their frequency8 )ay $istur7 the )olecular charges an$ (ro$uce light0 >ince current i)(ulses of the require$ frequency cannot (ass through a con$uctor of )easura7le $i)ensions8 .e )ust .or2 .ith a gas8 an$ then the (ro$uction of (o.erful electrostatic effects 7eco)es an i)(erati-e necessity0 ,t has occurre$ to )e8 ho.e-er8 that electrostatic effects are in )any .ays a-aila7le for the (ro$uction of light0 For instance8 .e )ay (lace a 7o$y of so)e refractory )aterial in a close$J an$ (refera7ly )ore or less e'hauste$8 glo7e8 connect it to a source of high8 ra(i$ly alternating (otential8 causing the )olecules of the gas to stri2e it )any ti)es a secon$ at enor)ous s(ee$s8 an$ in this )anner8 .ith trillions of in-isi7le ha))ers8 (oun$ it until it8 gets incan$escentI or .e )ay (lace a 7o$y in a -ery highly e'hauste$ glo7e8 in a non9stri2ing -acuu)8 an$8 7y e)(loying -ery high frequencies an$ (otentials8 transfer sufficient energy fro) it to other 7o$ies in the -icinity8 or in general to the surroun$ings8 to )aintain it at any $egree of incan$escenceJ or .e )ay8 7y )eans of such ra(i$ly alternating high (otentials8 $istur7 the ether carrie$ 7y the )olecules of a gas or their static charges8 causing the) to -i7rate an$ to e)it light0 3ut8 electrostatic effects 7eing $e(en$ent u(on the (otential an$ frequency8 to (ro$uce the )ost (o.erful action it is $esira7le to increase 7oth as far as (ractica7le0 ,t )ay 7e (ossi7le to o7tain quite fair results 7y 2ee(ing either of these factors s)all8 (ro-i$e$ the other is sufficiently greatJ 7ut .e are li)ite$ in 7oth $irections0 /y e'(erience $e)onstrates that .e cannot go 7elo. a certain frequency8 for8 first8 the (otential then 7eco)es so great that it is $angerousJ an$8 secon$ly8 the light (ro$uction is less efficient0 , ha-e foun$ that8 7y using the or$inary lo. frequencies8 the (hysiological effect of the current require$ to )aintain at a certain $egree of 7rightness a tu7e four feet long8 (ro-i$e$ at the en$s .ith outsi$e an$ insi$e con$enser coatings8 is so (o.erful that8 , thin28 it )ight (ro$uce serious inHury to those not accusto)e$ to such shoc2sI .hereas8 .ith t.enty thousan$ alternations (er secon$8 the tu7e )ay 7e )aintaine$ at the sa)e $egree of 7rightness .ithout any effect 7eing felt0 This is $ue (rinci(ally to the fact that a )uch s)aller (otential is require$ to (ro$uce the sa)e light effect8 an$ also to the higher efficiency in the light (ro$uction0 ,t is e-i$ent that the efficiency in such cases is the greater8 the higher the frequency8 for the quic2er the (rocess of charging an$ $ischarging the )olecules8 the less energy .ill 7e lost in the for) of $ar2 ra$iation0 3ut8 unfortunately8 .e cannot go 7eyon$ a certain frequency on account of the $ifficulty of (ro$ucing an$ con-eying the effects0 , ha-e state$ a7o-e that a 7o$y inclose$ in an une'hauste$ 7ul7 )ay 7e intensely heate$ 7y si)(ly connecting it .ith a source of ra(i$ly alternating (otential0 The heating in such a case is8 in all (ro7a7ility8 $ue )ostly to the 7o)7ar$)ent of the )olecules of the gas containe$ in the 7ul70 &hen the 7ul7 is e'hauste$8 the heating of the 7o$y is )uch )ore ra(i$8 an$ there is no $ifficulty .hate-er in 7ringing a .ire or fila)ent to any $egree of incan$escence 7y si)(ly connecting it to one ter)inal of a coil of the (ro(er $i)ensions0 Thus8 if the .ell92no.n a((aratus of <rof0 Croo2es8 consisting of a 7ent (latinu) .ire .ith -anes )ounte$ o-er it (Fig0 18 / 116 8 7e connecte$ to one ter)inal of the coilKeither one or 7oth en$s of the (latinu) .ire 7eing connecte$Kthe .ire is ren$ere$ al)ost instantly incan$escent8 an$ the )ica -anes are rotate$ as though a current fro) a 7attery .ere use$I A thin car7on fila)ent8 or8 (refera7ly8 a 7utton of so)e refractory )aterial (Fig0 19 / 114 8 e-en if it 7e a co)(arati-ely (oor con$uctor8 inclose$ in an e'hauste$ glo7e8 )ay 7e ren$ere$ highly incan$escentJ an$ in this )anner a si)(le la)( ca(a7le of gi-ing any $esire$ can$le (o.er is (ro-i$e$0
The success of la)(s of this 2in$ .oul$ $e(en$ largely on the selection of the light9gi-ing 7o$ies containe$ .ithin the 7ul70 >ince8 un$er the con$itions $escri7e$8 refractory 7o$iesK.hich are -ery (oor con$uctors an$ ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing for a long ti)e e'cessi-ely high $egrees of te)(eratureK)ay 7e use$8 such illu)inating $e-ices )ay 7e ren$ere$ successful0 ,t )ight 7e thought at first that if the 7ul78 containing the fila)ent or 7utton of refractory )aterial8 7e (erfectly .ell e'hauste$Kthat is8 as far as it can 7e $one 7y the use of the 7est a((aratusKthe heating .oul$ 7e )uch less intense8 an$ that in a (erfect -acuu) it coul$ not occur at all0 This is not confir)e$ 7y )y e'(erienceJ quite the contrary8 the 7etter the -acuu) the )ore easily the 7o$ies are 7rought to incan$escence0 This result is interesting for )any reasons0 At the outset of this .or2 the i$ea (resente$ itself to )e8 .hether t.o 7o$ies of refractory )aterial enclose$ in a 7ul7 e'hauste$ to such a $egree that the $ischarge of a large in$uction coil8 o(erate$ in the usual )anner8 cannot (ass through8 coul$ 7e ren$ere$ incan$escent 7y )ere con$enser action0 ;7-iously8 to reach this result enor)ous (otential $ifferences an$ -ery high frequencies are require$8 as is e-i$ent fro) a si)(le calculation0 3ut such a la)( .oul$ (ossess a -ast a$-antage o-er an or$inary incan$escent la)( in regar$ to efficiency0 ,t is .ell92no.n that the efficiency of a la)( is to so)e e'tent a function of the $egree of incan$escence8 an$ that8 coul$ .e 7ut .or2 a fila)ent at )any ti)es higher $egrees of incan$escence8 the efficiency .oul$ 7e )uch greater0 ,n an or$inary la)( this is i)(ractica7le on account of the $estruction of the fila)ent8 an$ it has 7een $eter)ine$ 7y e'(erience ho. far it is a$-isa7le to (ush the incan$escence0 ,t is i)(ossi7le to tell ho. )uch higher efficiency coul$ 7e o7taine$ if the fila)ent coul$ .ithstan$ in$efinitely8 as the in-estigation to this en$ o7-iously cannot 7e carrie$ 7eyon$ a certain stageJ 7ut there are reasons for 7elie-ing that it .oul$ 7e -ery consi$era7ly higher0 An i)(ro-e)ent )ight 7e )a$e in the or$inary la)( 7y e)(loying a short an$ thic2 car7onJ 7ut then the lea$ing9in .ires .oul$ ha-e to 7e thic28 an$8 7esi$es8 there ace )any other consi$erations .hich ren$er such a )o$ification entirely i)(ractica7le0 3ut in a la)( as a7o-e $escri7e$8 the lea$ing9in .ires )ay 7e -ery s)all8 the incan$escent refractory )aterial )ay 7e in the sha(e of 7loc2s offering a -ery s)all ra$iating surface8 so that less energy .oul$ 7e require$ to 2ee( the) at the $esire$ incan$escenceJ an$ in a$$ition to this8 the refractory )aterial nee$ not 7e car7on8 7ut )ay 7e )anufacture$ fro) )i'tures of o'i$es8 for instance8 .ith car7on or other )aterial8 or )ay 7e selecte$ fro) 7o$ies .hich are (ractically non9con$uctors8 an$ ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing enor)ous $egrees of te)(erature0 All this .oul$ (oint to the (ossi7ility of o7taining a )uch higher efficiency .ith such a la)( than is o7taina7le in or$inary la)(s0 ,n )y e'(erience it has 7een $e)onstrate$ that the 7loc2s are 7rought to high $egrees of incan$escence .ith )uch lo.er (otentials than those $eter)ine$ 7y calculation8 an$ the 7loc2s )ay 7e set at greater $istances fro) each other0 &e )ay freely assu)e8 an$ it is (ro7a7le8 that the )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent is an i)(ortant ele)ent in the heating8 e-en if the glo7e 7e e'hauste$ .ith the ut)ost care8 as , ha-e $oneJ for although the nu)7er of the )olecules is8 co)(arati-ely s(ea2ing8 insignificant8 yet on account of the )ean free (ath 7eing -ery great8 there are fe.er collisions8 an$ the )olecules )ay reach )uch higher s(ee$s8 so that the heating effect $ue to this cause )ay 7e consi$era7le8 as in the Croo2es e'(eri)ents .ith ra$iant )atter0 3ut it is li2e.ise (ossi7le that .e ha-e to $eal here .ith an increase$ facility of losing the charge in -ery high -acuu)8 .hen the (otential is ra(i$ly alternating8 in .hich case )ost of the heating .oul$ 7e $irectly $ue to the surging of the charges in the heate$ 7o$ies0 ;r else the o7ser-e$ fact )ay 7e largely attri7uta7le to the effect of the (oints .hich , ha-e )entione$ a7o-e8 in consequence of .hich the 7loc2s or fila)ents containe$ in the -acuu) are equi-alent to con$ensers of )any ti)es greater surface than that calculate$ fro) their geo)etrical $i)ensions0 >cientific )en still $iffer in o(inion as to .hether a charge shoul$8 or shoul$ not8 7e lost in a (erfect -acuu)8 or0 in other .or$s8 .hether ether is8 or is not8 a con$uctor0 ,f the for)er .ere the case8 then a thin fila)ent enclose$ in a (erfectly e'hauste$ glo7e8 an$ connecte$ to a source of enor)ous8 stea$y (otential8
.oul$ 7e 7rought to incan$escence0 Garious for)s of la)(s on the a7o-e $escri7e$ (rinci(le8 .ith the refractory 7o$ies in the for) of fila)ents8 Fig0 !58 or 7loc2s8 Fig0 !18 ha-e 7een constructe$ an$ o(erate$ 7y )e8 an$ in-estigations are 7eing carrie$ on in this line0 There is no $ifficulty in reaching such high $egrees of incan$escence that or$inary car7on is to all a((earance )elte$ an$ -olatiliBe$0 ,f the -acuu) coul$ 7e )a$e a7solutely (erfect8 such a la)(8 although ino(erati-e .ith a((aratus or$inarily use$8 .oul$8 if o(erate$ .ith currents of the require$ character8 affor$ an illu)inant .hich .oul$ ne-er 7e $estroye$8 an$ .hich .oul$ 7e far )ore efficient than an or$inary incan$escent la)(0 This (erfection can8 of course8 ne-er 7e reache$J an$ a -ery slo. $estruction an$ gra$ual $i)inution in siBe al.ays occurs8 as in incan$escent fila)entsJ 7ut there is no (ossi7ility of a su$$en an$ (re)ature $isa7ling .hich occurs in the latter 7y the 7rea2ing of the fila)ent8 es(ecially .hen the incan$escent 7o$ies are in the sha(e of 7loc2s0 &ith these ra(i$ly alternating (otentials there is8 ho.e-er8 no necessity of enclosing t.o 7loc2s in a glo7e8 7ut a single 7loc28 as in Fig0 198 or fila)ent8 Fig0 !!8 )ay 7e use$0 The (otential in this case )ust of course 7e higher8 7ut is easily o7taina7le8 an$ 7esi$es it is not necessarily $angerous0 The facility .ith .hich the 7utton or fila)ent in such a la)( is 7rought to incan$escence8 other things 7eing equal8 $e(en$s on the siBe of the glo7e0 ,f a (erfect 8-acuu) coul$ 7e o7taine$8 the siBe of the glo7e .oul$ not 7e of i)(ortance8 for then the heating .oul$ 7e .holly $ue to the surging of the charges8 an$ all the energy .oul$ 7e gi-en off to the surroun$ings 7y ra$iation0 3ut this can ne-er occur in (ractice0 There is al.ays so)e gas left in the glo7e8 an$ although the e'haustion )ay 7e carrie$ to the highest $egree8 still the s(ace insi$e of the 7ul7 )ust 7e consi$ere$ as con$ucting .hen such high (otentials are use$8 an$ , assu)e that8 in esti)ating the energy that )ay 7e gi-en off fro) the fila)ent to the surroun$ings8 .e )ay consi$er the insi$e surface of the 7ul7 as one coating of a con$enser8 the air an$ other o7Hects surroun$ing the 7ul7 for)ing the other coating0 &hen the alternations are -ery lo. there is no $ou7t that a consi$era7le (ortion of the energy is gi-en off 7y the electrification of the surroun$ing air0 ,n or$er to stu$y this su7Hect 7etter8 , carrie$ on so)e e'(eri)ents .ith e'cessi-ely high (otentials an$ lo. frequencies0 , then o7ser-e$ that .hen the han$ is a((roache$ to the 7ul78Kthe fila)ent 7eing connecte$ .ith one ter)inal of the coil8Ka (o.erful -i7ration is felt8 7eing $ue to the attraction an$ re(ulsion of the )olecules of the air .hich are electrifie$ 7y in$uction through the glass0 ,n so)e cases .hen the action is -ery intense , ha-e 7een a7le to hear a soun$8 .hich )ust 7e $ue to the sa)e cause0 &hen the alternations are lo.8 one is a(t to get an e'cessi-ely (o.erful shoc2 fro) the 7ul70 ,n general8 .hen one attaches 7ul7s or o7Hects of so)e siBe to the ter)inals of the coil8 one shoul$ loo2 out for the rise of (otential8 for it )ay ha((en that 7y )erely connecting a 7ul7 or (late to the ter)inal8 the (otential )ay rise to )any ti)es its original -alue0 &hen la)(s are attache$ to the ter)inals8 as illustrate$ in Fig0 !38 then the ca(acity o$ the 7ul7s shoul$ 7e such as to gi-e the )a'i)u) rise of (otential un$er the e'isting con$itions0 ,n this )anner one )ay o7tain the require$ (otential .ith fe.er turns of .ire0 The life of such la)(s as $escri7e$ a7o-e $e(en$s8 of course8 largely on the $egree of e'haustion8 7ut to so)e e'tent also on the sha(e of the 7loc2 of refractory )aterial0 Theoretically it .oul$ see) that a s)all s(here of car7on enclose$ in a s(here of glass .oul$ not suffer $eterioration fro) )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent8 for8 the )atter in the glo7e 7eing ra$iant8 the )olecules .oul$ )o-e in straight lines8 an$ .oul$ sel$o) stri2e the s(here o7liquely0 An interesting thought in connection .ith such a la)( is8 that in it "electricity" an$ electrical energy a((arently )ust )o-e in the sa)e lines0 The use of alternating currents of -ery high frequency )a2es it (ossi7le to transfer8 7y electrostatic or electro)agnetic in$uction through the glass of a la)(8 sufficient energy to 2ee( a fila)ent at incan$escence an$ so $o a.ay .ith the lea$ing9in .ires0 >uch la)(s ha-e 7een (ro(ose$8 7ut for .ant of (ro(er a((aratus they ha-e not 7een successfully o(erate$0 /any for)s of la)(s on this (rinci(le .ith continuous an$ 7ro2en fila)ents ha-e 7een constructe$ 7y )e an$ e'(eri)ente$ u(on0 &hen using a secon$ary enclose$ .ithin the la)(8 a con$enser is a$-antageously co)7ine$ .ith the secon$ary0 &hen the transference is effecte$ 7y electrostatic in$uction8 the (otentials use$ are8 of course8 -ery high .ith frequencies o7taina7le fro) a )achine0 For instance8 .ith a con$enser surface of forty square centi)etres8 .hich is not i)(ractica7ly large8 an$ .ith glass of goo$ quality , ))0 thic28 using currents alternating t.enty thousan$ ti)es a secon$8 the (otential require$ is a((ro'i)ately 98555 -olts0 This )ay see) large8 7ut since each la)( )ay 7e inclu$e$ in the secon$ary of a transfor)er of -ery s)all $i)ensions8 it .oul$ not 7e incon-enient8 an$8 )oreo-er8 it .oul$ not (ro$uce fatal inHury0 The transfor)ers .oul$ all 7e (refera7ly in series0 The regulation .oul$ offer no $ifficulties8 as .ith currents of such frequencies it is -ery easy to )aintain a constant current0
,n the acco)(anying engra-ings so)e of the ty(es of la)(s of this 2in$ are sho.n0 Fig0 !6 is such a la)( .ith a 7ro2en fila)ent8 an$ Figs0 !4a an$ !47 one .ith a single outsi$e an$ insi$e coating an$ a single fila)ent0 , ha-e also )a$e la)(s .ith t.o outsi$e an$ insi$e coatings an$ a continuous loo( connecting the latter0 >uch la)(s ha-e 7een o(erate$ 7y )e .ith current i)(ulses of the enor)ous frequencies o7taina7le 7y the $isru(ti-e $ischarge of con$ensers0 The $isru(ti-e $ischarge of a con$enser is es(ecially suite$ for o(erating such la)(sK.ith no out.ar$ electrical connectionsK7y )eans of electro)agnetic in$uction8 the electro)agnetic in$ucti-e effects 7eing e'cessi-ely highJ an$ , ha-e 7een a7le to (ro$uce the $esire$ incan$escence .ith only a fe. short turns of .ire0 ,ncan$escence )ay also 7e (ro$uce$ in this )anner in a si)(le close$ fila)ent0 #ea-ing no. out of consi$eration the (ractica7ility of such la)(s8 , .oul$ only say that they (ossess a 7eautiful an$ $esira7le feature8 na)ely8 that they can 7e ren$ere$8 at .ill8 )ore or less 7rilliant si)(ly 7y altering the relati-e (osition of the outsi$e an$ insi$e con$enser coatings8 or in$ucing an$ in$uce$ circuits0 &hen a la)( is lighte$ 7y connecting it to one ter)inal only of the source8 this )ay 7e facilitate$ 7y (ro-i$ing the glo7e .ith an outsi$e con$enser coating8 .hich ser-es at the sa)e ti)e as a reflector8 an$ connecting this to an insulate$ 7o$y of so)e siBe0 #a)(s of this 2in$ are illustrate$ in Fig0 !% an$ Fig0 !*0 Fig0 !8 sho.s the (lan of connection0 The 7rilliancy of the la)( )ay8 in this case8 7e regulate$ .ithin .i$e li)its 7y -arying the siBe of the insulate$ )etal (late to .hich the coating is connecte$0 ,t is li2e.ise (ractica7le to light .ith one lea$ing .ire la)(s such as illustrate$ in Fig0 !5 an$ Fig0 !18 7y connecting one ter)inal of the la)( to one ter)inal of the source8 an$ the other to an insulate$ 7o$y of the require$ siBe0 ,n all cases the insulate$ 7o$y ser-es to gi-e off the energy into the surroun$ing s(ace8 an$ is equi-alent to a return .ire0 ;7-iously8 in the t.o last9na)e$ cases8 instea$ of connecting the .ires to an insulate$ 7o$y8 connections )ay 7e )a$e to the groun$0 The e'(eri)ents .hich .ill (ro-e )ost suggesti-e an$ of )ost interest to the in-estigator are (ro7a7ly those (erfor)e$ .ith e'hauste$ tu7es0 As )ight 7e antici(ate$8 a source of such ra(i$ly alternating (otentials is ca(a7le of e'citing the tu7es at a consi$era7le $istance8 an$ the light effects (ro$uce$ are re)ar2a7le0 =uring )y in-estigations in this line , en$ea-oure$ to e'cite tu7es8 $e-oi$ of any electro$es8 7y electro)agnetic in$uction8 sna2ing the tu7e the secon$ary of the in$uction $e-ice8 an$ (assing through the (ri)ary the $ischarges of a #ey$en Har0 These tu7es .ere )a$e of )any sha(es8 an$ , .as a7le to o7tain lu)inous effects .hich , then thought .ere $ue .holly to electro)agnetic in$uction0 3ut on carefully in-estigating the (heno)ena , foun$ that the effects (ro$uce$ .ere )ore of an electrostatic nature0 ,t )ay 7e attri7ute$ to this circu)stance that this )o$e of e'citing tu7es is -ery .asteful8 na)ely8 the (ri)ary circuit 7eing close$8 the (otential8 an$ consequently the electrostatic in$ucti-e effect8 is )uch $i)inishe$0 &hen an in$uction coil8 o(erate$ as a7o-e $escri7e$8 is use$8 there is no $ou7t that the tu7es are e'cite$ 7y electrostatic in$uction8 an$ that electro)agnetic in$uction has little8 if anything8 to $o .ith the (heno)ena0 This is e-i$ent fro) )any e'(eri)ents0 For instance8 if a tu7e 7e ta2en in one han$8 the o7ser-er 7eing near the coil8 it is 7rilliantly lighte$ an$ re)ains so no )atter in .hat (osition it is hel$ relati-ely to the o7ser-er's 7o$y0 &ere the action electro)agnetic8 the tu7e coul$ not 7e lighte$ .hen the o7ser-er's 7o$y is inter(ose$ 7et.een it an$ the coil8 or at least its lu)inosity shoul$ 7e consi$era7ly $i)inishe$0 &hen the tu7e is hel$ e'actly o-er the centre of the coilKthe latter 7eing .oun$ in sections an$ the (ri)ary (lace$ sy))etrically to the secon$aryKit )ay re)ain co)(letely $ar28 .hereas it is ren$ere$ intensely lu)inous 7y )o-ing it slightly to the right or left fro) the centre of the coil0 ,t $oes not light 7ecause in the )i$$le 7oth hal-es of the coil neutraliBe each other8 an$ the electric (otential is Bero0 ,f the action .ere electro)agnetic8 the tu7e shoul$ light 7est in the (lane through the centre of the toil8 since the electro)agnetic effect there shoul$ 7e a )a'i)u)0 &hen an arc is esta7lishe$ 7et.een the ter)inals8 the tu7es an$ la)(s in the -icinity of the coil go out8 out light u( again .hen the arc is 7ro2en8 on account of the rise of (otential0 Det the electro)agnetic effect shoul$ 7e (ractically the sa)e in 7oth cases0 3y (lacing a tu7e at so)e $istance fro) the coil8 an$ nearer to one ter)inalK(refera7ly at a (oint on the a'is of the coilKone )ay light it 7y touching the re)ote ter)inal .ith an insulate$ 7o$y of so)e siBe or .ith the han$8 there7y raising the (otential at that ter)inal nearer to8 the tu7e0 ,f the tu7e is shifte$ nearer to the coil so that it is lighte$ 7y the action of the nearer ter)inal8 it )ay 7e )a$e to go out 7y hol$ing8 on an insulate$ su((ort8 the en$ of a .ire connecte$ to the re)ote ter)inal8 in the -icinity of the nearer ter)inal8 7y this )eans counteracting the action of the latter u(on the tu7e0 These effects are e-i$ently electrostatic0 #i2e.ise8 .hen a tu7e is (lace$ it a consi$era7le $istance fro) the coil8 the o7ser-er )ay8 stan$ing u(on an insulate$ su((ort 7et.een coil an$ tu7e8 light the latter 7y a((roaching the han$ to itJ or he )ay e-en ren$er it lu)inous 7y si)(ly ste((ing
7et.een it an$ the coil0 This .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7le .ith electro9)agnetic in$uction8 for the 7o$y of the o7ser-er .oul$ act as a screen0 &hen the coil is energiBe$ 7y e'cessi-ely .ea2 currents8 the e'(eri)enter )ay8 7y touching one ter)inal of the coil .ith the tu7e8 e'tinguish the latter8 an$ )ay again light it 7y 7ringing it out of contact .ith the ter)inal an$ allo.ing a s)all arc to for)0 This is clearly $ue to the res(ecti-e lo.ering an$ raising of the (otential at that ter)inal0 ,n the a7o-e e'(eri)ent8 .hen the tu7e is lighte$ through a s)all arc8 it )ay go out .hen the arc is 7ro2en8 7ecause the electrostatic in$ucti-e effect alone is too .ea28 though the (otential )ay 7e )uch higherJ 7ut .hen the arc is esta7lishe$8 the electrification of the en$ of the tu7e is )uch greater8 an$ it consequently lights0 ,f a tu7e is lighte$ 7y hol$ing it near to the coil8 an$ in the han$ .hich is re)ote0 7y gras(ing the tu7e any.here .ith the other han$8 the (art 7et.een the han$s is ren$ere$ $ar28 an$ the singular effect of .i(ing out the light of the tu7e )ay he (ro$uce$ 7y (assing the han$ quic2ly along the tu7e an$ at the sa)e ti)e .ith$ra.ing it gently fro) the coil8 Hu$ging (ro(erly tile $istance so that the tu7e re)ains $ar2 after.ar$s0 ,f the (ri)ary coil is (lace$ si$e.ise8 as in Fig0 1%7 for instance8 an$ an e'hauste$ tu7e 7e intro$uce$ fro) the other si$e in the hollo. s(ace8 the tu7e is lighte$ )ost intensely 7ecause of the increase$ con$enser action8 an$ in this (osition the striae are )ost shar(ly $efine$0 ,n all these e'(eri)ents $escri7e$8 an$ in )any others8 the action is clearly electrostatic0 The effects of screening also in$icate the electrostatic nature of the (heno)ena an$ sho. so)ething of the nature of electrification through the air0 For instance8 if a tu7e is (lace$ in the $irection of the a'is of the coil8 an$ an insulate$ )etal (late 7e inter(ose$8 the tu7e .ill generally increase in 7rilliancy8 or if it 7e too far fro) the coil to light8 it )ay e-en 7e ren$ere$ lu)inous 7y inter(osing an insulate$ )etal (late0 The )agnitu$e of the effects $e(en$s to so)e e'tent on the siBe of the (late0 3ut if the )etal (late 7e connecte$ 7y a .ire to the groun$8 its inter(osition .ill al.ays )a2e the tu7e go (ut e-en if it 7e -ery near the coil0 ,n general8 the inter(osition of a 7o$y 7et.een the coil an$ tu7e8 increases or $i)inishes the 7rilliancy of the tu7e8 or its facility to light u(8 accor$ing to .hether it increases or $i)inishes the electrification0 &hen e'(eri)enting .ith an insulate$ (late8 the (late shoul$ not 7e ta2en too large8 else it .ill generally (ro$uce a .ea2ening effect 7y reason of its great facility for gi-ing off energy to the surroun$ings0 ,f a tu7e 7e lighte$ at so)e $istance fro) the coil8 an$ a (late of har$ ru77er or other insulating su7stance 7e inter(ose$8 the tu7e )ay 7e )a$e to go 0out0 The inter(osition of the $ielectric in this case only slightly increases the in$ucti-e effect8 7ut $i)inishes consi$era7ly the electrification through the air0 ,n all cases8 then8 .hen .e e'cite lu)inosity in e'hauste$ tu7es 7y )eans of such a coil8 the effect is $ue to the ra(i$ly alternating electrostatic' (otentialJ an$8 further)ore8 it )ust 7e attri7ute$ to the har)onic alternation (ro$uce$ $irectly 7y the )achine8 an$ not to any su(eri)(ose$ -i7ration .hich )ight 7e thought to e'ist0 >uch su(eri)(ose$ -i7rations are i)(ossi7le .hen .e .or2 .ith an alternate current )achine0 ,f a s(ring 7e gra$ually tightene$ an$ release$8 it $oes not (erfor) in$e(en$ent -i7rationsJ for this a su$$en release is necessary0 >o .ith the alternate currents fro) a $yna)o )achineJ the )e$iu) is har)onically straine$ an$ release$8 this gi-ing rise to only one 2in$ of .a-esJ a su$$en contact or 7rea28 or a su$$en gi-ing .ay of the $ielectric8 as in the $isru(ti-e $ischarge of a #ey$en Har8 are essential for the (ro$uction of su(eri)(ose$ .a-es0 ,n all the last $escri7e$ e'(eri)ents8 tu7es $e-oi$ of any electro$es )ay 7e use$8 an$ there is no $ifficulty in (ro$ucing 7y their )eans sufficient light to rea$ 7y0 The light effect is8 ho.e-er8 consi$era7ly increase$ 7y the use of (hos(horescent 7o$ies such as yttria8 uraniu) glass8 etc0 A $ifficulty .ill 7e foun$ .hen the (hos(horescent )aterial is use$8 for .ith these (o.erful effects8 it is carrie$ gra$ually a.ay8 an$ it is (refera7le to use )aterial in the for) of a soli$0 ,nstea$ of $e(en$ing on in$uction at a $istance to light the tu7e8 the sa)e )ay 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith an e'ternalK an$8 if $esire$8 also .ith an internalKcon$enser coating8 an$ it )ay then 7e sus(en$e$ any.here in the roo) fro) a con$uctor connecte$ to one ter)inal of the coil8 an$ in this )anner a soft illu)ination )ay 7e (ro-i$e$0 The i$eal .ay of lighting a hall or roo) .oul$8 ho.e-er8 7e to (ro$uce such a con$ition in it that an illu)inating $e-ice coul$ 7e )o-e$ an$ (ut any.here8 an$ that it is lighte$8 no )atter .here it is (ut an$ .ithout 7eing electrically connecte$ to anything0 , ha-e 7een a7le to (ro$uce such a con$ition 7y creating in the roo) a (o.erful8 ra(i$ly alternating electrostatic fiel$0 For this (ur(ose , sus(en$ a sheet of )etal a $istance fro) the ceiling on insulating cor$s an$ connect it to one ter)inal of the in$uction coil8 the other ter)inal 7eing (refera7ly connecte$ to the groun$0 ;r else , sus(en$ t.o sheets as illustrate$ in Fig0 !9 / 1!48 each sheet 7eing connecte$ .ith one of the ter)inals of the coil8 an$ their siBe 7eing carefully $eter)ine$0 An e'hauste$ tu7e )ay then 7e carrie$ in the han$ any.here 7et.een the sheets or (lace$ any.here8 e-en a certain $istance 7eyon$
the)J it re)ains al.ays lu)inous0
,n such an electrostatic fiel$ interesting (heno)ena )ay 7e o7ser-e$8 es(ecially if the alternations are 2e(t lo. an$ the (otentials e'cessi-ely high0 ,n a$$ition to the lu)inous (heno)ena )entione$8 one )ay o7ser-e that any insulate$ con$uctor gi-es s(ar2s .hen the han$ or another o7Hect is a((roache$ to it8 an$ the s(ar2s )ay often 7e (o.erful0 &hen a large con$ucting o7Hect is fastene$ on an insulating su((ort8 an$ the han$ a((roache$ to it8 a -i7ration8 $ue to the rhyth)ical )otion of the air )olecules is felt8 an$ lu)inous strea)s )ay 7e (ercei-e$ .hen the han$ is hel$ near a (ointe$ (roHection0 &hen a tele(hone recei-er is )a$e to touch .ith one or 7oth of its ter)inals art insulate$ con$uctor of so)e siBe8 the tele(hone e)its a lou$ soun$J it also e)its a soun$ .hen a length of .ire is attache$ to one or 7oth ter)inals8 an$ .ith -ery (o.erful fiel$s a soun$ )ay 7e (ercei-e$ e-en .ithout any .ire0 Ho. far this (rinci(le is ca(a7le of (ractical a((lication8 the future .ill tell0 ,t )ight 7e thought that electrostatic effects are unsuite$ for such action at a $istance0 "lectro)agnetic in$ucti-e effects8 if a-aila7le for the (ro$uction of light8 )ight 7e thought 7etter suite$0 ,t is true the electrostatic effects $i)inish nearly .ith the cu7e of the $istance fro) the coil8 .hereas the electro)agnetic in$ucti-e effects $i)inish si)(ly .ith the $istance0 3ut .hen .e esta7lish an electrostatic fiel$ of force8 the con$ition is -ery $ifferent8 for then8 instea$ of the $ifferential effect of 7oth the ter)inals8 .e get their conHoint effect0 3esi$es8 , .oul$ call attention to the effect that in an alternating electrostatic fiel$8 a con$uctor8 such as an e'hauste$ tu7e8 for instance8 ten$s to ta2e u( )ost of the energy8 .hereas in an electro)agnetic alternating fiel$ the con$uctor ten$s to ta2e u( the least energy8 the .a-es 7eing reflecte$ .ith 7ut little loss0 This is one reason .hy it is $ifficult to e'cite an e'hauste$ tu7e8 at a $istance8 7y electro)agnetic in$uction0 , ha-e .oun$ coils of -ery large $ia)eter an$ of )any turns of .ire8 an$ connecte$ a Geissler tu7e to the en$s of the coil .ith the o7Hect of e'citing the tu7e at a $istanceJ 7ut e-en .ith the (o.erful in$ucti-e effects (ro$uci7le 7y #ey$en Har $ischarges8 the tu7e coul$ not 7e e'cite$ unless at a -ery s)all $istance8 although so)e Hu$ge)ent .as use$ as to the $i)ensions of the coil0 , ha-e also foun$ that e-en the )ost (o.erful #ey$en Har $ischarges are ca(a7le of e'citing only fee7le lu)inous effects in a close$ e'hauste$ tu7e8 an$ e-en these effects u(on thorough e'a)ination , ha-e 7een force$ to consi$er of an electrostatic nature0 Ho. then can .e ho(e to (ro$uce the require$ effects at a $istance 7y )eans of electro)agnetic action8 .hen e-en in the closest (ro'i)ity to the source of $istur7ance8 un$er the )ost a$-antageous con$itions8 .e can e'cite 7ut faint lu)inosityF ,t is true that .hen acting at a $istance .e ha-e the resonance to hel( us out0 &e can connect an e'hauste$ tu7e8 or .hate-er the illu)inating $e-ice )ay 7e8 .ith an insulate$ syste) of the (ro(er ca(acity8 an$ so it )ay 7e (ossi7le to increase the effect qualitati-ely8 an$ only qualitati-ely8 for .e .oul$ not get snore energy through the $e-ice0 >o .e )ay8 7y resonance effect8 o7tain the require$ electro)oti-e force in an e'hauste$ tu7e8 an$ e'cite faint lu)inous effects8 7ut .e cannot get enough energy to ren$er the light (ractically a-aila7le8 an$ a si)(le calculation8 7ase$ on e'(eri)ental results8 sho.s that e-en if all the energy .hich a tu7e .oul$ recei-e at a certain $istance fro) the source shoul$ 7e .holly con-erte$ into light8 it .oul$ har$ly satisfy the (ractical require)ents0 Hence the necessity of $irecting8 7y )eans of a con$ucting circuit8 the energy to the (lace of transfor)ation0 3ut in so $oing .e cannot -ery sensi7ly $e(art fro) (resent )etho$s8 an$ all .e coul$ $o .oul$ 7e to i)(ro-e the a((aratus0 Fro) these consi$erations it .oul$ see) that if this i$eal .ay of lighting is to ren$ere$ (ractica7le it .ill 7e only 7y the use of electrostatic effects0 ,n such a case the )ost (o.erful electrostatic in$ucti-e effects are nee$e$J
the a((aratus e)(loye$ )ust8 therefore8 7e ca(a7le of (ro$ucing high electrostatic (otentials changing in -alue .ith e'tre)e ra(i$ity0 High frequencies are es(ecially .ante$8 for (ractical consi$erations )a2e it $esira7le to 2ee( $o.n the (otential0 3y the e)(loy)ent of )achines8 or8 generally s(ea2ing8 of any )echanical a((aratus8 7ut lo. frequencies can 7e reache$J recourse )ust8 therefore8 7e ha$ to so)e other )eans0 The $ischarge of a con$enser affor$s us a )eans of o7taining frequencies 7y far higher than are o7taina7le )echanically8 an$ , ha-e accor$ingly e)(loye$ con$ensers in the e'(eri)ents to the a7o-e en$0 &hen the ter)inals of a high tension in$uction coil8 Fig0 358 are connecte$ to a #ey$en Har8 an$ the latter is $ischarging $isru(ti-ely into a circuit8 .e )ay loo2 u(on the arc (laying 7et.een the 2no7s as 7eing a source of alternating8 or generally s(ea2ing8 un$ulating currents8 an$ then .e ha-e to $eal .ith the fa)iliar syste) of a generator of such currents8 a circuit connecte$ to it8 an$ a con$enser 7ri$ging the circuit0 The con$enser in such case is a -erita7le transfor)er8 an$ since the frequency is e'cessi-e8 al)ost any ratio in the strength of the currents in 7oth the 7ranches )ay 7e o7taine$00 ,n reality the analogy is not quite co)(lete8 for in the $isru(ti-e $ischarge .e ha-e )ost generally a fun$a)ental instantaneous -ariation of co)(arati-ely lo. frequency8 an$ a su(eri)(ose$ har)onic -i7ration8 an$ the la.s go-erning the flo. of currents are not the sa)e for 7oth0 ,n con-erting in this )anner8 the ratio of con-ersion shoul$ not 7e too great8 for the loss in the arc 7et.een the 2no7s increases .ith the square of the current8 an$ if the Har 7e $ischarge$ through -ery thic2 an$ short con$uctors8 .ith the -ie. of o7taining a -ery ra(i$ oscillation8 a -ery consi$era7le (ortion of the energy store$ is lost0 ;n the other han$8 too s)all ratios are not (ractica7le for )any o7-ious reasons0 As the con-erte$ currents flo. in a (ractically close$ circuit8 the electrostatic effects are necessarily s)all8 an$ , therefore con-ert the) into currents or effects of the require$ character0 , ha-e effecte$ such con-ersions in se-eral .ays0 The (referre$ (lan of connections is illustrate$ in Fig0 310 The )anner of o(erating ren$ers it easy to o7tain 7y )eans of a s)all an$ ine'(ensi-e a((aratus enor)ous $ifferences of (otential .hich ha-e 7een usually o7taine$ 7y )eans of large an$ e'(ensi-e coils0 For this it is only necessary to ta2e an or$inary s)all coil8 a$Hust to it a con$enser an$ $ischarging circuit8 for)ing the (ri)ary of an au'iliary s)all coil8 an$ con-ert u(.ar$0 As the in$ucti-e effect of the (ri)ary currents is e'cessi-ely great8 the secon$ coil nee$ ha-e co)(arati-ely 7ut -ery fe. turns0 3y (ro(erly a$Husting the ele)ents8 re)ar2a7le results )ay 7e secure$0 ,n en$ea-ouring to o7tain the require$ electrostatic effects in this )anner8 , ha-e8 as )ight 7e e'(ecte$8 encountere$ )any $ifficulties .hich , ha-e 7een gra$ually o-erco)ing8 7ut , a) not as yet (re(are$ to $.ell u(on )y e'(eriences in this $irection0 , 7elie-e that the $isru(ti-e $ischarge of a con$enser .ill (lay an i)(ortant (art in the future8 for it offers -ast (ossi7ilities8 not only in the .ay of (ro$ucing light in a )ore efficient )anner an$ in the line in$icate$ 7y theory8 7ut also in )any other res(ects0 For years the efforts of in-entors ha-e 7een $irecte$ to.ar$s o7taining electrical energy fro) heat 7y )eans of the ther)o(ile0 ,t )ight see) in-i$ious to re)ar2 that 7ut fe. 2no. .hat is the real trou7le .ith the ther)o(ile0 ,t is not the inefficiency or s)all out(utKthough these are great $ra.7ac2sK7ut the fact that the ther)o(ile has its (hyllo'era8 that is8 that 7y constant use it is $eteriorate$8 .hich has thus far (re-ente$ its intro$uction on an in$ustrial scale0 1o. that all )o$ern research see)s to (oint .ith certainty to the use of electricity of e'cessi-ely high tension8 the question )ust (resent itself to )any .hether it is not (ossi7le to o7tain in a (ractica7le )anner this for) of energy fro) heat0 &e ha-e 7een use$ to loo2 u(on an electrostatic )achine as a (laything8 an$ so)eho. .e cou(le .ith it the i$ea of the inefficient an$ i)(ractical0 3ut no. .e )ust thin2 $ifferently8 for no. .e 2no. that e-ery.here .e ha-e to $eal .ith the sa)e forces8 an$ that it is a )ere question of in-enting (ro(er )etho$s or a((aratus for ren$ering the) a-aila7le0 ,n the (resent syste)s of electrical $istri7ution8 the e)(loy)ent of the iron .ith its .on$erful )agnetic (ro(erties allo.s us to re$uce consi$era7ly the siBe of the a((aratusJ 7ut8 in s(ite of this8 it is still -ery cu)7erso)e0 The )ore .e (rogress in the stu$y of electric an$ )agnetic (heno)ena8 the )ore .e 7eco)e con-ince$ that the (resent )etho$s .ill 7e short9li-e$0 For the (ro$uction of light8 at least8 such hea-y )achinery .oul$ see) to 7e unnecessary0 The energy require$ is -ery s)all8 an$ if light can 7e o7taine$ as efficiently as8 theoretically8 it a((ears (ossi7le8 the a((aratus nee$ ha-e 7ut a -ery s)all out(ut0 There 7eing a strong (ro7a7ility that the illu)inating )etho$s of the future .ill in-ol-e the use of -ery high (otentials8 it see)s -ery $esira7le to (erfect a contri-ance ca(a7le of con-erting the energy of heat into energy of the requisite for)0 1othing to s(ea2 of has 7een $one to.ar$s this en$8 for the thought that electricity of so)e 458555 or 1558555 -olts (ressure or )ore8 e-en if o7taine$8 .oul$ 7e una-aila7le for (ractical (ur(oses8 has $eterre$ in-entors fro) .or2ing in this $irection0 ,n Fig0 35 a (lan of connections is sho.n for con-erting currents of high8 into currents of lo.8 tension 7y )eans
of the $isru(ti-e $ischarge of a con$enser0 This (lan has 7een use$ 7y )e frequently for o(erating a fe. incan$escent la)(s require$ in the la7oratory0 >o)e $ifficulties ha-e 7een encountere$ in the arc of the $ischarge .hich , ha-e 7een a7le to o-erco)e to a great e'tentJ 7esi$es this8 an$ the a$Hust)ent necessary for the (ro(er .or2ing8 no other $ifficulties ha-e 7een )et .ith8 an$ it .as easy to o(erate or$inary la)(sJ an$ e-en )otors8 in this )anner0 The line 7eing connecte$ to the groun$8 all the .ires coul$ 7e han$le$ .ith (erfect i)(unity8 no )atter ho. high the (otential at the ter)inals of the con$enser0 ,n these e'(eri)ents a high tension in$uction coil8 o(erate$ fro) a 7attery or fro) an alternate current )achine8 .as e)(loye$ to charge the con$enserJ 7ut the in$uction coil )ight 7e re(lace$ 7y an a((aratus of a $ifferent 2in$8 ca(a7le of gi-ing electricity of such high tension0 ,n this )anner8 $irect or alternating currents )ay 7e con-erte$8 an$ in 7oth cases the current9i)(ulses )ay 7e of any $esire$ frequency0 &hen the currents charging the con$enser are of the sa)e $irection8 an$ it is $esire$ that the con-erte$ currents shoul$ also 7e of one $irection8 the resistance of the $ischarging circuit shoul$8 of course8 7e so chosen that there are no oscillations0 ,n o(erating $e-ices on the a7o-e (lan , ha-e o7ser-e$ curious (heno)ena of i)(e$ance .hich are of interest0 For instance if a thic2 co((er 7ar 7e 7ent8 as in$icate$ in Fig0 3! / 1!88 an$ shunte$ 7y or$inary incan$escent la)(s8 then8 7y (assing the $ischarge 7et.een the 2no7s8 the la)(s )ay 7e 7rought to incan$escence although they are short9circuite$0 &hen a large in$uction coil is e)(loye$ it is easy to o7tain no$es on the 7ar8 .hich are ren$ere$ e-i$ent 7y the $ifferent $egree of 7rilliancy of the la)(s8 as sho.n roughly in Fig0 3! / 1!80 The no$es are ne-er clearly $efine$8 7ut they are si)(ly )a'i)a an$ )ini)a of (otentials along the 7ar0 This is (ro7a7ly $ue to the irregularity of the arc 7et.een the 2no7s0 ,n general .hen the a7o-e9$escri7e$ (lan of con-ersion fro) high to lo. tension is use$8 the 7eha-iour of the $isru(ti-e $ischarge )ay 7e closely stu$ie$0 The no$es )ay also 7e in-estigate$ 7y )eans of an or$inary Car$e. -olt)eter .hich shoul$ 7e .ell insulate$0 Geissler tu7es )ay also 7e lighte$ across the (oints of the 7ent 7arJ in this case8 of course8 it is 7etter to e)(loy s)aller ca(acities0 , ha-e foun$ it (ractica7le to light u( in this )anner a la)(8 an$ e-en a Geissler tu7e8 shunte$ 7y a short8 hea-y 7loc2 of )etal8 an$ this result see)s at first -ery curious0 ,n fact8 the thic2er the co((er 7ar in Fig0 3! / 1!8J the 7etter it is for the success of the e'(eri)ents8 as they a((ear )ore stri2ing0 &hen la)(s .ith long slen$er fila)ents are use$ it .ill 7e often note$ that the fila)ents are fro) ti)e to ti)e -iolently -i7rate$8 the -i7ration 7eing s)allest at the no$al (oints0 This -i7ration see)s to 7e $ue to an electrostatic action 7et.een the fila)ent an$ the glass of the 7ul70 ,n so)e of the a7o-e e'(eri)ents it is (refera7le to use s(ecial la)(s ha-ing a straight fila)ent as sho.n in Fig0 330 &hen such a la)( is use$ a still )ore curious (heno)enon than those $escri7e$ )ay 7e o7ser-e$0 The la)( )ay 7e (lace$ across the co((er 7ar an$ lighte$8 an$ 7y using so)e.hat larger ca(acities8 or8 in other .or$s8 s)aller frequencies or s)aller i)(ulsi-e i)(e$ances8 the fila)ent )ay 7e 7rought to any $esire$ $egree of incan$escence0 3ut .hen the i)(e$ance is increase$8 a (oint is reache$ .hen co)(arati-ely little current (asses through the car7on8 an$ )ost of it through the rarefie$ gasJ or (erha(s it )ay 7e )ore correct to state that the current $i-i$es nearly e-enly through 7oth8 its s(ite of the enor)ous $ifference in the resistance8 an$ this .oul$ 7e true unless the #as an$ the fila)ent 7eha-e $ifferently0 ,t is then note$ that the .hole 7ul7 is 7rilliantly illu)inate$8 an$ the en$s of the lea$ing9in .ires 7eco)e incan$escent an$ often thro. off s(ar2s in consequence of the -iolent 7o)7ar$)ent8 7ut the car7on fila)ent re)ains $ar20 This is illustrate$ in Fig0 330 ,nstea$ of the fila)ent a single .ire e'ten$ing through the .hole 7ul7 )ay 7e use$8 an$ in this case the (heno)enon .oul$ seen to 7e still )ore interesting0 Fro) the a7o-e e'(eri)ent it .ill 7e e-i$ent8 that .hen or$inary la)(s are o(erate$ 7y the con-erte$ currents8 those shoul$ 7e (refera7ly ta2en in .hich the (latinu) .ires are far a(art8 an$ the frequencies use$ shoul$ not 7e too great8 else the $ischarge .ill occur at the en$s of the fila)ent or in the 7ase of the la)( 7et.een the lea$ing9in .ires8 an$ the la)( )ight then 7e $a)age$0 ,n (resenting to you these results of )y in-estigation on the su7Hect un$er consi$eration8 , ha-e (ai$ only a (assing notice to facts u(on .hich , coul$ ha-e $.elt at length8 an$ a)ong )any o7ser-ations , ha-e selecte$ only those .hich , thought )ost li2ely to interest you0 The fiel$ is .i$e an$ co)(letely une'(lore$8 an$ at e-ery ste( a ne. truth is gleane$8 a no-el fact o7ser-e$0 Ho. far the results here 7orne out are ca(a7le of (ractical a((lications .ill 7e $eci$e$ in the future0 As regar$s the (ro$uction of light8 so)e results alrea$y reache$ are encouraging an$ )a2e )e confi$ent in asserting that the (ractical solution of the (ro7le) lies in the $irection , ha-e en$ea-oure$ to in$icate0 >till8 .hate-er )ay 7e the i))e$iate outco)e of these e'(eri)ents , a) ho(eful that they .ill only (ro-e a ste( in further
$e-elo()ents to.ar$s the i$eal an$ final (erfection0 The (ossi7ilities .hich are o(ene$ 7y )o$ern research are so -ast that e-en the )ost reser-e$ )ust feel sanguine of the future0 ")inent scientists consi$er the (ro7le) of utiliBing one 2in$ of ra$iation .ithout the others a rational one0 ,n an a((aratus $esigne$ for the (ro$uction of light 7y con-ersion fro) any for) of energy into that of light8 such a result can ne-er 7e reache$8 for no )atter .hat the (rocess of (ro$ucing the require$ -i7rations8 7e it electrical8 che)ical or any other8 it .ill not 7e (ossi7le to o7tain the higher light -i7rations .ithout going through the lo.er heat -i7rations0 ,t is the (ro7le) of i)(arting to a 7o$y a certain -elocity .ithout (assing through all lo.er -elocities0 3ut there is a (ossi7ility of o7taining energy not only in the for) of light8 7ut )oti-e (o.er8 an$ energy of any other for)8 in so)e )ore $irect .ay fro) the )e$iu)0 The ti)e .ill 7e .hen this .ill 7e acco)(lishe$8 an$ the ti)e has co)e .hen one )ay utter such .or$s 7efore an enlightene$ au$ience .ithout 7eing consi$ere$ a -isionary0 &e are .hirling through en$less s(ace .ith an inconcei-a7le s(ee$8 all aroun$ us e-erything is s(inning8 e-erything is )o-ing8 e-ery.here is energy0 There )art 7e so)e .ay of a-ailing oursel-es of this energy )ore $irectly0 ThenJ .ith the light o7taine$ fro) the )e$iu)8 .ith the (o.er $eri-e$ fro) it8 .ith e-ery for) of energy o7taine$ .ithout effort8 fro) the store fore-er ine'hausti7le8 hu)anity .ill a$-ance .ith giant stri$es0 The )ere conte)(lation of these )agnificent (ossi7ilities e'(an$s our )in$s8 strengthen our ho(es an$ fills our hearts .ith su(re)e $elight0
18-1-05-"/: A Tal. ;y Ni.ola Tesla 4y ...

The Ne" -ork Times H" ="#,G"+> A1 ,1T"+">T,1G #"CTC+" T; "#"CT+,CA# "1G,1""+>0 The Electrical Engineer of this .ee2 .ill contain an interesting account of the session of the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers hel$ at Colu)7ia College last &e$nes$ay e-ening8 at .hich so)e really .on$erful e'(eri)ents .ere sho.n 7y 1i2ola Tesla8 the recogniBe$ lea$ing e'(ert on alternating currents0 For these e'(eri)ents /r0 Tesla use$ an alternating )achine .ith 655 (oles8 .hich .hen run at full s(ee$ (er)itte$ hi) to o7tain !58555 alternations (er secon$0 The currents .ere first run through a con$enser0 The )achine .as set u( in the electrical .or2sho( of the college an$ .as $ri-en 7y an electric )otor8 the s(ee$ of .hich coul$ 7e regulate$ fro) the (latfor)0 /r0 Tesla8 at the 7eginning of his lecture8 sai$ that )o$ern science ha$ 7een a7le to )a2e ra(i$ stri$es 7y the recognition of ether as the )e$iu) of trans)issions of -i7rations of -arious for)s0 The ans.er to the question8 "&hat is electricityF" coul$ not yet 7e gi-en8 7ut the assu)(tion .as Hustifia7le that electric (heno)ena .ere ether (heno)ena8 an$ the (heno)ena of static electricity coul$ 7e consi$ere$ as the (heno)ena of ether un$er strain8 an$ those of $yna)ic an$ electro9)agnetis) as (heno)ena of ether in )otion0 Allu$ing to the electro9)agnetic theory of light8 /r0 Tesla sai$ that he consi$ere$ the electro9)agnetic .a-es as una-aila7le8 for the reason that long 7efore the necessary frequency coul$ 7e reache$8 the con$uctor .oul$ 7eco)e o(aque to the (assage of .a-es0 "lectro9)agnetic .a-es8 unless they ha$ the frequency of true light .a-es8 he thought coul$ not (ro$uce lu)inous effects0 The electrostatic .a-es8 or thrusts8 ho.e-er8 no )atter .hat their frequency8 coul$ e'cite lu)inous ra$iation0 The static effects in the HertB an$ #o$ge e'(eri)ents .ere e'cessi-ely s)all8 o.ing to the fact that they .ere (ro$uce$ in a (ractically close$ coil8 the (otential 7eing $e(resse$0 To o7tain the $esire$ $ifference of (otential8 there )ust 7e an o(en circuit generator of high (otential an$ of high frequency to enhance the electrostatic effects0 ,n carrying out the i$ea of o7taining enor)ous $ifferences of (otential /r0 Tesla )et the $ifficulty of o7taining the requisite insulation for the in$uction coil0 His e'(erience $e)onstrate$ that .hat are generally consi$ere$ the test insulators8 as glass an$ ru77er8 are inferior to others not so consi$ere$8 as oil an$ .a'0 He starte$ the s(ar2 coil in action8 the (ri)ary of .hich .as in connection .ith his alternator8 s(ee$e$ at a7out 158555 alternations a secon$0 As the $ischarges too2 (lace$ 7et.een the ter)inals of the coil an e'hauste$ Geissler tu7e hel$ near the $ischarge $i$ not light8 7ut on 7lo.ing out the arc the tu7e lighte$ u(8 this 7eing $ue to the rise of the (otential cause$ 7y the ru(ture of the arc0 This effect /r0 Tesla consi$ere$ (urely electrostatic0 To still further -erify his conclusions that electrostatic effects alone are acti-e8 /r0 Tesla (lace$ a Geissler tu7e at right angles to the coil an$ at its centre0 ,t $i$ not light u(8 7ut .hen (lace$ at the en$s ga-e sufficient light to rea$ 7y0 He after.ar$ a$Huste$ con$itions so that 7y touching one ter)inal .ith a 7rass s(here he raise$ the (otential of the coil so enor)ously that a strea) of light ca)e out at the other ter)inal0 He esti)ate$ the $ifference of (otential to 7e8 nearly !458555 -olts8 an$ then recei-e$ the total $ischarge in his 7o$y8 (rotecting his han$s fro) 7urning 7y hol$ing 7rass 7alls0
18-1-0<-01: *le(tri( %is(,arge in 6a(uum Tu1es 4y Nikola Tesla

The "lectrical "ngineer ,n The Electrical Engineer of Eune 15 , ha-e note$ the $escri(tion of so)e e'(eri)ents of <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son8 on the ""lectric =ischarge in Gacuu) Tu7es8" an$ in your issue of Eune !6 <rof0 "lihu Tho)son $escri7es an e'(eri)ent of the sa)e 2in$0 The fun$a)ental i$ea in these e'(eri)ents is to set u( an electro)oti-e force in a -acuu) tu7e K (refera7ly $e-oi$ of any electro$es K 7y )eans of electro)agnetic in$uction8 an$ to e'cite the tu7e in this )anner0 As , -ie. the su7Hect , shoul$ thin2 that to any e'(eri)enter .ho ha$ carefully stu$ie$ the (ro7le) confronting us an$ .ho atte)(te$ to fin$ a solution of it8 this i$ea )ust (resent itself as naturally as8 for instance8 the i$ea of re(lacing the tinfoil coatings of a #ey$en Har 7y rarefie$ gas an$ e'citing lu)inosity in the con$enser thus o7taine$ 7y re(eate$ly charging an$ $ischarging it0 The i$ea 7eing o7-ious8 .hate-er )erit there is in this line of in-estigation )ust $e(en$ u(on the co)(leteness of the stu$y of the su7Hect an$ the correctness of the o7ser-ations0 The follo.ing lines are not (enne$ .ith any $esire on )y (art to (ut )yself on recor$ as one .ho has (erfor)e$ si)ilar e'(eri)ents8 7ut .ith a $esire to assist other e'(eri)enters 7y (ointing out certain (eculiarities of the (heno)ena o7ser-e$8 .hich8 to all a((earances8 ha-e not 7een note$ 7y <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son8 .ho8 ho.e-er8 see)s to ha-e gone a7out syste)atically in his in-estigations8 an$ .ho has 7een the first to )a2e his results 2no.n0 These (eculiarities note$ 7y )e .oul$ see) to 7e at -ariance .ith the -ie.s of <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son8 an$ (resent the (heno)ena in a $ifferent light0 /y in-estigations in this line occu(ie$ )e (rinci(ally $uring the .inter an$ s(ring of the (ast year0 =uring this ti)e )any $ifferent e'(eri)ents .ere (erfor)e$8 an$ in )y e'changes of i$eas on this su7Hect .ith /r0 Alfre$ >0 3ro.n8 of the &estern Cnion Telegra(h Co)(any8 -arious $ifferent $is(ositions .ere suggeste$ .hich .ere carrie$ out 7y )e in (ractice0 Fig0 1 )ay ser-e as an e'a)(le of one of the )any for)s of a((aratus use$0 This consiste$ of a large glass tu7e seale$ at one en$ an$ (roHecting into an or$inary incan$escent la)( 7ul70 The (ri)ary8 usually consisting of a fe. turns of thic28 .ell9insulate$ co((er sheet .as inserte$ .ithin the tu7e8 the insi$e s(ace of the 7ul7 furnishing the secon$ary0 This for) of a((aratus .as arri-e$ at after so)e e'(eri)enting8 an$ .as use$ (rinci(ally .ith the -ie. of ena7ling )e to (lace a (olishe$ reflecting surface on the insi$e of the tu7e8 an$ for this (ur(ose the last turn of the (ri)ary .as co-ere$ .ith a thin sil-er sheet0 ,n all for)s of a((aratus use$ there .as no s(ecial $ifficulty in e'citing a lu)inous circle or cylin$er in (ro'i)ity to the (ri)ary0
As to the nu)7er of turns8 , cannot quite un$erstan$ .hy <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son shoul$ thin2 that a fe. turns .ere "quite sufficient"8 7ut lest , shoul$ i)(ute to hi) an o(inion he )ay not ha-e8 , .ill a$$ that , ha-e gaine$ this i)(ression fro) the rea$ing of the (u7lishe$ a7stracts of his lecture0 Clearly8 the nu)7er of turns .hich gi-es the 7est result in any case8 is $e(en$ent on the $i)ensions of the a((aratus8 an$8 .ere it not for -arious consi$erations8 one turn .oul$ al.ays gi-e the 7est result0
, ha-e foun$ that it is (refera7le to use0 in these e'(eri)ents an8 alternate current )achine gi-ing a )o$erate nu)7er of alternations (er secon$ to e'cite the in$uction coil for charging the #ey$en Har .hich $ischarges through the (ri)ary K sho.n $iagra))atically in Fig0 !8 K as in such case8 7efore the $isru(ti-e $ischarge ta2es (lace8 the tu7e or 7ul7 is slightly e'cite$ an$ the for)ation of the lu)inous circle is $eci$e$ly facilitate$0 3ut , ha-e also use$ a &i)shurst )achine in so)e e'(eri)ents0 <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son's -ie. of the (heno)ena un$er consi$eration see)s to 7e that they are .holly $ue to electro9)agnetic action0 , .as8 at one ti)e8 of the sa)e o(inion8 7ut u(on carefully in-estigating the su7Hect , .as le$ to the con-iction that they are )ore of an electrostatic nature0 ,t )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that in these e'(eri)ents .e ha-e to $eal .ith (ri)ary currents of an enor)ous frequency or rate of change an$ of high (otential8 an$ that the secon$ary con$uctor consists of a rarefie$ gas8 an$ that un$er such con$itions electrostatic effects )ust (lay an i)(ortant (art0 ,n su((ort of )y -ie. , .ill $escri7e a fe. e'(eri)ents )a$e 7y )e0 To e'cite lu)inosity in the tu7e it is not a7solutely necessary that the con$uctor shoul$ 7e close$0 For instance8 if an or$inary e'hauste$ tu7e ((refera7ly of large $ia)eter 7e surroun$e$ 7y a s(iral of thic2 co((er .ire ser-ing as the (ri)ary8 a fee7ly lu)inous s(iral )ay 7e in$uce$ in the tu7e8 roughly sho.n in Fig0 30 ,n one of these e'(eri)ents a curious (heno)enon .as o7ser-e$J na)ely8 t.o intensely lu)inous circles8 each of the) close to a turn of the (ri)ary s(iral8 .ere for)e$ insi$e of the tu7e8 an$ , attri7ute$ this (heno)enon to the e'istence of no$es on the (ri)ary0 The circles .ere connecte$ 7y a faint lu)inous s(iral (arallel to the (ri)ary an$ in close (ro'i)ity to it0 To (ro$uce this effect , ha-e foun$ it necessary to strain the Har to the ut)ost0 The turns of the s(iral ten$ to close an$ for) circles8 7ut this8 of course8 .oul$ 7e e'(ecte$8 an$ $oes not necessarily in$icate an electro9)agnetic effectJ .hereas the fact that a glo. can 7e (ro$uce$ along the (ri)ary in the for) of an o(en s(iral argues for an electrostatic effect0 ,n using =r0 #o$ge's recoil circuit8 the electrostatic action is li2e.ise a((arent0 The arrange)ent is illustrate$ in Fig0 60 ,n his e'(eri)ents t.o hollo. e'hauste$ tu7es H H .ere sli((e$ o-er the .ires of the recoil circuit an$ u(on $ischarging the Har in the usual )anner lu)inosity .as e'cite$ in the tu7es0
Another e'(eri)ent (erfor)e$ is illustrate$ in Fig0 40 ,n this case an or$inary la)(97ul7 .as surroun$e$ 7y one or t.o turns of thic2 co((er .ire < an$ the lu)inous circle # e'cite$ in the 7ul7 7y $ischarging the Har through the (ri)ary0 The la)(97ul7 .as (ro-i$e$ .ith a tinfoil coating on the si$e o((osite to the (ri)ary an$ each ti)e the tinfoil coating .as connecte$ to the groun$ or to a large o7Hect the lu)inosity of the circle .as consi$era7ly increase$0 This .as e-i$ently $ue to electrostatic action0
,n other e'(eri)ents , ha-e note$ that .hen the (ri)ary touches the glass the lu)inous circle is easier (ro$uce$ an$ is )ore shar(ly $efine$J 7ut , ha-e not note$ that8 generally s(ea2ing8 the circles in$uce$ .ere -ery shar(ly $efine$8 as <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son has o7ser-e$J on the contrary8 in )y e'(eri)ents they .ere 7roa$ an$ often the .hole of the 7ul7 or tu7e .as illu)inate$J an$ in one ease , ha-e o7ser-e$ an intensely (ur(lish glo.8 to .hich <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son refers0 3ut the circles .ere al.ays in close (ro'i)ity to the (ri)ary an$ .ere consi$era7ly easier (ro$uce$ .hen the latter .as -ery close to the glass8 )uch )ore so than .oul$ 7e e'(ecte$ assu)ing the action to 7e electro)agnetic an$ consi$ering the $istanceJ an$ these facts s(ea2 for an electrostatic effect0 Further)ore , ha-e o7ser-e$ that there is a )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent in the (lane of the lu)inous circle at right angles to the glass K su((osing the circle to 7e in the (lane of the (ri)ary K this 7o)7ar$)ent 7eing e-i$ent fro) the ra(i$ heating of the glass near the (ri)ary0 &ere the 7o)7ar$)ent not at right angles to the glass the hating coul$ not 7e so ra(i$0 ,f there is a circu)ferential )o-e)ent of the )olecules constituting the lu)inous circle8 , ha-e thought that it )ight 7e ren$ere$ )anifest 7y (lacing .ithin the tu7e or 7ul78 ra$ially to the circle8 a thin (late of )ica coate$ .ith so)e (hos(horescent )aterial an$ another such (late tangentially to the circle0 ,f the )olecules .oul$ )o-e circu)ferentially8 the for)er (late .oul$ 7e ren$ere$ )ore intensely (hos(horescent0 For .ant of ti)e , ha-e8 ho.e-er8 not 7een a7le to (erfor) the e'(eri)ent0
Another o7ser-ation )a$e 7y )e .as that .hen the s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity of the )e$iu) 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary is increase$8 the in$ucti-e effect is aug)ente$0 This is roughly illustrate$ in Fig0 G0 ,n this case lu)inosity .as e'cite$ in an e'hauste$ tu7e or 7ul7 3 an$ a glass tu7e T sli((e$ 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ the 7ul78 .hen the effect (ointe$ out .as note$0 &ere the action .holly electro)agnetic no change coul$ (ossi7ly ha-e 7een o7ser-e$0 , ha-e li2e.ise note$ that .hen a 7ul7 is surroun$e$ 7y a .ire close$ u(on itself an$ in the (lane of the (ri)ary8 the for)ation of the lu)inous circle .ithin the 7ul7 is not (re-ente$0 3ut if instea$ of the .ire a 7roa$ stri( of tinfoil is glue$ u(on the 7ul78 the for)ation of the lu)inous 7an$ .as (re-ente$8 7ecause then the action .as $istri7ute$ o-er a greater surface0 The effect of the close$ tinfoil .as no $ou7t of an electrostatic nature8 for it (resente$ a )uch greater resistance than the close$ .ire an$ (ro$uce$ therefore a )uch s)aller electro)agnetic effect0 >o)e of the e'(eri)ents of <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son also .oul$ see) to sho. so)e electrostatic action0 For instance8 in the e'(eri)ent .ith the 7ul7 enclose$ in a 7ell Har8 , shoul$ thin2 that .hen the latter is e'hauste$ so far that the gas enclose$ reaches the )a'i)u) con$ucti-ity8 the for)ation of the circle in the 7ul7 an$ Har is (re-ente$ 7ecause of the s(ace surroun$ing the (ri)ary 7eing highly con$uctingJ .hen the Har is further e'hauste$8 the con$ucti-ity of the s(ace aroun$ the (ri)ary $i)inishes an$ the circles a((ear necessarily first in the 7ell Har8 as the rarefie$ gas is nearer to the (ri)ary0 3ut .ere the in$ucti-e effect -ery (o.erful8 they .oul$ (ro7a7ly a((ear in the 7ul7 also0 ,f8 ho.e-er8 the 7ell Ear .ere e'hauste$ to the highest $egree they .oul$ -ery li2ely sho. the)sel-es in the 7ul7 only8 that is8 su((osing the -acuous s(ace to 7e non9con$ucting0 ;n the assu)(tion that in these (heno)ena electrostatic actions are concerne$ .e fin$ it easily e'(lica7le .hy the intro$uction of )ercury or the heating of the 7ul7 (re-ents the for)ation of the lu)inous 7an$ or shortens the after9glo.J an$ also .hy in so)e cases a (latinu) .ire )ay (re-ent the e'citation of the tu7e0 1e-ertheless so)e of the e'(eri)ents of <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son .oul$ see) to in$icate an electro)agnetic effect0 , )ay a$$ that in one of )y e'(eri)ents in .hich a -acuu) .as (ro$uce$ 7y the Torricellian )etho$8 , .as una7le to (ro$uce the lu)inous 7an$8 7ut this )ay ha-e 7een $ue to the .ea2 e'citing current e)(loye$0 /y (rinci(al argu)ent is the follo.ingI , ha-e e'(eri)entally (ro-e$ that if the sa)e $ischarge .hich is 7arely sufficient to e'cite a lu)inous 7an$ in the 7ul7 .hen (asse$ through the (ri)ary circuit 7e so $irecte$ as to e'alt the electrostatic in$ucti-e effect K na)ely8 7y con-erting u(.ar$s K an e'hauste$ tu7e8 $e-oi$ of electro$es8 )ay 7e e'cite$ at a $istance of se-eral feet0 1;T" 3D <+;F0 E0 E0 TH;/>;1 ,1 TH" #;1=;1 E%E2T!I2IAN8 EC#D !68 1891 "/r0 Tesla see)s to ascri7e the effects he o7ser-e$ to electrostatic action8 an$ , ha-e no $ou7t8 fro) the $escri(tion he gi-es of his )etho$ of con$ucting his e'(eri)ents8 that in the) electrostatic action (lays a -ery i)(ortant (art0 He see)s8 ho.e-er8 to ha-e )isun$erstoo$ )y (osition .ith res(ect to the cause of these $ischarges8 .hich is not8 as he i)(lies8 that lu)inosity in tu7es .ithout electro$es cannot 7e (ro$uce$ 7y electrostatic action8 7ut that it can also 7e (ro$uce$ .hen this action is e'clu$e$0 As a )atter of fact8 it is -ery )uch easier to get the lu)inosity .hen these electrostatic effects are o(erati-e than .hen they are not0 As an illustration of this , )ay )ention that the first e'(eri)ent , trie$ .ith the $ischarge of a #ey$en Har (ro$uce$ lu)inosity in the tu7e8 7ut it .as not until after si' .ee2s' continuous e'(eri)enting that , .as a7le to get a $ischarge in the e'hauste$ tu7e .hich , .as satisfie$ .as $ue to .hat is or$inarily calle$ electro$yna)ic action0 ,t is a$-isa7le to ha-e a clear i$ea of .hat .e )ean 7y electrostatic action0 ,f8 (re-ious to the $ischarge of the Har8 the (ri)ary coil is raise$ to a high (otential8 it .ill in$uce o-er the glass of the tu7e a $istri7ution of electricity0 &hen the (otential of the (ri)ary su$$enly falls8 this electrification .ill re$istri7ute itself8 an$ )ay (ass through8the rarefie$ gas an$ (ro$uce lu)inosity in $oing so0 &hilst the $ischarge of the Har is going on8 it is $ifficult8 an$8 fro) a theoretical (oint of -ie.8 un$esira7le8 to se(arate the effect into (arts8 one of .hich is calle$ electrostatic8 the other electro)agneticJ .hat .e can (ro-e is that in this case the $ischarge is not such as .oul$ 7e (ro$uce$ 7y electro)oti-e forces $eri-e$ fro) a (otential function0 ,n )y e'(eri)ents the (ri)ary coil .as connecte$ to earth8 an$8 as a further (recaution8 the (ri)ary .as se(arate$ fro) the $ischarge tu7e 7y a screen of 7lotting (a(er8 )oistene$ .ith $ilute sul(huric aci$8 an$ connecte$ to earth0 &et 7lotting (a(er is a sufficiently goo$ con$uctor to screen off a stationary electrostatic effect8 though it is not a goo$ enough one to sto( .a-es of alternating electro)oti-e intensity0 &hen sho.ing the e'(eri)ents to the <hysical >ociety , coul$ not8 of course8
2ee( the tu7es co-ere$ u(8 7ut8 unless )y )e)ory $ecei-es )e8 , state$ the (recautions .hich ha$ 7een ta2en against the electrostatic effect0 To correct )isa((rehension , )ay state that , $i$ not rea$ a for)al (a(er to the >ociety8 )y o7Hect 7eing to e'hi7it a fe. of the )ost ty(ical e'(eri)ents0 The account of the e'(eri)ents in the Electrician .as fro) a re(orter's note8 an$ .as not .ritten8 or e-en rea$8 7y )e0 , ha-e no. al)ost finishe$ .riting out8 an$ ho(e -ery shortly to (u7lish8 an account of these an$ a large nu)7er of allie$ e'(eri)ents8 inclu$ing so)e analogous to those )entione$ 7y /r0 Tesla on the effect of con$uctors (lace$ near the $ischarge tu7e8 .hich , fin$8 in so)e cases8 to (ro$uce a $i)inution8 in others an increase8 in the 7rightness of the $ischarge8 as .ell as so)e on the effect of the (resence of su7stances of large s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity0 These see) to )e to a$)it of a satisfactory e'(lanation8 for .hich8 ho.e-er8 , )ust refer to )y (a(er0" +"<#D T; E0 E0 TH;/>;1'> 1;T" ,1 TH" E%E2T!I2IAN8 EC#D !6818910 ,n The Electrical Engineer of August 1!8 , fin$ so)e re)ar2s of <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son8 .hich a((eare$ originally in the #on$on Electrician an$ .hich ha-e a 7earing u(on so)e e'(eri)ents $escri7e$ 7y )e in your issue of Euly 10 , $i$ not8 as <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son see)s to 7elie-e8 )isun$erstan$ his (osition in regar$ to the cause of the (heno)ena consi$ere$8 7ut , thought that in his e'(eri)ents8 as .ell as in )y o.n8 electrostatic effects .ere of great i)(ortance0 ,t $i$ not a((ear8 from the )eagre $escri(tion of his e'(eri)ents8 that all (ossi7le (recautions ha$ 7een ta2en to e'clu$e these effects0 , $i$ not $ou7t that lu)inosity coul$ 7e e'cite$ in a close$ tu7e .hen electrostatic action is co)(letely e'clu$e$0 ,n fact8 at the outset8 , )yself loo2e$ for a (urely electro$yna)ic effect an$ 7elie-e$ that , ha$ o7taine$ it0 3ut )any e'(eri)ents (erfor)e$ at that ti)e (ro-e$ to )e that the electrostatic effects .ere generally of far greater i)(ortance8 an$ a$)itte$ of a )ore satisfactory e'(lanation of )ost of the (heno)ena o7ser-e$0 ,n using the ter) electrostatic , ha$ reference rather to the nature of the action than to a stationary con$ition8 .hich is the usual acce(tance of the ter)0 To e'(ress )yself )ore clearly8 , .ill su((ose that near a close$ e'hauste$ tu7e 7e (lace$ a s)all s(here charge$ to a -ery high (otential0 The s(here .oul$ act in$ucti-ely u(on the tu7e8 an$ 7y $istri7uting electricity o-er the sa)e .oul$ un$ou7te$ly (ro$uce lu)inosity (if the (otential 7e sufficiently high 8 until a (er)anent con$ition .oul$ 7e reache$0 Assu)ing the tu7e to 7e (erfectly .ell insulate$8 there .oul$ 7e only one instantaneous flash $uring the act of $istri7ution0 This .oul$ 7e $ue to the electrostatic action si)(ly0 3ut no.8 su((ose the charge$ s(here to 7e )o-e$ at short inter-als .ith great s(ee$ along the e'hauste$ tu7e0 The tu7e .oul$ no. 7e (er)anently e'cite$8 as the )o-ing s(here .oul$ cause a constant re$istri7ution of electricity an$ collisions of the )olecules of the rarefie$ gas0 &e .oul$ still ha-e to $eal .ith an electrostatic effect8 an$ in a$$ition an electro$yna)ic effect .oul$ 7e o7ser-e$0 3ut if it .ere foun$ that8 for instance8 the effect (ro$uce$ $e(en$e$ )ore on the s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity than on the )agnetic (er)ea7ility of the )e$iu) K .hich .oul$ certainly 7e the case for s(ee$s inco)(ara7ly lo.er than that of light K then , 7elie-e , .oul$ 7e Hustifie$ in saying that the effect (ro$uce$ .as )ore of an electrostatic nature0 , $o not )ean to say8 ho.e-er8 that any si)ilar con$ition (re-ails in the case of the $ischarge of a #ey$en Har through the (ri)ary8 7ut , thin2 that such an action .oul$ 7e $esira7le0 ,t is in the s(irit of the a7o-e e'a)(le that , use$ the ter)s ")ore of an electrostatic nature8" an$ ha-e in-estigate$ the influence of 7o$ies of high s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity8 an$ o7ser-e$8 for instance8 the i)(ortance of the quality of glass of .hich the tu7e is )a$e0 , also en$ea-oure$ to ascertain the influence of a )e$iu) of high (er)ea7ility 7y using o'ygen0 ,t a((eare$ fro) rough esti)ation that an o'ygen tu7e .hen e'cite$ un$er si)ilar con$itions K that is8 as far as coul$ 7e $eter)ine$ K gi-es )ore lightJ 7ut this8 of course8 )ay 7e $ue to )any causes0 &ithout $ou7ting in the least that8 .ith the care an$ (recautions ta2en 7y <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son8 the lu)inosity e'cite$ .as $ue solely to electro$yna)ic action8 , .oul$ say that in )any e'(eri)ents , ha-e o7ser-e$ curious instances of the ineffecti-eness of the screening8 an$ , ha-e also foun$ that the electrification through the air is often of -ery great i)(ortance8 an$ )ay8 in so)e cases8 $eter)ine the e'citation of the tu7e0 ,n his original co))unication to the Electrician8 <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son refers to the fact that the lu)inosity in a tu7e near a .ire through .hich a #ey$en Har .as $ischarge$ .as note$ 7y Hittorf0 , thin2 that the fee7le lu)inous effect referre$ to has 7een note$ 7y )any e'(eri)enters8 7ut in )y e'(eri)ents the effects .ere )uch )ore (o.erful than those usually note$0
18-1-0--0": Notes on an =ni$olar %ynamo 4y Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer ,t is characteristic of fun$a)ental $isco-eries8 of great achie-e)ents of intellect8 that they retain an un$i)inishe$ (o.er u(on the i)agination of the thin2er0 The )e)ora7le e'(eri)ent of Fara$ay .ith a $isc rotating 7et.een the t.o (oles of a )agnet8 .hich has 7orne such )agnificent fruit8 has long (asse$ into e-ery9$ay e'(erienceJ yet there are certain features a7out this e)7ryo of the (resent $yna)os an$ )otors .hich e-en to9$ay a((ear to us stri2ing8 an$ are .orthy of the )ost careful stu$y0 Consi$er8 for instance8 the case of a $isc of iron or other )etal re-ol-ing 7et.een the t.o o((osite (oles of a )agnet8 an$ the (olar surfaces co)(letely co-ering 7oth si$es of the $isc8 an$ assu)e the current to 7e ta2en off or con-eye$ to the sa)e 7y contacts unifor)ly fro) all (oints of the (eri(hery of the $isc0 Ta2e first the case of a )otor0 ,n all or$inary )otors the o(eration is $e(en$ent u(on so)e shifting or change of the resultant of the )agnetic attraction e'erte$ u(on the ar)ature8 this (rocess 7eing effecte$ either 7y so)e )echanical contri-ance on the )otor or 7y the action of currents of the (ro(er character0 &e )ay e'(lain the o(eration of such a )otor Hust as .e can that of a .ater9.heel0 3ut if the a7o-e e'a)(le of the $isc surroun$e$ co)(letely 7y the (olar surfaces8 there is no shifting of the )agnetic action8 no change .hate-er8 as far as .e 2no.8 an$ yet rotation ensues0 Here8 then8 or$inary consi$erations $o not a((lyJ .e cannot e-en gi-e a su(erficial e'(lanation8 as in or$inary )otors8 an$ the o(eration .ill 7e clear to us only .hen .e shall ha-e recogniBe$ the -ery nature of the forces concerne$8 an$ fatho)e$ the )ystery of the in-isi7le connecting )echanis)0 Consi$ere$ as a $yna)o )achine8 the $isc is an equally interesting o7Hect of stu$y0 ,n a$$ition to its (eculiarity of gi-ing currents of one $irection .ithout the e)(loy)ent of co))utating $e-ices8 such a )achine $iffers fro) or$inary $yna)os in that there is no reaction 7et.een ar)ature an$ fiel$0 The ar)ature current ten$s to set u( a )agnetiBation at right angles to that of the fiel$ current8 7ut since the current is ta2en off unifor)ly fro) all (oints of the (eri(hery8 an$ since8 to he e'alt8 the e'ternal circuit )ay also 7e arrange$ (erfectly sy))etrical to the fiel$ )agnet8 no reaction can occur0 This8 ho.e-er8 is true only as long as the )agnets are .ea2ly energiBe$8 for .hen the )agnets are )ore or less saturate$8 7oth )agnetiBations at right angles see)ingly interfere .ith each other0 For the a7o-e reason alone it .oul$ a((ear that the out(ut of such a )achineJ shoul$8 for the sa)e .eight8 7e )uch greater than that of any other )achine in .hich the ar)ature current ten$s to $e)agnetiBe the fiel$0 The e'traor$inary out(ut of the For7es uni(olar $yna)o an$ the e'(erience of the .riter confir) this -ie.0 Again8 the facility .ith .hich such a )achine )ay 7e )a$e to e'cite itself is stri2ing8 7ut this )ay 7e $ue P 7esi$es to the a7sence of ar)ature reaction P to the $efect s)oothness of the current an$ non9e'istence of self9 in$uction0 ,f the (oles $o not co-er the $isc co)(letely on 7oth si$es8 then8 of course8 unless the $isc 7e (ro(erly su7$i-i$e$8 the )achine .ill 7e -ery inefficient0 Again8 in this case there are (oints .orthy of notice0 ,f the $isc tie rotate$ an$ the fiel$ current interru(te$8 the current through the ar)ature .ill continue to flo. an$ the fiel$ )agnets .ill lose their strength co)(arati-ely slo.ly0 The reason for this .ill at once a((ear .hen .e consi$er the $irection of the currents set u( in the $isc0 +eferring to the $iagra) Fig0 18 $ re(resents the $isc .ith the sli$ing contacts 3 3' on the shaft an$ (eri(hery8 1 an$ > re(resent the t.o (oles of a )agnet0
Fig0 1
,f the (ole 1 7e a7o-e8 as in$icate$ in the $iagra)8 the $isc 7eing su((ose$ to 7e in the (lane of the (a(er8 an$ rotating in the $irection of the arro. =8 the current set u( in the $isc .ill flo. fro) the centre to the (eri(hery8 as in$icate$ 7y the arro. A0 >ince the )agnetic action is )ore or less confine$ to the s(ace 7et.een the (oles 1 >8 the other (ortions of the $isc )ay 7e consi$ere$ inacti-e0 The current set u( .ill therefore not .holly (ass through the e'ternal circuit F8 7ut .ill close through the $isc itself8 an$ generally8 if the $is(osition 7e in any .ay si)ilar to the one illustrate$8 7y far the greater (ortion of the current generate$ .ill not a((ear e'ternally8 as the circuit F is (ractically short9circuite$ 7y the inacti-e (ortions of the $isc0 The $irection of the resulting currents in the latter )ay 7e assu)e$ to 7e as in$icate$ 7y the $otte$ lines an$ arro.s ) an$ nJ an$ the $irection of the energiBing fiel$ current 7eing in$icate$ 7y the arro.s a 7 c $8 an ins(ection of the figure sho.s that one of the t.o 7ranches of the e$$y current8 that is8 A 3' ) 38 .ill ten$ to $e)agnetiBe the fiel$8 .hile the other 7ranch8 that is8 A 3' n 38 .ill ha-e the o((osite effect0 Therefore8 the 7ranch A 3' ) 38 that is8 the one .hich is a((roaching the fiel$8 .ill re(el the lines of the sa)e8 .hile 7ranch A 3' n 38 that is8 the one lea-ing the fiel$8 .ill gather the lines of force u(on itself0 ,n consequence of this there .ill 7e a constant ten$ency to re$uce the current flo. in the (ath A3' ) 38 .hile on the other han$ no such o((osition .ill e'ist in (ath A 3' n 38 an$ the effect of the latter 7ranch or (ath .ill 7e )ore or less (re(on$erating o-er that of the for)er0 The Hoint effect of 7oth the assu)e$ 7ranch currents )ight 7e re(resente$ 7y that of one single current of the sa)e $irection as that energiBing the fiel$0 ,n other .or$s8 the e$$y currents circulating in the $isc .ill energiBe the fiel$ )agnet0 This is a result quite contrary to .hat .e )ight 7e le$ to su((ose at first8 for .e .oul$ naturally e'(ect that the resulting effect of the ar)ature currents .oul$ 7e such as to o((ose the fiel$ current8 as generally occurs .hen a (ri)ary an$ secon$ary con$uctor are (lace$ in in$ucti-e relations Co each ;ther8 3ut it )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that this result fro) the (eculiar $is(osition in this case8 na)ely8 t.o (aths 7eing affor$e$ to the current8 an$ the latter selecting that (ath .hich offers the least o((osition to its flo.0 Fro) this .e see that the e$$y currents flo.ing in the $isc (artly energiBe the fiel$8 an$ for this reason .hen the fiel$ current is interru(te$ the currents in the $isc .ill continue to flo.8 an$ the fiel$ )agnet .ill lose its strength .ith co)(arati-e slo.ness an$ )ay e-en retain a certain strength as long as the rotation of the $isc is continue$0
Fig0 !
Fig0 3
The result .ill8 of course8 largely $e(en$ on the resistance an$ geo)etrical $i)ensions of the (ath of the resulting e$$y current an$ on the s(ee$ of rotationJ these ele)ents8 na)ely8 $eter)ine the retar$ation of this current an$ its (osition relati-e to the fiel$0 For a certain s(ee$ there .oul$ 7e a )a'i)u) energiBing actionI then at higher s(ee$s8 it .oul$ gra$ually fall off to Bero an$ finally re-erse8 that is8 the resultant e$$y current effect .oul$ 7e to .ea2en the fiel$0 The reaction .oul$ 7e 7est $e)onstrate$ e'(eri)entally 7y arranging the fiel$s 1 >8 1' >'8 freely )o-a7le on an a'is concentric .ith the shaft of the $isc0 ,f the latter .ere rotate$ as 7efore in the $irection of the arro. =8 the fiel$ .oul$ 7e $ragge$ in the sa)e $irection .ith a torque8 .hich8 u( to a certain (oint8 .oul$ go on increasing .ith the s(ee$ of rotation8 then fall off8 an$8 (assing through Bero8 finally 7eco)e negati-eJ that is8 the fiel$ .oul$ 7egin to rotate in o((osite $irection to the $isc0 ,n e'(eri)ents .ith alternate current )otors in .hich the fiel$ .as shifte$ 7y currents of $iffering (hase8 this interesting result .as o7ser-e$0 For -ery lo. s(ee$s of rotation of the fiel$ the )otor .oul$ sho. a torque of 955 l7s0 or )ore8 )easure$ on a8 (ulley 1! inches in $ia)eter0 &hen the s(ee$ of rotation of the (oles .as increase$8 the torque .oul$ $i)inish8 .oul$ finally go $o.n to Bero8 7eco)e negati-e8 an$ then the ar)ature .oul$ 7egin to rotate in o((osite $irection to the fiel$9To return to the (rinci(al su7HectJ assu)e the con$itions to 7e such that the e$$y currents generate$ 7y the rotation of the $isc strengthen the fiel$8 an$ su((ose the latter gra$ually re)o-e$ .hile the $isc is 2e(t rotating at an increase$ rate0 The current8 once starte$8 )ay then 7e sufficient to )aintain itself an$ e-en increase in strength8 an$ then .e ha-e the case of >ir &illia) Tho)son's "current accu)ulator"0 3ut fro) the a7o-e consi$erations it .oul$ see) that for the success of the e'(eri)ent the e)(loy)ent of a $isc not su7$i-i$e$ .oul$ 7e essential8 for if there shoul$ 7e a ra$ial su7$i-ision8 the e$$y currents coul$ not for) an$ the self9e'citing action .oul$ cease0 ,f such a ra$ially su7$i-i$e$ $isc .ere use$ it .oul$ 7e necessary to connect the s(o2es 7y a con$ucting ri) or in any (ro(er )anner so as to for) a sy))etrical syste) of close$ circuits0 The action of the e$$y currents )ay 7e utiliBe$ to e'cite a )achine of any construction0 For instance8 in Figs0 ! an$ 3 an arrange)ent is sho.n 7y .hich a )achine .ith a $isc ar)ature )ight 7e e'cite$0 Here a nu)7er of )agnets8 1 >8 1 >8 are (lace$ ra$ially on each si$e of a )etal $isc = carrying on its ri) a0 set of insulate$ coils8 C C The )agnets for) t.o se(arate fiel$s8 an internal an$ an e'ternal one8 the soli$ $isc rotating in the fiel$ nearest the a'is8 an$ the coils in the fiel$ further fro) it9Assu)e the )agnets slightly energiBe$ at the startJ they coul$ 7e strengthene$ 7y the action of the e$$y currents in the soli$ $isc so as to affor$ a stronger fiel$ for the (eri(heral coils0 Although there is no $ou7t that un$er (ro(er con$itions a )achine )ight 7e e'cite$ in this or a si)ilar )anner8 there 7eing sufficient e'(eri)ental e-i$ence to .arrant such an assertion8 such a )o$e of e'citation .oul$ 7e .asteful0 3ut an uni(olar $yna)o or )otor8 such as sho.n in Fig8 1 )ay 7e e'cite$ in an efficient )anner 7y si)(ly (ro(erly su7$i-i$ing the $isc or cylin$er in .hich the currents are set u(8 an$ it is (ractica7le to $o a.ay .ith the fiel$ coils .hich are usually e)(loye$0 >uch a (lan is illustrate$ in Fig0 60 The $isc or cylin$er = is su((ose$ to 7e arrange$ to rotate 7et.een the t.o (oles 1 an$ > of a )agnet8 .hich co)(letely co-er it on 7oth si$es8 the contours of the $isc an$ (oles 7eing re(resente$ 7y the circles $ an$ $' res(ecti-ely8 the u((er (ole 7eing o)itte$ for the sa2e of clearness0
Fig0 6
Fig0 4
The cores of the )agnet are su((ose$ to 7e hollo.8 the shaft C of the $isc (assing through the)0 ,f the un)ar2e$ (ole 7e 7elo.8 an$ the $isc 7e rotate$ scre. fashion8 the current .ill 7e8 as 7efore8 fro) the centre to the (eri(hery8 an$ )ay 7e ta2en off 7y suita7le sli$ing contacts8 3 3'8 on the shaft an$ (eri(hery res(ecti-ely0 ,n this arrange)ent the current flo.ing through the $isc an$ e'ternal circuit .ill ha-e no a((recia7le effect on the fiel$ )agnet0 3ut let us no. su((ose the $isc to 7e su7$i-i$e$8 s(irally8 as in$icate$ 7y the full or $otte$ lines0 Fig0 60 The $ifference of (otential 7et.een a (oint on the shaft an$ a (oint on the (eri(hery .ilt re)ain unchange$8 in sign as .ell as in a)ount0 The only $ifference .ill 7e that the resistance of the $isc .ill 7e aug)ente$ an$ that there .ill 7e a greater fall of (otential fro) a (oint on the shaft to a (oint on the (eri(hery .hen the sa)e current is tra-ersing the e'ternal circuit0 3ut since the current is force$ to follo. the lines of su7$i-ision8 .e see that it .ill ten$ either to energiBe or $e9energiBe the fiel$8 an$ this .ill $e(en$8 other things 7eing equal8 u(on the $irection of the #ines of su7$i-ision0 ,f the su7$i-ision 7e as in$icate$ 7y the full lines in Fig8 68 it is e-i$ent that if the current is of the sa)e $irection as 7efore8 that is8 fro) centre to (eri(hery8 its effect .ill 7e to strengthen the fiel$ )agnetJ .hereas8 if the su7$i-ision 7e as in$icate$ 7y the $otte$ lines8 the current generate$ .ill ten$ to .ea2en the )agnet0 ,n the for)er case the )achine .ill 7e ca(a7le of e'citing itself .hen the $isc is rotate$ in the $irection of arro. =J in the latter case the $irection of rotation )ust 7e re-erse$0 T.o such $iscs )ay 7e co)7ine$8 ho.e-er8 as in$icate$8 the t.o $iscs rotating in o((osite fiel$s8 an$ in the sa)e or o((osite $irection0 >i)ilar $is(osition )ay8 of course8 7e )a$e in a ty(e of )achine in .hich8 instea$ of a $isc8 a cylin$er is rotate$0 ,n such uni(olar )achines8 in the )anner in$icate$8 the usual fiel$ coils an$ (oles )ay 7e o)itte$ an$ the )achine )ay 7e )a$e to consist only of a cylin$er or of t.o $iscs en-elo(e$ 7y a )etal casting0 ,nstea$ of su7$i-i$ing the $isc or cylin$er s(irally8 as in$icate$ in Fig0 68 it is )ore con-enient to inter(ose one or )ore turns 7et.een the $isc an$ the contact ring on the (eri(hery8 as illustrate$ in Fig0 40 A For7es $yna)o )ay8 for instance8 7e e'cite$ in such a )anner0 ,n the e'(erience of the .riter it has 7een foun$ that instea$ of ta2ing the current fro) t.o such $iscs 7y sli$ing contacts8 as usual8 a fle'i7le con$ucting 7elt )ay 7e e)(loye$ to a$-antage0 The $iscs are in such case (ro-i$e$ .ith large flanges8 affor$ing a -ery great contact surface0 The 7elt shoul$ 7e )a$e to 7eat on the flanges .ith s(ring (ressure to ta2e u( the e'(ansion0 >e-eral )achines .ith 7elt contact .ere constructe$ 7y the .riter t.o years ago8 an$ .or2e$ satisfactorilyJ 7ut for .ant of ti)e the .or2 in that $irection has 7een te)(orarily sus(en$e$0 A nu)7er of features8 (ointe$ out a7o-e ha-e also 7een use$ 7y the .riter in connection .ith so)e ty(es of alternating current )otors0
18-"-0"-09: *+$eriments wit, Alternate Currents of 0ig, 5otential and 0ig, 7re8uen(y by Nikola Tesla
Delivered before the Institution of Electrical Engineers+ %ondon I cannot fin$ .or$s to e'(ress ho. $ee(ly , feel the honour of a$$ressing so)e of the fore)ost thin2ers of the (resent ti)e8 an$ so )any a7le scientific )en8 engineers an$ electricians8 of the country greatest in scientific achie-e)ents0 The results .hich , ha-e the honour to (resent 7efore such a gathering , cannot call )y o.n0 There are a)ong you not a fe. .ho can lay 7etter clai) than )yself on any feature of )erit .hich this .or2 )ay contain0 , nee$ not )ention )any na)es .hich are .orl$92no.nKna)es of those a)ong you .ho are recogniBe$ as the lea$ers in this enchanting scienceJ 7ut one8 at least8 , )ust )entionKa na)e .hich coul$ not 7e o)itte$ in a $e)onstration of this 2in$0 ,t is a na)e associate$ .ith the )ost 7eautiful in-ention e-er )a$eI it is Croo2esY &hen , .as at college8 a goo$ ti)e agoJ , rea$8 in a translation (for then , .as not fa)iliar .ith you )agnificent language 8 the $escri(tion of his e'(eri)ents on ra$iant )atter0 , rea$ it only once in )y lifeKthat ti)eKyet e-ery $etail a7out that char)ing .or2 , can re)e)7er this $ay0 Fe. are the 7oo2s8 let )e say8 .hich can )a2e such an i)(ression u(on the )in$ of a stu$ent0 3ut if8 on the (resent occasion8 , )ention this na)e as one of )any your institution can 7oast of8 it is 7ecause , ha-e )ore than one reason to $o so0 For .hat , ha-e to tell you an$ to sho. you this e-ening concerns8 in a large )easure8 that sa)e -ague .orl$ .hich <rofessor Croo2es has so a7ly e'(lore$J an$8 )ore than this8 .hen , trace 7ac2 the )ental (rocess .hich le$ )e to these a$-ancesK.hich e-en 7y )yself cannot 7e consi$ere$ trifling8 since they are so a((reciate$ 7y youK, 7elie-e that their real origin8 that .hich starte$ )e to .or2 in this $irection8 an$ 7rought )e to the)8 after a long (erio$ of constant thought8 .as that fascinating little 7oo2 .hich , rea$ )any years ago0 An$ no. that , ha-e )a$e a fee7le effort to e'(ress )y ho)age an$ ac2no.le$ge )y in$e7te$ness to hi) an$ others a)ong you8 , .ill )a2e a secon$ effort8 .hich , ho(e you .ill not fin$ so fee7le as the first8 to entertain you0 Gi-e )e lea-e to intro$uce the su7Hect in a fe. .or$s0 A short ti)e ago , ha$ the honour to 7ring 7efore our A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers so)e results then arri-e$ at 7y )e in a no-el line of .or20 , nee$ not assure you that the )any e-i$ences .hich , ha-e recei-e$ that "nglish scientific )en an$ engineers .ere intereste$ in this .or2 ha-e 7een for )e a great re.ar$ an$ encourage)ent0 , .ill not $.ell u(on the e'(eri)ents alrea$y $escri7e$8 e'ce(t .ith the -ie. of co)(leting8 or )ore clearly e'(ressing8 so)e i$eas a$-ance$ 7y )e 7efore8 an$ also .ith the -ie. of ren$ering the stu$y here (resente$ self9containe$8 an$ )y re)ar2s on the su7Hect of this e-ening's lecture consistent0 This in-estigation8 then8 it goes .ithout saying8 $eals .ith alternating currents8 an$8 to 7e )ore (recise8 .ith alternating currents of high (otential an$ high frequency0 Eust in ho. )uch a -ery high frequency is essential for the (ro$uction of the results (resente$ is a question .hich8 e-en .ith )y (resent e'(erience8 .oul$ e)7arrass )e to ans.er0 >o)e of the e'(eri)ents )ay 7e (erfor)e$ .ith lo. frequenciesJ 7ut -ery high frequencies are $esira7le8 not only on account of the )any effects secure$ 7y their use8 7ut also as a con-enient )eans of o7taining8 in the in$uction a((aratus e)(loye$8 the high (otentials8 .hich in their turn are necessary to the $e)onstration of )ost of the e'(eri)ents here conte)(late$0 ;f the -arious 7ranches of electrical in-estigation8 (erha(s the )ost interesting an$ i))e$iately the )ost (ro)ising is that $ealing .ith alternating currents0 The (rogress in this 7ranch of a((lie$ science has 7een so great in recent years that it Hustifies the )ost sanguine ho(es0 Har$ly ha-e .e 7eco)e fa)iliar .ith one fact8 .hen no-el e'(eriences are )et .ith an$ ne. a-enues of research are o(ene$0 "-en at this hour (ossi7ilities not $rea)e$ of 7efore are8 7y the use of these currents8 (artly realiBe$0 As ,n nature all is e77 an$ ti$e8 all is .a-e )otion8 so it see)s that in all 7ranches of in$ustry alternating currentsKelectric .a-e )otionK.ill ha-e the s.ay0 ;ne reason8 (erha(s8 .hy this 7ran$ of science is 7eing so ra(i$ly $e-elo(e$ is to 7e foun$ in the interest .hich is attache$ to its e'(eri)ental stu$y0 &e .in$ a si)(le ring of iron .ith coilsJ .e esta7lish the connections to the generator8 an$ .ith .on$er an$ $elight .e note the effects of strange forces .hich .e 7ring into (lay8 .hich allo. us to transfor)8 to trans)it an$ $irect energy at .ill0 &e arrange the circuits (ro(erly8 an$ .e see the )ass of iron an$ .ires 7eha-e as though it .ere en$o.e$ .ith life8 s(inning a hea-y ar)ature8 through in-isi7le
connections8 .ith great s(ee$ an$ (o.er .ith the energy (ossi7ly con-eye$ fro) a great $istance0 &e o7ser-e ho. the energy of an alternating current tra-ersing the .ire )anifests itselfKnot so )uch in the .ire as in the surroun$ing s(aceKin the )ost sur(rising )anner8 ta2ing the for)s of heat8 light8 )echanical energy8 an$8 )ost sur(rising of all8 e-en che)ical affinity0 All these o7ser-ations fascinate us8 an$ fill us .ith an intense $esire to 2no. )ore a7out the nature of these (heno)ena0 "ach $ay .e go to our .or2 in the ho(e of $isco-eringKin the ho(e that so)e one8 no )atter .ho8 )ay fin$ a solution of one of the (en$ing great (ro7le)s8Kan$ each succee$ing $ay .e return to our tas2 .ith rene.e$ ar$orJ an$ e-en if .e are unsuccessful8 our .or2 has not 7een in -ain8 for in these stri-ings8 in these efforts8 .e ha-e hours of untol$ (leasure8 an$ .e ha-e $irecte$ our energies to the 7enefit of )an2in$0 &e )ay ta2eKat ran$o)8 if you chooseKany of the )any e'(eri)ents .hich )ay 7e (erfor)e$ .ith alternating currentsJ a fe. of .hich only8 an$ 7y no )eans the )ost stri2ing8 for) the su7Hect of this e-ening's $e)onstrationJ they are all equally interesting8 equally inciting to thought0 Here is a si)(le glass tu7e fro) .hich the air has 7een (artially e'hauste$0 , ta2e hol$ of itJ , 7ring )y 7o$y in contact .ith a .ire con-eying alternating currents of high (otential8 an$ the tu7e in )y han$ is 7rilliantly lighte$0 ,n .hate-er (osition , )ay (ut it8 .here-er , )ay )o-e it in s(ace8 as far as , can reach8 its soft8 (leasing light (ersists .ith un$i)inishe$ 7rightness0 Here is an e'hauste$ 7ul7 sus(en$e$ fro) a single .ire0 >tan$ing on an insulate$ su((ort8 , gras( it8 an$ a (latinu) 7utton )ounte$ in it is 7rought to -i-i$ incan$escence0 Here8 attache$ to a lea$ing .ire is another 7ul78 .hich8 as , touch its )etallic soc2et8 is fille$ .ith )agnificent colors of (hos(horescent light0 Here still another8 .hich 7y )y fingers' touch casts a sha$o.Kthe Croo2es sha$o.8 of the ste) insi$e of it0 Here8 again8 insulate$ as , stan$ on this (latfor)8 , 7ring )y 7o$y in contact .ith one of the ter)inals of the secon$ary of this in$uction coilK.ith the en$ of a .ire )any )iles longKan$ you see strea)s of light 7rea2 forth fro) its $istant en$8 .hich is set in -iolent -i7ration0 Here8 once )ore8 attach these t.o (lates of .ire gauBe to the ter)inals of the coil8 , set the) a $istance a(art8 an$ , set the coil to .or20 Dou )ay see a s)all s(ar2 (ass 7et.een the (lates0 , insert a thic2 (late of one of the 7est $ielectrics 7et.een the)8 an$ instea$ of ren$ering altogether i)(ossi7le8 as .e are use$ to e'(ect8 , aid the (assage of the $ischarge8 .hich8 as , insert the (late8 )erely changes in a((earance an$ assu)es the for) of lu)inous strea)s0 ,s there8 , as28 can there 7e8 a )ore interesting stu$y than that of alternating currentsF ,n all these in-estigations8 in all these e'(eri)ents8 .hich are so -ery8 -ery interesting8 for )any years (astK e-er since the greatest e'(eri)enter .ho lecture$ in this hall $isco-ere$ its (rinci(leK.e ha-e ha$ a stea$y co)(anion8 an a((liance fa)iliar to e-ery one8 a (laything once8 a thing of )o)entous i)(ortance no.Kthe in$uction coil0 There is no $earer a((liance to the electrician0 Fro) the a7lest a)ong you8 , $are say8 $o.n to the ine'(erience$ stu$ent8 to your lecturer8 .e all ha-e (asse$ )any $elightful hours in e'(eri)enting .ith the in$uction coil0 &e ha-e .atche$ its (lay8 an$ thought an$ (on$ere$ o-er the 7eautiful (heno)ena .hich it $isclose$ to our ra-ishe$ eyes0 >o .ell 2no.n is this a((aratus8 so fa)iliar are these (heno)ena to e-ery one8 that )y courage nearly fails )e .hen , thin2 that , ha-e -enture$ to a$$ress so a7le an au$ience8 that , ha-e -enture$ to entertain you .ith that sa)e ol$ su7Hect0 Here in reality is the sa)e a((aratus8 an$ here are the sa)e (heno)ena8 only the a((aratus is o(erate$ so)e.hat $ifferently8 the (heno)ena are (resente$ in a $ifferent as(ect0 >o)e of the results .e fin$ as e'(ecte$8 others sur(rise us8 7ut all ca(ti-ate our attention8 for in scientific in-estigation each no-el result achie-e$ )ay 7e the centre of a ne. $e(arture8 each no-el fact learne$ )ay lea$ to i)(ortant $e-elo()ents0 Csually in o(erating an in$uction foil .e ha-e set u( a -i7ration of )o$erate frequency in the (ri)ary8 either 7y )eans of an interru(ter or 7rea28 or 7y the use of an alternator0 "arlier "nglish in-estigators8 to )ention only >(ottis.oo$e an$ E0 "0 H0 Gor$on8 ha-e use$ a ra(i$ 7rea2 in connection .ith the coil0 ;ur 2no.le$ge an$ e'(erience of to9$ay ena7les us to see clearly .hy these coils un$er the con$itions of the tests $i$ not $isclose any re)ar2a7le (heno)ena8 an$ .hy a7le e'(eri)enters faile$ to (ercei-e )any of the curious effects .hich ha-e since 7een o7ser-e$0 ,n the e'(eri)ents such as (erfor)e$ this e-ening8 .e o(erate the coil either fro) a s(ecially constructe$ alternator ca(a7le of gi-ing )any thousan$s of re-ersals of current (er secon$8 or8 7y $isru(ti-ely $ischarging a con$enser through the (ri)ary8 .e set u( a -i7ration in the secon$ary circuit of a frequency of )any hun$re$
thousan$ or )illions (er secon$8 if .e so $esireJ an$ in using either of these )eans .e enter a fiel$ as yet une'(lore$0 ,t is i)(ossi7le to (ursue an in-estigation in any no-el line .ithout finally )a2ing so)e interesting o7ser-ation or learning so)e useful fact0 That this state)ent is a((lica7le to the su7Hect of this lecture the )any curious an$ une'(ecte$ (heno)ena .hich .e o7ser-e affor$ a con-incing (roof0 3y .ay of illustration8 ta2e for instance the )ost o7-ious (heno)ena8 those of the $ischarge of the in$uction coil0 Here is a coil .hich is o(erate$ 7y currents -i7rating .ith e'tre)e ra(i$ity8 o7taine$ 7y $isru(ti-ely $ischarging a #ey$en Har0 ,t .oul$ not sur(rise a stu$ent .ere the lecturer to say that the secon$ary of this coil consists of a s)all length of co)(arati-ely stout .ireJ it .oul$ not sur(rise hi) .ere the lecturer to state that8 in s(ite of this8 the coil is ca(a7le of gi-ing any (otential .hich the 7est insulation of the turns is a7le to .ithstan$J 7ut although he )ay 7e (re(are$8 an$ e-en 7e in$ifferent as to the antici(ate$ result8 yet the as(ect of the $ischarge of the coil .ill sur(rise an$ interest hi)0 "-ery one is fa)iliar .ith the $ischarge of an or$inary coilJ it nee$ not 7e re(ro$uce$ here0 3ut8 7y .ay of contrast8 here is a for) of $ischarge of a coil8 the (ri)ary current of .hich is -i7rating se-eral hun$re$ thousan$ ti)es (er secon$0 The $ischarge of an or$inary coil a((ears as a si)(le line or 7an$ of light0 The $ischarge of this coil a((ears in the for) of (o.erful 7rushes an$ lu)inous strea)s issuing fro) all (oints of the t.o straight .ires attache$ to the ter)inals of the secon$ary (Fig0 10 1o. co)(are this (heno)enon .hich you ha-e Hust .itnesse$ .ith the $ischarge of a HoltB or &i)shurst )achineKthat other interesting a((liance8 so $ear to the e'(eri)enter0 &hat a $ifference there is 7et.een these (heno)enaY An$ yet8 ha$ , )a$e the necessary arrange)entsK.hich coul$ ha-e 7een )a$e easily8 .ere it not that they .oul$ interfere .ith other e'(eri)entsK, coul$ ha-e (ro$uce$ .ith this coil s(ar2s .hich8 ha$ , the coil hi$$en fro) your -ie. an$ only t.o 2no7s e'(ose$8 e-en the 2eenest o7ser-er a)ong you .oul$ fin$ it $ifficult8 if not i)(ossi7le8 to $istinguish fro) those of an influence or friction )achine0 This )ay 7e $one in )any .aysKfor instance8 7y o(erating the in$uction coil .hich charges the con$enser fro) an alternating9current )achine of -ery lo. frequency8 an$ (refera7ly a$Husting the $ischarge circuit so that there are no oscillations set u( in it0 &e then o7tain in the secon$ary circuit8 if the 2no7s are of the require$ siBe an$ (ro(erly set8 a )ore or less ra(i$ succession of s(ar2s of great intensity an$ s)all quantity8 .hich (ossess the sa)e 7rilliancy8 an$ are acco)(anie$ 7y the sa)e shar( crac2ling soun$8 as those o7taine$ fro) a friction or influence )achine0 Another .ay is to (ass through t.o (ri)ary circuits8 ha-ing a co))on secon$ary8 t.o currents of a slightly $ifferent (erio$8 .hich (ro$uce in the secon$ary circuit s(ar2s occurring at co)(arati-ely long inter-als0 3ut8 e-en .ith the )eans at han$ this e-ening8 , )ay succee$ in i)itating the s(ar2 of a HoltB )achine0 For this (ur(ose , esta7lish 7et.een the ter)inals of the coil .hich charges the con$enser a long8 unstea$y arc8 .hich is (erio$ically interru(te$ 7y the u(.ar$ current of air (ro$uce$ 7y it0 To increase the current of air , (lace on each si$e of the arc8 an$ close to it8 a large (late of )ica0 The con$enser charge$ fro) this coil $ischarge into the (ri)ary circuit of a secon$ coil through a s)all air ga(8 .hich is necessary to (ro$uce a su$$en rush of current through the (ri)ary0 The sche)e of connections in the (resent e'(eri)ent is in$icate$ in Fig0 !0 5 is an or$inarily constructe$ alternator8 su((lying the (ri)ary 3 of an in$uction coil8 the secon$ary & of .hich charges the con$ensers or Hars 2 20 The ter)inals of the secon$ary are connecte$ to the insi$e coatings of the Hars8 the outer coatings 7eing connecte$ to the en$s of the (ri)ary * * of a secon$ in$uction coil0 This (ri)ary * * has a s)all air ga( a b0
The secon$ary s of this coil is (ro-i$e$ .ith 2no7s or s(heres 6 6 of the (ro(er siBe an$ set at a $istance suita7le for the e'(eri)ent0 A long arc is esta7lishe$ 7et.een the ter)inals A 4 of the first in$uction coil0 / / are the )ica (lates0
"ach ti)e the arc is 7ro2en 7et.een A an$ 4 the Hars are quic2ly charge$ an$ $ischarge$ through the (ri)ary * *8 (ro$ucing a sna((ing s(ar2 7et.een the 2no7s 6 60 C(on the arc for)ing 7et.een A an$ 4 the (otential falls8 an$ the Hars cannot 7e charge$ to such high (otential as to 7rea2 through the air ga( a b until the arc is again 7ro2en 7y the $raught0 ,n this )anner su$$en i)(ulses8 at long inter-als8 are (ro$uce$ in the (ri)ary 3 38 .hich in the secon$ary s gi-e a corres(on$ing nu)7er of i)(ulses of great intensity0 ,f the secon$ary 2no7s or s(heres 6 6 are of the (ro(er siBe8 the s(ar2s sho. )uch rese)7lance to those of a HoltB )achine0 3ut these t.o effects8 .hich to the eye a((ear so -ery $ifferent8 are only t.o of the )any $ischarge (heno)ena0 &e only nee$ to change the con$itions of the test8 an$ again .e )a2e other o7ser-ations of interest0 &hen8 instea$ of o(erating the in$uction coil as in the last t.o e'(eri)ents8 .e o(erate it fro) a high frequency alternator8 as in the ne't e'(eri)ent8 a syste)atic stu$y of the (heno)ena is ren$ere$ )uch )ore easy0 ,n such case8 in -arying the strength an$ frequency of the currents through the (ri)ary8 .e )ay o7ser-e fi-e $istinct for)s of $ischarge8 .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ in )y for)er (a(er on the su7Hect 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 /ay !58 1891 ?"'(eri)ents &ith Alternate Currents of Gery High Frequency an$ Their A((lication to /etho$s of Artificial ,llu)ination@ (see The "lectrical &orl$8 Euly 118 1891 0
,t .oul$ ta2e too )uch ti)e8 an$ it .oul$ lea$ us too far fro) the su7Hect (resente$ this e-ening8 to re(ro$uce all these for)s8 7ut it see)s to )e $esira7le to sho. you one of the)0 ,t is a 7rush $ischarge8 .hich is interesting in )ore than one res(ect0 Gie.e$ fro) a near (osition it rese)7les )uch a Het of gas esca(ing un$er great (ressure0 &e 2no. that the (heno)enon is $ue to the agitation of the )olecules near the ter)inal8 an$ .e antici(ate that so)e heat )ust 7e $e-elo(e$ 7y the i)(act of the )olecules against the ter)inal or against each other0 ,n$ee$8 .e fin$ that the 7rush is hot8 an$ only a little thought lea$s us to the conclusion that8 coul$ .e 7ut reach sufficiently high frequencies8 .e coul$ (ro$uce a 7rush .hich .oul$ gi-e intense light an$ heat8 an$ .hich .oul$ rese)7le in e-ery (articular an or$inary fla)e8 sa-e8 (erha(s8 that 7oth (heno)ena )ight not 7e $ue to the sa)e agentKsa-e8 (erha(s8 that che)ical affinity )ight not 7e electrical in its nature0 As the (ro$uction of heat an$ light is here $ue to the i)(act of the )olecules8 or ato)s of air8 or so)ething else 7esi$es8 an$8 as .e can aug)ent the energy si)(ly 7y raising the (otential8 .e )ight8 e-en .ith frequencies o7taine$ fro) a $yna)o )achine8 intensify the action to such a $egree as to 7ring the ter)inal to )elting heat0 3ut .ith such lo. frequencies .e .oul$ ha-e to $eal al.ays .ith so)ething of the nature of an electric current0 ,f , a((roach a con$ucting o7Hect to the 7rush8 a thin little s(ar2 (asses8 yet8 e-en .ith the frequencies use$ this e-ening8 the ten$ency to s(ar2 is not -ery great0 >o8 for instance8 if , hol$ a )etallic s(here at so)e $istance a7o-e the ter)inal you )ay see the .hole s(ace 7et.een the ter)inal an$ s(here illu)inate$ 7y the strea)s .ithout the s(ar2 (assingJ an$ .ith the )uch higher frequencies o7taina7le 7y the $isru(ti-e $ischarge of a con$enser8 .ere it not for the su$$en i)(ulses8 .hich are co)(arati-ely fe. in nu)7er8 s(ar2ing .oul$ not occur e-en at -ery s)all $istances0 Ho.e-er8 .ith inco)(ara7ly higher frequencies8 .hich .e )ay yet fin$ )eans to (ro$uce efficiently8 an$ (ro-i$e$ that electric i)(ulses of such high frequencies coul$ 7e trans)itte$ through a con$uctor8 the electrical characteristics of the 7rush $ischarge .oul$ co)(letely -anishKno s(ar2 .oul$ (ass8 no shoc2 .oul$ 7e feltKyet .e .oul$ still ha-e to $eal .ith an electric (heno)enon8 7ut in the 7roa$8 )o$ern inter(retation of the .or$0 ,n )y first (a(er 7efore referre$ to , ha-e (ointe$ out the curious (ro(erties of the 7rush8 an$ $escri7e$ the 7est )anner of (ro$ucing it8 7ut , ha-e thought it .orth .hile to en$ea-our to e'(ress )yself )ore clearly in regar$ to this (heno)enon8 7ecause of its a7sor7ing interest0 &hen a coil is o(erate$ .ith currents of -ery high frequency8 7eautiful 7rush effects )ay 7e (ro$uce$8 e-en if the coil 7e of co)(arati-ely s)all $i)ensions0 The e'(eri)enter )ay -ary the) in )any .ays8 an$8 if it .ere nothing else8 they affor$ a (leasing sight0 &hat a$$s to their interest is that they )ay 7e (ro$uce$ .ith one single ter)inal as .ell as .ith t.oKin fact8 often 7etter .ith one than .ith t.o0 3ut of all the $ischarge (heno)ena o7ser-e$8 the )ost (leasing to the eye8 an$ the )ost instructi-e8 are those
o7ser-e$ .ith a coil .hich is o(erate$ 7y )eans of the $isru(ti-e $ischarge of a con$enser0 The (o.er of the 7rushes8 the a7un$ance of the s(ar2s8 .hen the con$itions are (atiently a$Huste$8 is often a)aBing0 &ith e-en a -ery s)all coil8 if it 7e so .ell insulate$ as to stan$ a $ifference of (otential of se-eral thousan$ -olts (er turn8 the s(ar2s )ay 7e so a7un$ant that the .hole coil )ay a((ear a co)(lete )ass of fire0 Curiously enough the s(ar2s8 .hen the ter)inals of the coil are set at a consi$era7le $istance8 see) to $art in e-ery (ossi7le $irection as though the ter)inals .ere (erfectly in$e(en$ent of each other0 As the s(ar2s .oul$ soon $estroy the insulation it is necessary to (re-ent the)0 This is 7est $one 7y i))ersing the coil in a goo$ liqui$ insulator8 such as 7oile$9out oil0 ,))ersion in a liqui$ )ay 7e consi$ere$ al)ost an a7solute necessity for the continue$ an$ successful .or2ing of such a coil0 ,t is8 of course8 out of the question8 in an e'(eri)ental lecture8 .ith only a fe. )inutes at $is(osal for the (erfor)ance of each e'(eri)ent8 to sho. these $ischarge (heno)ena to a$-antage8 as to (ro$uce each (heno)enon at its 7est a -ery careful a$Hust)ent is require$0 3ut e-en if i)(erfectly (ro$uce$8 as they are li2ely to 7e this e-ening8 they are sufficiently stri2ing to interest an intelligent au$ience0 3efore sho.ing so)e of these curious effects , )ust8 for the sa2e of co)(leteness8 gi-e a short $escri(tion of the coil an$ other a((aratus use$ in the e'(eri)ents .ith the $isru(ti-e $ischarge this e-ening0 ,t is containe$ in a 7o' 4 (Fig0 3 of thic2 7oar$s of har$ .oo$8 co-ere$ on the outsi$e .ith Binc sheet 78 .hich is carefully sol$ere$ all aroun$0 ,t )ight 7e a$-isa7le8 in a strictly scientific in-estigation8 .hen accuracy is of great i)(ortance8 to $o a.ay .ith the )etal co-et8 as it )ight intro$uce )any errors8 (rinci(ally on account of its co)(le' action u(on the coil8 as a con$enser of -ery s)all ca(acity an$ as an electrostatic an$ electro)agnetic screen0 &hen the coil is use$ for such e'(eri)ents as are here conte)(late$8 the e)(loy)ent of the )etal co-er offers so)e (ractical a$-antages8 7ut these are not of sufficient i)(ortance to 7e $.elt u(on0 The coil shoul$ 7e (lace$ sy))etrically to the )etal co-er8 an$ the s(ace 7et.een shoul$8 of course8 not 7e too s)all8 certainly not less than8 say8 fi-e centi)etres8 7ut )uch )ore if (ossi7leJ es(ecially the t.o si$es of the Binc 7o'8 .hich are at right angles to the a'is of the coil8 shoul$ 7e sufficiently re)ote fro) the latter8 as other.ise they )ight i)(air its action an$ 7e a source of loss0 The coil consists of t.o s(ools of har$ ru77er ! ! hel$ a(art at a $istance of 15 centi)etres 7y 7olts c an$ nuts n8 li2e.ise of har$ ru77er0 "ach s(ool co)(rises a tu7e T of a((ro'i)ately 8 centi)etres insi$e $ia)eter8 an$ 3 )illi)etres thic28 u(on .hich are scre.e$ t.o flanges F F8 !6 centi)etres square8 the s(ace 7et.een the flanges 7eing a7out 3 centi)etres0 The secon$ary8 & &8 of the 7est gutta (ercha9co-ere$ .ire8 has !% layers8 15 turns in each8 gi-ing for each half a total of !%5 turns0 The t.o hal-es are .oun$ o((ositely an$ connecte$ in series8 the connection 7et.een 7oth 7eing )a$e o-er the (ri)ary0 This $is(osition 7esi$es 7eing con-enient8 has the a$-antage that .hen the coil is .ell 7alance$Kthat is8 .hen 7oth of its ter)inals T1 T1 are connecte$ to 7o$ies or $e-ices of equal ca(acityK there is not )uch $anger of 7rea2ing through to the (ri)ary8 an$ the insulation 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ the secon$ary nee$ not 7e thic20 ,n using the coil it is a$-isa7le to attach to both ter)inals $e-ices of nearly equal ca(acity8 as8 .hen the ca(acity of the ter)inals is not equal8 s(ar2s .ill 7e a(t to (ass to the (ri)ary0 To a-oi$ this8 the )i$$le (oint of the secon$ary )ay 7e connecte$ to the (ri)ary8 7ut this is not al.ays (ractica7le0 The (ri)ary 3 3 is .oun$ in t.o (arts8 an$ o((ositely8 u(on a .oo$en s(ool #8 an$ the four en$s are le$ out of the oil through har$ ru77er tu7es t t0 The en$s of the secon$ary T1 T1 are also le$ out of the oil through ru77er tu7es t1 t1 of great thic2ness0 The (ri)ary an$ secon$ary layers are insulate$ 7y cotton cloth8 the thic2ness of the insulation8 of course8 7earing so)e (ro(ortion to the $ifference of (otential 7et.een the turns of the $ifferent
layers0 "ach half of the (ri)ary has four layers8 !6 turns in each8 this gi-ing a total of 9% turns0 &hen 7oth the (arts are connecte$ in series8 this gi-es a ratio of con-ersion of a7out 1I!0*8 an$ .ith the (ri)aries in )ulti(le8 1I406 7ut in o(erating .ith -ery ra(i$ly alternating currents this ratio $oes not con-ey e-en an a((ro'i)ate i$ea of the ratio of the "0/0Fs0 in the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary circuits0 The coil is hel$ in (osition in the oil on .oo$en su((orts8 there 7eing a7out 4 centi)etres thic2ness of oil all roun$0 &here the oil is not s(ecially nee$e$8 the s(ace is fille$ .ith (ieces of .oo$8 an$ for this (ur(ose (rinci(ally the .oo$en 7o' 3 surroun$ing the .hole is use$0 The construction here sho.n is8 of course8 not the 7est on general (rinci(les8 7ut , 7elie-e it is a goo$ an$ con-enient one for the (ro$uction of effects in .hich an e'cessi-e (otential an$ a -ery s)all current are nee$e$0 ,n connection .ith the coil , use either the or$inary for) of $ischarger or a )o$ifie$ for)0 ,n the for)er , ha-e intro$uce$ t.o changes .hich secure so)e a$-antages8 an$ .hich are o7-ious0 ,f they are )entione$8 it is only in the ho(e that so)e e'(eri)enter )ay fin$ the) of use0 ;ne of the changes is that the a$Husta7le 2no7s A an$ 4 (Fig0 6 8 of the $ischarger are hel$ in Ha.s of 7rass8 8 88 7y s(ring (ressure8 this allo.ing of turning the) successi-ely into $ifferent (ositions8 an$ so $oing a.ay .ith the te$ious (rocess of frequent (olishing u(0 The other change consists in the e)(loy)ent of a strong electro)agnet N &8 .hich is (lace$ .ith its a'is at right angles to the line Hoining the 2no7s A an$ 48 an$ (ro$uces a strong )agnetic fiel$ 7et.een the)0 The (ole (ieces of the )agnet are )o-a7le an$ (ro(erly for)e$ so as to (rotru$e 7et.een the 7rass 2no7s8 in or$er to )a2e the fiel$ as intense as (ossi7leJ 7ut to (re-ent the $ischarge fro) Hu)(ing to the )agnet the (ole (ieces are (rotecte$ 7y a layer of )ica8 / /8 of sufficient thic2ness8 sl sl an$ s! s! are scre.s for fastening the .ires0 ;n each si$e one of the scre.s is for large an$ the other for s)all .ires0 % % are scre.s for fi'ing in (osition the ro$s ! !8 .hich su((ort the 2no7s0 ,n another arrange)ent .ith the )agnet , ta2e the $ischarge 7et.een the roun$e$ (ole (ieces the)sel-es8 .hich in such case are insulate$ an$ (refera7ly (ro-i$e$ .ith (olishe$ 7rass ca(s0 The e)(loy)ent of an intense )agnetic fiel$ is of a$-antage (rinci(ally .hen the in$uction coil or transfor)er .hich charges the con$enser is o(erate$ 7y currents of -ery lo. frequency0 ,n such a case the nu)7er of the fun$a)ental $ischarges 7et.een the 2no7s )ay 7e so s)all as to ren$er the currents (ro$uce$ in the secon$ary unsuita7le for )any e'(eri)ents0 The intense )agnetic fiel$ then ser-es to 7lo. out the arc 7et.een the 2no7s as soon as it is for)e$8 an$ the fun$a)ental $ischarges occur in quic2er succession0 ,nstea$ of the )agnet8 a $raught or 7last of air )ay 7e e)(loye$ .ith so)e a$-antage0 ,n this case the arc is (refera7ly esta7lishe$ 7et.een the 2no7s A 48 in Fig0 ! (the 2no7s a b 7eing generally Hoine$8 or entirely $one a.ay .ith 8 as in this $is(osition the arc is long an$ unstea$y8 an$ is easily affecte$ 7y the $raught0 &hen a )agnet is e)(loye$ to 7rea2 the arc8 it is 7etter to choose the connection in$icate$ $iagra))atically in Fig 48 as in this case the currents for)ing the arc are )uch )ore (o.erful8 an$ the )agnetic fiel$ e'ercises a greater influence0 The use of the )agnet (er)its8 ho.e-er8 of the arc 7eing re(lace$ 7y a -acuu) tu7e8 7ut , ha-e encountere$ great $ifficulties in .or2ing .ith an e'hauste$ tu7e0
The other for) of $ischarger use$ in these an$ si)ilar e'(eri)ents is in$icate$ in Figs0 % an$ *0 ,t consists of a nu)7er of 7rass (ieces c c (Fig0 % 8 each of .hich co)(rises a s(herical )i$$le (ortion ) .ith an e'tension e 7elo.K.hich is )erely use$ to fasten the (iece in a lathe .hen (olishing u( the $ischarging surfaceKan$ a colu)n a7o-e8 .hich consists of a 2nurle$ flange f sur)ounte$ 7y a threa$e$ ste) , carrying a nut n8 7y )eans of .hich a .ire is fastene$ to the colu)n0 The flange f con-eniently ser-es for hol$ing the 7rass (iece .hen fastening the .ire8 an$ also for turning it in any (osition .hen it 7eco)es necessary to (resent a fresh $ischarging surface0 T.o stout stri(s of har$ ru77er ! !8 .ith (lane$ groo-es g g (Fig0 * to fit the )i$$le (ortion of the (ieces c c8 ser-e to cla)( the latter an$ hol$ the) fir)ly in (osition 7y )eans of t.o 7olts 2 2 (of .hich only one is sho.n (assing through the en$s of the stri(s0 ,n the use of this 2in$ of $ischarger , ha-e foun$ three (rinci(al a$-antages o-er the or$inary for)0
First8 the $ielectric strength of a gi-en total .i$th of air s(ace is greater .hen a great )any s)all air ga(s are use$ instea$ of one8 .hich (er)its of .or2ing .ith a s)aller length of air ga(8 an$ that )eans s)aller loss an$ less $eterioration of the )etalJ secon$ly 7y reason of s(litting the arc u( into s)aller arcs8 the (olishe$ surfaces are )a$e to last )uch longerJ an$8 thir$ly8 the a((aratus affor$s so)e gauge in the e'(eri)ents0 , usually set the (ieces 7y (utting 7et.een the) sheets of unifor) thic2ness at a certain -ery s)all $istance .hich is 2no.n fro) the e'(eri)ents of >ir &illia) Tho)son to require a certain electro)oti-e force to 7e 7ri$ge$ 7y the s(ar20 ,t shoul$8 of course8 7e re)e)7ere$ that the s(ar2ing $istance is )uch $i)inishe$ as the frequency is increase$0 3y ta2ing any nu)7er of s(aces the e'(eri)enter has a rough i$ea of the electro)oti-e force8 an$ he fin$s it easier to re(eat an e'(eri)ent8 as he has not the trou7le of setting the 2no7s again an$ again0 &ith this 2in$ of $ischarger , ha-e 7een a7le to )aintain an oscillating )otion .ithout any s(ar2 7eing -isi7le .ith the na2e$ eye 7et.een the 2no7s8 an$ they .oul$ not sho. a -ery a((recia7le rise in te)(erature0 This for) of $ischarger also len$s itself to )any arrange)ents of con$ensers an$ circuits .hich are often -ery con-enient an$ ti)e sa-ing0 , ha-e use$ it (refera7ly in a $is(osition si)ilar to that in$icate$ in Fig0 !8 .hen the currents for)ing the arcs are s)all0 , )ay here )ention that , ha-e also use$ $ischargers .ith single or )ulti(le air ga(s8 in .hich the $ischarge surfaces .ere rotate$ .ith great s(ee$0 1o (articular a$-antage .as8 ho.e-er8 gaine$ 7y this )etho$8 e'ce(t in cases .here the currents fro) the con$enser .ere large an$ the 2ee(ing cool of the surfaces .as necessary8 an$ in cases .hen8 the $ischarge not 7eing oscillating of itself8 the arc as soon as esta7lishe$ .as 7ro2en 7y the air current8 thus starting the -i7ration at inter-als in ra(i$ succession0 , ha-e also use$ )echanical interru(ters in )any .ays0 To a-oi$ the $ifficulties .ith frictional contacts8 the (referre$ (lan a$o(te$ .as to esta7lish the arc an$ rotate through it at great s(ee$ a ri) of )ica (ro-i$e$ .ith )any holes an$ fastene$ to a steel (late0 ,t is un$erstoo$8 of course8 that the e)(loy)ent of a )agnet8 air current8 or other interru(ter8 (ro$uces an effect .orth noticing8 unless the self9in$uction8 ca(acity an$ resistance are so relate$ that there are oscillations set u( u(on each interru(tion0 , .ill no. en$ea-our to sho. you so)e of the )ost note.orthy of these $ischarge (heno)ena0 , ha-e stretche$ across the roo) t.o or$inary cotton co-ere$ .ires8 each a7out * )etres in length0 They are su((orte$ on insulating cor$s at a $istance of a7out 35 centi)etres0 , attach no. to each of the ter)inals of the coil one of the .ires an$ set the coil in action0 C(on turning the lights off in the roo) you see the .ires strongly
illu)inate$ 7y the strea)s issuing a7un$antly fro) their .hole surface in s(ite of the cotton co-ering8 .hich )ay e-en 7e -ery thic20 &hen the e'(eri)ent is (erfor)e$ un$er goo$ con$itions8 the light fro) the .ires is sufficiently intense to allo. $istinguishing the o7Hects in a roo)0 To (ro$uce the 7est result it is8 of course8 necessary to a$Hust carefully the ca(acity of the Hars8 the arc 7et.een the 2no7s an$ the length of the .ires0 /y e'(erience is that calculation of the length of the .ires lea$s8 in such case8 to no result .hate-er0 The e'(eri)enter .ill $o 7est to ta2e the .ires at the start -ery long8 an$ then a$Hust 7y cutting off first long (ieces8 an$ then s)aller an$ s)aller ones as he a((roaches the right length0 A con-enient .ay is to use an oil con$enser of -ery s)all ca(acity8 consisting of t.o s)all a$Husta7le )etal (lates8 in connection .ith this an$ si)ilar e'(eri)ents0 ,n such case , ta2e .ires rather short an$ set at the 7eginning the con$enser (lates at )a'i)u) $istance0 ,f the strea)s for the .ires increase 7y a((roach of the (lates8 the length of the .ires is a7out rightJ if they $i)inish the .ires are too long for that frequency an$ (otential0 &hen a con$enser is use$ in connection .ith e'(eri)ents .ith such a coil8 it shoul$ 7e an oil con$enser 7y all )eans8 as in using an air con$enser consi$era7le energy )ight 7e .aste$0 The .ires lea$ing to the (lates in the oil shoul$ 7e -ery thin8 hea-ily coate$ .ith so)e insulating co)(oun$8 an$ (ro-i$e$ .ith a con$ucting co-eringKthis (refera7ly e'ten$ing un$er the surface of the oil0 The con$ucting co-er shoul$ not 7e too near the ter)inals8 or en$s8 of the .ire8 as a s(ar2 .oul$ 7e a(t to Hu)( fro) the .ire to it0 The con$ucting coating is use$ to $i)inish the air losses8 in -irtue of its action as an electrostatic screen0 As to the siBe of the -essel containing the oil an$ the site of the (lates8 the e'(eri)enter gains at once an i$ea fro) a rough trial0 The siBe of the (lates in oil is8 ho.e-er8 calcula7le8 as the $ielectric losses are -ery s)all0 ,n the (rece$ing e'(eri)ent it is of consi$era7le interest to 2no. .hat relation the quantity of the light e)itte$ 7ears to the frequency an$ (otential of the electric i)(ulses0 /y o(inion is that the heat as .ell as light effects (ro$uce$ shoul$ 7e (ro(ortionate8 un$er other.ise equal con$itions of test8 to the (ro$uct of frequency an$ square of (otential8 7ut the e'(eri)ental -erification of the la.8 .hate-er it )ay 7e8 .oul$ 7e e'cee$ingly $ifficult0 ;ne thing is certain8 at any rate8 an$ that is8 that in aug)enting the (otential an$ frequency .e ra(i$ly intensify the strea)sJ an$8 though it )ay 7e -ery sanguine8 it is surely not altogether ho(eless to e'(ect that .e )ay succee$ in (ro$ucing a (ractical illu)inant on these lines0 &e .oul$ then 7e si)(ly using 7urners or fla)es8 in .hich there .oul$ 7e no che)ical (rocess8 no consu)(tion of )aterial8 7ut )erely a transfer of energy8 an$ .hich .oul$8 in all (ro7a7ility e)it )ore light an$ less heat than or$inary fla)es0 The lu)inous intensity of the strea)s is8 of course8 consi$era7ly increase$ .hen they are focuse$ u(on a s)all surface0 This )ay 7e sho.n 7y the follo.ing e'(eri)entI , attach to one of the ter)inals of the coil a .ire . (Fig0 8 8 7ent in a circle of a7out 35 centi)etres in $ia)eter8 an$ to the other ter)inal , fasten a s)all 7rass s(here s8 the surface of the .ire 7eing (refera7ly equal to the surface of the s(here8 an$ the centre of the latter 7eing in a line at right angles to the (lane of the .ire circle an$ (assing through its centre0 &hen the $ischarge is esta7lishe$ un$er (ro(er con$itions8 a lu)inous hollo. cone is for)e$8 an$ in the $ar2 one9half of the 7rass s(here is strongly illu)inate$8 as sho.n in the cut0 3y so)e artifice or other8 it is easy to concentrate the strea)s u(on s)all surfaces an$ to (ro$uce -ery strong light effects0 T.o thin .ires )ay thus 7e ren$ere$ intensely lu)inous0 ,n or$er to intensify the strea)s8 the .ires shoul$ 7e -ery thin an$ shortJ 7ut as in this case their ca(acity .oul$ 7e generally too s)all for the coilKat least8 for such a one as the (resentKit is necessary to aug)ent the ca(acity to the require$ -alue8 .hile8 al the sa)e ti)e8 the surface of the .ires re)ains -ery s)all0 This )ay 7e $one in )any .ays0
Here8 for instance8 , ha-e t.o (lates ! !8 of har$ ru77er (Fig0 9 8 u(on .hich , ha-e glue$ t.o -ery thin .ires " "8 so as to for) a na)e0 The .ires )ay 7e 7are or co-ere$ .ith the 7est insulationKit is i))aterial for the success of the e'(eri)ent0 &ell9insulate$ .ires8 if anything8 are (refera7le0 ;n the 7ac2 of each (late8 in$icate$ 7y the sha$e$ (ortion8 is a tinfoil coating t t0 The (lates are (lace$ in line at a sufficient $istance to (re-ent a s(ar2 (assing fro) one to the other .ire0 The t.o tinfoil coatings , ha-e Hoine$ 7y a con$uctor 28 an$ the t.o .ires , (resently connect to the ter)inals of the coil0 ,t is no. easy8 7y -arying the strength an$ frequency of the currents through the (ri)ary8 to fin$ a (oint at .hich the ca(acity of the syste) is 7est suite$ to the con$itions8 an$ the .ires 7eco)e so strongly lu)inous that8 .hen the light in the roo) is turne$ off the na)e for)e$ 7y the) a((ears in 7rilliant letters0 ,t is (erha(s (refera7le to (erfor) this e'(eri)ent .ith a coil o(erate$ fro) an alternator of high frequency8 as then8 o.ing to the har)onic rise an$ fall8 the strea)s are -ery unifor)8 though they are less a7un$ant than .hen (ro$uce$ .ith such a coil as the (resent0 This e'(eri)ent8 ho.e-er8 )ay 7e (erfor)e$ .ith lo. frequencies8 7ut )uch less satisfactorily0 &hen t.o .ires8 attache$ to the ter)inals of the coil8 are set at the (ro(er $istance8 the strea)s 7et.een the) )ay 7e so intense as to (ro$uce a continuous lu)inous sheet0 To sho. this (heno)enon , ha-e here t.o circles8 C an$ c (Fig0 15 8 of rather stout .ire8 one 7eing a7out 85 centi)etres an$ the other 35 centi)etres in $ia)eter0 To each of the ter)inals of the coil , attach one of the circles0 The su((orting .ires are so 7ent that the circles )ay 7e (lace$ in the sa)e (lane8 coinci$ing as nearly as (ossi7le0 &hen the light in the roo) is turne$ off an$ the coil set to .or28 you see the .hole s(ace 7et.een the .ires unifor)ly fille$ .ith strea)s8 for)ing a lu)inous $isc8 .hich coul$ 7e seen fro) a consi$era7le $istance8 such is the intensity of the strea)s0 The outer circle coul$ ha-e 7een )uch larger than the (resent oneJ in fact8 .ith this coil , ha-e use$ )uch larger circles8 an$ , ha-e 7een a7le to (ro$uce a strongly lu)inous sheet8 co-ering an area of )ore than one square )etre8 .hich is a re)ar2a7le effect .ith this -ery s)all coil0 To a-oi$ uncertainty8 the circle has 7een ta2en s)aller8 an$ the area is no. a7out 5063 square )etre0
The frequency of the -i7ration8 an$ the quic2ness of succession of the s(ar2s 7et.een the 2no7s8 affect to a )ar2e$ $egree the a((earance of the strea)s0 &hen the frequency is -ery lo.8 the air gi-es .ay in )ore or less the sa)e )anner8 as 7y a stea$y $ifference of (otential8 an$ the strea)s consist of $istinct threa$s8 generally )ingle$ .ith thin s(ar2s8 .hich (ro7a7ly corres(on$ to the successi-e $ischarges occurring 7et.een the 2no7s0 3ut .hen the frequency is e'tre)ely high8 an$ the arc of the $ischarge (ro$uces a -ery loud 7ut smooth soun$ Ksho.ing 7oth that oscillation ta2es (lace an$ that the s(ar2s succee$ each other .ith great ra(i$ityKthen the lu)inous strea)s for)e$ are (erfectly unifor)0 To reach this result -ery s)all coils an$ Hars of s)all ca(acity shoul$ 7e use$0 , ta2e t.o tu7es of thic2 3ohe)ian glass8 a7out 4 centi)etres in $ia)eter an$ !5 centi)etres long0 ,n each of the tu7es , sli( a (ri)ary of -ery thic2 co((er .ire0 ;n the to( of each tu7e , .in$ a secon$ary of )uch thinner gutta9(ercha co-ere$ .ire0 The t.o secon$aries , connect in series8 the (ri)aries (refera7ly in )ulti(le arc0 The tu7es are then (lace$ in a large glass -essel8 at a $istance of l5 to 14 centi)etres fro) each other8 on insulating su((orts8 an$ the -essel is fille$ .ith 7oile$ out oil8 the oil reaching a7out an inch a7o-e the tu7es0 The free en$s of the secon$ary are lifte$ out of the oil an$ (lace$ (arallel to each other at a $istance of a7out 15 centi)etres0 The en$s .hich are scra(e$ shoul$ 7e $i((e$ in the oil0 T.o four9(int Hars Hoine$ in series )ay 7e use$ to $ischarge through the (ri)ary0 &hen the necessary a$Hust)ents in the length an$ $istance of
the .ires a7o-e the oil an$ in the arc of $ischarge are )a$e8 a lu)inous sheet is (ro$uce$ 7et.een the .ires8 .hich is (erfectly s)ooth an$ te'tureless8 li2e the or$inary $ischarge through a )o$erately e'hauste$ tu7e0 , ha-e (ur(osely $.elt u(on this a((arently insignificant e'(eri)ent0 ,n trials of this 2in$ the e'(eri)enter arri-es at the startling conclusion that8 to (ass or$inary lu)inous $ischarges through gases8 no (articular $egree of e'haustion is nee$e$8 7ut that the gas )ay 7e at or$inary or e-en greater (ressure0 To acco)(lish this8 a -ery high frequency is essentialJ a high (otential is li2e.ise require$8 7ut this is a )erely inci$ental necessity0 These e'(eri)ents teach us that8 in en$ea-ouring to $isco-er no-el )etho$s of (ro$ucing light 7y the agitation of ato)s8 or )olecules8 of a gas8 .e nee$ not li)it our research to the -acuu) tu7e8 7ut )ay loo2 for.ar$ quite seriously to the (ossi7ility of o7taining the light effects .ithout the use of any -essel .hate-er8 .ith air at or$inary (ressure0 >uch $ischarges of -ery high frequency8 .hich ren$er lu)inous the air at or$inary (ressures8 .e ha-e (ro7a7ly often occasion to .itness in 1ature0 , ha-e no $ou7t that if8 as )any 7elie-e8 the aurora 7orealis is (ro$uce$ 7y su$$en cos)ic $istur7ances8 such as eru(tions at the sun's surface8 .hich set the electrostatic charge of the earth in an e'tre)ely ra(i$ -i7ration the re$ glo. o7ser-e$ is not confine$ to the u((er rarefie$ strata of the air8 7ut the $ischarge tra-erses8 7y reason of its -ery high frequency8 also the $ense at)os(here in the for) of a glo"8 such as .e or$inarily (ro$uce in a slightly e'hauste$ tu7e0 ,f the frequency .ere -ery lo. or e-en )ore so8 if the charge .ere not at all -i7rating8 the $ense air .oul$ 7rea2 $o.n as in a lightning $ischarge0 ,n$ications of such 7rea2ing $o.n of the lo.er $ense strata of the air ha-e 7een re(eate$ly o7ser-e$ at the occurrence of this )ar-elous (heno)enonJ 7ut if it $oes occurJ it can only 7e attri7ute$ to the fun$a)ental $istur7ances8 .hich are fe. in nu)7er8 for the -i7ration (ro$uce$ 7y the) .oul$ 7e far too ra(i$ to allo. a $isru(ti-e 7rea20 ,t is the original an$ irregular i)(ulses .hich affect the instru)entsJ the su(eri)(ose$ -i7rations (ro7a7ly (ass unnotice$0 &hen an or$inary lo. frequency $ischarge is (asse$ through )o$erately rarefie$ air8 the air assu)es a (ur(lish hue0 ,f 7y so)e )eans or other .e increase the intensity of the )olecular8 or ato)ic8 -i7ration8 the gas changes to a .hite color0 A si)ilar change occurs at or$inary (ressures .ith electric i)(ulses of -ery high frequency0 ,f the )olecules of the air aroun$ a .ire are )o$erately agitate$8 the 7rush for)e$ is re$$ish or -ioletJ if the -i7ration is ren$ere$ sufficiently intense8 the strea)s 7eco)e .hite0 &e )ay acco)(lish this in -arious .ays0 ,n the e'(eri)ent 7efore sho.n .ith the t.o .ires across the roo)8 , ha-e en$ea-oure$ to secure the result 7y (ushing to a high -alue 7oth the frequency an$ (otentialJ in the e'(eri)ent .ith the thin .ires glue$ on the ru77er (late , ha-e concentrate$ the action u(on a -ery s)all surfaceKin other .or$s8 , ha-e .or2e$ .ith a great electric $ensity0 A )ost curious for) of $ischarge is o7ser-e$ .ith such a coil .hen the frequency an$ (otential are (ushe$ to the e'tre)e li)it0 To (erfor) the e'(eri)ent8 e-ery (art of the coil shoul$ 7e hea-ily insulate$8 an$ only t.o s)all s(heresKor8 7etter still8 t.o shar(9e$ge$ )etal $iscs ( d d8 Fig0 11 of no )ore than a fe. centi)etres in $ia)eterK shoul$ 7e e'(ose$ to the air0 The coil here use$ i))erse$ in oil8 an$ the en$s of the secon$ary reaching out of the oil are co-ere$ .ith an airtight co-er of har$ ru77er of great thic2ness0 All crac2s8 if there are any8 shoul$ 7e carefully sto((e$ u(8 so that the 7rush $ischarge cannot for) any.here e'ce(t on the s)all s(heres or (lates .hich are e'(ose$ to the air0 ,n this case8 since there are no large (lates or other 7o$ies of ca(acity attache$ to the ter)inals8 the coil is ca(a7le of an e'tre)ely ra(i$ -i7ration0 The (otential )ay 7e raise$ 7y increasing8 as far as the e'(eri)enter Hu$ges (ro(er8 the rate of change of the (ri)ary current0
&ith a coil not .i$ely $iffering fro) the (resent8 it is 7est to connect the t.o (ri)aries in )ulti(le arcJ 7ut if the secon$ary shoul$ ha-e a )uch greater nu)7er of turns the (ri)aries shoul$ (refera7ly 7e use$ in series8 as other.ise the -i7ration )ight 7e too fast for the secon$ary0 ,t occurs un$er these con$itions that )isty .hite strea)s 7rea2 forth fro) the e$ges of the $iscs an$ s(rea$ out (hanto)9li2e into s(ace0 &ith this coil8 .hen fairly .ell (ro$uce$8 they are a7out !4 to 35 centi)etres long0 &hen the han$ is hel$ against the) no sensation
is (ro$uce$8 an$ a s(ar28 causing a shoc28 Hu)(s fro) the ter)inal only u(on the han$ 7eing 7rought )uch nearer0 ,f the oscillation of the (ri)ary current is ren$ere$ inter)ittent 7y so)e )eans or other8 there is a corres(on$ing thro77ing of the strea)s8 an$ no. the han$ or other con$ucting o7Hect )ay 7e 7rought in still greater (ro'i)ity to the ter)inal .ithout a s(ar2 7eing cause$ to Hu)(0 A)ong the )any 7eautiful (heno)ena .hich )ay 7e (ro$uce$ .ith such a coil , ha-e here selecte$ only those .hich a((ear to (ossess so)e features of no-elty8 an$ lea$ us to so)e conclusions of interest0 ;ne .ill not fin$ it at all $ifficult to (ro$uce in the la7oratory8 7y )eans of it8 )any other (heno)ena .hich a((eal to the eye e-en )ore than these here sho.n8 7ut (resent no (articular feature of no-elty0 "arly e'(eri)enters $escri7e the $is(lay of s(ar2s (ro$uce$ 7y an or$inary large in$uction coil u(on an insulating (late se(arating the ter)inals0 Auite recently >ie)ens (erfor)e$ so)e e'(eri)ents in .hich fine effects .ere o7taine$8 .hich .ere seen 7y )any .ith interest0 1o $ou7t large coils8 e-en if o(erate$ .ith currents of lo. frequencies8 are ca(a7le of (ro$ucing 7eautiful effects0 3ut the largest coil e-er )a$e coul$ not8 7y far8 equal the )agnificent $is(lay of strea)s an$ s(ar2s o7taine$ fro) such a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil .hen (ro(erly a$Huste$0 To gi-e an i$ea8 a coil such as the (resent one .ill co-er easily a (late of 1 )etre in $ia)eter co)(letely .ith the strea)s0 The 7est .ay to (erfor) such e'(eri)ents is to ta2e a -ery thin ru77er or a glass (late an$ glue on one si$e of it a narro. ring of tinfoil of -ery large $ia)eter8 an$ on the other a circular .asher8 the centre of the latter coinci$ing .ith that of the ring8 an$ the surfaces of 7oth 7eing (refera7ly equal8 so as to 2ee( the coil .ell 7alance$0 The .asher an$ ring shoul$ 7e connecte$ to the ter)inals 7y hea-ily insulate$ thin .ires0 ,t is easy in o7ser-ing the effect of the ca(acity to (ro$uce a sheet of unifor) strea)s8 or a fine net.or2 of thin sil-ery threa$s8 or a )ass of lou$ 7rilliant s(ar2s8 .hich co)(letely co-er the (late0 >ince , ha-e a$-ance$ the i$ea of the con-ersion 7y )eans of the $isru(ti-e $ischarge8 in )y (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers at the 7eginning of the (ast year8 the interest e'cite$ in it has 7een consi$era7le0 ,t affor$s us a )eans for (ro$ucing any (otentials 7y the ai$ of ine'(ensi-e coils o(erate$ fro) or$inary syste)s of $istri7ution8 an$K.hat is (erha(s )ore a((reciate$Kit ena7les us to con-ert currents of any frequency into currents of any other lo.er or higher frequency0 3ut its chief -alue .ill (erha(s 7e foun$ in the hel( .hich it .ill affor$ us in the in-estigations of the (heno)ena of (hos(horescence8 .hich a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil is ca(a7le of e'citing in innu)era7le cases .here or$inary coils8 e-en the largest8 .oul$ utterly fail0 Consi$ering its (ro7a7le uses for )any (ractical (ur(oses8 an$ its (ossi7le intro$uction into la7oratories for scientific research8 a fe. a$$itional re)ar2s as to the construction of such a coil .ill (erha(s not 7e foun$ su(erfluous0 ,t is8 of course8 a7solutely necessary to e)(loy in such a coil .ires (ro-i$e$ .ith the 7est insulation0 ""'(eri)ents &ith Alternating Currents of High Frequency" (3/18 Goo$ coils )ay 7e (ro$uce$ 7y e)(loying .ires co-ere$ .ith se-eral layers of cotton8 7oiling the coil a long ti)e in (ure .a'8 an$ cooling un$er )o$erate (ressure0 The a$-antage of such a coil is that it can 7e easily han$le$8 7ut it cannot (ro7a7ly gi-e as satisfactory results as a coil i))erse$ in (ure oil0 3esi$es8 it see)s that the (resence of a large 7o$y of .a' affects the coil $isa$-antageously8 .hereas this $oes not see) to 7e the case .ith oil0 <erha(s it is 7ecause the $ielectric losses in the liqui$ are s)aller0 , ha-e trie$ at first sil2 an$ cotton co-ere$ .ires .ith oil i))ersionJ 7ut , ha-e 7een gra$ually le$ to use gutta9 (ercha co-ere$ .ires8 .hich (ro-e$ )ost satisfactory0 Gutta9(ercha insulation a$$s8 of course8 to the ca(acity of the coil8 an$ this8 es(ecially if the coil 7e large8 is a great $isa$-antage .hen e'tre)e frequencies are $esire$J 7ut8 on the other han$8 gutta9(ercha .ill .ithstan$ )uch )ore than an equal thic2ness of oil8 an$ this a$-antage shoul$ 7e secure$ at any (rice0 ;nce the coil has 7een i))erse$8 it shoul$ ne-er 7e ta2en out of the oil for )ore than a fe. hours8 else the gutta9(ercha .ill crac2 u( an$ the coil .ill not 7e .orth half as )uch as 7efore0 Gutta9(ercha is (ro7a7ly slo.ly attac2e$ 7y the oil8 7ut after an i))ersion of eight to nine )onths , ha-e foun$ no ill effects0 , ha-e o7taine$ in co))erce t.o 2in$s of gutta9(ercha .ireI in one the insulation stic2s tightly to the )etal8 in the other it $oes not0 Cnless a s(ecial )etho$ is follo.e$ to e'(el all air8 it is )uch safer to use the first 2in$0 , .in$ the coil .ithin an oil tan2 so that all interstices are fille$ u( .ith the oil0 3et.een the layers , use cloth 7oile$ out thoroughly in oil8 calculating the thic2ness accor$ing to the $ifference of (otential 7et.een the turns0 There see)s not to 7e a -ery great $ifference .hate-er 2in$ of oil is use$J , use (araffin or linsee$ oil0 To e'clu$e )ore (erfectly the air8 an e'cellent .ay to (rocee$8 an$ easily (ractica7le .ith s)all coils8 is the follo.ingI Construct a 7o' of har$ .oo$ of -ery thic2 7oar$s .hich ha-e 7een for a long ti)e 7oile$ in oil0 The 7oar$s shoul$ 7e so Hoine$ as to safely .ithstan$ the e'ternal air (ressure0 The coil 7eing (lace$ an$ fastene$
in (osition .ithin the 7o'8 the latter is close$ .ith a strong li$8 an$ co-ere$ .ith closely fitting )etal sheets8 the Hoints of .hich are sol$ere$ -ery carefully0 ;n the to( t.o s)all holes are $rille$8 (assing through the )etal sheet an$ the .oo$8 an$ in these holes t.o s)all glass tu7es are inserte$ an$ the Hoints )a$e air9tight0 ;ne of the tu7es is connecte$ to a -acuu) (u)( an$ the other .ith a -essel containing a sufficient quantity of 7oile$9 out oil0 The latter tu7e has a -ery s)all hole at the 7otto)8 an$ is (ro-i$e$ .ith a sto(coc20 &hen a fairly goo$ -acuu) has 7een o7taine$8 the sto(coc2 is o(ene$ an$ the oil slo.ly fe$ in0 <rocee$ing in this )anner8 it is i)(ossi7le that any 7ig 7u77les8 .hich are the (rinci(al $anger8 shoul$ re)ain 7et.een the turns0 The air is )ost co)(letely e'clu$e$8 (ro7a7ly 7etter than 7y 7oiling out8 .hich8 ho.e-er8 .hen gutta9(ercha coate$ .ires are use$8 is not (ractica7le0 For the (ri)aries , use or$inary line .ire .ith thic2 cotton coating0 >tran$s of -ery thin insulate$ .ires (ro(erly interlace$ .oul$8 of course8 7e the 7est to e)(loy for the (ri)aries8 7ut they are not to 7e ha$0 ,n an e'(eri)ental coil the siBe of the .ires is not of great i)(ortance0 ,n the coil here use$ the (ri)ary is 1o8 1! an$ the secon$ary 1o0 !6 3ro.n O >har(e gauge .ireJ 7ut the sections )ay7e -arie$ consi$era7ly0 , .oul$ only i)(ly $ifferent a$Hust)entsJ the results ai)e$ at .oul$ not 7e )aterially affecte$0 , ha-e $.elt at so)e length u(on the -arious for)s of 7rush $ischarge 7ecause8 in stu$ying the)8 .e not only o7ser-e (heno)ena .hich (lease our eye8 7ut also affor$ us foo$ for thought8 an$ lea$ us to conclusions of (ractical i)(ortance0 ,n the use of alternating currents of -ery high tension8 too )uch (recaution cannot 7e ta2en to (re-ent the 7rush $ischarge0 ,n a )ain con-eying such currents8 in an in$uction coil or transfor)er8 or in a con$enser8 the 7rush $ischarge is a source of great $anger to the insulation0 ,n a con$enser es(ecially the gaseous )atter )ust 7e )ost carefully e'(elle$8 for in it the charge$ surfaces are near each other8 an$ if the (otentials are high8 Hust as sure as a .eight .ill fall if let go8 so the insulation .ill gi-e .ay if a single gaseous 7u77le of so)e site 7e (resent8 .hereas8 if all gaseous )atter .ere carefully e'clu$e$8 the con$enser .oul$ safely .ithstan$ a )uch higher $ifference of (otential0 A )ain con-eying alternating currents of -ery high tension )ay 7e inHure$ )erely 7y a 7lo.hole or s)all crac2 in the insulation8 the )ore so as a 7lo.hole is a(t to contain gas at lo. (ressureJ an$ as it a((ears al)ost i)(ossi7le to co)(letely o7-iate such little i)(erfections8 , a) le$ to 7elie-e that in our future $istri7ution of electrical energy 7y currents of -ery high tension liqui$ insulation .ill 7e use$0 The cost is a great $ra.7ac28 7ut if .e e)(loy an oil as an insulator the $istri7ution of electrical energy .ith so)ething li2e 1558555 -olts8 an$ e-en )ore8 7eco)e8 at least .ith higher frequencies8 so easy that they coul$ 7e har$ly calle$ engineering feats0 &ith oil insulation an$ alternate current )otors trans)issions of (o.er can 7e effecte$ .ith safety an$ u(on an in$ustrial 7asis at $istances of as )uch as a thousan$ )iles0 A (eculiar (ro(erty of oils8 an$ liqui$ insulation in general8 .hen su7Hecte$ to ra(i$ly changing electric stresses8 is to $is(erse any gaseous 7u77les .hich )ay 7e (resent8 an$ $iffuse the) through its )ass8 generally long 7efore any inHurious 7rea2 can occur0 This feature )ay 7e easily o7ser-e$ .ith an or$inary in$uction coil 7y ta2ing the (ri)ary out8 (lugging u( the en$ of the tu7e u(on .hich the secon$ary is .oun$8 an$ fining it .ith so)e fairly trans(arent insulator8 such as (araffin oil0 A (ri)ary of s $ia)eter so)ething li2e si' )illi)etres s)aller than the insi$e of the tu7e )ay 7e inserte$ in the oil0 &hen the coil is set to .or2 one )ay see8 loo2ing fro) the to( through the oil8 )any lu)inous (ointsKair 7u77les .hich are caught 7y inserting the (ri)ary8 an$ .hich ate ren$ere$ lu)inous in consequence of the -iolent 7o)7ar$)ent0 The occlu$e$ air8 7y its i)(act against the oil8 7eats itJ the oil 7egins to circulate8 carrying so)e of the air along .ith it8 until the 7u77les are $is(erse$ an$ the lu)inous (oints $isa((ear0 ,n this )anner8 unless large 7u77les are occlu$e$ in such .ay that circulation is ren$ere$ i)(ossi7le8 a $a)aging 7rea2 is a-erte$8 the only effect 7eing a )o$erate .ar)ing u( of the oil0 ,f8 instea$ of the liqui$8 a soli$ insulation8 no )atter ho. thic28 .ere use$8 a 7rea2ing through an$ inHury of the a((aratus .oul$ 7e ine-ita7le0 The e'clusion of gaseous )atter fro) any a((aratus in .hich the $ielectric is su7Hecte$ to )ore or less ra(i$ly changing electric forces is8 ho.e-er8 not only $esira7le in or$er to a-oi$ a (ossi7le inHury of the a((aratus8 7ut also on account of econo)y0 ,n a con$enser8 for instance8 as long as only a soli$ or only a liqui$ $ielectric is use$8 the loss is s)allJ 7ut if a gas un$er or$inary or s)all (ressure 7e (resent the loss )ay 7e -ery great0 &hate-er the nature of the force acting in the $ielectric )ay 7e8 it see)s that in a soli$ or liqui$ the )olecular $is(lace)ent (ro$uce$ 7y the force is s)allI hence the (ro$uct of force an$ $is(lace)ent is insignificant8 unless the force 7e -ery greatJ 7ut in a gas the $is(lace)ent8 an$8 therefore8 this (ro$uct is consi$era7leJ the )olecules are free to )o-e8 they reach high s(ee$s8 an$ the energy of their i)(act is lost in heat or other.ise0 ,f the gas 7e strongly co)(resse$8 the $is(lace)ent $ue to the force is )a$e s)aller8 an$ the losses are re$uce$0 ,n )ost of the succee$ing e'(eri)ents , (refer8 chiefly on account of the regular an$ (ositi-e action8 to e)(loy the alternator 7efore referre$ to0 This is one of the se-eral )achines constructe$ 7y )e for the (ur(oses of these in-estigations0 ,t has 386 (ole (roHections8 an$ is ca(a7le of gi-ing currents of a frequency of a7out 158555
(er secon$0 This )achine has 7een illustrate$ an$ 7riefly $escri7e$ in )y first (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 /ay !58 18318 to .hich , ha-e alrea$y referre$0 A )ore $etaile$ $escri(tion8 sufficient to ena7le any engineer to 7uil$ a si)ilar )achine8 .ill 7e foun$ in se-eral electrical Hournals of that (erio$0 The in$uction coils o(erate$ fro) the )achine are rather s)all8 containing fro) 48555 to 148555 turns in the secon$ary0 They are i))erse$ in 7oile$9out linsee$ oil8 containe$ in .oo$en 7o'es co-ere$ .ith Binc sheet0 , ha-e foun$ it a$-antageous to re-erse the usual (osition of the .ires8 an$ to .in$8 in these coils8 the (ri)aries on the to(J this allo.ing the use of a )uch 7igger (ri)ary8 .hich8 of course8 re$uces the $anger of o-erheating an$ increases the out(ut of the coil0 , )a2e the (ri)ary on each si$e at least one centi)etre shorter than the secon$ary8 to (re-ent the 7rea2ing through on the en$s8 .hich .oul$ surely occur unless the insulation on the to( of the secon$ary 7e -ery thic28 an$ this8 of course8 .oul$ 7e $isa$-antageous0 &hen the (ri)ary is )a$e )o-a7le8 .hich is necessary in so)e e'(eri)ents8 an$ )any ti)es con-enient for the (ur(oses of a$Hust)ent8 , co-er the secon$ary .ith .a'8 an$ turn it off in a lathe to a $ia)eter slightly s)aller than the insi$e of the (ri)ary coil0 The latter , (ro-i$e .ith a han$le reaching out of the oil8 .hich ser-es to shift it in any (osition along the secon$ary0 , .ill no. -enture to )a2e8 in regar$ to the general )ani(ulation of in$uction coils8 a fe. o7ser-ations 7earing u(on (oints .hich ha-e not 7een fully a((reciate$ in earlier e'(eri)ents .ith such coils8 an$ are e-en no. often o-erloo2e$0 The secon$ary of the coil (ossesses usually such a high self9in$uction that the current through the .ire is ina((recia7le8 an$ )ay 7e so e-en .hen the ter)inals ate Hoine$ 7y a con$uctor of s)all resistance0 ,f ca(acity is a$$e$ to the ter)inals8 the self9in$uction is counteracte$8 an$ a stronger current is )a$e to flo. through the secon$ary8 though its ter)inals are insulate$ fro) each other0 To one entirely unacquainte$ .ith the (ro(erties of alternating currents nothing .ill loo2 )ore (uBBling0 This feature .as illustrate$ in the e'(eri)ent (erfor)e$ at the 7eginning .ith the to( (lates of .ire gauBe attache$ to the ter)inals an$ the ru77er (late0 &hen the (lates of .ire gauBe .ere close together8 an$ a s)all arc (asse$ 7et.een the)8 the arc *revented a strong current fro) (assing through the secon$ary8 7ecause it $i$ a.ay .ith the ca(acity on the ter)inalsJ .hen the ru77er (late .as inserte$ 7et.een8 the ca(acity of the con$enser for)e$ counteracte$ the self9in$uction of the secon$ary8 a stronger current (asse$ no.8 the coil (erfor)e$ )ore .or28 an$ the $ischarge .as 7y far )ore (o.erful0 The first thing8 then8 in o(erating the in$uction coil is to co)7ine ca(acity .ith the secon$ary to o-erco)e the self9in$uction0 ,f the frequencies an$ (otentials are -ery high gaseous )atter shoul$ 7e carefully 2e(t a.ay fro) the charge$ surfaces0 ,f #ey$en Hars are use$8 they shoul$ 7e i))erse$ in oil8 as other.ise consi$era7le $issi(ation )ay occur if the Hars are greatly straine$0 &hen high frequencies are use$8 it is of equal i)(ortance to co)7ine a con$enser .ith the (ri)ary0 ;ne )ay use a con$enser connecte$ to the en$s of the (ri)ary or to the ter)inals of the alternator8 7ut the latter is not to 7e reco))en$e$8 as the )achine )ight 7e inHure$0 The 7est .ay is un$ou7te$ly to use the con$enser in series .ith the (ri)ary an$ .ith the alternator8 an$ to a$Hust its ca(acity so as to annul the self9in$uction of 7oth the latter0 The con$enser shoul$ 7e a$Husta7le 7y -ery s)all ste(s8 an$ for a finer a$Hust)ent a s)all oil con$enser .ith )o-a7le (lates )ay 7e use$ con-eniently0 , thin2 it 7est at this Huncture to 7ring 7efore you a (heno)enon8 o7ser-e$ 7y )e so)e ti)e ago8 .hich to the (urely scientific in-estigator )ay (erha(s a((ear )ore interesting than any of the results .hich , ha-e the (ri-ilege to (resent to you this e-ening0 ,t )ay 7e quite (ro(erly ran2e$ a)ong the 7rush (heno)enaKin fact8 it is a 7rush8 for)e$ at8 or near8 a single ter)inal in high -acuu)0 ,n 7ul7s (ro-i$e$ .ith a con$ucting ter)inal8 though it 7e of alu)iniu)8 the 7rush has 7ut an e(he)eral e'istence8 an$ cannot8 unfortunately8 7e in$efinitely (reser-e$ in its )ost sensiti-e state8 e-en in a 7ul7 $e-oi$ of any con$ucting electro$e0 ,n stu$ying one (heno)enon8 7y all )eans a 7ul7 ha-ing no lea$ing9in .ire shoul$ 7e use$0 , ha-e foun$ it 7est to use 7ul7s constructe$ as in$icate$ in Figs0 1! an$ 130
,n Fig0 1! the 7ul7 co)(rises an incan$escent la)( glo7e %8 in the nec2 of .hich is seale$ a 7aro)eter tu7e b8 the en$ of .hich is 7lo.n out to for) a s)all s(here s0 This s(here shoul$ 7e seale$ as closely as (ossi7le in the centre of the large glo7e0 3efore sealing8 a thin tu7e t8 of alu)iniu) sheet8 )ay 7e sli((e$ in the 7aro)eter tu7e8 7ut it is not i)(ortant to e)(loy it0 The s)all hollo. s(here s is fille$ .ith so)e con$ucting (o.$er8 an$ a .ire " is ce)ente$ in the nec2 for the (ur(ose of connecting the con$ucting (o.$er .ith the generator0 The construction sho.n in Fig0 13 .as chosen in or$er to re)o-e fro) the 7rush any con$ucting 7o$y .hich )ight (ossi7ly affect it0 The 7ul7 consists in this case of a la)( glo7e %8 .hich has a nec2 n8 (ro-i$e$ .ith a tu7e b an$ s)all s(here s8 seale$ to it8 so that t.o entirely in$e(en$ent co)(art)ents are for)e$8 as in$icate$ in the $ra.ing0 &hen the 7ul7 is in use8 the nec2 n is (ro-i$e$ .ith a tinfoil coating8 .hich is connecte$ to the generator an$ acts in$ucti-ely u(on the )o$erately rarefie$ an$ highly con$ucting gas enclose$ in the nec20 Fro) there the current (asses through the tu7e b into the s)all s(here s8 to act 7y in$uction u(on the gas containe$ in the glo7e %0 ,t is of a$-antage to )a2e the tu7e t -ery thic28 the hole through it -ery s)all8 an$ to 7lo. the s(here s -ery thin0 ,t is of the greatest i)(ortance that the s(here s 7e (lace$ in the centre of the glo7e %0 Figs0 168 14 an$ 1% in$icate $ifferent for)s8 or stages8 of the 7rush0 Fig0 16 sho.s the 7rush as it first a((ears in a 7ul7 (ro-i$e$ .ith a con$ucting ter)inalI 7ut8 as in such a 7ul7 it -ery soon $isa((earsKoften after a fe. )inutesK, .ill confine )yself to the $escri(tion of the (heno)enon as seen in a 7ul7 .ithout con$ucting electro$e0 ,t is o7ser-e$ un$er the follo.ing con$itionsI &hen the glo7e % (Figs0 1! an$ 13 is e'hauste$ to a -ery high $egree8 generally the 7ul7 is not e'cite$ u(on connecting the .ire " (Fig0 1! or the tinfoil coating of the 7ul7 (Fig0 13 to the ter)inal of the in$uction coil0 To e'cite it8 it is usually sufficient to gras( the glo7e % .ith the han$0 An intense (hos(horescence then s(rea$s at first o-er the glo7e8 7ut soon gi-es (lace to a .hite8 )isty light0 >hortly after.ar$ one )ay notice that the lu)inosity is une-enly $istri7ute$ in the glo7e8 an$ after (assing the current for so)e ti)e the 7ul7 a((ears as in Fig0 140 Fro) this stage the (heno)enon .ill gra$ually (ass to that in$icate$ in Fig0 1%8 after so)e )inutes8 hours8 $ays or .ee2s8 accor$ing as the 7ul7 is .or2e$0 &ar)ing the 7ul7 or increasing the (otential hastens the transit0
&hen the 7rush assu)es the for) in$icate$ in Fig0 1%8 it )ay 7e 7rought to a state of e'tre)e sensiti-eness to electrostatic an$ )agnetic influence0 The 7ul7 hanging straight $o.n fro) a .ire8 an$ all o7Hects 7eing re)ote fro) it8 the a((roach of the o7ser-er at a fe. (aces fro) the 7ul7 .ill cause the 7rush to fly to the o((osite si$e8 an$ if he .al2s aroun$ the 7ul7 it .ill al.ays 2ee( on the o((osite si$e0 ,t )ay 7egin to s(in aroun$ the ter)inal long 7efore it reaches that sensiti-e stage0 &hen it 7egins to turn aroun$ (rinci(ally8 7ut also 7efore8 it is affecte$ 7y a )agnet an$ at a certain stage it is susce(ti7le to )agnetic influence to an astonishing $egree0 A s)all (er)anent )agnet8 .ith its (oles at a $istance of no )ore than t.o centi)etres8 .ill affect it -isi7ly at a $istance of t.o )etres8 slo.ing $o.n or accelerating the rotation accor$ing to ho. it is hel$ relati-ely to the 7rush0 , thin2 , ha-e o7ser-e$ that at the stage .hen it is )ost sensiti-e to )agnetic8 it is not )ost sensiti-e to electrostatic8 influence0 /y e'(lanation is8 that the electrostatic attraction 7et.een the 7rush an$ the glass of the 7ul78 .hich retar$s the rotation8 gro.s )uch quic2er than the )agnetic influence .hen the intensity of the strea) is increase$0 &hen the 7ul7 hangs .ith the glo7e % $o.n8 the rotation is al.ays cloc2.ise0 ,n the southern he)is(here it .oul$ occur in the o((osite $irection an$ on the equator the 7rush shoul$ not turn at all0 The rotation )ay 7e re-erse$ 7y a )agnet 2e(t at so)e $istance0 The 7rush rotates 7est8 see)ingly8 .hen it is at right angles to the lines of force of the earth0 ,t -ery li2ely rotates8 .hen at its )a'i)u) s(ee$8 in synchronis) .ith the alternations8 say 158555 ti)es a secon$0 The rotation can 7e slo.e$ $o.n or accelerate$ 7y the a((roach or rece$ing of the o7ser-er or any con$ucting 7o$y8 7ut it cannot 7e re-erse$ 7y (utting the 7ul7 in any (osition0 &hen it is in the state of the highest sensiti-eness an$ the (otential or frequency 7e -arie$ the sensiti-eness is ra(i$ly $i)inishe$0 Changing either of these 7ut little .ill generally sto( the rotation0 The sensiti-eness is li2e.ise affecte$ 7y the -ariations of te)(erature0 To attain great sensiti-eness it is necessary to ha-e the s)all s(here s in the centre of the glo7e %8 as other.ise the electrostatic action of the glass of the glo7e .ill ten$ to sto( the rotation0 The s(here s shoul$ 7e s)all an$ of unifor) thic2nessJ any $issy))etry of course has the effect to $i)inish the sensiti-eness0 The fact that the 7rush rotates in a $efinite $irection in a (er)anent )agnetic fiel$ see)s to sho. that in alternating currents of -ery high frequency the (ositi-e an$ negati-e i)(ulses are not equal8 7ut that one al.ays (re(on$erates o-er the other0 ;f course8 this rotation in one $irection )ay 7e $ue to the action of t.o ele)ents of the sa)e current u(on each other8 or to the action of the fiel$ (ro$uce$ 7y one of the ele)ents u(on the other8 as in a series )otor8 .ithout necessarily one i)(ulse 7eing stronger than the other0 The fact that the 7rush turns8 as far as , coul$ o7ser-e8 in any (osition8 .oul$ s(ea2 for this -ie.0 ,n such case it .oul$ turn at any (oint of the earth's surface0 3ut8 on the other han$8 it is then har$ to e'(lain .hy a (er)anent )agnet shoul$ re-erse the rotation8 an$ one )ust assu)e the (re(on$erance of i)(ulses of one 2in$0 As to the causes of the for)ation of the 7rush or strea)8 , thin2 it is $ue to the electrostatic action of the glo7e an$ the $issy))etry of the (arts0 ,f the s)all 7ul7 s an$ the glo7e % .ere (erfect concentric s(heres8 an$ the glass throughout of the sa)e thic2ness an$ quality8 , thin2 the 7rush .oul$ not for)8 as the ten$ency to (ass .oul$ 7e equal on all si$es0 That the for)ation of the strea) is $ue to an irregularity is a((arent fro) the fact that it has the ten$ency to re)ain in one (osition8 an$ rotation occurs )ost generally only .hen it is 7rought out of this (osition 7y electrostatic or )agnetic influence0 &hen in an e'tre)ely sensiti-e state it rests in one (osition8 )ost curious e'(eri)ents )ay 7e (erfor)e$ .ith it0 For instance8 the e'(eri)enter )ay8 try selecting a (ro(er (osition8 a((roach the han$ at a certain consi$era7le $istance to the 7ul78 an$ he )ay cause the 7rush to (ass off 7y )erely stiffening the )uscles of the ar)0 &hen it 7egins to rotate slo.ly8 an$ the han$s are hel$ at a (ro(er $istance8 it is i)(ossi7le to )a2e e-en the slightest )otion .ithout (ro$ucing a -isi7le effect u(on the 7rush0 A )etal (late connecte$ to the other ter)inal of the coil affects it at a great $istance8 slo.ing $o.n the rotation often to one turn a secon$0 , a) fir)ly con-ince$ that such a 7rush8 .hen .e learn ho. to (ro$uce it (ro(erly8 .ill (ro-e a -alua7le ai$ in the in-estigation' of the nature of the forces acting in an electrostatic or )agnetic fiel$0 ,f there is any )otion .hich is )easura7le going on in the s(ace8 such a 7rush ought to re-eal it0 ,t is8 so to s(ea28 a 7ea) of light8
frictionless8 $e-oi$ of inertia0 , thin2 that it )ay fin$ (ractical a((lications in telegra(hy0 &ith such a 7rush it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le to sen$ $is(atches across the Atlantic8 for instance8 .ith any s(ee$8 since its sensiti-eness )ay 7e so great that the slightest changes .ill affect it0 ,f it .ere (ossi7le to )a2e the strea) )ore intense an$ -ery narro.8 its $eflections coul$ 7e easily (hotogra(he$0 , ha-e 7een intereste$ to fin$ .hether there is a rotation of the strea) itself8 or .hether there is si)(ly a stress tra-eling aroun$ in the 7ul70 For this (ur(ose , )ounte$ a light )ica fan so that its -anes .ere in the (ath of the 7rush0 ,f the strea) itself .as rotating the fan .oul$ 7e s(un aroun$0 , coul$ (ro$uce no $istinct rotation of the fan8 although , trie$ the e'(eri)ent re(eate$lyJ 7ut as the fan e'erte$ a noticea7le influence on the strea)8 an$ the a((arent rotation of the latter .as8 in this case8 ne-er quite satisfactory8 the e'(eri)ent $i$ not a((ear to 7e conclusi-e0 , ha-e 7een una7le to (ro$uce the (heno)enon .ith the $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil8 although e-ery other of these (heno)ena can 7e tell (ro$uce$ 7y itK)any8 in fact8 )uch 7etter than .ith coils o(erate$ fro) an alternator0 ,t )ay 7e (ossi7le to (ro$uce the 7rush 7y i)(ulses of one $irection8 or e-en 7y a stea$y (otential8 in .hich case it .oul$ 7e still )ore sensiti-e to )agnetic influence0 ,n o(erating an in$uction coil .ith ra(i$ly alternating currents8 .e realiBe .ith astonish)ent8 for the first ti)e8 the great i)(ortance of the relation of ca(acity8 self9in$uction an$ frequency as regar$s the general result0 The effects of ca(acity are the )ost stri2ing8 for in these e'(eri)ents8 since the self9in$uction an$ frequency 7oth are high8 the critical ca(acity is -ery s)all8 an$ nee$ 7e 7ut slightly -arie$ to (ro$uce a -ery consi$era7le change0 The e'(eri)enter )ay 7ring his 7o$y in contact .ith the ter)inals of the secon$ary of the coil8 or attach to one or 7oth ter)inals insulate$ 7o$ies of -ery s)all 7ul28 such as 7ul7s8 an$ he )ay (ro$uce a consi$era7le rise or fall of (otential8 an$ greatly affect the flo. of the current through the (ri)ary0 ,n the e'(eri)ent 7efore sho.n8 in .hich a 7rush a((ears at a .ire attache$ to one ter)inal8 an$ the .ire is -i7rate$ .hen the e'(eri)enter 7rings his insulate$ 7o$y in contact .ith the other ter)inal of the coil8 the su$$en rise of (otential .as )a$e e-i$ent0 , )ay sho. you the 7eha-iour of the coil in another )anner .hich (ossesses a feature of so)e interest0 , ha-e here a little light fan of alu)iniu) sheet8 fastene$ to a nee$le an$ arrange$ to rotate freely in a )etal (iece scre.e$ to one of the ter)inals of the coil0 &hen the coil is set to .or28 the )olecules of the air are rhyth)ically attracte$ an$ re(elle$0 As the force .ith .hich they are re(elle$ is greater than that .ith .hich they are attracte$8 it results that there is re(ulsion e'erte$ on the surfaces of the fan0 ,f the fan .ere )a$e si)(ly of a )etal sheet8 the re(ulsion .oul$ 7e equal on the o((osite si$es8 an$ .oul$ (ro$uce no effect0 3ut if one of the o((osite surfaces is screene$8 or if8 generally s(ea2ing8 the 7o)7ar$)ent on this si$e is .ea2ene$ in so)e .ag or other8 there re)ains the re(ulsion e'erte$ u(on the other8 an$ the fan is set in rotation0 The screening is 7est effecte$ 7y fastening u(on one of the o((osing si$es of the fan insulate$ con$ucting coatings8 or8 if the fan is )a$e in the sha(e of an or$inary (ro(eller scre.8 7y fastening on one si$e8 an$ close to it8 an insulate$ )etal (late0 The static screen )ay ho.e-er8 7e o)itte$ an$ si)(ly a thic2ness of insulating )aterial fastene$ to one of the si$es of the fan0 To sho. the 7eha-iour of the coil8 the fan )ay 7e (lace$ u(on the ter)inal an$ it .ill rea$ily rotate .hen the coil is o(erate$ 7y currents of -ery high frequency0 &ith a stea$y (otential8 of course8 an$ e-en .ith alternating currents of -ery lo. frequency8 it .oul$ not turn8 7ecause of the -ery slo. e'change of air an$8 consequently8 s)aller 7o)7ar$)entJ 7ut in the latter case it )ight turn if the (otential .ere e'cessi-e0 &ith a (in .heel8 quite the o((osite rule hol$s goo$J it rotates 7est .ith a stea$y (otential8 an$ the effort is the s)aller the higher the frequency0 1o.8 it is -ery easy to a$Hust the con$itions so that the (otential is nor)ally not sufficient to turn the fan8 7ut that 7y connecting the other ter)inal of the coil .ith an insulate$ 7o$y it rises to a )uch greater -alue8 so as to rotate the fan8 an$ it is li2e.ise (ossi7le to sto( the rotation 7y connecting to the ter)inal a 7o$y of $ifferent siBe8 there7y $i)inishing the (otential0 ,nstea$ of using the fan in this e'(eri)ent8 .e )ay use the "electric" ra$io)eter .ith si)ilar effect0 3ut in this case it .ill 7e foun$ that the -anes .ill rotate only at high e'haustion or at or$inary (ressuresJ they .ill not rotate at )o$erate (ressures8 .hen the air is highly con$ucting0 This curious o7ser-ation .as )a$e conHointly 7y <rofessor Croo2es an$ )yself0 , attri7ute the result to the high con$ucti-ity of the air8 the )olecules of .hich then $o not act as in$e(en$ent carriers of electric charges8 7ut act all together as a single con$ucting 7o$y0 ,n such case8 of course8 if there is any re(ulsion at all of the )olecules fro) the -anes8 it )ust 7e -ery s)all0 ,t is (ossi7le8 ho.e-er8 that the result is in (art $ue to the fact that the greater (art of the $ischarge (asses fro) the lea$ing9in .ire through the highly con$ucting gas8 instea$ of (assing off fro) the con$ucting -anes0 ,n trying the (rece$ing e'(eri)ent .ith the electric ra$io)eter the (otential shoul$ not e'cee$ a certain li)it8 as
then the electrostatic attraction 7et.een the -anes an$ the glass of the 7ul7 )ay 7e so great as to sto( the rotation0 A )ost curious feature of alternate currents of high frequencies an$ (otentials is that they ena7le us to (erfor) )any e'(eri)ents 7y the use of one .ire only0 ,n )any res(ects this feature is of great interest0 ,n a ty(e of alternate current )otor in-ente$ 7y )e so)e years ago , (ro$uce$ rotation 7y in$ucing8 7y )eans of a single alternating current (asse$ through a )otor circuit8 in the )ass or other circuits of the )otor8 secon$ary currents8 .hich8 Hointly .ith the (ri)ary or in$ucing current8 create$ n )o-ing fiel$ of force0 A si)(le 7ut cru$e for) of such a )otor is o7taine$ 7y .in$ing u(on an iron core a (ri)ary8 an$ close to it a secon$ary coil8 Hoining the en$s of the latter an$ (lacing a freely )o-a7le )etal $isc .ithin the influence of the fiel$ (ro$uce$ 7y 7oth0 The iron core is e)(loye$ for o7-ious reasons8 7ut it is not essential to the o(eration0 To i)(ro-e the )otor8 the iron core is )a$e to encircle the ar)ature0 Again to i)(ro-e8 the secon$ary coil is )a$e to o-erla( (artly the (ri)ary8 so that it cannot free itself fro) a strong in$ucti-e action of the latter8 re(el its lines as it )ay0 ;nce )ore to i)(ro-e8 the (ro(er $ifference of (hase is o7taine$ 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary currents 7y a con$enser8 self9in$uction8 resistance or equi-alent .in$ings0 , ha$ $isco-ere$8 ho.e-er8 that rotation is (ro$uce$ 7y )eans of a single coil an$ coreJ )y e'(lanation of the (heno)enon8 an$ lea$ing thought in trying the e'(eri)ent8 7eing that there )ust 7e a true ti)e lag in the )agnetiBation of the core0 , re)e)7er the (leasure , ha$ .hen8 in the .ritings of <rofessor Ayrton8 .hich ca)e later to )y han$8 , foun$ the i$ea of the ti)e lag a$-ocate$0 &hether there is a true ti)e lag8 .hether the retar$ation is $ue to e$$y currents circulating in )inute (aths8 )ust re)ain an o(en question8 7ut the fact is that a coil .oun$ u(on an iron core an$ tra-erse$ 7y an alternating current creates a )o-ing fiel$ of force8 ca(a7le of setting an ar)ature in rotation0 ,t is of so)e interest8 in conHunction .ith the historical Arago e'(eri)ent8 to )ention that in lag or (hase )otors , ha-e (ro$uce$ rotation in the o((osite $irection to the )o-ing fiel$8 .hich )eans that in that e'(eri)ent the )agnet )ay not rotate8 or )ay e-en rotate in the o((osite $irection to the )o-ing $isc0 Here8 then8 is a )otor ($iagra))atically illustrate$ in Fig0 1*/16% 8 co)(rising a coil an$ iron core8 an$ a freely )o-a7le co((er $isc in (ro'i)ity to the latter0 To $e)onstrate a no-el an$ interesting feature8 , ha-e8 for a reason .hich , .ill e'(lain8 selecte$ this ty(e of )otor0 &hen the en$s of the coil are connecte$ to the ter)inals of an alternator the $isc is set in rotation0 3ut it is not this e'(eri)ent8 no. .ell 2no.n8 .hich , $esire to (erfor)0 &hat , .ish to sho. you is that this )otor rotates .ith one single connection 7et.een it an$ the generatorJ that is to say8 one ter)inal of the )otor is connecte$ to one ter)inal of the generatorKin this case the secon$ary of a high9tension in$uction coilKthe other ter)inals of )otor an$ generator 7eing insulate$ in s(ace0 To (ro$uce rotation it is generally (7ut not a7solutely necessary to connect the free en$ of the )otor coil to an insulate$ 7o$y of so)e siBe0 The e'(eri)enter's 7o$y is )ore than sufficient0 ,f he touches the free ter)inal .ith an o7Hect hel$ in the han$8 a current (asses through the coil an$ the co((er $isc is set in rotation0 ,f an e'hauste$ tu7e is (ut in series .ith the coil8 the tu7e lights 7rilliantly8 sho.ing the (assage of a strong current0 ,nstea$ of the e'(eri)enter's 7o$y8 a s)all )etal sheet sus(en$e$ on a cor$ )ay 7e use$ .ith the sa)e result0 ,n this case the (late acts as a con$enser in series .ith the coil0 ,t counteracts the self9in$uction of the latter an$ allo.s a strong current to (ass0 ,n such a co)7ination8 the greater the self9in$uction of the coil the s)aller nee$ 7e the (late8 an$ this )eans that a lo.er frequency8 or e-entually a lo.er (otential8 is require$ to o(erate the )otor0 A single coil .oun$ u(on a core has a high self9 in$uctionJ for this reason (rinci(ally8 this ty(e of )otor .as chosen to (erfor) the e'(eri)ent0 &ere a secon$ary
close$ coil .oun$ u(on the core8 it .oul$ ten$ to $i)inish the self9in$uction8 an$ then it .oul$ 7e necessary to e)(loy a )uch higher frequency an$ (otential0 1either .oul$ 7e a$-isa7le8 for a higher (otential .oul$ en$anger the insulation of the s)all (ri)ary coil8 an$ a higher frequency .oul$ result in a )aterially $i)inishe$ torque0 ,t shoul$ 7e re)ar2e$ that .hen such a )otor .ith a close$ secon$ary is use$8 it is not at all easy to o7tain rotation .ith e'cessi-e frequencies8 as the secon$ary cuts off al)ost co)(letely the lines of the (ri)aryKan$ this8 of course8 the )ore8 the higher the frequencyKan$ allo.s the (assage of 7ut a )inute current0 ,n such a case8 unless the secon$ary is close$ through a con$enser8 it is al)ost essential8 in or$er to (ro$uce rotation8 to )a2e the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary coils o-erla( each other )ore or less0 3ut there is an a$$itional feature of interest a7out this )otor8 na)ely8 it is not necessary to ha-e e-en a single connection 7et.een the )otor an$ generator8 e'ce(t8 (erha(s8 through the groun$J for not only is an insulate$ (late ca(a7le of gi-ing off energy into s(ace8 7ut it li2e.ise ca(a7le of $eri-ing it fro) an alternating electrostatic fiel$8 though in the latter case the a-aila7le energy is )uch s)aller0 ,n this instance one of the )otor ter)inals is connecte$ to the insulate$ (late or 7o$y locate$ .ithin the alternating electrostatic fiel$8 an$ the other ter)inal (refera7ly to the groun$0 ,t is quite (ossi7le8 ho.e-er8 that such "no9.ire" )otors8 as they )ight 7e calle$8 coul$ 7e o(erate$ 7y con$uction through the rarefie$ air at consi$era7le $istances0 Alternate currents8 es(ecially of high frequencies8 (ass .ith astonishing free$o) through e-en slightly rarefie$ gases0 The u((er strata of the air are rarefie$0 To reach a nu)7er of )iles out into s(ace requires the o-erco)ing of $ifficulties of a )erely )echanical nature0 There is no $ou7t that .ith the enor)ous (otentials o7taina7le 7y the use of high frequencies an$ oil insulation8 lu)inous $ischarges )ight 7e (asse$ through )any )iles of rarefie$ air8 an$ that8 7y thus $irecting the energy of )any hun$re$s or thousan$s of horse9(o.er8 )otors or la)(s )ight 7e o(erate$ at consi$era7le $istances fro) stationary sources0 3ut such sche)es are )entione$ )erely as (ossi7ilities0 &e shall ha-e no nee$ to transmit (o.er at all0 "re )any generations (ass8 our )achinery .ill 7e $ri-en 7y a (o.er o7taina7le at any (oint of the uni-erse0 This i$ea is not no-el0 /en ha-e 7een le$ to it long ago 7y instinct or reasonJ it has 7een e'(resse$ in )any .ays8 an$ in )any (laces8 in the history of ol$ an$ ne.0 &e fin$ it in the $elightful )yth of Antheus ?Antaeus@8 .ho $eri-es (o.er fro) the earthJ .e fin$ it a)ong the su7tle s(eculations of one of your s(len$i$ )athe)aticians an$ in )any hints an$ state)ents of thin2ers of the (resent ti)e0 Throughout s(ace there is energy0 ,s this energy static or 2ineticF ,f static our ho(es are in -ainJ if 2ineticKan$ this .e 2no. it is8 for certainKthen it is a )ere question of ti)e .hen )en .ill succee$ in attaching their )achinery to the -ery .heel.or2 of nature0 ;f all8 li-ing or $ea$8 Croo2es ca)e nearest to $oing it0 His ra$io)eter .ill turn in the light of $ay an$ in the $ar2ness of the nightJ it .ill turn e-ery.here .here there is heat8 an$ heat is e-ery.here0 3ut8 unfortunately8 this 7eautiful little )achine8 .hile it goes $o.n to (osterity as the )ost interesting8 )ust li2e.ise 7e (ut on recor$ as the )ost inefficient )achine e-er in-ente$Y The (rece$ing e'(eri)ent is only one of )any equally interesting e'(eri)ents .hich )ay 7e (erfor)e$ 7y the use of only one .ire .ith alternate currents of high (otential an$ frequency0 &e )ay connect an insulate$ line to a source of such currents8 .e )ay (ass an ina((recia7le current o-er the line8 an$ on any (oint of the sa)e .e are a7le to o7tain a hea-y current8 ca(a7le of fusing a thic2 co((er .ire0 ;r .e )ay8 7y the hel( of so)e artifice8 $eco)(ose a solution in any electrolytic cell 7y connecting only one (ole of the cell to the line or source of energy0 ;r .e )ay8 7y attaching to the line8 or only 7ringing into its -icinity8 light u( an incan$escent la)(8 an e'hauste$ tu7e8 or a (hos(horescent 7ul70 Ho.e-er i)(ractica7le this (lan of .or2ing )ay a((ear in )any cases8 it certainly see)s (ractica7le8 an$ e-en reco))en$a7le8 in the (ro$uction of light0 A (erfecte$ la)( .oul$ require 7ut little energy8 an$ if .ires .ere use$ at all .e ought to 7e a7le to su((ly that energy .ithout a return .ire0 ,t is no. a fact that a 7o$y )ay 7e ren$ere$ incan$escent or (hos(horescent 7 7ringing it either in single contact or )erely in the -icinity of a source of electric i)(ulses of the (ro(er character8 an$ that in this )anner a quantity of light sufficient to affor$ a (ractical illu)inant )ay 7e (ro$uce$0 ,t is8 therefore8 to say the least8 .orth .hile to atte)(t to $eter)ine the 7est con$itions an$ to in-ent the 7est a((liances for attaining this o7Hect0 >o)e e'(eriences ha-e alrea$y 7een gaine$ in this $irection8 an$ , .ill $.ell on the) 7riefly8 in the ho(e that they )ight (ro-e useful0 The heating of a con$ucting 7o$y inclose$ in a 7ul78 an$ connecte$ to a source of ra(i$ly alternating electric i)(ulses8 is $e(en$ent on so )any things of a $ifferent nature8 that it .oul$ 7e $ifficult to gi-e a generally a((lica7le rule un$er .hich this )a'i)u) heating occurs0 As regar$s the siBe of the -essel8 , ha-e lately foun$ that at or$inary or only slightly $iffering at)os(heric (ressures8 .hen air is a goo$ insulator8 an$ hence
(ractically the sa)e a)ount of energy 7y a certain (otential an$ frequency is gi-en off fro) the 7o$y8 .hether the 7ul7 7e s)all or large8 the 7o$y is 7rought to a higher te)(erature if inclose$ in a s)all 7ul78 7ecause of the 7etter confine)ent of heat in this case0 At lo.er (ressures8 .hen air 7eco)es )ore or less con$ucting8 or if the air 7e sufficiently .ar)e$ as to 7eco)e con$ucting8 the 7o$y is ren$ere$ )ore intensely incan$escent in a large 7ul78 o7-iously 7ecause8 un$er other.ise equal con$itions of test8 )ore energy )ay 7e gi-en off fro) the 7o$y .hen the 7ul7 is large0 At -ery high $egrees of e'haustion8 .hen the )atter in the 7ul7 7eco)es "ra$iant8" a large 7ul7 has still an a$-antage8 7ut a co)(arati-ely slight one8 o-er the s)all 7ul70 Finally8 at e'cessi-ely high $egrees of e'haustion8 .hich cannot 7e reache$ e'ce(t 7y the e)(loy)ent of s(ecial )eans8 there see)s to 7e8 7eyon$ a certain an$ rather s)all siBe of -essel8 no (erce(ti7le $ifference in the heating0 These o7ser-ations .ere the result of a nu)7er of e'(eri)ents8 of .hich one8 sho.ing the effect of the siBe of the 7ul7 at a high $egree of e'haustion )ay 7e $escri7e$ an$ sho.n here8 as it (resents a feature of interest0 Three s(herical 7ul7s of ! inches8 3 inches an$ 6 inches $ia)eter .ere ta2en8 an$ in the centre of each .as )ounte$ an equal length of an or$inary incan$escent la)( fila)ent of unifor) thic2ness0 ,n each 7ul7 the (iece of fila)ent .as fastene$ to the lea$ing9in .ire of (latinu)8 containe$ in a glass ste) seale$ in the 7ul7J care 7eing ta2en8 of course8 to )a2e e-erything as nearly ali2e as (ossi7le0 ;n each glass ste) in the insi$e of the 7ul7 .as sli((e$ a highly (olishe$ tu7e )a$e of alu)iniu) sheet8 .hich fitte$ the ste) an$ .as hel$ on it 7y s(ring (ressure0 The function of this alu)iniu) tu7e .ill 7e e'(laine$ su7sequently0 ,n each 7ul7 an equal length of fila)ent (rotru$e$ a7o-e the )etal tu7e0 ,t is sufficient to say no. that un$er these con$itions equal lengths of fila)ent of the sa)e thic2nessKin other .or$s8 7o$ies of equal 7ul2K.ere 7rought to incan$escence0 The three 7ul7s .ere seale$ to a glass tu7e8 .hich .as connecte$ to a >(rengel (u)(0 &hen a high -acuu) ha$ 7een reache$8 the glass tu7e carrying the 7ul7s .as seale$ off0 A current .as then turne$ on successi-ely on each 7ul78 an$ it .as foun$ that the fila)ents ca)e to a7out the sa)e 7rightness8 an$8 if anything8 the s)allest 7ul78 .hich .as (lace$ )i$.ay 7et.een the t.o larger ones8 )ay ha-e 7een slightly 7righter0 This result .as e'(ecte$8 for .hen either of the 7ul7s .as connecte$ to the coil the lu)inosity s(rea$ through the other t.o8 hence the three 7ul7s constitute$ really one -essel0 &hen all the three 7ul7s .ere connecte$ in )ulti(le arc to the coil8 in the largest of the) the fila)ent glo.e$ 7rightest8 in the ne't s)aller it .as a little less 7right8 an$ in the s)allest it only ca)e to re$ness0 The 7ul7s .ere then seale$ off an$ se(arately trie$0 The 7rightness of the fila)ents .as no. such as )oul$ ha-e 7een e'(ecte$ on the su((osition that the energy gi-en off .as (ro(ortionate to the surface of the 7ul78 this surface in each case re(resenting one of the coatings of a con$enser0 Accor$ingly8 there .as less $ifference 7et.een the largest an$ the )i$$le site$ than 7et.een the latter an$ the s)allest 7ul70 An interesting o7ser-ation .as )a$e in this e'(eri)ent0 The three 7ul7s .ere sus(en$e$ fro) a straight 7are .ire connecte$ to a ter)inal of the coil8 the largest 7ul7 7eing (lace$ at the en$ of the .ire8 at so)e $istance fro) it the s)allest 7ul78 an$ an equal $istance fro) the latter the )i$$le9siBe$ one0 The car7ons glo.e$ then to 7oth the larger 7ul7s a7out as e'(ecte$8 7ut the s)allest $i$ not get its share 7y far0 This o7ser-ation le$ )e to e'change the (osition of the 7ul7s8 an$ , then o7ser-e$ that .hiche-er of the 7ul7s .as in the )i$$le it .as 7y far less 7right than it .as in any other (osition0 This )ystifying result .as8 of course8 foun$ to 7e $ue to the electrostatic action 7et.een the 7ul7s0 &hen they .ere (lace$ at a consi$era7le $istance8 or .hen they .ere attache$ to the corners of an equilateral triangle of co((er .ire8 they glo.e$ a7out in the or$er $eter)ine$ 7y their surfaces0 As to the sha(e of the -essel8 it is also of so)e i)(ortance8 es(ecially at high $egrees of e'haustion0 ;f all the (ossi7le constructions8 it see)s that a s(herical glo7e .ith the refractory 7o$y )ounte$ in its centre is the 7est to e)(loy0 ,n e'(erience it has 7een $e)onstrate$ that in such a glo7e a refractory 7o$y of a gi-en 7ul2 is )ore easily 7rought to incan$escence than .hen other.ise sha(e$ 7ul7s are use$0 There is also an a$-antage in gi-ing to the incan$escent 7o$y the sha(e of a s(here8 for self9e-i$ent reasons0 ,n any case the 7o$y shoul$ 7e )ounte$ in the centre8 .here the ato)s re7oun$ing fro) the glass colli$e0 This o7Hect is 7est attaine$ in the s(herical 7ul7J 7ut it is also attaine$ in a cylin$rical -essel .ith one or t.o straight fila)ents coinci$ing .ith its a'is8 an$ (ossi7ly also in (ara7olical or s(herical 7ul7s .ith the refractory 7o$y or 7o$ies (lace$ in the focus or foci of the sa)eJ though the latter is not (ro7a7le8 as the electrifie$ ato)s shoul$ in all cases re7oun$ nor)ally fro) the surface they stri2e8 unless the s(ee$ .ere e'cessi-e8 in .hich case they "ould (ro7a7ly follo. the general la. of reflection0 1o )atter .hat sha(e the -essel )ay ha-e8 if the e'haustion 7e lo.8 a fila)ent )ounte$ in the glo7e is 7rought to the sa)e $egree of incan$escence in all (artsJ 7ut if the e'haustion 7e high an$ the 7ul7 7e s(herical or (ear9sha(e$8 as usual8 focal (oints for) an$ the fila)ent is heate$ to a higher $egree at or near such (oints0
To illustrate the effect8 , ha-e here t.o s)all 7ul7s .hich are ali2e8 only one is e'hauste$ to a lo. an$ the other to a -ery high $egree0 &hen connecte$ to the coil8 the fila)ent in the for)er glo.s unifor)ly throughout all its lengthJ .hereas in the latter8 that (ortion of the fila)ent .hich is in the centre of the 7ul7 glo.s far )ore intensely than the rest0 A curious (oint is that the (heno)enon occurs e-en if t.o fila)entI are )ounte$ in a 7ul78 each 7eing connecte$ to one ter)inal of the coil8 an$8 .hat is still )ore curious8 if they 7e -ery near together8 (ro-i$e$ the -acuu) 7e -ery high0 , note$ in e'(eri)ents .ith such 7ul7s that the fila)ents .oul$ gi-e .ay usually at a certain (oint8 an$ in the first trials , attri7ute$ it to a $efect in the car7on0 3ut .hen that (heno)enon occurre$ )any ti)es in succession , recogniBe$ its real cause0 ,n or$er to 7ring a refractory 7o$y inclose$ in a 7ul7 to incan$escence8 it is $esira7le8 on account of econo)y8 that all the energy su((lie$ to the 7ul7 fro) the source shoul$ reach .ithout lass the 7o$y to 7e heate$J fro) there8 an$ fro) no.here else8 it shoul$ 7e ra$iate$0 ,t is8 of course8 out of the question to reach this theoretical result8 7ut it is (ossi7le 7y a (ro(er construction of the illu)inating $e-ice to a((ro'i)ate it )ore or less0 For )any reasons8 the refractory 7o$y is (lace$ in the centre of the 7ul7 an$ it is usually su((orte$ on a glass ste) containing the lea$ing9in .ire0 As the (otential of this .ire is alternate$8 the rarefie$ gas surroun$ing the ste) is acte$ u(on in$ucti-ely8 an$ the glass ste) is -iolently 7o)7ar$e$ an$ heate$0 ,n this )anner 7y far the greater (ortion of the energy su((lie$ to the 7ul7Kes(ecially .hen e'cee$ingly high frequencies are use$K)ay 7e lost for the (ur(ose conte)(late$0 To o7-iate this loss8 or at least to re$uce it to a )ini)u)8 , usually screen the rarefie$ gas surroun$ing the ste) fro) the in$ucti-e action of the lea$ing9in .ire 7y (ro-i$ingJ the ste) .ith a tu7e or coating of con$ucting )aterial0 ,t see)s 7eyon$ $ou7t that the 7est a)ong )etals to e)(loy for this (ur(ose is alu)iniu)8 on account of its )any re)ar2a7le (ro(erties0 ,ts only fault is that it is easily fusi7le an$8 therefore8 its $istance fro) the incan$escingI 7o$y shoul$ 7e (ro(erly esti)ate$0 Csually8 a thin tu7e8 of a $ia)eter so)e.hat s)aller than that of the glass ste)8 is )a$e of the finest alu)iniu) sheet8 an$ sli((e$ on the ste)0 The tu7e is con-eniently (re(are$ 7y .ra((ing aroun$ a ro$ fastene$ in a lathe a (iece of alu)iniu) sheet of the (ro(er siBe8 gras(ing the sheet fir)ly .ith clean cha)ois leather or 7lotting (a(er8 an$ s(inning the ro$ -ery fast0 The sheet is .oun$ tightly aroun$ the ro$8 an$ a highly (olishe$ tu7e of one or three layers of the sheet is o7taine$0 &hen sli((e$ on the ste)8 the (ressure is generally sufficient to (re-ent it fro) sli((ing off8 7ut8 for safety8 the lo.er e$ge of the sheet )ay 7e turne$ insi$e0 The u((er insi$e corner of the sheetKthat is8 the one .hich is nearest to the refractory incan$escent 7o$yKshoul$ 7e cut out $iagonally8 as it often ha((ens that8 in consequence of the intense heat8 this corner turns to.ar$ the insi$e an$ co)es -ery near to8 or in contact .ith8 the .ire8 or fila)ent8 su((orting the refractory 7o$y0 The greater (art of the energy su((lie$ to the 7ul7 is then use$ u( in heating the )etal tu7e8 an$ the 7ul7 is ren$ere$ useless for the (ur(ose0 The alu)iniu) sheet shoul$ (roHect a7o-e the glass ste) )ore or lessKone inch or soKor else8 if the glass 7e too close to the incan$escing 7o$y8 it )ay 7e strongly heate$ an$ 7eco)e )ore or less con$ucting8 .hereu(on it )ay 7e ru(ture$8 or )ay8 7y its con$ucti-ity8 esta7lish a goo$ electrical connection 7et.een the )etal tu7e an$ the lea$inq9in .ire8 in .hich case8 again8 )ost of the energy .ill 7e lost in heating the for)er0 <erha(s the 7est .ay is to )a2e the to( of the glass tu7e for a7out an inch8 of a )uch s)aller $ia)eter0 To still further re$uce the $anger arising fro) the heating of the glass ste)8 an$ also .ith the -ie. of (re-enting an electrical connection 7et.een the )etal tu7e an$ the electro$e8 , (refera7ly .ra(J the ste) .ith se-eral layers of thin )ica .hich e'ten$s at least as far as the )etal tu7e0 ,n so)e 7ul7s , ha-e also use$ an outsi$e insulating co-er0 The (rece$ing re)ar2s are only )a$e to ai$ the e'(eri)enter in the first trials8 for the $ifficulties .hich he encounters he )ay soon fin$ )eans to o-erco)e in his o.n .ay0 To illustrate the effect of the screen8 an$ the a$-antage of using it8 , ha-e here t.o 7ul7s of the sa)e siBe8 .ith their ste)s8 lea$ing9in .ires an$ incan$escent la)( fila)ents tie$ to the latter8 as nearly ali2e as (ossi7le0 The ste) of one 7ul7 is (ro-i$e$ .ith an alu)iniu) tu7e8 the ste) of the other has none0 ;riginally the t.o 7ul7s .ere Hoine$ 7y a tu7e .hich .as connecte$ to a >(rengel (u)(0 &hen a high -acuu) ha$ 7een reache$8 first the connecting tu7e8 an$ then the 7ul7s8 .ere seale$ offJ they are therefore of the sa)e $egree of e'haustion0 &hen they are se(arately connecte$ to the coil gi-ing a certain (otential8 the car7on fila)ent in the 7ul7 (ro-i$e$ .ith the alu)iniu) screen in ren$ere$ highly incan$escent8 .hile the fila)ent in the other 7ul7 )ay8 .ith the sa)e (otential8 not e-en co)e to re$ness8 although in reality the latter 7ul7 ta2es generally )ore energy than the for)er0 &hen they are 7oth connecte$ together to the ter)inal8 the $ifference is e-en )ore a((arent8 sho.ing the i)(ortance of the screening0 The )etal tu7e (lace$ in the ste) containing the lea$ing9in .ire (erfor)s really t.o $istinct functionsI First8 it acts )ore or less as an electrostatic screen8 thus econo)iBing the energy su((lie$ to the 7ul7J an$8 secon$8 to .hate-er e'tent it )ay fail to act electrostatically8 it acts )echanically8 (re-enting the 7o)7ar$)ent8 an$ consequently intense heating an$ (ossi7le $eterioration of the slen$er su((ort of the refractory incan$escent 7o$y8 or of the glass ste) containing the lea$ing9in .ire0 , say slender su((ort8 for it is e-i$ent that in or$er to confine the heat )ore co)(letely to the incan$escing 7o$y its
su((ort shoul$ 7e -ery thin8 so as to carry a.ay the s)allest (ossi7le a)ount of heat 7y con$uction0 ;f all the su((orts use$ , ha-e foun$ an or$inary incan$escent la)( fila)ent to 7e the 7est8 (rinci(ally 7ecause a)ong con$uctors it can .ithstan$ the highest $egrees of heat0 The effecti-eness of the )etal tu7e as an electrostatic screen $e(en$s largely on the $egree of e'haustion0 At e'cessi-ely high $egrees of e'haustionK.hich are reache$ 7y using great care an$ s(ecial )eans in connection .ith the >(rengel (u)(K.hen the )atter in the glo7e is in the ultra9ra$iant state8 it acts )ost (erfectly0 The sha$o. of the u((er e$ge of the tu7e is then shar(ly $efine$ u(on the 7ul70 At a so)e.hat lo.er $egree of e'haustion8 .hich is a7out the or$inary "non9stri2ing" -acuu)8 an$ generally as long as the )atter )o-es (re$o)inantly in straight lines8 the screen still $oes .ell0 ,n eluci$ation of the (rece$ing re)ar2 it is necessary to state that .hat is a "non9stri2ing" -acuu) for a coil o(erate$8 as or$inarily8 7y i)(ulses8 or currents8 of lo. frequency8 is not8 7y far8 so .hen the coil is o(erate$ 7y currents of -ery high frequency0 ,n such case the $ischarge )ay (ass .ith great free$o) through the rarefie$ gas through .hich a lo.9frequency $ischarge )ay not (ass8 e-en though the (otential 7e )uch higher0 At or$inary at)os(heric (ressures Hust the re-erse rule hol$s goo$I the higher the frequency8 the less the s(ar2 $ischarge is a7le to Hu)( 7et.een the ter)inals8 es(ecially if they are 2no7s or s(heres of so)e site0 Finally8 at -ery lo. $egrees of e'haustion8 .hen the gas is .ell con$ucting8 the )etal tu7e not only $oes not act as an electrostatic screen8 7ut e-en is a $ra.7ac28 ai$ing to a consi$era7le e'tent the $issi(ation of the energy laterally fro) the lea$ing9in .ire0 This8 of course8 is to 7e e'(ecte$0 ,n this case8 na)ely8 the )etal tu7e is in goo$ electrical connection .ith 9the lea$ing9in .ire8 an$ )ost of the 7o)7ar$)ent is $irecte$ u(on the tu7e0 As long as the electrical connection is not goo$8 the con$ucting tu7e is al.ays of so)e a$-antage for although it )ay not greatly econo)iBe energy8 still it (rotects the su((ort of the refractory 7utton8 an$ is a )eans for concentrating )ore energy u(on the sa)e0 To .hate-er e'tent the alu)iniu) tu7e (erfor)s the function of a screen8 its usefulness is therefore li)ite$ to -ery high $egrees of e'haustion .hen it is insulate$ fro) the electro$eKthat is8 .hen the gas as a .hole is non9 con$ucting8 an$ the )olecules8 or ato)s8 act as in$e(en$ent carriers of electric charges0 ,n a$$ition to acting as a )ore or less effecti-e screen8 in the true )eaning of the .or$8 the con$ucting tu7e or coating )ay also act8 7y reason of its con$ucti-ity8 as a sort of equaliBer or $a)(ener of the 7o)7ar$)ent against the ste)0 To 7e e'(licit8 , assu)e the action as follo.sI >u((ose a rhyth)ical 7o)7ar$)ent to occur against the con$ucting tu7e 7y reason of its i)(erfect action as a screen8 it certainly )ust ha((en that so)e )olecules8 or ato)s8 stri2e the tu7e sooner than others0 Those .hich co)e first in contact .ith it gi-e u( their su(erfluous charge8 an$ the tu7e is electrifie$8 the electrification instantly s(rea$ing o-er its surface0 3ut this )ust $i)inish8 the energy lost in the 7o)7ar$)ent for t.o reasonsI first8 the charge gi-en u( 7y the ato)s s(rea$s o-er a great area8 an$ hence the electric $ensity at any (oint is s)all8 an$ the ato)s are re7elle$ .ith less energy than they .oul$ 7e if they .oul$ stri2e against a goo$ insulatorJ secon$ly8 as the tu7e is electrifie$ 7y the ato)s .hich first co)e in contact .ith it8 the (rogress of the follo.ing ato)s against the tu7e is )ore or less chec2e$ 7y8 the re(ulsion .hich the electrifie$ tu7e )ust e'ert u(on the si)ilarly electrifie$ ato)s0 This re(ulsion )ay (erha(s 7e sufficient to (re-ent a large (ortion of the ato)s fro) stri2ing the tu7e8 7ut at any rate it )ust $i)inish the energy of their i)(act0 ,t is clear that .hen the e'haustion is -ery lo.8 an$ the rarefie$ gas .ell con$ucting8 neither of the a7o-e effects can occur8 an$8 on the other han$8 the fe.er the ato)s8 .ith the greater free$o) they )o-eJ in other .or$s8 the higher the $egree of e'haustion8 u( to a li)it8 the )ore telling .ill 7e 7oth the effectsI &hat , ha-e Hust sai$ )ay affor$ an e'(lanation of the (heno)enon o7ser-e$ 7y <rof0 Croo2es8 na)ely8 that a $ischarge through a 7ul7 is esta7lishe$ .ith )uch greater facility .hen an insulator than .hen a con$uctor is (resent in the sa)e0 ,n )y o(inion8 the con$uctor acts as a $a)(ener of the )otion of the ato)s in the t.o .ays (ointe$ outJ hence8 to cause a -isi7le $ischarge to (ass through the 7ul78 a )uch higher (otential is nee$e$ if a con$uctor8 es(ecially of )any surfaces8 7e (resent0
For the sa2e of clearness of so)e of the re)ar2s 7efore )a$e8 , )ust no. refer to Figs0 188 198 an$ !58 .hich illustrate -arious arrange)ents .ith a ty(e of 7ul7 )ost generally use$0 Fig0 18 is a section though a s(herical 7ul7 #8 .ith the glass ste) s8 containing the lea$ing9in .ire "8 .hich has a la)( fila)ent l fastene$ to it8 ser-ing to su((ort the refractory 7utton m in the centre0 / is a sheet of thin )ica .oun$ in se-eral layers aroun$ the ste) s8 an$ a is the alu)iniu) tu7e0 Fig0 19 illustrates such a 7ul7 in a so)e.hat )ore a$-ance$ stage of (erfection0 A )etallic tu7e > is fastene$ 7y )eans of so)e ce)ent to the nec2 of the tu7e0 ,n the tu7e is scre.e$ a (lug <8 of insulating )aterial8 in the centre of .hich is fastene$ a )etallic ter)inal t8 for the connection to the lea$9in .ire "0 This ter)inal )ust 7e .ell insulate$ fro) the )etal tu7e >8 therefore8 if the ce)ent use$ is con$ucting an$ )ost generally it is sufficiently soKthe s(ace 7et.een the (lug < an$ the nec2 of the 7ul7 shoul$ 7e fille$ .ith so)e goo$ insulating )aterial8 as )ica (o.$er0 Fig0 !5 sho.s a 7ul7 )a$e for e'(eri)ental (ur(oses0 ,n this 7ul7 the alu)iniu) tu7e is (ro-i$e$ .ith an e'ternal connection8 .hich ser-es to in-estigate the effect of the tu7e un$er -arious con$itions0 ,t is referre$ to chiefly to suggest a line of e'(eri)ent follo.e$0 >ince the 7o)7ar$)ent against the ste) containing the lea$ing9in .ire is $ue to the in$ucti-e action of the latter u(on the rarefie$ gas8 it is of a$-antage to re$uce this action as far as (ractica7le 7y e)(loying a -ery thin .ire8 surroun$e$ 7y a -ery thic2 insulation of glass or other )aterial8 an$ 7y )a2ing the .ire (assing through the rarefie$ gas as short as (ractica7le0 To co)7ine these features , e)(loy a large tu7e T (Fig0 !1 8 .hich (rotru$es into the 7ul7 to so)e $istance8 an$ carries on the to( a -ery short glass ste) s8 into .hich is seale$ the lea$ing9in .ire "8 an$ , (rotect the to( of the glass ste) against the heat 7y a s)all8 alu)iniu) tu7e a an$ a layer of )ica un$erneath the sa)e8 as usual0 The .ire "8 (assing through the large tu7e to the outsi$e of the 7ul78 shoul$ 7e .ell insulate$K.ith a glass tu7e8 for instanceKan$ the s(ace 7et.een ought to 7e fille$ out .ith so)e e'cellent insulator0 A)ong )any insulating (o.$ers , ha-e trie$8 , ha-e foun$ that )ica (o.$er is the 7est to e)(loy0 ,f this (recaution is not ta2en8 the tu7e T8 (rotru$ing into the 7ul78 .ill surely 7e crac2e$ in consequence of the heating 7y the 7rushes .hich are a(t to for) in the u((er (art of the tu7e8 near the e'hauste$ glo7e8 es(ecially if the -acuu) 7e e'cellent8 an$ therefore the (otential necessary to o(erate the la)( 7e -ery high0
Fig0 !! illustrates a si)ilar arrange)ent8 .ith a large tu7e T (rotru$ing into the (art of the 7ul7 containing the refractory 7utton m0 ,n this case the .ire lea$ing fro) the outsi$e into the 7ul7 is o)itte$8 the energy require$ 7eing su((lie$ through con$enser coatings C C0 The insulating (ac2ing < shoul$ in this construction 7e tightly fitting to the glass8 an$ rather .i$e8 or other.ise the $ischarge )ight a-oi$ (assing through the .ire "8 .hich connects the insi$e con$enser coating to the incan$escent 7utton m0 The )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent against the glass ste) in the 7ul7 is a source of great trou7le0 As illustration , .ill cite a (heno)enon only too frequently an$ un.illingly o7ser-e$0 A 7ul78 (refera7ly a large one8 )ay 7e ta2en8 an$ a goo$ con$ucting 7o$y8 such as a (iece of car7on8 )ay 7e )ounte$ in it u(on a (latinu) .ire seale$ in the glass ste)0 The 7ul7 )ay 7e e'hauste$ to a fairly high $egree8 nearly to the (oint .hen (hos(horescence 7egins to a((ear0
&hen the 7ul7 is connecte$ .ith the coil8 the (iece of car7on8 if s)all8 )ay 7eco)e highly incan$escent at first8 7ut its 7rightness i))e$iately $i)inishes8 an$ then the $ischarge )ay 7rea2 through the glass so)e.here in the )i$$le of the ste)8 in the for) of 7right s(ar2s8 in s(ite of the fact that the (latinu) .ire is in goo$ electrical connection .ith the rarefie$ gas through the (iece of car7on or )etal at the to(0 The first s(ar2s are singularly 7right8 recalling those $ra.n fro) a clear surface of )ercury0 3ut8 as they heat the glass ra(i$ly8 they8 of course8 lose their 7rightness8 an$ cease .hen the glass at the ru(ture$ (lace 7eco)es incan$escent8 or generally sufficiently hot to con$uct0 &hen o7ser-e$ for the first ti)e the (heno)enon )ust a((ear -ery curious8 an$ sho.s in a stri2ing )anner ho. ra$ically $ifferent alternate currents8 or i)(ulses8 of high frequency 7eha-e8 as co)(are$ .ith stea$y currents8 or currents of lo. frequency0 &ith such currentsKna)ely8 the latterKthe (heno)enon .oul$ of course not occur0 &hen frequencies such as are o7taine$ 7y )echanical )eans are use$8 , thin2 that the ru(ture of the glass is )ore or less the consequence of the 7o)7ar$)ent8 .hich .ar)s it u( an$ i)(airs its insulating (o.erJ 7ut .ith frequencies o7taina7le .ith con$ensers , ha-e no $ou7t that the glass )ay gi-e .ay .ithout (re-ious heating0 Although this a((ears )ost singular at first8 it is in reality .hat .e )ight e'(ect to occur0 The energy su((lie$ to the .ire lea$ing into the 7ul7 is gi-en off (artly 7y $irect action through the car7on 7utton8 an$ (arty 7y in$ucti-e action through the glass surroun$ing the .ire0 The case is thus analogous to that in .hich a con$enser shunte$ 7y a con$uctor of lo. resistance is connecte$ to a source of alternating currents0 As long as the frequencies are lo.8 the con$uctor gets the )ost8 an$ the con$enser is (erfectly safeJ 7ut .hen the frequency 7eco)es e'cessi-e8 the role of the con$uctor )ay 7eco)e quite insignificant0 ,n the latter case the $ifference of (otential at the ter)inals of the con$enser )ay 7eco)e so great as to ru(ture the $ielectric8 not.ithstan$ing the fact that the ter)inals are Hoine$ 7y a con$uctor of lo. resistance0 ,t is8 of course8 not necessary8 .hen it is $esire$ to (ro$uce the incan$escence of a 7o$y inclose$ in a 7ul7 7y )eans of these currents8 that the 7o$y shoul$ 7e a con$uctor8 for e-en a (erfect non9con$uctor )ay 7e quite as rea$ily heate$0 For this (ur(ose it is sufficient to surroun$ a con$ucting electro$e .ith a non9con$ucting )aterial8 as8 for instance8 in the 7ul7 $escri7e$ 7efore in Fig0 !18 in .hich a thin incan$escent la)( fila)ent is coate$ .ith a non9con$uctor8 an$ su((orts a 7utton of the sa)e )aterial on the to(0 At the start the 7o)7ar$)ent goes on 7y in$ucti-e action through the non9con$uctor8 until the sa)e is sufficiently heate$ to 7eco)e con$ucting8 then the 7o)7ar$)ent continues in the or$inary .ay0
A $ifferent arrange)ent use$ in so)e of the 7ul7s constructe$ is illustrate$ in Fig0 !30 ,n this instance a non9con$uctor m is )ounte$ in a (iece of co))on arc light car7on so as to (roHect so)e s)all $istance a7o-e the latter0 The car7on (iece is connecte$ to the lea$ing9in .ire (assing through a glass ste)8 .hich is .ra((e$ .ith se-eral layers of )ica0 An alu)iniu) tu7e a is e)(loye$ as usual for screening0 ,t is so arrange$ that it reaches -ery nearly as high as the car7on an$ only the non9con$uctor ) (roHects a little a7o-e it0 The 7o)7ar$)ent goes at first against the u((er surface of car7on8 the lo.er (arts 7eing (rotecte$ 7y the alu)iniu) tu7e0 As soon8 ho.e-er8 as the non9con$uctor ) is heate$ it is ren$ere$ goo$ con$ucting8 an$ then it 7eco)es the centre of the 7o)7ar$)ent8 7eing )ost e'(ose$ to the sa)e0 , ha-e also constructe$ $uring these e'(eri)ents )any such single9.ire 7ul7s .ith or .ithout internal electro$e8 in .hich the ra$iant )atter .as (roHecte$ against8 or focuse$ u(on8 the 7o$y to 7e ren$ere$ incan$escent0 Fig0 !6 illustrates one of the 7ul7s use$0 ,t consists of a s(herical glo7e #8 (ro-i$e$ .ith a long nec2 n8 on the to(8 for increasing the action in so)e cases 7y the a((lication of an e'ternal con$ucting coating0 The glo7e # is 7lo.n out on the 7otto) into a -ery s)all 7ul7 b8 .hich ser-es to hol$ it fir)ly in a soc2et > of insulating )aterial into .hich it is ce)ente$0
A fine la)( fila)ent f8 su((orte$ on a .ire "8 (asses through the centre of fila)ent is ren$ere$ incan$escent ,n the )i$$le (ortion8 .here the 7o)7ar$)ent (rocee$ing fro) the lo.er insi$e surface of the glo7e is )ost intense0 The lo.er (ortion of the glo7e8 as far as the soc2et > reaches8 is ren$ere$ con$ucting8 either 7y g tinfoil coating or other.ise8 an$ the e'ternal electro$e is connecte$ to a ter)inal of the coil0 The arrange)ent $iagra))atically in$icate$ in Fig0 !6 .as foun$ to 7e an inferior one .hen it .as $esire$ to ren$er incan$escent a fila)ent or 7utton su((orte$ in the centre of the glo7e8 7ut it .as con-enient .hen the o7Hect .as to e'cite (hos(horescence0 ,n )any e'(eri)ents in .hich 7o$ies of a $ifferent 2in$ .ere )ounte$ in the 7ul7 as8 for instance8 in$icate$ in Fig0 !38 so)e o7ser-ations of interest .ere )a$e0 ,t .as foun$8 a)ong other things8 that in such cases8 no )atter .here the 7o)7ar$)ent 7egan8 Hust as soon as a high te)(erature .as reache$ there .as generally one of the 7o$ies .hich see)e$ to ta2e )ost of the 7o)7ar$)ent u(on itself8 the other8 or others8 7eing there7y relie-e$0 This quality a((eare$ to $e(en$ (rinci(ally on the (oint of fusion8 an$ on the facility .ith .hich the 7o$y .as "e-a(orate$8" or8 generally s(ea2ing8 $isintegrate$K)eaning 7y the latter ter) not only the thro.ing off of ato)s8 7ut li2e.ise of larger lu)(s0 The o7ser-ation )a$e .as in accor$ance .ith generally acce(te$ notions0 ,n a highly e'hauste$ 7ul7 electricity is carrie$ off fro) the electro$e 7y in$e(en$ent carriers8 .hich are (artly the ato)s8 or )olecules8 of the resi$ual at)os(here8 an$ (artly the ato)s8 )olecules8 or lu)(s thro.n off fro) the electro$e0 ,f the electro$e is co)(ose$ of 7o$ies of $ifferent character8 an$ if one of these is )ore easily $isintegrate$ than the others8 )ost of the electricity su((lie$ is carrie$ off fro) that 7o$y8 .hich is then 7rought to a higher te)(erature than the others8 an$ this the )ore8 as u(on an increase of the te)(erature the 7o$y is still )ore easily $isintegrate$0 ,t see)s to )e quite (ro7a7le that a si)ilar (rocess ta2es (lace in the 7ul7 e-en .ith a ho)ogenous electro$e8 an$ , thin2 it to 7e the (rinci(al cause of the $isintegration0 There is 7oun$ to 7e so)e irregularity8 e-en if the surface is highly (olishe$8 .hich8 of course8 is i)(ossi7le .ith )ost of the refractory 7o$ies e)(loye$ as electro$es0 Assu)e that a (oint of the electro$e gets hotter8 instantly )ost of the $ischarge (asses through that (oint8 an$ a )inute (atch is (ro7a7ly fuse$ an$ e-a(orate$0 ,t is no. (ossi7le that in consequence of the -iolent $isintegration the s(ot attac2e$ sin2s in te)(erature8 or that a counter force is create$8 as in an arcJ at any rate8 the local tearing off )eets .ith the li)itations inci$ent to the e'(eri)ent8 .here u(on the sa)e (rocess occurs on another (lace0 To the eye the electro$e a((ears unifor)ly 7rilliant8 7ut there are u(on it (oints constantly shifting an$ .an$ering aroun$8 of a te)(erature far a7o-e the )ean8 an$ this )aterially hastens the (rocess of $eterioration0 That so)e such thing occurs8 at least .hen the electro$e is at a lo.er te)(erature8 sufficient e'(eri)ental e-i$ence can 7e o7taine$ in the follo.ing )annerI "'haust a 7ul7 to a -ery high $egree8 so that
.ith a fairly high (otential the $ischarge cannot (assKthat is8 not a luminous one8 for a .ea2 in-isi7le $ischarge occurs al.ays8 in all (ro7a7ility0 1o. raise slo.ly an$ carefully the (otential8 lea-ing the (ri)ary current on no )ote than for an instant0 At a certain (oint8 t.o8 three8 or half a $oBen (hos(horescent s(ots )ill a((ear on the glo7e0 These (laces of the glass are e-i$ently )ore -iolently 7o)7ar$e$ than others8 this 7eing $ue to the une-enly $istri7ute$ electric $ensity8 necessitate$8 of course8 7y shar( (roHections8 or8 generally s(ea2ing8 irregularities of the electro$e0 3ut the lu)inous (atches are constantly changing in (osition8 .hich is es(ecially .ell o7ser-a7le if one )anages to (ro$uce -ery fe.8 an$ this in$icates that the configuration of the electro$e is ra(i$ly changing0 Fro) e'(eriences of this 2in$ , a) le$ to infer that8 in or$er to 7e )ost $ura7le8 the refractory 7utton in the 7ul7 shoul$ 7e in the for) of a s(here .ith a highly (olishe$ surface0 >uch a s)all s(here coul$ 7e )anufacture$ fro) a $ia)on$ or so)e other crystal8 7ut a 7etter .ay .oul$ 7e to fuse8 7y the e)(loy)ent of e'tre)e $egrees of te)(erature8 so)e o'i$eKas8 for instance8 BirconiaKinto a s)all $ro(8 an$ then 2ee( it in the 7ul7 at a te)(erature so)e.hat 7elo. its (oint of fusion0 ,nteresting an$ useful results can no $ou7t 7e reache$ in the $irection of e'tre)e $egrees of heat0 Ho. can such high te)(eratures 7e arri-e$ atF Ho. are the highest $egrees of heat reache$ in natureF 3y the i)(act of stars8 7y high s(ee$s an$ collisions0 ,n a collision any rate of heat generation )ay 7e attaine$0 ,n a che)ical (rocess .e are li)ite$0 &hen o'ygen an$ hy$rogen co)7ine8 they fall8 )eta(horically s(ea2ing8 fro) a $efinite height0 &e cannot go -ery far .ith a 7last8 nor 7y confining heat in a furnace8 7ut in an e'hauste$ 7ul7 .e can concentrate any a)ount of energy u(on a )inute 7utton0 #ea-ing (ractica7ility out of consi$eration8 this8 then8 .oul$ 7e the )eans .hich8 in )y o(inion8 .oul$ ena7le us to reach the highest te)(erature0 3ut a great $ifficulty .hen (rocee$ing in this .ay is encountere$8 na)ely8 in )ost cases the 7o$y is carrie$ off 7efore it can fuse an$ for) a $ro(0 This $ifficulty e'ists (rinci(ally .ith an o'i$e such as Birconia8 7ecause it cannot 7e co)(resse$ in so har$ a ca2e that it .oul$ not 7e carrie$ off quic2ly0 , en$ea-oure$ re(eate$ly to fuse Birconia8 (lacing it in a cu( or arc light car7on as in$icate$ in Fig0 !30 ,t glo.e$ .ith a )ost intense light8 an$ the strea) of the (articles (roHecte$ out of the car7on cu( .as of a -i-i$ .hiteJ 7ut .hether it .as co)(resse$ in a ca2e or )a$e into a (aste .ith car7on8 it .as carrie$ off 7efore it coul$ 7e fuse$0 The car7on cu( containing the Birconia ha$ to 7e )ounte$ -ery lo. in the nec2 of a large 7ul78 as the heating of the glass 7y the (roHecte$ (articles of the o'i$e .as so ra(i$ that in the first trial the 7ul7 .as crac2e$ al)ost in an instant .hen the current .as turne$ on0 The heating of the glass 7y the (roHecte$ (articles .as foun$ to 7e al.ays greater .hen the car7on cu( containe$ a 7o$y .hich .as ra(i$ly carrie$ offK, (resu)e 7ecause in such cases8 .ith the sa)e (otential8 higher s(ee$s .ere reache$8 an$ also 7ecause8 (er unit of ti)e8 )ore )atter .as (roHecte$Kthat is8 )ore (articles .oul$ stri2e the glass0 The 7efore )entione$ $ifficulty $i$ not e'ist8 ho.e-er8 .hen the 7o$y )ounte$ in the car7on cu( offere$ great resistance to $eterioration0 For instance8 .hen an o'i$e .as first fuse$ in an o'ygen 7last an$ then )ounte$ in the 7ul78 it )elte$ -ery rea$ily into a $ro(0 Generally $uring the (rocess of fusion )agnificent light effects .ere note$8 of .hich it .oul$ 7e $ifficult to gi-e an a$equate i$ea0 Fig0 !3 is inten$e$ to illustrate the effect o7ser-e$ .ith a ru7y $ro(0 At first one )ay see a narro. funnel of .hite light (roHecte$ against the to( of the glo7e8 .here it (ro$uces an irregularly outline$ (hos(horescent (atch0 &hen the (oint of the ru7y fuses the (hos(horescence 7eco)es -ery (o.erfulJ 7ut as the ato)s are (roHecte$ .ith )uch greater s(ee$ fro) the surface of the $ro(8 soon the glass gets hot an$ "tire$8" an$ no. only the outer e$ge of the (atch glo.s0 ,n this )anner an intensely (hos(horescent8 shar(ly $efine$ line8 corres(on$ing to the outline of the $ro(8 is (ro$uce$8 .hich s(rea$s slo.lyI o-er the glo7e as the $ro( gets larger0 &hen the )ass 7egins to 7oil8 s)all 7u77les an$ ca-ities are for)e$8 .hich cause $ar2 colore$ s(ots to s.ee( across the glo7e0 The 7ul7 )ay 7e turne$ $o.n.ar$ .ithout fear of the $ro( falling off8 as the )ass (ossesses consi$era7le -iscosity0 , )ay )ention here another feature of so)e interest8 .hich , 7elie-e to ha-e note$ in the course of these e'(eri)ents8 though the o7ser-ations $o not a)ount to a certitu$e0 ,t a**eared that un$er the )olecular i)(act cause$ 7y the ra(i$ly alternating (otential the 7o$y .as fuse$ an$ )aintaine$ in that state at a lo.er te)(erature in a highly e'hauste$ 7ul7 than .as the case at nor)al (ressure an$ a((lication of heat in the or$inary .ayKthat is8 at least8 Hu$ging fro) the quantity of the light e)itte$0 ;ne of the e'(eri)ents (erfor)e$ )ay 7e )entione$ here 7y .ay of illustration0 A s)all (iece of (u)ice stone .as stuc2 on a (latinu) .ire8 an$ first )elte$ to it in a gas 7urner0 The .ire .as ne't (lace$ 7et.een t.o (ieces of charcoal an$ a 7urner a((lie$ so as to (ro$uce an intense heat8 sufficient to )elt $o.n the (u)ice stone into a s)all glass9li2e 7utton0 The (latinu) .ire ha$ to 7e ta2en of sufficient thic2ness to (re-ent its )elting in the fire0 &hile in the charcoal fire8 or .hen hel$ in a 7urner to get a 7etter i$ea of the $egree of heat8 the 7utton glo.e$ .ith great 7rilliancy0 The .ire .ith the 7utton .as then )ounte$ in a 7ul78 an$ u(on e'hausting the sa)e to a high $egree8 the current .as
turne$ on slo.ly so as to (re-ent the crac2ing of the 7utton0 The 7utton .as heate$ to the (oint of fusion8 an$ .hen it )elte$ it $i$ not8 a((arently8 glo. .ith the sa)e 7rilliancy as 7efore8 an$ this .oul$ in$icate a lo.er te)(erature0 #ea-ing out of consi$eration the o7ser-er's (ossi7le8 an$ e-en (ro7a7le8 error8 the question is8 can a 7o$y un$er these con$itions 7e 7rought fro) a soli$ to a liqui$ state .ith e-olution of less lightF &hen the (otential of a 7o$y is ra(i$ly alternate$ it is certain that the structure is Harre$0 &hen the (otential is -ery high8 although the -i7rations )ay 7e fe.Ksay !58555 (er secon$Kthe effect u(on the structure )ay 7e consi$era7le0 >u((ose8 for e'a)(le8 that a ru7y is )elte$ into a $ro( 7y a stea$y a((lication of energy0 &hen it for)s a $ro( it .ill e)it -isi7le an$ in-isi7le .a-es8 .hich .ill 7e in a $efinite ratio8 an$ to the eye the $ro( .ill a((ear to 7e of a certain 7rilliancy0 1e't8 su((ose .e $i)inish to any $egree .e choose the energy stea$ily su((lie$8 an$8 instea$8 su((ly energy .hich rises an$ falls accor$ing to a certain la.0 1o.8 .hen the $ro( is for)e$8 there .ill 7e e)itte$ fro) it three $ifferent 2in$s of -i7rationsKthe or$inary -isi7le8 an$ t.o 2in$s of in-isi7le .a-esI that is8 the or$inary $ar2 .a-es of all lengths8 an$8 in a$$ition8 .a-es of a .ell9$efine$ character0 The latter .oul$ not e'ist 7y a stea$y su((ly of the energyJ still they hel( to Har an$ loosen the structure0 ,f this really 7e the case8 then the ru7y $ro( .ill e)it relati-ely less -isi7le an$ )ore in-isi7le .a-es than 7efore0 Thus it .oul$ see) that .hen a (latinu) .ire8 for instance8 is fuse$ 7y currents alternating .ith e'tre)e ra(i$ity8 it e)its at the (oint of fusion less light an$ )ore in-isi7le ra$iation than it $oes .hen )elte$ 7y a stea$y current8 though the total energy use$ u( in the (rocess of fusion is the sa)e in 7oth cases8 ;r8 to cite another e'a)(le8 a la)( fila)ent is not ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing as long .ith currents of e'tre)e frequency as it $oes .ith stea$y currents8 assu)ing that it 7e .or2e$ at the sa)e lu)inous intensity0 This )eans that for ra(i$ly alternating currents the fila)ent shoul$ 7e shorter an$ thic2er0 The higher the frequencyKthat is8 the greater the $e(arture fro) the stea$y flo.Kthe .orse it .oul$ 7e for the fila)ent0 3ut if the truth of this re)ar2 .ere $e)onstrate$8 it .oul$ 7e erroneous to conclu$e that such a refractory 7utton as use$ in these 7ul7s .oul$ 7e $eteriorate$ quic2er 7y currents of e'tre)ely high frequency than 7y stea$y or lo. frequency currents0 Fro) e'(erience , )ay say that Hust the o((osite hol$s goo$I the 7utton .ithstan$s the 7o)7ar$)ent 7etter .ith currents of -ery high frequency0 3ut this is $ue to the fact that a high frequency $ischarge (asses through a rarefie$ gas .ith )uch greater free$o) than a stea$y or lo. frequency $ischarge8 an$ this .ill say that .ith the for)er .e can .or2 .ith a lo.er (otential or .ith a less -iolent i)(act0 As long8 then8 as the gas is of no consequence8 a stea$y or lo. frequency current is 7etterJ 7ut as soon as the action of the gas is $esire$ an$ i)(ortant8 high frequencies are (refera7le0 ,n the course of these e'(eri)ents a great )any trials .ere )a$e .ith all 2in$s of car7on 7uttons0 "lectro$es )a$e of or$inary car7on 7uttons .ere $eci$e$ly )ore $ura7le .hen the 7uttons .ere o7taine$ 7y the a((lication of enor)ous (ressure0 "lectro$es (re(are$ 7y $e(ositing car7on in .ell 2no.n .ays $i$ not sho. u( .ellJ they 7lac2ene$ the glo7e -ery quic2ly0 Fro) )any e'(eriences , conclu$e that la)( fila)ents o7taine$ in this )anner can 7e a$-antageously use$ only .ith lo. (otentials an$ lo. frequency currents0 >o)e 2in$s of car7on .ithstan$ so .ell that8 in or$er to 7ring the) to the (oint of fusion8 it is necessary to e)(loy -ery s)all 7uttons0 ,n this case the o7ser-ation is ren$ere$ -ery $ifficult on account of the intense heat (ro$uce$0 1e-ertheless there can 7e no $ou7t that all 2in$s of car7on are fuse$ un$er the )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent8 7ut the liqui$ state )ust 7e one of great insta7ility0 ;f all the 7o$ies trie$ there .ere t.o .hich .ithstoo$ 7estK$ia)on$ an$ car7orun$u)0 These t.o sho.e$ u( a7out equally8 7ut the latter .as (refera7le8 for )any reasons0 As it is )ore than li2ely that this 7o$y is not yet generally 2no.n8 , .ill -enture to call your attention to it0 ,t has 7een recently (ro$uce$ 7y /r0 "0 G0 Acheson8 of /onongahela City8 <a08 C0 >0 A0 ,t is inten$e$ to re(lace or$inary $ia)on$ (o.$er for (olishing (recious stones8 etc08 an$ , ha-e 7een infor)e$ that it acco)(lishes this o7Hect quite successfully0 , $o not 2no. .hy the na)e "car7orun$u)" has 7een gi-en to it8 unless there is so)ething in the (rocess of its )anufacture .hich Hustifies this selection0 Through the 2in$ness of the in-entor8 , o7taine$ a short .hile ago so)e sa)(les .hich , $esire$ to test in regar$ to their qualities of (hos(horescence an$ ca(a7ility of .ithstan$ing high $egrees of heat0 Car7orun$u) can 7e o7taine$ in t.o for)sKin the for) of "crystals" an$ of (o.$er0 The for)er a((ear to the na2e$ eye $ar2 colore$8 7ut are -ery 7rilliantJ the latter is of nearly the sa)e color as or$inary $ia)on$ (o.$er8 7ut -ery )uch finer0 &hen -ie.e$ un$er a )icrosco(e the sa)(les of crystals gi-en to )e $i$ not a((ear to ha-e any $efinite for)8 7ut rather rese)7le$ (ieces of 7ro2en u( egg coal of fine quality0 The )aHority .ere o(aque8 7ut there .ere so)e .hich .ere trans(arent an$ colore$0 The crystals are a 2in$ of car7on containing so)e i)(uritiesJ they are e'tre)ely har$8 an$ .ithstan$ for a long ti)e e-en an o'ygen 7last0 &hen the 7last is $irecte$ against the) they at first for) a ca2e of so)e co)(actness8 (ro7a7ly in consequence of the fusion of i)(urities they contain0 The )ass .ithstan$s for a -ery long ti)e the 7last .ithout further fusionJ 7ut a slo. carrying off8 or 7urning8 occurs8 an$8 finally8 a s)all quantity of a glass9li2e resi$ue is left8 .hich8 , su((ose8 is )elte$ alu)ina0 &hen co)(resse$ strongly they con$uct -ery .ell8 7ut not as .ell as or$inary car7on0 The
(o.$er8 .hich is o7taine$ fro) the crystals in so)e .ay8 is (ractically non9con$ucting0 ,t affor$s a )agnificent (olishing )aterial for stones0 The ti)e has 7een too short to )a2e a satisfactory stu$y of the (ro(erties of this (ro$uct8 7ut enough e'(erience has 7een gaine$ in a fe. .ee2s , ha-e e'(eri)ente$ u(on it to say that it $oes (ossess so)e re)ar2a7le (ro(erties in )any res(ects0 ,t .ithstan$s e'cessi-ely high $egrees of heat8 it is little $eteriorate$ 7y )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent8 an$ it $oes not 7lac2en the glo7e as or$inary car7on $oes0 The only $ifficulty .hich , ha-e foun$ in its use in connection .ith these e'(eri)ents .as to fin$ so)e 7in$ing )aterial .hich .oul$ resist the heat an$ the effect of the 7o)7ar$)ent as successfully as car7orun$u) itself $oes0 , ha-e here a nu)7er of 7ul7s .hich , ha-e (ro-i$e$ .ith 7uttons of car7orun$u)0 To )a2e such a 7utton of car7orun$u) crystals , (rocee$ in the follo.ing )annerI , ta2e an or$inary la)( fila)ent an$ $i( its (oint in tar8 or so)e other thic2 su7stance or (aint .hich )ay 7e rea$ily car7oniBe$0 , ne't (ass the (oint of the fila)ent through the crystals8 an$ then hol$ it -ertically o-er a hot (late0 The tar softens an$ for)s a $ro( on the (oint of the fila)ent8 the crystals a$hering to the surface of the $ro(0 3y regulating the $istance fro) the (late the tar is slo.ly $rie$ out an$ the 7utton 7eco)es soli$0 , then once )ore $i( the 7utton in tar an$ hol$ it again o-er a (late until the tar is e-a(orate$8 lea-ing only a har$ )ass .hich fir)ly 7in$s the crystals0 &hen a larger 7utton is require$ , re(eat the (rocess se-eral ti)es8 an$ , generally also co-er the fila)ent a certain $istance 7elo. the 7utton .ith crystals0 The 7utton 7eing )ounte$ in a 7ul78 .hen a goo$ -acuu) has 7een reache$8 first a .ea2 an$ then a strong $ischarge is (asse$ through the 7ul7 to car7oniBe the tar an$ e'(el all gases8 an$ later it is 7rought to a -ery intense incan$escence0 &hen the (o.$er is use$ , ha-e foun$ it 7est to (rocee$ as follo.sI , )a2e a thic2 (aint of car7orun$u) an$ tar8 an$ (ass a la)( fila)ent through the (aint0 Ta2ing then )ost of the (aint off 7y ru77ing the fila)ent against a (iece of cha)ois leather8 , hol$ it o-er a hot (late until the tar e-a(orates an$ the coating 7eco)es fir)0 , re(eat this (rocess as )any ti)es as it is necessary to o7tain a certain thic2ness of coating0 ;n the (oint of the coate$ fila)ent , for) a 7utton in the sa)e )anner0 There is no $ou7t that such a 7uttonK(ro(erly (re(are$ un$er great (ressureKof car7orun$u)8 es(ecially of (o.$er of the 7est quality8 .ill .ithstan$ the effect of the 7o)7ar$)ent fully as .ell as anything .e 2no.0 The $ifficulty is that the 7in$ing )aterial gi-es .ay8 an$ the car7orun$u) is slo.ly thro.n off after so)e ti)e0 As it $oes not see) to 7lac2en the glo7e in the least8 it )ight 7e foun$ useful for coating the fila)ents of or$inary ,ncan$escent la)(s8 an$ , thin2 that it is e-en (ossi7le to (ro$uce thin threa$s or stic2s of car7orun$u) .hich .ill re(lace the or$inary fila)ents in an incan$escent la)(0 A car7orun$u) coating see)s to 7e )ore $ura7le than other coatings8 not only 7ecause the car7orun$u) can .ithstan$ high $egrees of heat8 7ut also 7ecause it see)s to unite .ith the car7on 7etter than any other )aterial , ha-e trie$0 A coating of Birconia or any other o'i$e8 for instance8 is far )ore quic2ly $estroye$0 , (re(are$ 7uttons of $ia)on$ $ust in the sa)e )anner as of car7orun$u)8 an$ these ca)e in $ura7ility nearest to those (re(are$ of car7orun$u)8 7ut the 7in$ing (aste ga-e .ay )uch )ore quic2ly in the $ia)on$ 7uttonsI this8 ho.e-er8 , attri7ute$ to the site an$ irregularity of the grains of the $ia)on$0 ,t .as of interest to fin$ .hether car7orun$u) (ossesses the quality of (hos(horescence0 ;ne is8 of course8 (re(are$ to encounter t.o $ifficultiesI first8 as regar$s the rough (ro$uct8 the "crystals8" they are goo$ con$ucting8 an$ it is a fact that con$uctors $o not (hos(horesceJ secon$8 the (o.$er8 7eing e'cee$ingly fine8 .oul$ not 7e a(t to e'hi7it -ery (ro)inently this quality8 since .e 2no. that .hen crystals8 e-en such as $ia)on$ or ru7y8 are finely (o.$ere$8 they lose the (ro(erty of (hos(horescence to a consi$era7le $egree0 The question (resents itself here8 can a con$uctor (hos(horesceF &hat is there in such a 7o$y as a )etal8 for instance8 that .oul$ $e(ri-e it of the quality of (hos(horescence8 unless it is that (ro(erty .hich characteriBes it as a con$uctorF For it is a fact that )ost of the (hos(horescent 7o$ies lose that quality .hen they are sufficiently heate$ to 7eco)e )ore or less con$ucting0 Then8 if a )etal 7e in a large )easure8 or (erha(s entirely $e(ri-e$ of that (ro(erty8 it shoul$ 7e ca(a7le of (hos(horescence0 Therefore it is quite (ossi7le that at so)e e'tre)ely high frequency8 .hen 7eha-ing (ractically as a non9con$uctor8 a )etal of any other con$uctor )ight e'hi7it the quality of (hos(horescence8 e-en though it 7e entirely inca(a7le of (hos(horescing un$er the i)(act of a lo.9frequency $ischarge0 There is8 ho.e-er8 another (ossi7le .ay ho. a con$uctor )ight at least a**ear to (hos(horesce0 Consi$era7le $ou7t still e'ists as to .hat really is (hos(horescence8 an$ as to .hether the -arious (heno)ena co)(rise$ un$er this hea$ are $ue to the sa)e causes0 >u((ose that in an e'hauste$ 7ul78 un$er the )olecular i)(act8 the surface of a (iece of )etal or other con$uctor is ren$ere$ strongly lu)inous8 7ut at the sa)e ti)e it is foun$ that it re)ains co)(arati-ely cool8 .oul$ not this lu)inosity 7e calle$ (hos(horescenceF 1o. such a result8 theoretically at least8 is (ossi7le8 for it is a )ere question of (otential of s(ee$0 Assu)e the (otential of
the electro$e8 an$ consequently the s(ee$ of the (roHecte$ ato)s8 to 7e sufficiently high8 the surface of the )etal (iece against .hich the ato)s are (roHecte$ .oul$ 7e ren$ere$ highly incan$escent8 since the (rocess of heat generation .oul$ 7e inco)(ati7ly faster than that of ra$iating or con$ucting a.ay fro) the surface of the collision0 ,n the eye of the o7ser-er a single i)(act of the ato)s .oul$ cause an instantaneous flash8 7ut if the i)(act .ere re(eate$ .ith sufficient ra(i$ity they .oul$ (ro$uce a continuous i)(ression u(on his retina0 To hi) then the surface of the )etal .oul$ a((ear continuously incan$escent an$ of constant lu)inous intensity8 .hile in reality the light .oul$ 7e either inter)ittent or at least changing (erio$ically in intensity0 The )etal (iece .oul$ rise in te)(erature until equili7riu) .as attaine$Kthat is8 until the energy continuously ra$iate$ .oul$ equal that inter)ittently su((lie$0 3ut the su((lie$ energy )ight un$er such con$itions not 7e sufficient to 7ring the 7o$y to any )ore than a -ery )o$erate )ean te)(erature8 es(ecially if the frequency of the ato)ic i)(acts 7e -ery lo. KHust enough that the fluctuation of the intensity of the light e)itte$ coul$ not 7e $etecte$ 7y the eye0 The 7o$y .oul$ no.8 o.ing to the )anner in .hich the energy is su((lie$8 e)it a strong light8 an$ yet 7e at a co)(arati-ely -ery lo. )ean te)(erature0 Ho. coul$ the o7ser-er call the lu)inosity thus (ro$uce$F "-en if the analysis of the light .oul$ teach hi) so)ething $efinite8 still he .oul$ (ro7a7ly ran2 it un$er the (heno)ena of (hos(horescence0 ,t is concei-a7le that in such a .ay 7oth con$ucting an$ noncon$ucting 7o$ies )ay 7e )aintaine$ at a certain9lu)inous intensity8 7ut the energy require$ .oul$ -ery greatly -ary .ith the nature an$ (ro(erties of the 7o$ies0 These an$ so)e foregoing re)ar2s of a s(eculati-e nature .ere )a$e )erely to 7ring out curious features of alternate currents or electric i)(ulses0 3y their hel( .e )ay cause a 7o$y to e)it more light8 .hile at a certain )ean te)(erature8 than it .oul$ e)it if 7rought to that te)(erature 7y a stea$y su((lyJ an$8 again8 .e )ay 7ring a 7o$y to the (oint of fusion8 an$ cause it to e)it less light than .hen fuse$ 7y the a((lication of energy in or$inary .ays0 ,t all $e(en$s on ho. .e su((ly the energy8 an$ .hat 2in$ of -i7rations .e set u(I in one case the -i7rations are )ore8 in the other less8 a$a(te$ to affect our sense of -ision0 >o)e effects8 .hich , ha$ not o7ser-e$ 7efore8 o7taine$ .ith car7orun$u) in the first trials8 , attri7ute$ to (hos(horescence8 7ut in su7sequent e'(eri)ents it a((eare$ that it .as $e-oi$ of that quality0 The crystals (ossess a note.orthy feature0 ,n a 7ul7 (ro-i$e$ .ith a single electro$e in the sha(e of a s)all circular )etal $isc8 for instance8 at a certain $egree of e'haustion the electro$e is co-ere$ .ith a )il2y fil)8 .hich is se(arate$ 7y a $ar2 s(ace fro) the glo. filling the 7ul70 &hen the )etal $isc is co-ere$ .ith car7orun$u) crystals8 the fil) is far )ore intense8 an$ sno.9.hite0 This , foun$ later to 7e )erely an effect of the 7right surface of the crystals8 for .hen an alu)iniu) electro$e .as highly (olishe$ it e'hi7ite$ )ore or less the sa)e (heno)enon0 , )a$e a nu)7er of e'(eri)ents .ith the sa)(les of crystals o7taine$8 (rinci(ally 7ecause it .oul$ ha-e 7een of s(ecial interest to fin$ that they are ca(a7le of (hos(horescence8 on account of their 7eing con$ucting0 , coul$ not (ro$uce (hos(horescence $istinctly8 7ut , )ust re)ar2 that a $ecisi-e o(inion cannot 7e for)e$ until other e'(eri)enters ha-e gone o-er the sa)e groun$0 The (o.$er 7eha-e$ in so)e e'(eri)ents as though it containe$ alu)ina8 7ut it $i$ not e'hi7it .ith sufficient $istinctness the re$ of the latter0 ,ts $ea$ color 7rightens consi$era7ly un$er the )olecular i)(act8 7ut , a) no. con-ince$ it $oes not (hos(horesce0 >till8 the tests .ith the (o.$er are not con$uci-e8 7ecause (o.$ere$ car7orun$u) (ro7a7ly $oes not 7eha-e li2e a (hos(horescent sul(hi$e8 for e'a)(le8 .hich coul$ 7e finely (o.$ere$ .ithout i)(airing the (hos(horescence8 7ut rather li2e (o.$ere$ ru7y or $ia)on$8 an$ therefore it .oul$ 7e necessary8 in or$er to )a2e a $ecisi-e test8 to o7tain it in a large lu)( an$ (olish u( the surface0 ,f the car7orun$u) (ro-es useful in connection .ith these an$ si)ilar e'(eri)ents8 its chief -alue .ill 7e foun$ in the (ro$uction of coatings8 thin con$uctors8 7uttons8 or other electro$es ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing e'tre)ely high $egrees of heat0 The (ro$uction of a s)all electro$e ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing enor)ous te)(eratures , regar$ as of the greatest i)(ortance in the )anufacture of light0 ,t .oul$ ena7le us to o7tain8 7y )eans of currents of -ery high frequencies8 certainly !5 ti)es8 if not )ore8 the quantity of light .hich is o7taine$ in the (resent incan$escent la)( 7y the sa)e e'(en$iture of energy0 This esti)ate )ay a((eal9 to )any e'aggerate$8 7ut in reality , thin2 it is far fro) 7eing so0 As this state)ent )ight 7e )isun$erstoo$ , thin2 it necessary to e'(ose clearly the (ro7le) .ith .hich in this line of .or2 .e are confronte$8 an$ the )anner in .hich8 in )y o(inion8 a solution .ill 7e arri-e$ at0 Any one .ho 7egins a stu$y of the (ro7le) .ill 7e a(t to thin2 that .hat is .ante$ in a la)( .ith an electro$e is a -ery high $egree of incan$escence of the electro$e0 There he .ill 7e )ista2en0 The high incan$escence of the 7utton is a necessary e-il8 7ut .hat is really .ante$ is the high incan$escence of the gas surroun$ing thee 7utton0 ,n other .or$s8 the (ro7le) in such a la)( is to 7ring a )ass of gas to the highest (ossi7le incan$escence0 The higher the incan$escence8 the quic2er the )ean -i7ration8 the greater is the econo)y of the
light (ro$uction0 3ut to )aintain a )ass of gas at a high $egree of incan$escence in a glass -essel8 it .ill al.ays 7e necessary to 2ee( the incan$escent )ass a.ay fro) the glassJ that is8 to confine it as )uch as (ossi7le to the central (ortion of the glo7e0 ,n one of the e'(eri)ents this e-ening a 7rush .as (ro$uce$ at the en$ of a .ire0 This 7rush .as a fla)e8 a source of heat an$ light0 ,t $i$ not e)it )uch (erce(ti7le heat8 nor $i$ it glo. .ith an intense lightJ 7ut is it the less a fla)e 7ecause it $oes not scorch )y han$F ,s it the less a fla)e 7ecause it $oes not hurt )y eye 7y its 7rilliancyF The (ro7le) is (recisely to (ro$uce in the 7ul7 such a fla)e8 )uch s)aller in site8 7ut inco)(ara7ly )ore (o.erful0 &ere there )eans at han$ for (ro$ucing electric i)(ulses of a sufficiently high frequency8 an$ for trans)itting the)8 the 7ul7 coul$ 7e $one a.ay .ith8 unless it .ere use$ to (rotect the electro$e8 or to econo)iBe the energy 7y confining the heat0 3ut as such )eans are not at $is(osal8 it 7eco)es necessary to (lace The ter)inal in a 7ul7 an$ rarefy the air in the sa)e0 This is $one )erely to ena7le the a((aratus to (erfor) the .or2 .hich it is not ca(a7le of (erfor)ing at or$inary air (ressure0 ,n the 7ul7 .e are a7le to intensify the action to any $egreeKso far that the 7rush e)its a (o.erful light0 The intensity of the light e)itte$ $e(en$s (rinci(ally on the frequency an$ (otential of the i)(ulses8 an$ on the electric $ensity on the surface of the electro$e0 ,t is of the greatest i)(ortance to e)(loy the s)allest (ossi7le 7utton8 in or$er to (ush the $ensity -ery far0 Cn$er the -iolent i)(act of the )olecules of the gas surroun$ing it8 the s)all electro$e is of course 7rought to an e'tre)ely high te)(erature8 7ut aroun$ it is a )ass of highly incan$escent gas8 a fla)e (hotos(here8 )any hun$re$ ti)es the -olu)e of the electro$e0 &ith a $ia)on$8 car7orun$u) or Bircon 7utton the (hotos(here can 7e as )uch as one thousan$ ti)es the -olu)e of the 7utton0 &ithout )uch reflecting one .oul$ thin2 that in (ushing so far the incan$escence of the electro$e it .oul$ 7e instantly -olatiliBe$0 3ut after a careful consi$eration he .oul$ fin$ that8 theoretically8 it shoul$ not occur8 an$ in this factK.hich8 ho.e-er8 is e'(eri)entally $e)onstrate$Klies (rinci(ally the future -alue of such a la)(0 At first8 .hen the 7o)7ar$)ent 7egins8 )ost of the .or2 is (erfor)e$ on the surface of the 7utton8 7ut .hen a highly con$ucting (hotos(here is for)e$ the 7utton is co)(arati-ely relie-e$0 The higher the incan$escence of the (hotos(here the )ore it a((roaches in con$ucti-ity to that of the electro$e8 an$ the )ore8 therefore8 the soli$ an$ the gas for) one con$ucting 7o$y0 The consequence is that the further is force$ the incan$escence the )ore .or28 co)(arati-ely8 is (erfor)e$ on the gas8 an$ the less on the electro$e0 The for)ation of a (o.erful (hotos(here is consequently the -ery )eans for (rotecting the electro$e0 This (rotection8 of course8 is a relati-e one8 an$ it shoul$ not 7e thought that 7y (ushing the incan$escence higher the electro$e is actually less $eteriorate$0 >till8 theoretically8 .ith e'tre)e frequencies8 this result )ust 7e reache$8 7ut (ro7a7ly at a te)(erature too high for )ost of the refractory 7o$ies 2no.n0 Gi-en8 then8 an electro$e .hich can .ithstan$ to a -ery high li)it the effect of the 7o)7ar$)ent an$ out.ar$ strain8 it .oul$ 7e safe no )atter ho. )uch it is force$ 7eyon$ that li)it0 ,n an incan$escent la)( quite $ifferent consi$erations a((ly0 There the gas is not at all concerne$I the .hole of the .or2 is (erfor)e$ on the fila)entJ an$ the life of the la)( $i)inishes so ra(i$ly .ith the increase of the $egree of incan$escence the econo)ical reasons co)(el us to .or2 it at a lo. incan$escence0 3ut if an incan$escent la)( is o(erate$ .ith currents of -ery high frequency8 the action of the gas cannot 7e neglecte$8 an$ the rules for the )ost econo)ical .or2ing )ust 7e consi$era7ly )o$ifie$0 ,n or$er to 7ring such a la)( .ith one or t.o electro$es to a great (erfection8 it is necessary to e)(loy i)(ulses of -ery high frequency0 The high frequency secures8 a)ong others8 t.o chief a$-antages8 .hich ha-e a )ost i)(ortant 7earing u(on the econo)y of the light (ro$uction0 First8 the $eterioration of the electro$e is re$uce$ 7y reason of the fact that .e e)(loy a great )any s)all i)(acts8 instea$ of a fe. -iolent ones8 .hich shatter quic2ly the structureJ secon$ly8 the for)ation of a large (hotos(here is facilitate$0 ,n or$er to re$uce the $eterioration of the electro$e to the )ini)u)8 it is $esira7le that the -i7ration 7e har)onic8 for any su$$enness hastens the (rocess of $estruction0 An electro$e lasts )uch longer .hen 2e(t at incan$escence 7y currents8 or i)(ulses8 o7taine$ fro) a high9frequency alternator8 .hich rise an$ fall )ore or less har)onically8 than 7y i)(ulses o7taine$ fro) a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil0 ,n the latter case there is no $ou7t that )ost of the $a)age is $one 7y the fun$a)ental su$$en $ischarges0 ;ne of the ele)ents of loss in such a la)( is the 7o)7ar$)ent of the glo7e0 As the (otential is -ery high8 the )olecules are (roHecte$ .ith great s(ee$J they stri2e the glass8 an$ usually e'cite a strong (hos(horescence0 The effect (ro$uce$ is -ery (retty 7ut for econo)ical reasons it .oul$ 7e (erha(s (refera7le to (re-ent8 or at least re$uce to the )ini)u)8 the 7o)7ar$)ent against the glo7e8 as in such case it is8 as a result8 not the o7Hect to e'cite (hos(horescence8 an$ as so)e loss of energy results fro) the 7o)7ar$)ent0 This loss in the 7ul7 is (rinci(ally $e(en$ent on the (otential of the i)(ulses an$ on the electric $ensity on the surface of the electro$e0 ,n e)(loying -ery high frequencies the loss of energy 7y the 7o)7ar$)ent is greatly re$uce$8 for8 first8 the (otential nee$e$ to (erfor) a gi-en a)ount of .or2 is )uch s)allerJ an$8 secon$ly8 7y (ro$ucing a highly
con$ucting (hotos(here aroun$ the electro$e8 the sa)e result is o7taine$ as though the electro$e .ere )uch larger8 .hich is equi-alent to a s)aller electric $ensity0 3ut 7e it 7y the $i)inution of the )a'i)u) (otential or of the $ensity8 the gain is effecte$ in the sa)e )anner8 na)ely8 7y a-oi$ing -iolent shoc2s8 .hich strain the glass )uch 7eyon$ its li)it of elasticity0 ,f the frequency coul$ 7e 7rought high enough8 the loss $ue to the i)(erfect elasticity of the glass .oul$ 7e entirely negligi7le0 The loss $ue to 7o)7ar$)ent of the glo7e )ay8 ho.e-er8 7e re$uce$ 7y using t.o electro$es instea$ of one0 ,n such case each of the electro$es )ay 7e connecte$ to one of the ter)inalsJ or else8 if it is (refera7le to use only one .ire8 one electro$e )ay 7e connecte$ to one ter)inal an$ the other to the groun$ or to an insulate$ 7o$y of so)e surface8 as8 for instance8 a sha$e on the la)(0 ,n the latter case8 unless so)e Hu$ge)ent is use$8 one of the electro$es )ight glo. )ore intensely than the other0 3ut on the .hole , fin$ it (refera7le .hen using such high frequencies to e)(loy only one electro$e an$ one connecting .ire0 , a) con-ince$ that the illu)inating $e-ice of the near future .ill not require for its o(eration )ore than one lea$8 an$8 at any rate8 it .ill ha-e no lea$ing9in .ire8 since the energy require$ can 7e as .ell trans)itte$ through the glass0 ,n e'(eri)ental 7ul7s the lea$ing9in .ire is )ost generally use$ on account of con-enience8 as in e)(loying con$enser coatings in the )anner in$icate$ in Fig0 !!8 for e'a)(le8 there is so)e $ifficulty in fitting the (arts8 7ut these $ifficulties .oul$ not e'ist if a great )any 7ul7s .ere )anufacture$J other.ise the energy can 7e con-eye$ through the glass as .ell as through a .ire8 an$ .ith these high frequencies the losses are -ery s)all0 >uch illu)inating $eices .ill necessarily in-ol-e the use of -ery high (otentials8 an$ this8 in the eyes of (ractical )en8 )ight 7e an o7Hectiona7le feature0 Det8 in reality8 high (otentials are not o7Hectiona7leKcertainly not in the least as far as the safety of the $e-ices is concerne$0 There are t.o .ays of ren$ering an electric a((liance safe0 ;ne is to use lo. (otentials8 the other is to $eter)ine the $i)ensions of the a((aratus so that it is safe no )atter ho. high a (otential is use$0 ;f the t.o the latter see)s to )e the 7etter .ay8 for then the safety is a7solute8 unaffecte$ 7y any (ossi7le co)7ination of circu)stances .hich )ight ren$er e-en a lo.9(otential a((liance $angerous to life an$ (ro(erty0 3ut the (ractical con$itions require not only the Hu$icious $eter)ination of the $i)ensions of the a((aratusJ they li2e.ise necessitate the e)(loy)ent of energy of the (ro(er 2in$0 ,t is easy8 for instance8 to construct a transfor)er ca(a7le of gi-ing8 .hen o(erate$ fro) an or$inary alternate current )achine of lo. tension8 say 458555 -olts8 .hich )ight 7e require$ to light a highly e'hauste$ (hos(horescent tu7e8 so that8 in s(ite of the high (otential8 it is (erfectly safe8 the shoc2 fro) it (ro$ucing no incon-enience0 >till8 such a transfor)er .oul$ 7e e'(ensi-e8 an$ in itself inefficientJ an$8 7esi$es8 .hat energy .as o7taine$ fro) it .oul$ not 7e econo)ically use$ for the (ro$uction of light0 The econo)y $e)an$s the e)(loy)ent of energy in the for) of e'tre)ely ra(i$ -i7rations0 The (ro7le) of (ro$ucing light has 7een li2ene$ to that of )aintaining a certain high9(itch note 7y )eans of a 7ell0 ,t shoul$ 7e sai$ a barely audible noteJ an$ e-en these .or$s .oul$ not e'(ress it8 so .on$erful is the sensiti-eness of the eye0 &e )ay $eli-er (o.erful 7lo.s at long inter-als8 .aste a goo$ $eal of energy8 an$ still not get .hat .e .antJ or .e )ay 2ee( u( the note 7y $eli-ering frequent gentle ta(s8 an$ get nearer to the o7Hect sought 7y the e'(en$iture of )u$Z1 less energy0 ,n the (ro$uction of light8 as far as the illu)inating $e-ice is concerne$8 there can 7e only one ruleKthat is8 to use as high frequencies as can 7e o7taine$J 7ut the )eans for the (ro$uction an$ con-eyance of i)(ulses of such character i)(ose8 at (resent at least8 great li)itations0 ;nce it is $eci$e$ to use -ery high frequencies8 the return .ire 7eco)es unnecessary8 an$ all the a((liances are si)(lifie$0 3y the use of o7-ious )eans the sa)e result is o7taine$ as though the return .ire .ere use$0 ,t is sufficient for this (ur(ose to 7ring in contact .ith the 7ul78 or )erely in the -icinity of the sa)e8 an insulate$ 7o$y of so)e surface0 The surface nee$8 of course8 7e the s)aller8 the higher the frequency an$ (otential use$8 an$ necessarily8 also8 the higher the econo)y of the la)( or other $e-ice0 This (lan of .or2ing has 7een resorte$ to on se-eral occasions this e-ening0 >o8 for instance8 .hen the incan$escence of a 7utton .as (ro$uce$ 7y gras(ing the 7ul7 .ith the han$8 the 7o$y of the e'(eri)enter )erely ser-e$ to intensify the action0 The 7ul7 use$ .as si)ilar to that illustrate$ in Fig0 198 an$ the coil .as e'cite$ to a s)all (otential8 not sufficient to 7ring the 7utton to incan$escence .hen the 7ul7 .as hanging fro) the .ireJ an$ inci$entally8 in or$er to (erfor) the e'(eri)ent in a )ore suita7le )anner8 the 7utton .as ta2en so large that a (erce(ti7le ti)e ha$ to ela(se 7efore8 u(on gras(ing the 7ul78 it coul$ 7e ren$ere$ incan$escent0 The contact .ith the 7ul7 .as8 of course8 quite unnecessary0 ,t is easy8 7y using a rather large 7ul7 .ith an e'cee$ingly s)all electro$e8 to a$Hust the con$itions so that the latter is 7rought to 7right incan$escence 7y the )ere a((roach of the e'(eri)enter .ithin a fe. feet of the 7ul78 an$ that the incan$escence su7si$es u(on his rece$ing0
,n another e'(eri)ent8 .hen (hos(horescence .as e'cite$8 a si)ilar 7ul7 .as use$0 Here again8 originally8 the (otential .as not sufficient to e'cite (hos(horescence until the action .as intensifie$ Kin this case8 ho.e-er8 to (resent a $ifferent feature8 7y touching the soc2et .ith a )etallic o7Hect hel$ in the han$0 The electro$e in the 7ul7 .as a car7on 7utton so large that it coul$ not 7e 7rought to incan$escence8 an$ there7y s(oil the effect (ro$uce$ 7y (hos(horescence0 Again8 in another of the early e'(eri)ents8 a 7ul7 .as use$ as illustrate$ in Fig0 1!0 ,n this instance8 7y touching the 7ul7 .ith one or t.o fingers8 one or t.o sha$o.s of the ste) insi$e .ere (roHecte$ against the glass8 the touch of the finger (ro$ucing the sa)e result as the a((lication of an e'ternal negati-e electro$e un$er or$inary circu)stances0
,n all these e'(eri)ents the action .as intensifie$ 7y aug)enting the ca(acity at the en$ of the lea$ connecte$ to the ter)inal0 As a rule8 it is not necessary to resort to such )eans8 an$ .oul$ 7e quite unnecessary .ith still higher frequenciesJ 7ut .hen it is $esire$8 the 7ul78 or tu7e8 can 7e easily a$a(te$ to the (ur(ose0 ,n Fig0 !68 for e'a)(le8 an e'(eri)ental 7ul7 % is sho.n8 .hich is (ro-i$e$ .ith a nec2 n on the to( for the a((lication of an e'ternal tinfoil coating8 .hich )ay 7e connecte$ to a 7o$y of larger surface0 >u) a la)( as illustrate$ in Fig0 !4 )ay also 7e lighte$ 7y connecting the tinfoil coating on the nec2 n to the ter)inal8 an$ the lea$ing9in .ire " to an insulate$ (late0 ,f the 7ul7 stan$s in a soc2et u(right8 as sho.n in the cut8 a sha$e of con$ucting )aterial )ay 7e sli((e$ in the nec2 n8 an$ the action thus )agnifie$0 A )ore (erfecte$ arrange)ent use$ in so)e of these 7ul7s is illustrate$ in Fig0 !%0 ,n this case the construction of the 7ul7 is as sho.n an$ $escri7e$ 7efore8 .here reference .as )a$e to Fig0 190 A Binc sheet 78 .ith a tu7ular e'tension T8 is sli((e$ o-er the )etallic soc2et &0 The 7ul7 hangs $o.n.ar$ fro) the ter)inal t8 the Binc sheet 78 (erfor)ing the $ou7le office of intensifier an$ reflector0 The reflector is se(arate$ fro) the ter)inal t 7y an e'tension of the insulating (lug 30 A si)ilar $is(osition .ith a (hos(horescent tu7e is illustrate$ in Fig0 !*0 The tu7e T is (re(are$ fro) t.o short tu7es of a $ifferent $ia)eter8 .hich are seale$ on the en$s0 ;n the lo.er en$ is (lace$ an outsi$e con$ucting coating 28 .hich connects to the .ire "0 The .ire has a hoo2 on the u((er en$ for sus(ension8 an$ (asses through the centre of the insi$e tu7e8 .hich is fille$ .ith so)e goo$ an$ tightly (ac2e$ insulator0 ;n the outsi$e of the u((er en$ of the tu7e8 T8 is another con$ucting coating 218 u(on .hich is sli((e$ a )etallic reflector 78 .hich shoul$ 7e se(arate$ 7y a thic2 insulation fro) the en$ of .ire "0 The econo)ical use of such a reflector or intensifier .oul$ require that all energy su((lie$ to an air con$enser shoul$ 7e reco-era7le8 or8 in other .or$s8 that there shoul$ not 7e any losses8 neither in the gaseous )e$iu) nor through its action else.here0 This is far fro) 7eing so8 7ut8 fortunately8 the losses )ay 7e re$uce$ to anything $esire$0 A fe. re)ar2s are necessary on this su7Hect8 in or$er to )a2e the e'(eriences gathere$ in the course of these in-estigations (erfectly clear0
>u((ose a s)all heli' .ith )any .ell insulate$ turns8 as in e'(eri)ent Fig0 1*8 ha$ one of its en$s connecte$ to one of the ter)inals of the in$uction coil8 an$ the other to a )etal (late8 or8 for the sa2e of si)(licity8 a s(here8 insulate$ in s(ace0 &hen the coil is set to .or28 the (otential of the s(here is alternate$8 an$ the s)all heli' no. 7eha-es as though its free en$ .ere connecte$ to the other ter)inal of the in$uction coil0 ,f an iron can 7e hel$ .ithin the s)all heli' it is quic2ly 7rought to a high te)(erature8 in$icating the (assage of a strong current through the heli'0 Ho. $oes the insulate$ s(here act in this caseF ,t can 7e a con$enser8 storing an$ returning the energy su((lie$ to it8 or it can 7e a )ere sin2 of energy8 an$ the con$itions of the e'(eri)ent $eter)ine .hether it is )ore one or the other0 The s(here 7eing charge$ to a high (otential8 it acts in$ucti-ely u(on the surroun$ing air8 or .hate-er gaseous )e$iu) there )ight 7e0 The )olecules8 or ato)s8 .hich are near the s(here are of course )ore attracte$8 an$ )o-e through a greater $istance than the farther ones0 &hen the nearest )olecules stri2e the s(here they are re(elle$8 an$ collisions occur at all $istances .ithin the in$ucti-e action of the s(here0 ,t is no. clear that8 if the (otential 7e stea$y8 7ut little loss of energy can 7e cause$ in this .ay8 for the )olecules .hich are nearest to the s(here8 ha-ing ha$ an a$$itional charge i)(arte$ to the) 7y contact8 are not Attracte$ until they ha-e (arte$8 if not .ith all8 at least .ith )ost of the a$$itional charge8 .hich can 7e acco)(lishe$ only after a great )any collisions0 Fro) the fact that .ith a stea$y (otential there is 7ut little loss in $ry air8 one )ust co)e to such a conclusion0 &hen the (otential of the s(here8 instea$ of 7eing stea$y8 is alternating8 the con$itions are entirely $ifferent0 ,n this case a rhyth)ical 7o)7ar$)ent occurs8 no )atter .hether the )olecules after co)ing in contact .ith the s(here lose the i)(arte$ charge or notJ .hat is )ore8 if the charge is not lost8 the i)(acts are only the )ore -iolent0 >till if the frequency of the i)(ulses 7e -ery s)all8 the loss cause$ hg the i)(acts an$ collisions .oul$ not 7e serious unless the (otential .ere e'cessi-e0 3ut .hen e'tre)ely high frequencies an$ )ore or less high (otentials are use$8 the loss )ay 7e -ery great0 The total energy lost (er unit of ti)e is (ro(ortionate to the (ro$uct of the nu)7er of i)(acts (er secon$8 or the frequency an$ the energy lost in each i)(act0 3ut the energy of an i)(act )ust 7e (ro(ortionate to the square of the electric $ensity of the s(here8 since the charge i)(arte$ to the )olecule is (ro(ortionate to that $ensity0 , conclu$e fro) this that the total energy lost )ust 7e (ro(ortionate to the (ro$uct of the frequency an$ the square of the electric $ensityJ 7ut this la. nee$s e'(eri)ental confir)ation0 Assu)ing the (rece$ing consi$erations to 7e true8 then8 7y ra(i$ly alternating the (otential of a 7o$y i))erse$ in an insulating gaseous )e$iu)8 any a)ount of energy )ay 7e $issi(ate$ into s(ace0 /ost of that energy then8 , 7elie-e8 is not $issi(ate$ in the for) of long ether .a-es8 (ro(agate$ to consi$era7le $istance8 as is thought )ost generally8 7ut is consu)e$Kin the case of an insulate$ s(here8 for e'a)(leKin i)(act an$ collisional lossesKthat is8 heat -i7rationsKon the surface an$ in the -icinity of the s(here0 To re$uce the $issi(ation it is necessary to .or2 .ith a s)all electric $ensity the s)aller the higher the frequency0 3ut since8 on the assu)(tion 7efore )a$e8 the loss is $i)inishe$ .ith the square of the $ensity8 an$ since currents of -ery high frequencies in-ol-e consi$era7le .aste .hen trans)itte$ through con$uctors8 it follo.s that8 on the .hole8 it is 7etter to e)(loy one .ire than t.o0 Therefore8 if )otors8 la)(s8 or $e-ices of any 2in$ are (erfecte$8 ca(a7le of 7eing a$-antageously o(erate$ 7y currents of e'tre)ely high frequency8 econo)ical reasons .ill )a2e it a$-isa7le to use only one .ire8 es(ecially if the $istances are great0 &hen energy is a7sor7e$ in a con$enser the sa)e 7eha-es as though its ca(acity .ere increase$0 A7sor(tion al.ays e'ists )ore or less8 7ut generally it is s)all an$ of no consequence as long as the frequencies are not -ery great0 ,n using e'tre)ely high frequencies8 an$8 necessarily in such case8 also high (otentials8 the a7sor(tionKor8 .hat is here )eant )ore (articularly 7y this ter)8 the loss of energy $ue to the (resence of a gaseous )e$iu)Kis an i)(ortant factor to 7e consi$ere$8 as the energy a7sor7e$ it the air con$enser )ay 7e any fraction of the su((lie$ energy0 This .oul$ see) to )a2e it -ery $ifficult to tell fro) the )easure$ or co)(ute$ ca(acity of an air con$enser its actual ca(acity or -i7ration (erio$8 es(ecially if the con$enser is of -ery s)all surface an$ is charge$ to a -ery high (otential0 As )any i)(ortant results are $e(en$ent u(on the correctness of the esti)ation of the -i7ration (erio$8 this su7Hect $e)an$s the )ost careful scrutiny of other in-estigators0 To re$uce the (ro7a7le error as )uch as (ossi7le in e'(eri)ents of the 2in$ allu$e$ to8 it is a$-isa7le to use s(heres or (lates of large surface8 so as to )a2e the $ensity e'cee$ingly s)all0 ;ther.ise8 .hen it is (ractica7le8 an oil con$enser shoul$ 7e use$ in (reference0 ,n oil or other liqui$ $ielectrics there are see)ingly no such losses as in gaseous )e$ia0 ,t 7eing i)(ossi7le to e'clu$e entirely the gas in con$ensers .ith soli$ $ielectrics8 such con$ensers shoul$ 7e i))erse$ in oil8 for econo)ical reasons if nothing elseJ they can then 7e straine$ to the ut)ost an$ .ill re)ain cool0 ,n #ey$en Hars the loss $ue to air is co)(arati-ely s)all8 as the tinfoil coatings are large8 close together8 an$ the charge$ surfaces not $irectly e'(ose$J 7ut .hen the (otentials are -ery high8 the loss )ay 7e )ore or less consi$era7le at8 or near8 the u((er e$ge of the foil8 .here the air is (rinci(ally acte$ u(on0 ,f the Har 7e i))erse$ in 7oile$9out oil8 it .ill 7e ca(a7le of (erfor)ing four ti)es the a)ount of .or2 .hich it can for any length of ti)e .hen use$ in the or$inary .ay8 an$ the loss .ill 7e ina((recia7le0
,t shoul$ not 7e thought that the loss in heat in an air con$enser is necessarily associate$ .ith the for)ation of visible strea)s or 7rushes0 ,f a s)all electro$e8 inclose$ in an une'hauste$ 7ul78 is connecte$ to one of the ter)inals of the coil8 strea)s can 7e seen to issue fro) the electro$e an$ the air in the 7ul7 is heate$J if8 instea$ of a s)all electro$e8 a large s(here is inclose$ in the 7ul78 no strea)s are o7ser-e$8 still the air is heate$0 1or shoul$ it 7e thought that the te)(erature of an air con$enser .oul$ gi-e e-en an a((ro'i)ate i$ea of the loss in heat incurre$8 as in such case heat )ust 7e gi-en off )uch )ore quic2ly8 since there is8 in a$$ition to the or$inary ra$iation8 a -ery acti-e carrying a.ay of heat 7y in$e(en$ent carriers going on8 an$ since not only the a((aratus8 7ut the air at so)e $istance fro) it is heate$ in consequence of the collisions .hich )ust occur0 ;.ing to this8 in e'(eri)ents .ith such a coil8 a rise of te)(erature can 7e $istinctly o7ser-e$ only .hen the 7o$y connecte$ to the coil is -ery s)all0 3ut .ith a((aratus on a larger scale8 e-en a 7o$y of consi$era7le 7ul2 .oul$ 7e heate$8 as8 for instance8 the 7o$y of a (ersonJ an$ , thin2 that s2ille$ (hysicians )ight )a2e o7ser-ations of utility in such e'(eri)ents8 .hich8 if the a((aratus .ere Hu$iciously $esigne$8 .oul$ not (resent the slightest $anger0 A question of so)e interest8 (rinci(ally to )eteorologists8 (resents itself here0 Ho. $oes the earth 7eha-eF The earth is an air con$enser8 7ut is it a (erfect or a -ery i)(erfect oneKa )ere sin2 of energyF There can 7e little $ou7t that to such s)all $istur7ance as )ight 7e cause$ in an e'(eri)ent the earth 7eha-es as an al)ost (erfect con$enser0 3ut it )ight 7e $ifferent .hen its charge is set in -i7ration 7y so)e su$$en $istur7ance occurring in the hea-ens0 ,n such case8 as 7efore state$8 (ro7a7ly only little of the energy of the -i7rations set u( .oul$ 7e lost into s(ace in the for) of long ether ra$iations8 7ut )ost of the energy8 , thin28 .oul$ s(en$ itself in )olecular i)(acts an$ collisions8 an$ (ass off into s(ace in the for) of short heat8 an$ (ossi7ly light8 .a-es0 As 7oth the frequency of the -i7rations of the charge an$ the (otential are in all (ro7a7ility e'cessi-e8 the energy con-erte$ into heat )ay 7e consi$era7le0 >ince the $ensity )ust 7e une-enly $istri7ute$8 either in consequence of the irregularity of the earth's surface8 or on account of the con$ition of the at)os(here in -arious (laces8 the effect (ro$uce$ .oul$ accor$ingly -ary fro) (lace to (lace0 Consi$era7le -ariations in the te)(erature an$ (ressure of the at)os(here )ay in this )anner 7e cause$ at any (oint of the surface of the earth0 The -ariations )ay 7e gra$ual or -ery su$$en8 accor$ing to the nature of the general $istur7ance8 an$ )ay (ro$uce rain an$ stor)s8 or locally )o$ify the .eather in any .ay0 Fro) the re)ar2s 7efore )a$e one )ay see .hat an i)(ortant factor of loss the air in the neigh7orhoo$ of a charge$ surface 7eco)es .hen the electric $ensity is great an$ the frequency of the i)(ulses e'cessi-e0 3ut the action as e'(laine$ i)(lies that the air is insulatingKthat is8 that it is co)(ose$ of in$e(en$ent carriers i))erse$ in an insulating )e$iu)0 This is the case only .hen the air is at so)ething li2e or$inary or greater8 or at e'tre)ely s)all8 (ressure0 &hen the air is slightly rarefie$ an$ con$ucting8 then true con$uction losses occur also0 ,n such case8 of course8 consi$era7le energy )ay 7e $issi(ate$ into s(ace e-en .ith a stea$y (otential8 or .ith i)(ulses of lo. frequency8 if the $ensity is -ery great0 &hen the gas is at -ery lo. (ressure8 an electro$e is heate$ )ore 7ecause higher s(ee$s can 7e reache$0 ,f the gas aroun$ the electro$e is strongly co)(resse$8 the $is(lace)ents8 an$ consequently the s(ee$s8 are -ery s)all8 an$ the heating is insignificant0 3ut if in such case the frequency coul$ 7e sufficiently increase$8 the electro$e .oul$ 7e 7rought to a high te)(erature as .ell as if the gas .ere at -ery lo. (ressureJ in fact8 e'hausting the 7ul7 is only necessary 7ecause .e cannot (ro$uce (an$ (ossi7ly not con-ey currents of the require$ frequency0 +eturning to the su7Hect of electro$e la)(s8 it is o7-iously of a$-antage in such a la)( to confine as )uch as (ossi7le the heat to the electro$e 7y (re-enting the circulation of the gas in the 7ul70 ,f a -ery s)all 7ul7 7e ta2en8 it .oul$ confine the heat 7etter than a large one8 7ut it )ight not 7e of sufficient ca(acity to 7e o(erate$ fro) the coil8 or8 if so8 the glass )ight get too hot0 A si)(le .ay to i)(ro-e in this $irection is to e)(loy a glo7e of the require$ siBe8 7ut to (lace a s)all 7ul78 the $ia)eter of .hich is (ro(erly esti)ate$8 o-er the refractory 7utton containe$ in the glo7e0 This arrange)ent is illustrate$ in Fig0 !80
The glo7e # has in this case a large nec2 n8 allo.ing the s)all 7ul7 b to sli( through0 ;ther.ise the construction is the sa)e as sho.n in Fig0 188 for e'a)(le0 The s)all 7ul7 is con-eniently su((orte$ u(on the ste) s8 carrying the refractory 7utton m0 ,n tu7e a 7y se-eral layers of )ica /8 in or$er to (re-ent the crac2ing of the nec2 7y the ra(i$ heating of the alu)iniu) tu7e u(on a su$$en turning on of the current0 The insi$e 7ul7 shoul$ 7e as s)all as (ossi7le .hen it is $esire$ to o7tain light only 7y incan$escence of the electro$e0 ,f it is $esire$ to (ro$uce (hos(horescence8 the 7ul7 shoul$ 7e larger8 else it .oul$ 7e a(t to get too hot8 an$ the (hos(horescence .oul$ cease0 ,n this arrange)ent usually only the s)all 7ul7 sho.s (hos(horescence8 as there is (ractically no 7o)7ar$)ent against the outer glo7e0 ,n so)e of these 7ul7s constructe$ as illustrate$ in Fig0 !8 the s)all tu7e .as coate$ .ith (hos(horescent (aint8 an$ 7eautiful effects .ere o7taine$0 ,nstea$ of )a2ing the insi$e 7ul7 large8 in or$er to a-oi$ un$ue heating8 it ans.ers the (ur(ose to )a2e the electro$e m larger0 ,n this case the 7o)7ar$)ent is .ea2ene$ 7y reason of the s)aller electric $ensity0 /any 7ul7s .ere constructe$ on the (lan illustrate$ in Fig0 !90 Here a s)all 7ul7 b8 containing the refractory 7utton m8 u(on 7eing e'hauste$ to a -ery high $egree .as seale$ in a large glo7e #8 .hich .as then )o$erately e'hauste$ an$ seale$ off0 The (rinci(al a$-antage of this construction .as that it allo.e$ of reaching e'tre)ely high -acua8 an$8 at the sa)e ti)e use a large 7ul70 ,t .as foun$8 in the course of e'(eriences .ith 7ul7s such as illustrate$ in Fig0 !98 that it .as .ell to )a2e the ste) s near the seal at c -ery thic28 an$ the lea$ing9in .ire " thin8 as it occurre$ so)eti)es that the ste) at e .as heate$ an$ the 7ul7 .as crac2e$0 ;ften the outer glo7e # .as e'hauste$ only Hust enough to allo. the $ischarge to (ass through8 an$ the s(ace 7et.een the 7ul7s a((eare$ cri)son8 (ro$ucing a curious effect0 ,n so)e cases8 .hen the e'haustion in glo7e # .as -ery lo.8 an$ the air goo$ con$ucting8 it .as foun$ necessary8 in or$er to 7ring the 7utton m to high incan$escence8 to (lace8 (refera7ly on the u((er (art of the nec2 of the glo7e8 a tinfoil coating .hich .as connecte$ to an insulate$ 7o$y8 to the groun$8 or to the other ter)inal of the coil8 as the highly con$ucting air .ea2ene$ the effect so)e.hat8 (ro7a7ly 7y 7eing acte$ u(on in$ucti-ely fro) the .ire "8 .here it entere$ the 7ul7 at e0 Another $ifficultyK.hich8 ho.e-er8 is al.ays (resent .hen the refractory 7utton is )ounte$ in a -ery s)all 7ul7Ke'iste$ in the construction illustrate$ in Fig0 !98 na)ely8 the -acuu) in the 7ul7 b .oul$ 7e i)(aire$ in a co)(arati-ely short ti)e0 The chief i$ea in the t.o last $escri7e$ constructions .as to confine the heat to the central (ortion of the glo7e 7y (re-enting the e'change of air0 An a$-antage is secure$8 7ut o.ing to the heating of the insi$e 7ul7 an$ slo. e-a(oration of the glass the -acuu) is har$ to )aintain8 e-en if the construction illustrate$ in Fig0 !8 7e chosen8 in .hich 7oth 7ul7s co))unicate0 3ut 7y far the 7etter .ayKthe i$eal .ayK.oul$ 7e to reach sufficiently high frequencies0 The higher the frequency the slo.er .oul$ 7e the e'change of the air8 an$ , thin2 that a frequency )ay 7e reache$ at .hich there .oul$ 7e no e'change .hate-er of the air )olecules aroun$ the ter)inal0 &e .oul$ then (ro$uce a fla)e in .hich there .oul$ 7e no carrying a.ay of )aterial8 an$ a queer fla)e it .oul$ 7e8 for it .oul$ 7e rigi$Y &ith such high frequencies the inertia of the (articles8 .oul$ co)e into (lay0 As the 7rush8 or fla)e8 .oul$ gain rigi$ity in -irtue of the inertia of the (articles8 the e'change of the latter .oul$ 7e (re-ente$0 This .oul$ necessarily occur8 for8 the nu)7er [f the i)(ulses 7eing aug)ente$8 the (otential energy of each .oul$ $i)inish8 so that finally only ato)ic -i7rations coul$ 7e set u(8 an$ the )otion of translation through )easura7le s(ace .oul$ cease0 Thus an or$inary gas 7urner connecte$ to a source of ra(i$ly alternating (otential )ight ha-e its efficiency aug)ente$ to a certain li)it8 an$ this for t.o reasonsK7ecause of the a$$itional -i7ration i)(arte$8
an$ 7ecause of a slo.ing $o.n of the (rocess of carrying off0 3ut the rene.al 7eing ren$ere$ $ifficult8 an$ rene.al 7eing necessary to )aintain the burner8 a continue$ increase of the frequency of the i)(ulses8 assu)ing they coul$ 7e trans)itte$ to an$ i)(resse$ u(on the fla)e8 .oul$ result in the "e'tinction" of the latter8 )eaning 7y this ter) only the cessation of the che)ical (rocess0 , thin28 ho.e-er8 that in the case of an electro$e i))erse$ in a flui$ insulating )e$iu)8 an$ surroun$e$ 7y in$e(en$ent carriers of electric charges8 .hich can 7e acte$ u(on in$ucti-ely8 a sufficiently high frequency of the i)(ulses .oul$ (ro7a7ly result in a gra-itation of the gas all aroun$ to.ar$ the electro$e0 For this it .oul$ 7e only necessary to assu)e that the in$e(en$ent 7o$ies are irregularly sha(e$J they .oul$ then turn to.ar$ the electro$e their si$e of the greatest electric $ensity8 an$ this .oul$ 7e a (osition in .hich the flui$ resistance to a((roach .oul$ 7e s)aller than that offere$ to the rece$ing0 The general o(inion8 , $o not $ou7t8 is that it is out of the question to reach any such frequencies as )ightK assu)ing so)e of the -ie.s 7efore e'(resse$ to 7e true (ro$uce any of the results .hich , ha-e (ointe$ out as )ere (ossi7ilities0 This )ay 7e so8 7ut in the course of these in-estigations8 fro) the o7ser-ation of )any (heno)ena , ha-e gaine$ the con-iction that these frequencies .oul$ 7e )uch lo.er than one is a(t to esti)ate at first0 ,n a fla)e .e set u( light -i7rations 7y causing )olecules8 of ato)s8 to colli$e0 3ut .hat is the ratio of the frequency of the collisions an$ that of the -i7rations set u(F Certainly it )ust 7e inco)(ara7ly s)aller than that of the 2noc2s of the 7ell an$ the soun$ -i7rations8 or that of the $ischarges an$ the oscillations of the con$enser0 &e )ay cause the )olecules of the gas to colli$e 7y the use of alternate electric i)(ulses of high frequency8 an$ so .e )ay i)itate the (rocess in a fla)eJ an$ fro) e'(eri)ents .ith frequencies .hich .e are no. a7le to o7tain8 , thin2 that the result is (ro$uci7le .ith i)(ulses .hich are trans)issi7le through a con$uctor0 ,n connection .ith thoughts of a si)ilar nature8 it a((eare$ to )e of great interest to $e)onstrate the rigi$ity of a -i7rating gaseous colu)n0 Although .ith such lo. frequencies as8 say 158555 (er secon$8 .hich , .as a7le to o7tain .ithout $ifficulty fro) a s(ecially constructe$ alternator8 the tas2 loo2e$ $iscouraging at first8 , )a$e a series of e'(eri)ents0 The trials .ith air at or$inary (ressure le$ to no result8 7ut .ith air )o$erately rarefie$ , o7tain .hat , thin2 to 7e an un)ista2a7le e'(eri)ental e-i$ence of the (ro(erty sought for0 As a result of this 2in$ )ight lea$ a7le in-estigators to conclusions of i)(ortance , .ill $escri7e one of the e'(eri)ents (erfor)e$0 ,t is .ell 2no.n that .hen a tu7e is slightly e'hauste$ the $ischarge )ay 7e (asse$ through it in the for) of a thin lu)inous threa$0 &hen (ro$uce$ .ith currents of lo. frequency8 o7taine$ fro) a coil o(erate$ as usual8 this threa$ is inert0 ,f a )agnet 7e a((roache$ to it8 the (art near the sa)e is attracte$ or re(elle$8 accor$ing to the $irection of the lines of force of the )agnet0 ,t occurre$ to )e that if such a threa$ .oul$ 7e (ro$uce$ .ith currents of -ery high frequency8 it shoul$ 7e )ore or less rigi$8 an$ as it .as -isi7le it coul$ 7e easily stu$ie$0 Accor$ingly , (re(are$ a tu7e a7out 1 inch in $ia)eter an$ 1 )etre long8 .ith outsi$e coating at each en$0 The tu7e .as e'hauste$ to a (oint at .hich8 7y a little .or2ing the threa$ $ischarge coul$ 7e o7taine$0 ,t )ust 7e re)ar2e$ here that the general as(ect of the tu7e8 an$ the $egree of e'haustion8 are quite $ifferent than .hen or$inary lo. frequency currents are use$0 As it .as foun$ (refera7le to .or2 .ith one ter)inal8 the tu7e (re(are$ .as sus(en$e$ fro) the en$ of a .ire connecte$ to the ter)inal8 the tinfoil coating 7eing connecte$ to the .ire8 an$ to the lo.er coating so)eti)es a s)all insulate$ (late .as attache$0 &hen the threa$ .as for)e$ it e'ten$e$ through the u((er (art of the tu7e an$ lost itself in the lo.er en$0 ,f it (ossesse$ rigi$ity it rese)7le$8 not e'actly an elastic cor$ stretche$ tight 7et.een t.o su((orts8 7ut a cor$ sus(en$e$ fro) a height .ith a s)all .eight attache$ at the en$0 &hen the finger or a )agnet .as a((roache$ to the u((er en$ of the lu)inous threa$8 it coul$ 7e 7rought locally out of (osition 7y electrostatic or )agnetic actionJ an$ .hen the $istur7ing o7Hect .as -ery quic2ly re)o-e$8 an analogous result .as (ro$uce$8 as though a sus(en$e$ cor$ .oul$ 7e $is(lace$ an$ quic2ly release$ near the (oint of sus(ension0 ,n $oing this the lu)inous threa$ .as set in -i7ration8 an$ t.o -ery shar(ly )ar2e$ no$es8 an$ a thir$ in$istinct one8 .ere for)e$0 The -i7ration8 once set u(8 continue$ for fully eight )inutes8 $ying gra$ually out0 The s(ee$ of the -i7ration often -arie$ (erce(ti7ly8 an$ it coul$ 7e o7ser-e$ that the electrostatic attraction of the glass affecte$ the -i7rating threa$J 7ut it .as clear that the electrostatic action .as not the cause of the -i7ration8 for the threa$ .as )ost generally stationary8 an$ coul$ al.ays 7e set in -i7ration 7y (assing the finger quic2ly near the u((er (art of the tu7e0 &ith a )agnet the threa$ coul$ 7e s(lit in t.o an$ 7oth (arts -i7rate$0 3y a((roaching the han$ to the lo.er coating of the tu7e8 or insulate$ (late if attache$8 the -i7ration .as quic2ene$J also8 as far as , coul$ see8 7y raising the (otential of frequency0 Thus8 either increasing the frequency or (assing a stronger $ischarge of the sa)e frequency corres(on$e$ to a tightening of the cor$0 , $i$ not o7tain any e'(eri)ental e-i$ence .ith con$enser $ischarges0 A lu)inous 7an$ e'cite$ in a 7ul7 7y re(eate$ $ischarges of a #ey$en Har )ust (ossess rigi$ity8 an$ if $efor)e$ an$ su$$enly release$ shoul$ -i7rate0 3ut (ro7a7ly the a)ount of -i7rating )atter is so s)all that in s(ite of the e'tre)e s(ee$ the inertia cannot (ro)inently assert itself0 3esi$es8 the o7ser-ation in such a case is ren$ere$ e'tre)ely $ifficult on account of the fun$a)ental -i7ration0
The $e)onstration of the factK.hich still nee$s 7etter e'(eri)ental confir)ationKthat a -i7rating gaseous colu)n (ossesses rigi$ity8 )ight greatly )o$ify the -ie.s of thin2ers0 &hen .ith lo. frequencies an$ insignificant (otentials in$ications of that (ro(erty )ay 7e note$8 ho. )ust a gaseous )e$iu) 7eha-e un$er the influence of enor)ous electrostatic stresses .hich )ay 7e acti-e in the interstellar s(ace8 an$ .hich )ay alternate .ith inconcei-a7le ra(i$ityY The e'istence of such an electrostatic8 rhyth)ically thro77ing forceKof a -i7rating electrostatic fiel$K.oul$ sho. a (ossi7le .ay ho. soli$s )ight ha-e for)e$ fro) the ultra9gaseous uterus8 an$ ho. trans-erse an$ all 2in$s of -i7rations )ay 7e trans)itte$ through a gaseous )e$iu) filling all s(ace0 Then8 ether )ight 7e a true flui$8 $e-oi$ of rigi$ity8 an$ at rest8 it 7eing )erely necessary as a connecting lin2 to ena7le interaction0 &hat $eter)ines the rigi$ity of a 7o$yF ,t )ust 7e the s(ee$ an$ the a)ount of )o-ing )atter0 ,n a gas the s(ee$ )ay 7e consi$era7le8 7ut the $ensity is e'cee$ingly s)allJ in a liqui$ the s(ee$ .oul$ 7e li2ely to 7e s)all8 though the $ensity )ay 7e consi$era7leJ an$ in 7oth cases the inertia resistance offere$ to $is(lace)ent is (ractically nil0 3ut (lace a gaseous (or liqui$ colu)n in an intense8 ra(i$ly alternating electrostatic fiel$8 set the (articles -i7rating .ith enor)ous s(ee$s8 then the inertia resistance asserts itself0 A 7o$y )ight )o-e .ith )ore or less free$o) through the -i7rating )ass8 7ut as a .hole it .oul$ 7e rigi$0 There is a su7Hect .hich , )ust )ention in connection .ith these e'(eri)entsI it is that of high -acua0 This is a su7Hect the stu$y of .hich is not only interesting8 7ut useful8 for it )ay lea$ to results of great (ractical i)(ortance0 ,n co))ercial a((aratus such as incan$escent la)(s8 o(erate$ fro) or$inary syste)s of $istri7ution8 a )uch higher -acuu) than o7taine$ at (resent .oul$ not secure a -ery great a$-antage0 ,n such a case the .or2 is (erfor)e$ on the fila)ent an$ the gas is little concerne$J the i)(ro-e)ent8 therefore8 .oul$ 7e 7ut trifling0 3ut .hen .e 7egin to use -ery high frequencies an$ (otentials8 the action of the gas 7eco)es all i)(ortant8 an$ the $egree of e'haustion )aterially )o$ifies the results0 As long as or$inary coils8 e-en -ery large ones8 .ere use$8 the stu$y of the su7Hect .as li)ite$8 7ecause Hust at a (oint .hen it 7eca)e )ost interesting it ha$ to 7e interru(te$ on account of the "non9stri2ing" -acuu) 7eing reache$0 3ut (resently .e are a7le to o7tain fro) a s)all $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil (otentials )uch higher than e-en the largest coil .as ca(a7le of gi-ing8 an$8 .hat is )ore8 .e can )a2e the (otential alternate .ith great ra(i$ity0 3oth of these results ena7le us no. to (ass a lu)inous $ischarge through al)ost any -acua o7taina7le8 an$ the fiel$ of our in-estigations is greatly e'ten$e$0 Thin2 .e as .e )ay8 of all the (ossi7le $irections to $e-elo( a (ractical illu)inant8 the line of high -acua see)s to 7e the )ost (ro)ising at (resent0 3ut to reach e'tre)e -acua the a((liances )ust 7e )uch )ote i)(ro-e$8 an$ ulti)ate (erfection .ill not 7e attaine$ until .e shall ha-e $iscar$e$ the )echanical an$ (erfecte$ an electrical -acuu) (u)(0 /olecules an$ ato)s can 7e thro.n out of a 7ul7 un$er the action of an enor)ous (otentialI this .ill 7e the (rinci(le of the -acuu) (u)( of the future0 For the (resent8 .e )ust secure the 7est results .e can .ith )echanical a((liances0 ,n this res(ect8 it )ight not 7e out of the .ay to say a fe. .or$s a7out the )etho$ of8 an$ a((aratus for8 (ro$ucing e'cessi-ely high $egrees of e'haustion of .hich , ha-e a-aile$ )yself in the course of these in-estigations0 ,t is -ery (ro7a7le that other e'(eri)enters ha-e use$ si)ilar arrange)entsJ 7ut as it is (ossi7le that there )ay 7e an ite) of interest in their $escri(tion8 a fe. re)ar2s8 .hich .ill ren$er this in-estigation )ore co)(lete8 )ight 7e (er)itte$0 The a((aratus is illustrate$ in a $ra.ing sho.n in Fig0 350 > re(resents a >(rengel (u)(8 .hich has 7een s(ecially constructe$ to 7etter suit the .or2 require$0 The sto(coc2 .hich is usually e)(loye$ has 7een o)itte$8 an$ instea$ of it a hollo. sto((er has 7een fitte$ in the nec2 of the reser-oir +0 This sto((er has a s)all hole h8 through .hich the )ercury $escen$sJ the siBe of the outlet o 7eing (ro(erly $eter)ine$ .ith res(ect to the section of the fall tu7e t8 .hich is seale$ to the reser-oir instea$ of 7eing connecte$ to it in the usual )anner0
This arrange)ent o-erco)es the i)(erfections an$ trou7les8 .hich often arise fro) the use of the sto(coc2 on the reser-oir an$ the connection of the latter .ith the fall tu7e0 The (u)( is connecte$ through a U9sha(e$ tu7e t to a -ery large reser-oir +10 "s(ecial care .as ta2en in fitting the grin$ing surfaces of the sto((ers * an$ *1 an$ 7oth of these an$ the )ercury ca(s a7o-e the) .ere )a$e e'ce(tionally long0 After the U9sha(e$ tu7e .as fitte$ an$ (ut in (lace8 it .as heate$8 so as to soften an$ ta2e off the strain resulting fro) i)(erfect fitting0 The U9sha(e$ tu7e .as (ro-i$e$ .ith a sto(coc2 C8 an$ t.o groun$ connections g an$ g1Kone for a s)all 7ul7 b8 usually containing caustic (otash8 an$ the other for the recei-er r8 to 7e e'hauste$0 The reser-oir +1 .as connecte$ 7y )eans of a ru77er tu7e to a slightly larger reser-oir !!8 each of the t.o reser-oirs 7eing (ro-i$e$ .ith a sto(coc2 21 an$ 2! res(ecti-ely0 The reser-oir !! coul$ 7e raise$ an$ lo.ere$ 7y a .heel an$ rac28 an$ the range of its )otion .as so $eter)ine$ that .hen it .as fille$ .ith )ercury an$ the sto(coc2 28 close$8 so as to for) a Torricellian -acuu) in it .hen raise$8 it coul$ 7e lifte$ so high that the )ercury in reser-oir !1 .oul$ stan$ a little a7o-e sto(coc2 21I an$ .hen this sto(coc2 .as close$ an$ the reser-oir +! $escen$e$8 so as to for) a Torricellian -acuu) in reser-oir !18 it coul$ 7e lo.ere$ so far as to co)(letely e)(ty the latter8 the )ercury filling the reser-oir !! u( to a little a7o-e sto(coc2 2!0 The ca(acity of the (u)( an$ of the connections .as ta2en as s)all as (ossi7le relati-ely to the -olu)e of reser-oir8 !18 since8 of course8 the $egree of e'haustion $e(en$e$ u(on the ratio of these quantities0 &ith this a((aratus , co)7ine$ the usual )eans in$icate$ 7y for)er e'(eri)ents for the (ro$uction of -ery high -acua0 ,n )ost of the e'(eri)ents it .as con-enient to use caustic (otash0 , )ay -enture to say8 in regar$ to its use8 that )uch ti)e is sa-e$ an$ a )ore (erfect action of the (u)( insure$ 7y fusing an$ 7oiling the (otash " soon as8 or e-en 7efore8 the (u)( settles $o.n0 ,f this course is not follo.e$ the stic2s8 as or$inarily e)(loye$8 )ay gi-e )oisture off at a certain -ery slo. rate8 an$ the (u)( )ay .or2 for )any hours .ithout reaching a -ery high -acuu)0 The (otash .as heate$ either 7y a s(irit la)( or 7y (assing a $ischarge through it8 or 7y (assing a current through a .ire containe$ in it0 The a$-antage in the latter case .as that the heating coul$ 7e )ore ra(i$ly re(eate$0 Generally the (rocess of e'haustion .as the follo.ingIKat the start8 the sto(coc2s 2 an$ 21 7eing o(en8 an$ all other connections close$8 the reser-oir !! .as raise$ so far that the )ercury fille$ the reser-oir !1 an$ a (artI of the narro. connecting U9sha(e$ tu7e0 &hen the (u)( .as set to .or28 the )ercury .oul$8 of course8 quic2ly rise in the tu7e8 an$ reser-oir !! .as lo.ere$8 the e'(eri)enter 2ee(ing the )ercury at a7out the sa)e le-el0 The reser-oir !! .as 7alance$ 7y a long s(ring .hich facilitate$ the o(eration8 an$ the friction of the (arts .as generally sufficient to 2ee( it al)ost in any (osition0 &hen the >(rengel (u)( ha$ $one its .or28 the reser-oir !! .as further lo.ere$ an$ the )ercury $escen$e$ in !1 an$ fille$ !!8 .hereu(on sto(coc2 2! .as close$0 The air a$hering to the .alls of !8 an$ that a7sor7e$ 7y the )ercury .as carrie$ off8 an$ to free the )ercury of all air the reser-oir !! .as for a long ti)e .or2e$ u( an$ $o.n0 =uring this (rocess so)e air8 .hich .oul$ gather 7elo. sto(coc2 2!8 .as e'(elle$ fro) !! 7y lo.ering it far enough an$ o(ening the sto(coc28 closing the latter again 7efore raising the reser-oir0 &hen all the air ha$ 7een e'(elle$ fro) the )ercury8 an$ no air .oul$ gather in !! .hen it .as lo.ere$8 the caustic (otash .as resorte$ to0 The reser-oir !! .as no. again raise$ until the )ercury in !1 stoo$ a7o-e sto(coc2 210 The caustic (otash .as fuse$ an$ 7oile$8 an$ the )oisture (artly carrie$ off 7y the (u)( an$ (artly re9a7sor7e$J an$ this (rocess of heating an$ cooling .as re(eate$ )any ti)es8 an$ each ti)e8 u(on the )oisture 7eing a7sor7e$ or carrie$ off8 the reser-oir !! .as for a long ti)e raise$ an$ lo.ere$0 ,n this )anner all the )oisture .as carrie$ off fro) the )ercury8 an$ 7oth the reser-oirs .ere in (ro(er con$ition to 7e use$0 The reser-oir !! .as then again raise$ to the to(8 an$ the (u)( .as 2e(t .or2ing for a long ti)e0 &hen the highest -acuu) o7taina7le .ith the (u)( ha$ 7een reache$ the (otash 7ul7 .as usually .ra((e$ .ith cotton .hich .as s(rin2le$ .ith ether so as to 2ee( the (otash at a -ery lo. te)(erature8 then the reser-oir !! .as lo.ere$8 an$ again reser-oir !1 7eing e)(tie$ the recei-er r .as quic2ly seale$ u(0 &hen a ne. 7ul7 .as (ut on8 the )ercury .as al.ays raise$ a7o-e sto(coc2 218 .hich .as close$8 so as to al.ays 2ee( the )ercury an$ 7oth the reser-oirs in fine con$ition8 an$ the )ercury .as ne-er .ith$ra.n fro) !1 e'ce(t .hen the (u)( ha$ reache$ the highest $egree of e'haustion0 ,t is necessary to o7ser-e this rule if it
is $esire$ to use the a((aratus to a$-antage0 3y )eans of this arrange)ent , .as a7le to (rocee$ -ery quic2ly8 an$ .hen the a((aratus .as in (erfect or$er it .as (ossi7le to reach the (hos(horescent stage in a s)all 7ul7 in less than fifteen )inutes8 .hich is certainly -ery quic2 .or2 for a s)all la7oratory arrange)ent requiring all in all a7out 155 (oun$s of )ercury0 &ith or$inary s)all 7ul7s the ratio of the ca(acity of the (u)(8 recei-er8 an$ connections8 an$ that of reser-oir ! .as a7out 1 to !58 an$ the $egrees of e'haustion reache$ .ere necessarily -ery high8 though , a) una7le to )a2e a (recise an$ relia7le state)ent ho. far the e'haustion .as carrie$0 &hat i)(resses the in-estigator )ost in the course of these e'(eriences is the 7eha-iour of gases .hen su7Hecte$ to great ra(i$ly alternating electrostatic stresses0 3ut he )ust re)ain in $ou7t as to .hether the effects o7ser-e$ are $ue .holly to the )olecules8 or ato)s8 of the gas .hich che)ical analysis $iscloses to us8 or .hether there enters into (lay another )e$iu) of a gaseous nature8 co)(rising ato)s8 or )olecules8 i))erse$ in a flui$ (er-a$ing the s(ace0 >uch a )e$iu)8 surely )ust e'ist8 an$ , a) con-ince$ that8 for instance8 e-en if air .ere a7sent8 the surface an$ neigh7orhoo$ of a 7o$y in s(ace .oul$ 7e heate$ 7y ra(i$ly alternating the (otential of the 7o$yJ 7ut no such heating of the surface or neigh7orhoo$ coul$ occur if all free ato)s .ere re)o-e$ an$ only a ho)ogeneous8 inco)(ressi7le8 an$ elastic flui$Ksuch as ether is su((ose$ to 7eK.oul$ re)ain8 for then there .oul$ 7e no i)(acts8 no collisions0 ,n such a case8 as far as the 7o$y itself is concerne$8 only frictional losses in the insi$e coul$ occur0 ,t is a stri2ing fact that the $ischarge through a gas is esta7lishe$ .ith e-er increasing free$o) as the frequency of the i)(ulses is aug)ente$0 ,t 7eha-es in this res(ect quite contrarily to a )etallic con$uctor0 ,n the latter the i)(e$ance enters (ro)inently into (lay as the frequency is increase$8 7ut the gas acts )uch as a series of con$ensers .oul$I the facility .ith .hich the $ischarge (asses through see)s to $e(en$ on the rate of change of (otential0 ,f it act so8 then in a -acuu) tu7e e-en of great length8 an$ no )atter ho. strong the current8 self9 in$uction coul$ not assert itselfI to any a((recia7le $egree0 &e ha-e8 then8 as far as .e can no. see8 in the gas a con$uctor .hich is ca(a7le of trans)itting electric i)(ulses of any frequency .hich .e )ay 7e a7le to (ro$uce0 Coul$ the frequency 7e 7rought high enough8 then a queer syste) of electric $istri7ution8 .hich .oul$ 7e li2ely to interest gas co)(anies8 )ight 7e realiBe$ I )etal (i(es fille$ .ith gasKthe )etal 7eing the insulator8 the gas the con$uctorKsu((lying (hos(horescent 7ul7s8 or (erha(s $e-ices as yet unin-ente$0 ,t is certainly (ossi7le to ta2e a hollo. core of co((er8 rarefy the gas in the sa)e8 an$ 7y (assing i)(ulses of sufficiently high frequency through a circuit aroun$ it8 7ring the gas insi$e to a high $egree of incan$escenceJ 7ut as to the nature of the forces there .oul$ 7e consi$era7le uncertainty8 for it .oul$ 7e $ou7tful .hether .ith such i)(ulses the co((er core .oul$ act as a static screen0 >uch (ara$o'es an$ a((arent i)(ossi7ilities .e encounter at e-ery ste( in this line of .or28 an$ therein lies8 to a great e'tent8 the char) of the stu$y0 , ha-e here a short an$ .i$e tu7e .hich is e'hauste$ to a high $egree an$ co-ere$ .ith a su7stantial coating of 7ronBe8 the coating allo.ing 7arely the light to shine through0 A )etallic clas(8 .ith a hoo2 for sus(en$ing the tu7e8 is fastene$ aroun$ the )i$$le (ortion of the latter8 the clas( 7eing in contact .ith the 7ronBe coating0 , no. .ant to light the gas insi$e 7y sus(en$ing the tu7e on a .ire connecte$ to the coil0 Any one .ho .oul$ try the e'(eri)ent for the first ti)e8 not ha-ing any (re-ious e'(erience8 .oul$ (ro7a7ly ta2e care to 7e quite alone .hen )a2ing the trial8 for fear that he )ight 7eco)e the Ho2e of his assistants0 >till8 the 7ul7 lights in s(ite of the )etal coating8 an$ the light can 7e $istinctly (ercei-e$ through the latter0 A long tu7e co-ere$ .ith alu)iniu) 7ronBe lights .hen hel$ in one han$Kthe other touching the ter)inal of the coilKquite (o.erfully0 ,t )ight 7e o7Hecte$ that the coatings arc not sufficiently con$uctingJ still8 e-en if they .ere highly resistant8 they ought to screen the gas0 They certainly screen it (erfectly in a con$ition of rest8 7ut not 7y far (erfectly .hen the charge is surging in the coating0 3ut the loss of energy .hich occurs .ithin the tu7e8 not.ithstan$ing the screen8 is occasione$ (rinci(ally 7y the (resence of the gas0 &ere .e to ta2e a large hollo. )etallic s(here an$ fill it .ith a (erfect inco)(ressi7le flui$ $ielectric8 there .oul$ 7e no loss insi$e of the s(here8 an$ consequently the insi$e )ight 7e consi$ere$ as (erfectly screene$8 though the (otential 7e -ery ra(i$ly alternating0 "-en .ere the s(here fille$ .ith oil8 the loss .oul$ 7e inco)(ara7ly s)aller than .hen the flui$ is re(lace$ 7y a gas8 for in the latter case the force (ro$uces $is(lace)entsJ that )eans i)(act an$ collisions in the insi$e0 1o )atter .hat the (ressure of the gas )ay 7e8 it 7eco)es an i)(ortant factor in the 7earing of a con$uctor .hen the electric $ensity is great an$ the frequency -ery high0 That in the heating of con$uctors 7y lightning $ischarges air is an ele)ent of great i)(ortance8 is al)ost as certain as an e'(eri)ental fact0 , )ay illustrate the action of the air 7y the follo.ing e'(eri)entI , ta2e a short tu7e .hich is e'hauste$ to a )o$erate $egree an$ has a (latinu) .ire running through the )i$$le fro) one en$ to the other0 , (ass a stea$y or lo. frequency current through the .ire8 an$ it is heate$ unifor)ly in all (arts0 The heating here is $ue to con$uction8 or frictional losses8 an$ the gas aroun$ the .ire hasKas far as .e can seeKno function to (erfor)0 3ut no. let )e (ass su$$en $ischarges8 or a high frequency current8 through the .ire0 Again the .ire is heate$8 this ti)e (rinci(ally
on the en$s an$ least in the )i$$le (ortionJ an$ if the frequency of the i)(ulses8 or the rate of change8 is high enough8 the .ire )ight as .ell 7e cut in the )i$$le as not8 for (ractically all the heating is $ue to the rarefie$ gasI Here the gas )ight only act as a con$uctor of no i)(e$ance $i-erting the current fro) the .ire as the i)(e$ance of the latter is enor)ously increase$8 an$ )erely heating the en$s of the .ire 7y reason of their resistance to the (assage of the $ischarge0 3ut it is not at all necessary that the gas in the tu7e shoul$ 7e con$uctingJ it )ight 7e at an e'tre)ely lo. (ressure8 still the en$s of the .ire .oul$ 7e heate$Kas8 ho.e-er8 is ascertaine$ 7y e'(erience 9only the t.o en$s .oul$ in such case not 7e electrically connecte$ through the gaseous )e$iu)0 1o. .hat .ith these frequencies an$ (otentials occurs in an e'hauste$ tu7e occurs in the lightning $ischarges at or$inary (ressure0 &e only nee$ to re)e)7er one of the facts arri-e$ at in the course of these in-estigations8 na)ely8 that to i)(ulses of -ery high frequency the gas at or$inary (ressure 7eha-es )uch in the sa)e )anner as though it .ere at )o$erately lo. (ressure0 , thin2 that in lightning $ischarges frequently .ires or con$ucting o7Hects are -olatiliBe$ )erely 7ecause air is (resent8 an$ that8 .ere the con$uctor i))erse$ in an insulating liqui$8 it .oul$ 7e safe8 for then the energy .oul$ ha-e to s(en$ itself so)e.here else0 Fro) the 7eha-iour of gases to su$$en i)(ulses of high (otential , a) le$ to conclu$e that there can 7e no surer .ay of $i-erting a lightning $ischarge than 7y affor$ing it a (assage through a -olu)e of gas8 if such a thing can 7e $one in a (ractical )anner0 There are t.o )ore features u(on .hich , thin2 it necessary to $.ell in connection .ith these e'(eri)entsKthe "ra$iant state" an$ the non9stri2ing -acuu)0" Any one .ho has stu$ie$ Croo2es .or2 )ust ha-e recei-e$ the i)(ression that the ''ra$iant state'' is a (ro(erty of the gas inse(ara7ly connecte$ .ith an e'tre)ely high $egree of e'haustion0 3ut it shoul$ 7e re)e)7ere$ that the (heno)ena o7ser-e$ in an e'hauste$ -essel are li)ite$ to the character an$ ca(acity of the a((aratus .hich is )a$e use of0 , thin2 that in a 7ul7 a )olecule8 or ato)8 $oes not (recisely )o-e in a straight line 7ecause it )eets no o7stacle8 7ut 7ecause the -elocity i)(arte$ to it is sufficient to (ro(el it in a sensi7ly straight line0 The )ean free (ath is one thing8 7ut the -elocityKthe energy associate$ .ith the )o-ing 7o$yKis another8 an$ un$er or$inary circu)stances , 7elie-e that it is )ere question of (otential or s(ee$0 A $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil8 .hen the (otential is (ushe$ -ery far8 e'cites (hos(horescence an$ (roHects sha$o.s8 at co)(arati-ely lo. $egrees of e'haustion0 ,n a lightning $ischarge8 )atter )o-es in straight lines at or$inary (ressure .hen the )ean free (ath is e'cee$ingly s)all8 an$ frequently i)ages of .ires or other )etallic o7Hects ha-e 7een (ro$uce$ 7y the (articles thro.n off in straight lines0 , ha-e (re(are$ a 7ul7 to illustrate 7y an e'(eri)ent the correctness of these assertions0 ,n a glo7e # (Fig0 31 8 , ha-e )ounte$ u(on a la)( fila)ents of a (iece of li)e l0 The la)( fila)ent is connecte$ .ith a .ire .hich lea$s into the 7ul78 an$ the general construction of the latter is as in$icate$ in Fig0 198 7efore $escri7e$0 The 7ul7 7eing sus(en$e$ fro) a .ire connecte$ to the ter)inal of the coil8 an$ the latter 7eing set to .or28 the li)e (iece l an$ the (roHecting (arts of the fila)ent f are 7o)7ar$e$0 The $egree of e'haustion is Hust such that .ith the (otential the coil is ca(a7le of gi-ing (hos(horescence of the glass is (ro$uce$8 7ut $isa((ears as soon as the -acuu) is i)(aire$0 The li)e containing )oisture8 an$ )oisture 7eing gi-en off as soon as heating occurs8 the (hos(horescence lasts only for a fe. )o)ents0 &hen the li)e has 7een sufficiently heate$8 enough )oisture has 7een gi-en off to i)(air )aterially the -acuu) of the 7ul70 As the 7o)7ar$)ent goes on8 one (oint of the li)e (iece is )ore heate$ than other (oints8 an$ the results is that finally (ractically all the $ischarge (asses through that (oint .hich is intensely heate$8 an$ a .hite strea) of li)e (articles (Fig0 31 then 7rea2s forth fro) that (oint0 This strea) is co)(ose$ of "ra$iant" )atter8 yet the $egree of e'haustion is lo.0 3ut the (articles )o-e in straight lines 7ecause the -elocity i)(arte$ to the) is great8 an$ this is $ue to three causesKto the great electric $ensity8 the high te)(erature of the s)all (oint8 an$ the fact that the (articles of the li)e are easily torn an$ thro.n offKfar )ore easily than those of car7on0 &ith frequencies such as .e are a7le to o7tain8 the (articles are 7o$ily thro.n off an$ (roHecte$ to a consi$era7le $istance8 7ut .ith sufficiently high frequencies no such thing .oul$ occurI in such case only a stress .oul$ s(rea$ or a -i7ration .oul$ 7e (ro(agate$ through the 7ul70 ,t .oul$ 7e out of the question to reach any such frequency on the assu)(tion that the ato)s )o-e .ith the s(ee$ of lightJ 7ut , 7elie-e that such a thing is i)(ossi7leJ for this an enor)ous (otential .oul$ 7e require$0 &ith (otentials .hich .e are a7le to o7tain8 e-en .ith a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil8 the s(ee$ )ust 7e quite insignificant0
As to the "non9stri2ing -acuu)8" the (oint to 7e note$ is that it can occur only .ith lo. frequency i)(ulses8 an$ it is necessitate$ 7y the i)(ossi7ility of carrying off enough energy .ith such i)(ulses in high -acuu) since the fe. ato)s .hich are aroun$ the ter)inal u(on co)ing in contact .ith the sa)e are re(elle$ an$ 2e(t at a $istance for a co)(arati-ely long (erio$ of ti)e8 an$ not enough .or2 can 7e (erfor)e$ to ren$er the effect (erce(ti7le to the eye0 ,f the $ifference of (otential 7et.een the ter)inals is raise$8 the $ielectric 7rea2s $o.n0 3ut .ith -ery high frequency i)(ulses there is no necessity for such 7rea2ing $o.n8 since any a)ount of .or2 can 7e (erfor)e$ 7y continually agitating the ato)s in the e'hauste$ -essel8 (ro-i$e$ the frequency is high enough0 ,t is easy to reachKe-en .ith frequencies o7taine$ fro) an alternator as here use$Ka stage at .hich the $ischarge $oes not (ass 7et.een t.o electro$es in a narro. tu7e8 each of these 7eing connecte$ to one of the ter)inals of the coil8 7ut it is $ifficult to reach a (oint at .hich a lu)inous $ischarge .oul$ not occur aroun$ each electro$e0 A thought .hich naturally (resents itself in connection .ith high frequency currents8 is to )a2e use of their (o.erful electro9$yna)ic in$ucti-e action to (ro$uctI light effects in a seale$ glass glo7e0 The lea$ing9in .ire is one of the $efects of the (resent incan$escent la)(8 an$ if no other i)(ro-e)ent .ere )a$e8 that i)(erfection at least shoul$ 7e $one a.ay .ith0 Follo.ing this thought8 , ha-e carrie$ on e'(eri)ents in -arious $irections8 of .hich so)e .ere in$icate$ in )y for)er (a(er0 , )ay here )ention one or t.o )ore lines of e'(eri)ent .hich ha-e 7een follo.e$ u(0 /any 7ul7s .ere constructe$ as sho.n in Fig0 3! an$ Fig0 330 ,n Fig0 3! a .i$e tu7e T .as seale$ to a s)aller W9sha(e$ tu7e C8 of (hos(horescent glass0 ,n the tu7e T .as (lace$ a coil 2 of alu)iniu) .ire8 the en$s of .hich .ere (ro-i$e$ .ith s)all s(heres t an$ t1 of alu)iniu)8 an$ reache$ into the C tu7e0 The tu7e T .as sli((e$ into a soc2et containing a (ri)ary coil through .hich usually the $ischarges of #ey$en Hars .ere $irecte$8 an$ the rarefie$ gas in the s)all U tu7e .as e'cite$ to strong lu)inosity 7y the high9tension currents in$uce$ in the coil 20 &hen #ey$en Har $ischarges .ere use$ to in$uce currents in the coil 28 it .as foun$ necessary to (ac2 the tu7e T tightly .ith insulating (o.$er8 as a $ischarge .oul$ occur frequently 7et.een the turns of the coil8 es(ecially .hen the (ri)ary .as thic2 an$ the air ga(8 through .hich the Hars $ischarge$8 large8 an$ no little trou7le .as e'(erience$ in this .ay0 ,n Fig0 33 is illustrate$ another for) of the 7ul7 constructe$0 ,n this case a tu7e T is seale$ to a glo7e %0 The tu7e contains a coil 28 the en$s of .hich (ass through t.o s)all glass tu7es t an$ t18 .hich are seale$ to the tu7e T0 T.o refractory 7uttons m an$ m1 are )ounte$ on la)( fila)ents .hich are fastene$ to the en$s of the .ires (assing through the glass tu7es t an$ t10 Generally in 7ul7s )a$e on this (lan the glo7e % co))unicate$ .ith the tu7e T0 For this (ur(ose the en$s of the s)all tu7es t an$ t1 .ere Hust a trifle heate$ in the 7urner8 )erely to hol$ the .ires8 7ut not to interfere .ith the co))unication0 The tu7e T8 .ith the s)all tu7es8 .ires through the sa)e8 an$ the refractory 7uttons m an$ m1 .as first (re(are$8 an$ then seale$ to glo7e %8 .hereu(on the coil 2 .as sli((e$ in an$ the connections )a$e to its en$s0 The tu7e .as then (ac2e$ .ith insulating (o.$er8 Ha))ing the latter as tight as (ossi7le u( to -ery nearly the en$8 then it .as close$ an$ only a s)all hole left through .hich the re)ain$er of the (o.$er .as intro$uce$8 an$ finally the en$ of the tu7e .as close$0 Csually in 7ul7s constructe$ as sho.n in Fig0 33 an alu)iniu) tu7e a .as fastene$ to the u((er en$ s of each of the tu7es t an$ t18 in or$er to (rotect that en$ against the heat0 The 7uttons m an$ m1 coul$ 7e 7rought to any $egree of incan$escence 7y (assing the $ischarges of #ey$en Hars aroun$ the coil 20 ,n such 7ul7s .ith t.o 7uttons a -ery curious effect is (ro$uce$ 7y the for)ation of the sha$o.s of each of the t.o 7uttons0 Another line of e'(eri)ent8 .hich has 7een assi$uously follo.e$8 .as to in$uce 7y electro9$yna)ic in$uction a current or lu)inous $ischarge in an e'hauste$ tu7e or 7ul70 This )atter has recei-e$ such a7le treat)ent at the han$s of <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son that , coul$ a$$ 7ut little to .hat he has )a$e 2no.n8 e-en ha$ , )a$e it the
s(ecial su7Hect of this lecture0 >till8 since e'(eriences in this line ha-e gra$ually le$ )e to the (resent -ie.s an$ results8 a fe. .or$s )ust 7e $e-ote$ here to this su7Hect0 ,t has occurre$8 no $ou7t8 to )any that as a -acuu) tu7e is )a$e longer the electro)oti-e force (er unit length of the tu7e8 necessary to (ass a lu)inous $ischarge through the latter8 gets continually s)allerJ therefore8 if the e'hauste$ tu7e 7e )a$e long enough8 e-en .ith lo. frequencies a lu)inous $ischarge coul$ 7e in$uce$ in such a tu7e close$ u(on itself0 >uch a tu7e )ight 7e (lace$ aroun$ a hall or on a ceiling8 an$ at once a si)(le a((liance ca(a7le of gi-ing consi$era7le light .oul$ 7e o7taine$0 3ut this .oul$ 7e an a((liance har$ to )anufacture an$ e'tre)ely un)anagea7le0 ,t .oul$ not $o to )a2e the tu7e u( of s)all lengths8 7ecause there .oul$ 7e .ith or$inary frequencies consi$era7le loss in the coatings8 an$ 7esi$es8 if coatings .ere use$8 it .oul$ 7e 7etter to su((ly the current $irectly to the tu7e 7y connecting the coatings to a transfor)er0 3ut e-en if all o7Hections of such nature .ere re)o-e$8 still8 .ith lo. frequencies the light con-ersion itself .oul$ 7e inefficient8 as , ha-e 7efore state$0 ,n using e'tre)ely high frequencies the length of the secon$aryKin other .or$s8 the site of the -esselKcan 7e re$uce$ as far as $esire$8 an$ the efficiency of the light con-ersion is increase$J (ro-i$e$ that )eans are in-ente$ for efficiently o7taining such high frequencies0 Thus one is le$8 fro) theoretical an$ (ractical consi$erations8 to the use of high frequencies8 an$ this )eans high electro)oti-e forces an$ s)all currents in the (ri)ary0 &hen he .or2s .ith con$enser chargesKan$ they are the only )eans u( to the (resent 2no.n for reaching these e'tre)e frequenciesKone gets to electro)oti-e forces of se-eral thousan$s of -olts (er turn of the (ri)ary0 He cannot )ulti(ly the electro9$yna)ic in$ucti-e effect 7y ta2ing )ore turns in the (ri)ary8 for he arri-es at the conclusion that the 7est .ay is to .or2 .ith one single turnKthough .e )ust so)eti)es $e(art fro) this ruleKan$ .e )ust get along .ith .hate-er in$ucti-e effect .e can o7tain .ith one turn0 3ut 7efore he has long e'(eri)ente$ .ith the e'tre)e frequencies require$ to set u( in a s)all 7ul7 an electro)oti-e force of se-eral thousan$s of -olts he realiBes the great i)(ortance of electrostatic effects8 an$ these effects gro. relati-ely to the electro9$yna)ic in significance as the frequency is increase$0 1o.8 if anything is $esira7le in this case8 it is to increase the frequency8 an$ this .oul$ )a2e it still .orse for the electro9$yna)ic effects0 ;n the other han$8 it is easy to e'alt the electrostatic action as far as one li2es 7y ta2ing )ore turns on the secon$ary8 or co)7ining self9in$uction an$ ca(acity to raise the (otential0 ,t shoul$ also 7e re)e)7ere$ that8 in re$ucing the current to the s)allest -alue an$ increasing the (otential8 the electric i)(ulses of high frequency can 7e )ore easily trans)itte$ through a con$uctor0 These an$ si)ilar thoughts $eter)ine$ )e to $e-ote )ore attention to the electrostatic (heno)ena8 an$ to en$ea-our to (ro$uce (otentials as high as (ossi7le8 an$ alternating as fast as they coul$ 7e )a$e to alternate0 , then foun$ that , coul$ e'cite -acuu) tu7es at consi$era7le $istance fro) a con$uctor connecte$ to a (ro(erly constructe$ coil8 an$ that , coul$8 7y con-erting the oscillatory current of a con$enser to a higher (otential8 esta7lish electrostatic alternating fiel$s .hich acte$ through the .hole e'tent of a roo)8 lighting u( a tu7e no )atter .here it .as hel$ in s(ace0 , thought , recogniBe$ that , ha$ )a$e a ste( in a$-ance8 an$ , ha-e (erse-ere$ in this lineJ 7ut , .ish to say that , share .ith all lo-ers of science an$ (rogress the one an$ only $esireKto reach a result of utility to )en in any $irection to .hich thought or e'(eri)ent )ay lea$ )e0 , thin2 that this $e(arture is the right one8 for , cannot see8 fro) the o7ser-ation of the (heno)ena .hich )anifest the)sel-es as the frequency is increase$8 .hat there .oul$ re)ain to act 7et.een t.o circuits con-eying8 for instance8 i)(ulses of se-eral hun$re$ )illions (er secon$8 e'ce(t electrostatic forces0 "-en .ith such stifling frequencies the energy .oul$ 7e (ractically all (otential8 an$ )y con-iction has gro.n strong that8 to .hate-er 2in$ of )otion light )ay 7e $ue8 it is (ro$uce$ 7y tre)en$ous electrostatic stresses -i7rating .ith e'tre)e ra(i$ity0 ;f all these (heno)ena o7ser-e$ .ith currents8 or electric i)(ulses8 of high frequency8 the )ost fascinating for an au$ience are certainly those .hich are note$ in an electrostatic fiel$ acting through consi$era7le $istance8 an$ the 7est an uns2ille$ lecturer can $o is to 7egin an$ finish .ith the e'hi7ition of these singular effects0 , ta2e a tu7e in the han$ an$ )o-e it a7out8 an$ it is lighte$ .here-er , )ay hol$ itJ throughout s(ace the in-isi7le forces act0 3ut , )ay ta2e another tu7e an$ it )ight not light8 the -acuu) 7eing -ery high0 , e'cite it 7y )eans of a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil8 an$ no. it .ill light in the electrostatic fiel$0 , )ay (ut it a.ay for a fe. .ee2s or )onths8 still it retains the faculty of 7eing e'cite$0 &hat change ha-e , (ro$uce$ in the tu7e in the act of e'citing itF ,f a )otion i)(arte$ to the ato)s8 it is $ifficult to (ercei-e ho. it can (ersist so long .ithout 7eing arreste$ 7y frictional lossesJ an$ if a strain e'erte$ in the $ielectric8 such as a si)(le electrification .oul$ (ro$uce8 it is easy to see ho. it )ay (ersist in$efinitely 7ut -ery $ifficult to un$erstan$ .hy such a con$ition shoul$ ai$ the e'citation .hen .e ha-e to $eal .ith (otentials .hich are ra(i$ly alternating0
>ince , ha-e e'hi7ite$ these (heno)ena for the first ti)e8 , ha-e o7taine$ so)e other interesting effects0 For instance8 , ha-e (ro$uce$ the incan$escence of a 7utton8 fila)ent8 or .ire enclose$ in a tu7e0 To get to this result it .as necessary to econo)iBe the energy .hich is o7taine$ fro) the fiel$ an$ $irect )ost of it on the s)all 7o$y to 7e ren$ere$ incan$escent0 At the 7eginning the tas2 a((eare$ $ifficult8 7ut the e'(eriences gathere$ (er)itte$ )e to teach the result easily0 ,n Fig0 36 an$ Fig0 34 t.o such tu7es are illustrate$ .hich are (re(are$ for the occasion0 ,n Fig0 36 a short tu7e T18 seale$ to another long tu7e T8 is (ro-i$e$ .ith a ste) s8 .ith a (latinu) .ire seale$ in the latter0 A -ery thin la)( fila)ent I is fastene$ to this .ire8 an$ connection to the outsi$e is )a$e through a thin co((er .ire "0 The tu7e is (ro-i$e$ .ith outsi$e an$ insi$e coatings8 2 an$ 21 res(ecti-ely8 an$ is fille$ as far as the coatings reach .ith con$ucting8 an$ the s(ace a7o-e .ith insulating (o.$er0 These coatings are )erely use$ to ena7le )e to (erfor) t.o e'(eri)ents .ith the tu7eKna)ely8 to (ro$uce the effect $esire$ either 7y $irect connection of the 7o$y of the e'(eri)enter or of another 7o$y to the .ire "8 or 7y acting in$ucti-ely through the glass0 The ste) s is (ro-i$e$ .ith an alu)iniu) tu7e a for (ur(oses 7efore e'(laine$8 an$ only a s)all (art of the fila)ent reaches out of this tu7e0 3y hol$ing the tu7e T1 any.here in the electrostatic fiel$ the fila)ent is ren$ere$ incan$escent0
A )ore interesting (iece of a((aratus is illustrate$ in Fig0 340 The construction is the sa)e as 7efore8 only instea$ of the la)( fila)ent a s)all (latinu) .ire *8 seale$ in a ste) s8 an$ 7ent a7o-e it in a circle8 is connecte$ to the co((er .ire "8 .hich is Hoine$ to an insi$e coating 20 A s)all ste) s1 is (ro-i$e$ .ith a nee$le8 on the (oint of .hich is arrange$ to rotate -ery freely a -ery light fan of )ica v0 To (re-ent the fan fro) falling out8 a thin ste) of glass g is 7ent (ro(erly an$ fastene$ to the alu)iniu) tu7e0 &hen the glass tu7e is hel$ any.here in the electrostatic fiel$ the (latinu) .ire 7eco)es incan$escent8 an$ the )ica -anes are rotate$ -ery fast0 ,ntense (hos(horescence )ay 7e e'cite$ in a 7ul7 7y )erely connecting it to a (late .ithin the fiel$8 an$ the (late nee$ not 7e any larger than an or$inary la)( sha$e0 The (hos(horescence e'cite$ .ith these currents is inco)(ara7ly )ore (o.erful than .ith or$inary a((aratus0 A s)all (hos(horescent 7ul78 .hen attache$ to a .ire connecte$ to a coil8 e)its sufficient light to allo. rea$ing or$inary (rint at a $istance of fi-e to si' (aces0 ,t .as of interest to see ho. so)e of the (hos(horescent 7ul7s of <rofessor Croo2es .oul$ 7eha-e .ith these currents8 an$ he has ha$ the 2in$ness to len$ )e a fe. for the occasion0 The effects (ro$uce$ are )agnificent8 es(ecially 7y the sul(hi$e of calciu) an$ sul(hi$e of Binc0 Fro) the $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil they glo. intensely )erely 7y hol$ing the) in the han$ an$ connecting the 7o$y to the ter)inal of the coil0 To .hate-er results in-estigations of this 2in$ )ay lea$8 their chief interest lies for the (resent in the (ossi7ilities they offer for the (ro$uction of an efficient illu)inating $e-ice0 ,n no 7ranch of electric in$ustry is an a$-ance )ore $esire$ than in the )anufacture of light0 "-ery thin2er8 .hen consi$ering the 7ar7arous )etho$s e)(loye$8 the $e(lora7le losses incurre$ in our 7est syste)s of light (ro$uction8 )ust ha-e as2e$ hi)self8 &hat is li2ely to 7e the light of the futureF ,s it to 7e an incan$escent soli$8 as in the (resent la)(8 or an incan$escent gas8 or a (hos(horescent 7o$y8 or so)ething li2e a 7urner8 7ut inco)(ara7ly )ore efficientF There is little chance to (erfect a gas 7urnerJ not8 (erha(s8 7ecause hu)an ingenuity has 7een 7ent u(on that (ro7le) for centuries .ithout a ra$ical $e(arture ha-ing 7een )a$eKthough this argu)ent is not $e-oi$ of force K7ut 7ecause in a 7urner the higher -i7rations can ne-er 7e reache$ e'ce(t 7y (assing through all the lo. ones0 For ho. is a fla)e (ro$uce$ unless 7y a fall of lifte$ .eightsF >uch (rocess cannot 7e )aintaine$ .ithout rene.al8 an$ rene.al is re(eate$ (assing fro) lo. to high -i7rations0 ;ne .ay only see)s to 7e o(en to i)(ro-e a 7urner8 an$ that is 7y trying to reach higher $egrees of incan$escence0 Higher incan$escence is
equi-alent to a quic2er -i7rationJ that )eans )ore light fro) the sa)e )aterial8 an$ that8 again8 )eans )ore econo)y0 ,n this $irection so)e i)(ro-e)ents ha-e 7een )a$e8 7ut the (rogress is ha)(ere$ 7y )any li)itations0 =iscar$ing8 then8 the 7urner8 there re)ain the three .ays first )entione$8 .hich are essentially electrical0 >u((ose the light of the i))e$iate future to 7e a soli$ ren$ere$ incan$escent 7y electricity0 &oul$ it not see) that it is 7etter to e)(loy a s)all 7utton than a frail fila)entF Fro) )any consi$erations it certainly )ust 7e conclu$e$ that a 7utton is ca(a7le of a higher econo)y8 assu)ing8 of course8 the $ifficulties connecte$ .ith the o(eration of such a la)( to 7e effecti-ely o-erco)e0 3ut to light such a la)( .e require a high (otentialJ an$ to get this econo)ically .e )ust use high frequencies0 >uch consi$erations a((ly e-en )ore to the (ro$uction of light 7y the incan$escence of a gas8 or 7y (hos(horescence0 ,n all cases .e require high frequencies an$ high (otentials0 These thoughts occurre$ to )e a long ti)e ago0 ,nci$entally .e gain8 7y the use of -ery high frequencies8 )any a$-antages8 such as a higher econo)y in the light (ro$uction8 the (ossi7ility of .or2ing .ith one lea$8 the (ossi7ility of $oing a.ay .ith the lea$ing9in .ire8 etc0 The question is8 ho. far can .e go .ith frequenciesF ;r$inary con$uctors ra(i$ly lose the facility of trans)itting electric i)(ulses .hen the frequency is greatly increase$0 Assu)e the )eans for the (ro$uction of i)(ulses of -ery great frequency 7rought to the ut)ost (erfection8 e-ery one .ill naturally as2 ho. to trans)it the) .hen the necessity arises0 ,n trans)itting such i)(ulses through con$uctors .e )ust re)e)7er that .e ha-e to $eal .ith *ressure an$ flo"8 in the or$inary inter(retation of these ter)s0 #et the (ressure increase to an enor)ous -alue8 an$ let the flo. corres(on$ingly $i)inish8 then such i)(ulsesK-ariations )erely of (ressure8 as it .ereK can no $ou7t 7e trans)itte$ through a .ire e-en if their frequency 7e )any hun$re$s of )illions (er secon$0 ,t .oul$8 of course8 7e out of question to trans)it such i)(ulses through a .ire i))erse$ in a gaseous )e$iu)8 e-en if the .ire .ere (ro-i$e$ .ith a thic2 an$ e'cellent insulation for )ost of the energy .oul$ 7e lost in )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent an$ consequent heating0 The en$ of the .ire connecte$ to the source .oul$ 7e heate$8 an$ the re)ote en$ .oul$ recei-e 7ut a trifling (art of the energy su((lie$0 The (ri)e necessity8 then8 if such electric i)(ulses are to 7e use$8 is to fin$ )eans to re$uce as )uch as (ossi7le the $issi(ation0 The first thought is8 e)(loy the thinnest (ossi7le .ire surroun$e$ 7y the thic2est (ractica7le insulation0 The ne't thought is to e)(loy electrostatic screens0 The insulation of the .ire )ay 7e co-ere$ .ith a thin con$ucting coating an$ the latter connecte$ to the groun$0 3ut this .oul$ not $o8 as then all the energy .oul$ (ass through the con$ucting coating to the groun$ an$ nothing .oul$ get to the en$ of the .ire0 ,f a groun$ connection is )a$e it can only 7e )a$e through a con$uctor offering an enor)ous i)(e$ance8 or through a con$enser of e'tre)ely s)all ca(acity0 This8 ho.e-er8 $oes not $o a.ay .ith other $ifficulties0 ,f the .a-e length of the i)(ulses is )uch s)aller than the length of the .ire8 then corres(on$ing short .a-es .ill 7e sent u( in the con$ucting coating8 an$ it .ill 7e )ore or less the sa)e as though the coating .ere $irectly connecte$ to earth0 ,t is therefore necessary to cut u( the coating in sections )uch shorter than the .a-e length0 >uch an arrange)ent $oes not still affor$ a (erfect screen8 7ut it is ten thousan$ ti)es 7etter than none0 , thin2 it (refera7le to cut u( the con$ucting coating in s)all sections8 e-en if the current .a-es 7e )uch longer than the coating0 ,f a .ire .ere (ro-i$e$ .ith a (erfect electrostatic screen8 it .oul$ 7e the sa)e as though all o7Hects .ere re)o-e$ fro) it at infinite $istance0 The ca(acity .oul$ then 7e re$uce$ to the ca(acity of the .ire itself8 .hich .oul$ 7e -ery s)all0 ,t .oul$ then 7e (ossi7le to sen$ o-er the .ire current -i7rations of -ery high frequencies at enor)ous $istance .ithout affecting greatly the character of the -i7rations0 A (erfect screen is of course out of the question8 7ut , 7elie-e that .ith a screen such as , ha-e Hust $escri7e$ tele(hony coul$ 7e ren$ere$ (ractica7le across the Atlantic0 Accor$ing to )y i$eas8 the gutta9(ercha co-ere$ .ire shoul$ 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith a thir$ con$ucting coating su7$i-i$e$ in sections0 ;n the to( of this shoul$ 7e again (lace$ a layer of gutta9(ercha an$ other insulation8 an$ on the to( of the .hole the ar)our0 3ut such ca7les .ill not 7e constructe$8 for ere long intelligenceKtrans)itte$ .ithout .ires .ill thro7 through the earth li2e a (ulse through a li-ing organis)0 The .on$er is that8 .ith the (resent state of 2no.le$ge an$ the e'(eriences gaine$8 no atte)(t is 7eing )a$e to $istur7 the electrostatic or )agnetic con$ition of the earth8 an$ trans)it8 if nothing else8 intelligence0 ,t has 7een )y chief ai) in (resenting these results to (oint out (heno)ena or features of no-elty8 an$ to a$-ance i$eas .hich , a) ho(eful .ill ser-e as starting (oints of ne. $e(artures0 ,t has 7een )y chief $esire this e-ening to entertain you .ith so)e no-el e'(eri)ents0 Dour a((lause8 so frequently an$ generously accor$e$ has tol$ )e that , ha-e succee$e$0
,n conclusion8 let )e than2 you )ost heartily for your 2in$ness an$ attention8 an$ assure you that the honour , ha-e ha$ in a$$ressing such a $istinguishe$ au$ience8 the (leasure , ha-e ha$ in (resenting these results to a gathering of so )any a7le )en an$ a)ong the) also so)e of those in .hose .or2 for )any years (ast , ha-e foun$ enlighten)ent an$ constant (leasureK, shall ne-er forget0
18-"-10-08: T,e >%re,strom> 5atent by Nikola Tesla

The Electrical #orld , N. ,n the last issue of TH" "#"CT+,CA# &;+#= , fin$ an article on )y "=rehstro)" (atent .hich a((eare$ originally is Industries+ an$ is8 , 7elie-e8 fro) the (en of the a7le e$itor of that Hournal0 >o)e of the state)ents )a$e are such as to cause an erroneous o(inion to gain groun$8 .hich , $ee) it )y $uty to (re-ent K a $isagreea7le one , )ay say8 as , $o not li2e to e'(ress )y o(inion on a (atent8 es(ecially if it is )y o.n0 ,t )ay 7e8 as the .riter states8 that the theory of the action of )y )otor a$-ance$ in )y (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute in /ay8 18888 is a clu)sy one8 7ut this theory .as for)e$ 7y )e a nu)7er of years 7efore the (ractical results .ere announce$8 the (atents 7eing a((lie$ for only after it .as un$ou7te$ly $e)onstrate$ that the )otor coul$ fairly co)(ete in efficiency .ith the $irect current )otor8 an$ that the in-ention .as one of co))ercial -alue0 These (atents .ere ta2en out .ith the hel( of so)e of the a7lest attorneys in the Cnite$ >tates8 .ell -erse$ in electrical )attersJ the s(ecifications .ere $ra.n u( .ith great care8 in -ie. of the i)(ortance of the in-ention8 an$ .ith (ro(er regar$ to the state of the art at that (erio$8 an$ ha$ the (atents 7een carefully stu$ie$ 7y others there .oul$ not hare 7een -arious features of )y syste) rein-ente$8 an$ se-eral in-entors8 .oul$ ha-e 7een s(are$ at this late $ate a 2een $isa((oint)ent0 The .riter a((rehen$s that it )ight 7e $ifficult for a non9technical Hu$ge to $eci$e .hether a )otor .ith t.o or )ore se(arate fiel$s an$ ar)atures8 cou(le$ together )echanically8 $oes or $oes not fall un$er )y (atent0 , $o not share his a((rehension8 Eu$ges are highly e$ucate$ )en8 an$ it $oes not require )uch technical 2no.le$ge to con-ince one that it is the sa)e .hether t.o 7elts $ri-ing a rigi$ ar7or are close together or far a(art0 1or $o , thin2 that it is necessary for the honoura7le Hu$ge to 7e a (artisan of the ar)ature reaction theory in or$er to recogniBe the i$entity of the t.o arrange)ents referre$ to 7y the .riter of the article in question0 ,n$ee$8 , .oul$ seriously $ou7t the sincerity of a )an ca(a7le of clear conce(tions .ere he to u(hol$ that the arrange)ents are essentially $ifferent8 e-en if the case shoul$ stan$ e'actly as he assu)es 7y .ay of illustration of " (uBBles li2ely to arise0" For .here is there a $ifferenceF Ta2e8 for instance8 a for) of )y t.o9(hase )otor0 There are t.o sets of fiel$ )agnets8 one at the neutral (arts of the other0 ;ne of the sets8 therefore8 )ight as .ell 7e re)o-e$ an$ (lace$ a $istance si$e.ays8 7ut long e'(erience sho.s that in out(ut8 efficiency8 cost of construction an$ in general )echanical res(ects such an arrange)ent is inferior0 The t.o sets are connecte$ in$ucti-ely through the ar)ature 7o$y or the .in$ings thereon0 <art of the (erio$ one set of fiel$ )agnets acts as a generator8 setting u( in$uction currents8 .hich circulate in the fiel$ of force of the other set8 .hich )ay 7e loo2e$ u(on as a )otor0 <art of the (erio$ again8 the secon$ set 7eco)es the generator an$ the first the )otor8 the action 7eing at the sa)e ti)e such that the generate$ currents are al.ays (asse$ in a $efinite $irection .ith res(ect to the fiel$ J they are co))utate$ as it .ere8 an$ a ten$ency to rotate in a gi-en $irection is i)(arte$ to the ar)ature0 1o. (lace t.o fiel$s si$e 7y si$e an$ connect (ro(erly the ar)ature .in$ings0 Are not the fiel$s again in$ucti-ely connecte$F =o not the currents set u( 7y one fiel$ cause currents to circulate in the other8 an$ is the action not e'actly the sa)e in 7oth casesF This is a fact8 no )atter .hat theory is a$here$ to0 The .riter says that in the case of t.o se(arate structures there is really nothing .hich )ay 7e calle$ rotation of the fiel$0 3ut is there any such thing8 .hen the t.o structures are )erge$ in oneF ,s it not in accor$ance .ith acce(te$ notions to concei-e the i)aginary lines as surging si)(ly in the (ole (roHections in e'actly the sa)e )anner in 7oth the arrange)ents F ,rres(ecti-e of the -ie. ta2en8 7e it e-en the )ore unfair to the in-entor8 no one is (er)itte$ to go so far as to )a2e hi) res(onsi7le8 in such a case8 for theories an$ inter(retations of his in-ention0 Theories )ay co)e an$ go8 7ut the )otor .or2s8 a (ractical result is achie-e$ an$ the art is a$-ance$ through his (ains an$ efforts0 3ut .hat , $esire to (oint out (rinci(ally is that in the article a7o-e referre$ to the .riter is only assu)ing a case .hich cannot occur0 He is e-i$ently Hu$ging the state of things fro) )y short (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute0 This (a(er .as .ritten in a hurry8 in fact only shortly 7efore the )eeting of the ,nstitute8 an$ , .as una7le to $o full Hustice e-en to those features u(on .hich as e)(loyee of a co)(any o.ning the in-ention8 , .as (er)itte$ to $.ell0 Allo. )e to o7ser-e that )y (atent s(ecification .as .ritten u( )ore carefully than )y (a(er an$ the -ie. ta2en in it is a 7roa$er an$ truer one0 &hile the "clu)sy" theory .as a$a(te$ as the 7eat in e'(lanation of the action of the )otor8 the in-ention is not re(resente$ as $e(en$ent entirely on that theory J an$ in sho.ing a three (hase )otor .ith si' (roHections8 .here it .as )anifestly )ore consistent .ith the acce(te$ (o(ular i$eas to assu)e the "lines of force" as si)(ly surging in the (roHecting (ole (ieces8 this -ie. .as $istinctly an$ a$-ise$ly ta2en8 as the follo.ing quotation fro) )y foun$ation (atent .ill sho. I "The -ariations in the strength an$ intensity of the currents trans)itte$ through these circuits (lines an$ ar)ature an$ tra-ersing the coils of the )otor (ro$uce a stea$ily (rogressi-e shifting of the resultant attractive force e'erte$ 7y the (oles u(on the ar)ature an$ consequently 2ee( the ar)ature ra(i$ly rotating0" There is8 in this instance8 no question
of a rotating fiel$ in the co))on acce(tance of the ter) of the resultant attractive force there is a question si)(ly of a $iagra) of force8 an$ it is i))aterial for the o(eration .hether the fiel$s are close together or far a(art8 or e-en .hether8 or not8 they are in$ucti-ely connecte$0 , $o not thin2 that in Ger)any8 .here the <atent ;ffice is (ro-er7ially strict in u(hol$ing the rights of the in-entor8 an illegiti)ate an$ unfair a((ro(riation of the in-ention 7y others .ill 7e tolerate$ 7y the courts0
18-"-1"-1<: T,e *wing 0ig,-7re8uen(y Alternator and 5arson2s Steam *ngine by Nikola Tesla
Electrician ,n your issue of 1o-e)7er 18 , fin$ a $escri(tion of <rof0 ".ing's high9frequency alternator8 .hich has (lease$ )e chiefly 7ecause it con-eye$ to )e the 2no.le$ge that he8 an$ .ith hi)8 no $ou7t8 other scientific )en8 is to in-estigate the (ro(erties of high9frequency currents0 &ith a((aratus such as you $escri7e8 shortly a nu)7er of e'(eri)enters8 )ore co)(etent than )yself8 .ill 7e ena7le$ to go o-er the groun$ as yet 7ut i)(erfectly e'(lore$8 .hich .ill un$ou7te$ly result in the o7ser-ation of no-el facts an$ eli)ination of e-entual errors0 , ho(e it .ill not 7e inter(rete$ as )y .ishing to $etract anything fro) <rof0 ".ing's )erit if , state the fact that for a consi$era7le ti)e (ast , ha-e li2e.ise thought of co)7ining the i$entical stea) tur7ine .ith a high9 frequency alternator0 Anch' io sono (ittore0 , ha$ a nu)7er of $esigns .ith such tur7ines8 an$ .oul$ ha-e certainly carrie$ the) out ha$ the tur7ines 7een here easily an$ chea(ly o7taina7le8 an$ ha$ )y attention not 7een $ra.n in a $ifferent $irection0 As to the co)7ination to .hich you gi-e a rather co)(licate$ na)e8 , consi$er it an e'cellent one0 The a$-antages of using a high s(ee$ are es(ecially great in connection .ith such alternators0 &hen a 7elt is use$ to $ri-e8 one )ust resort to e'traor$inarily large $ia)eters in or$er to o7tain the necessary s(ee$8 an$ this increases the $ifficulties an$ cost of construction in an entirely unreasona7le (ro(ortion0 ,n the )achine use$ in )y recent e'(eri)ents the .eight of the acti-e (arts is less than 45 (oun$s8 7ut there is an a$$itional .eight of o-er 155 (oun$s in the su((orting fra)e8 .hich a -ery careful constructor .oul$ ha-e (ro7a7ly )a$e )uch hea-ier0 &hen running at its )a'i)u) s(ee$8 an$ .ith a (ro(er ca(acity in the ar)ature circuit8 t.o an$ a one9half horse9(o.er can 7e (erfor)e$0 The large $ia)eter (35 inches 8 of course8 has the a$-antage of affor$ing 7etter facility for ra$iationJ 7ut8 on the other han$8 it is i)(ossi7le to .or2 .ith a -ery s)all clearance0 , ha-e o7ser-e$ .ith interest that <rof0 ".ing has use$ a )agnet .ith alternating (oles0 ,n )y first trials , e'(ecte$ to o7tain the 7est results .ith a )achine of the /or$ey ty(e 9 that is8 .ith one ha-ing (ole (roHections of the sa)e (olarity0 /y i$ea .as to energiBe the fiel$ u( to the (oint of the )a'i)u) (er)ea7ility of the iron an$ -ary the in$uction aroun$ that (oint0 3ut , foun$ that .ith a -ery great nu)7er of (ole (roHections such a )achine .oul$ not gi-e goo$ results8 although .ith fe. (roHections8 an$ .ith an ar)ature .ithout iron8 as use$ 7y /or$ey8 the results o7taine$ .ere e'cellent0 /any e'(eriences of si)ilar nature )a$e in the course of )y stu$y $e)onstrate that the or$inary rules for the )agnetic circuit $o not hol$ goo$ .ith high frequency currents0 ,n (on$era7le )atter )agnetic (er)a7ility8 an$ also s(ecific in$ucti-e ca(acity8 )ust un$ergo consi$era7le change .hen the frequency is -arie$ .ithin .i$e li)its0 This .oul$ ren$er -ery $ifficult the e'act $eter)ination of the energy $issi(ate$ in iron cores 7y -ery ra(i$ cycles of )agnetiBation8 an$ of that in con$uctors an$ con$ensers8 7y -ery quic2 re-ersals of current0 /uch -alua7le .or2 re)ains to 7e $one in these fiel$s8 in .hich it is so easy to o7ser-e no-el (heno)ena8 7ut so $ifficult to )a2e quantitati-e $eter)inations0 The results of <rof0 ".ing's syste)atical research .ill 7e a.aite$ .ith great interest0 ,t is gratifying to note fro) his tests that the tur7ines are 7eing ra(i$ly i)(ro-e$0 Though , a) a.are that the )aHority of engineers $o not fa-or their a$o(tion0 , $o not hesitate to say that , 7elie-e in their success0 , thin2 their (rinci(le uses8 in no $istant future8 .ill 7e in connection .ith alternate current )otors8 7y )eans of .hich it is easy to o7tain a constant an$8 in any $esire$ ratio8 re$uce$ s(ee$0 There are o7Hections to their e)(loy)ent for $ri-ing $irect current generators8 as the co))utators )ust 7e a source of so)e loss an$ trou7le8 on account of the -ery great s(ee$J 7ut .ith an alternator there is no o7Hectiona7le feature .hate-er0 1o )atter ho. )uch one )ay 7e o((ose$ to the intro$uction of the tur7ine8 he )ust ha-e .atche$ .ith sur(rise the $e-elo()ent of this curious 7ranch of the in$ustry8 in .hich /r0 <arsons9has 7een a (ioneer8 an$ e-eryone )ust .ish hi) the success .hich his s2ill has $eser-e$0 1i2ola Tesla
18-"-1"-"1: On t,e %issi$ation of *le(tri(al *nergy of t,e 0ert? #esonator by Nikola Tesla
The Electrical Engineer
Anyone .ho8 li2e )yself8 has ha$ the (leasure of .itnessing the 7eautiful $e)onstrations .ith -i7rating
$ia(hrag)s .hich <rof0 3Her2nes8 e'hi7ite$ in (erson at the <aris "'(osition in 18858 )ust ha-e a$)ire$ his a7ility an$ (ainsta2ing care to such a $egree8 as to ha-e an al)ost i)(licit faith in the correctness of o7ser-ations )a$e 7y hi)0 His e'(eri)ents ";n the =issi(ation of the "lectrical "nergy of the HertB +esonator8" .hich are $escri7e$ in the issue of =ec0 168 of TH" "#"CT+,CA# "1G,1""+8 are (re(are$ in the sa)e ingenious an$ s2illful )anner8 an$ the conclusions $ra.n fro) the) are all the )ore interesting as they agree .ith the theories (ut forth 7y the )ost a$-ance$ thin2ers0 There can not 7e the slightest $ou7t as to the truth of these conclusions8 yet the state)ents .hich follo. )ay ser-e to e'(lain in (art the results arri-e$ at in a $ifferent )annerJ an$ .ith this o7Hect in -ie. , -enture to call attention to a con$ition .ith .hich8 in in-estigations such as those of <rof0 3Her2nes8 the e'(eri)enter is confronte$0 The a((aratus8 oscillator an$ resonator8 7eing i))erse$ in air8 or other $iscontinuous )e$iu)8 there occursKas , ha-e (ointe$ out in the $escri(tion of )y recent e'(eri)ents 7efore the "nglish an$ French scientific societies K$issi(ation of energy 7y .hat , thin2 )ight 7e a((ro(riately calle$ electric sound "aves or sound,"aves of electrified air0 ,n <rof0 3Her2nes's e'(eri)ents (rinci(ally this $issi(ation in the resonator nee$ 7e consi$ere$8 though the soun$9.a-esKif this ter) 7e (er)itte$K.hich e)anate fro) the surfaces at the oscillator )ay consi$era7ly affect the o7ser-ations )a$e at so)e $istance fro) the latter0 ;.ing to this $issi(ation the (erio$ of -i7ration of an air9con$enser can not 7e accurately $eter)ine$8 an$ , ha-e alrea$y $ra.n attention to this i)(ortant fact0 These .a-es are (ro(agate$ at right angles fro) the charge$ surfaces .hen their charges are alternate$8 an$ $issi(ation occurs8 e-en if the surfaces are co-ere$ .ith thic2 an$ e'cellent insulation0 Assu)ing that the "charge" i)(arte$ to a )olecule or ato) either 7y $irect contact or in$ucti-ely is (ro(ortionate to the electric $ensity of the surface8 the $issi(ation shoul$ 7e (ro(ortionate to the square of the $ensity an$ to the nu)7er of .a-es (er secon$0 The a7o-e assu)(tion8 it shoul$ 7e state$8 $oes not agree .ith so)e o7ser-ations fro) .hich it a((ears that an ato) can not ta2e 7ut a certain )a'i)u) chargeJ hence8 the charge i)(arte$ )ay 7e (ractically in$e(en$ent of the $ensity of the surface8 7ut this is i))aterial for the (resent consi$eration0 This an$ other (oints .ill 7e $eci$e$ .hen accurate quantitati-e $eter)inations8 .hich are as yet .anting8 shall 7e tra$e0 At (resent it a((ears certain fro) e'(eri)ents .ith8 high9frequency currents8 that this $issi(ation of energy fro) a .ire8 for instance8 is not -ery far fro) 7eing (ro(ortionate to the frequency of the alternations8 an$ increases -ery ra(i$ly .hen the $ia)eter of the .ire is )a$e e'cee$ingly s)all0 ;n the latter (oint the recently (u7lishe$ results of <rof0 Ayrton an$ H0 :ilgour on "The Ther)al ")issi-ity of Thin &ires in Air" thro. a curious light0 "'cee$ingly thin .ires are ca(a7le of $issi(ating a co)(arati-ely -ery great a)ount of energy 7y the agitation of the surroun$ing air8 .hen they are connecte$ to a source of ra(i$ly alternating (otential0 >o in the e'(eri)ent cite$8 a thin hot .ire is foun$ to 7e ca(a7le of e)itting an e'traor$inarily great a)ount of heat8 es(ecially at ele-ate$ te)(eratures0 ,n the case of a hot .ire it )ust of course 7e assu)e$ that the increase$ e)issi-ity is $ue to the )ore ra(i$ con-ection an$ not8 to any8 a((recia7le $egree8 to an increase$ ra$iation0 &ere the latter $e)onstrate$8 it .oul$ sho. that a .ire8 )a$e hot 7y the a((lication of heat in or$inary .ays8 7eha-es in so)e res(ects li2e one8 the charge of .hich is ra(i$ly alternate$8 the $issi(ation of energy (er unit of surface 2e(t at a certain te)(erature $e(en$ing on the cur-ature of the surface0 , $o not recall any recor$ of e'(eri)ents inten$e$ to $e)onstrate this8 yet this effect8 though (ro7a7ly -ery s)all8 shoul$ certainly 7e8 loo2e$ for0 A nu)7er of o7ser-ations sho.ing the (eculiarity8 of -ery thin .ires .ere )a$e in the course of )y e'(eri)ents0 , note$8 for instance8 that in the .ell92no.n Croo2es instru)ent the )ica -anes are re(elle$ .ith co)(arati-ely greater force .hen the incan$escent (latinu) .ire is e'cee$ingly thin0 This o7ser-ation ena7le$ )e to (ro$uce the s(in of such -anes )ounte$ in a -acuu) tu7e .hen the latter .as (lace$ in an alternating electrostatic fiel$0 This ho.e-er $oes not (ro-e anything in regar$ to ra$iation8 as in a highly e'hauste$ -essel tile (heno)ena are (rinci(ally $ue to )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent or con-ection0 &hen , first un$ertoo2 to (ro$uce the incan$escence of a .ire enclose$ in a 7ul78 7y connecting it to only one of the ter)inals of a high tension transfor)er8 , coul$ not succee$ for a long ti)e0 ;n one occasion , ha$ )ounte$ in a 7ul7 a thin (latinu) .ire8 7ut )y a((aratus .as not a$equate to (ro$uce the incan$escence0 , )a$e other 7ul7s8 re$ucing the length of the .ire to a s)all fractionJ still , $i$ not succee$0 ,t then occurre$ to )e that it .oul$ 7e $esira7le to ha-e the surface of the .ire as large as (ossi7le8 yet the 7ul2 s)all8 an$ , (ro-i$e$ a 7ul7 .ith an e'cee$ingly thin .ire of a 7ul2 a7out equal to that of the short 7ut )uch thic2er .ire0 ;n turning the
current on the 7ul7 the .ire .as instantly fuse$0 A series of su7sequent e'(eri)ents sho.e$ that .hen the $ia)eter of the .ire .as e'cee$ingly s)all8 consi$era7ly )ore energy .oul$ 7e $issi(ate$ (er unit surface at all $egrees of e'haustion than .as to 7e e'(ecte$8 e-en on the assu)(tion that the energy gi-en off .as in (ro(ortion to the square of the electric $ensity0 There is li2e.ise e-i$ence .hich8 though not (ossessing the certainty of an accurate quantitati-e $eter)ination8 is ne-ertheless relia7le 7ecause it is the result of a great )any o7ser-ations8 na)ely8 that .ith the increase of the $ensity the $issi(ation is )ore ra(i$ for thin than for thic2 .ires0 The effects note$ in e'hauste$ -essels .ith high9frequency currents are )erely $i)inishe$ in $egree .hen the air is at or$inary (ressure8 7ut heating an$ $issi(ation occurs8 as , ha-e $e)onstrate$8 un$er the or$inary at)os(heric con$itions0 T.o -ery thin .ires attache$ to the ter)inals of a high9frequency coil are ca(a7le of gi-ing off an a((recia7le a)ount of energy0 &hen the $ensity is -ery great8 the te)(erature of the .ires )ay 7e (erce(ti7ly raise$8 an$ in such case (ro7a7ly the greater (ortion of the energy .hich is $issi(ate$ o"ing to the *resence of a discontinuous medium is transfor)e$ into heat at the surface or in close (ro'i)ity to the .ires0 >uch heating coul$ not occur in a )e$iu) (ossessing either of the t.o qualities8 na)ely8 (erfect inco)(ressi7ility or (erfect elasticity0 ,n flui$ insulators8 such as oils8 though they are far fro) 7eing (erfectly inco)(ressi7le or elastic to electric $is(lace)ent8 the heating is )uch s)aller 7ecause of the continuity of the flui$0 &hen the electric $ensity of the .ire surfaces is s)all8 there is no a((recia7le local heating8 ne-ertheless energy is $issi(ate$ in air8 7y .a-es8 .hich $iffer fro) or$inary soun$9.a-es only 7ecause the air is electrifie$0 These .a-es are es(ecially cons(icuous .hen the $ischarges of a (o.erful 7attery are $irecte$ through a short an$ thic2 )etal 7ar8 the nu)7er of $ischarges (er secon$ 7eing -ery s)all0 The e'(eri)enter )ay feel the i)(act of the air at $istances of si' feet or )ore fro) the 7ar8 es(ecially if 7e ta2es the (recaution to s(rin2le the face or han$s .ith ether0 These .a-es cannot 7e entirely sto((e$ 7y the inter(osition of an insulate$ )etal (late0 /ost of the stri2ing (heno)ena of )echanical $is(lace)ent8 soun$8 heat an$ light .hich ha-e 7een o7ser-e$8 i)(ly the (resence of a )e$iu) of a gaseous structure that is one consisting of in$e(en$ent carriers ca(a7le of free )otion0 &hen a glass (late is (lace$ near a con$enser the charge of .hich is alternate$8 the (late e)its a soun$0 This soun$ is $ue to the rhyth)ical i)(act of the air against the (late0 , ha-e also foun$ that the ringing of a con$enser8 first note$ 7y >ir &illia) Tho)son8 is $ue to the (resence of the air 7et.een or near the charge$ surfaces0 &hen a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil is i))erse$ in oil containe$ in a tan28 it is o7ser-e$ that the surface of the oil is agitate$0 This )ay 7e thought to 7e $ue to the $is(lace)ents (ro$uce$ in the oil 7y the changing stresses8 7ut such is not the case0 ,t is the air a7o-e the oil .hich is agitate$ an$ causes the )otion of the latterJ the oil itself .oul$ re)ain at rest0 The $is(lace)ents (ro$uce$ in it 7y changing electrostatic stresses are insignificantJ to such stresses it )ay 7e sai$ to 7e co)(ressi7le to 7ut a -ery s)all $egree0 The action of the air is sho.n in a curious )anner for if a (ointe$ )etal 7ar is ta2en in the han$ an$ hel$ .ith the (oint close to the oil8 a hole t.o inches $ee( is for)e$ in the oil 7y the )olecules of the air8 .hich are -iolently (roHecte$ fro) the (oint0 The (rece$ing state)ents )ay ha-e a general 7earing u(on in-estigations in .hich currents of high frequency an$ (otential are )a$e use of8 7ut they also ha-e a )ore $irect 7earing u(on the e'(eri)ents of <rof0 3Her2nes .hich are here consi$ere$8 na)ely8 the "s2in effect8" is increase$ 7y the action of the air0 ,)agine a .ire i))erse$ in a )e$iu)8 the con$ucti-ity of .hich .oul$ 7e so)e function of the frequency an$ (otential $ifference 7ut such8 that the con$ucti-ity increases .hen either or 7out of these ele)ents are increase$0 ,n such a )e$iu)8 the higher the frequency an$ (otential $ifference8 the greater .ilt 7e the current .hich .ill fin$ its .ay through the surroun$ing )e$iu)8 an$ the s)aller the (art .hich .ill (ass through the central (ortion of the .ireI ,n the case of a .ire i))erse$ in air an$ tra-erse$ 7y a high9frequency current8 the facility .ith .hich the energy is $issi(ate$ )ay 7e consi$ere$ as the equi-alent of the con$ucti-ityJ an$ the analogy .oul$ 7e quite co)(lete8 .ere it not that 7esi$es the air another )e$iu) is (resent8 the total $issi(ation 7eing )erely )o$ifie$ 7y the (resence of the air to an e'tent as yet not ascertaine$0 1e-ertheless8 , ha-e sufficient e-i$ence to $ra. the conclusion8 that the results o7taine$ 7y <rof0 3Her2nes are affecte$ 7y the (resence of air in the follo.ing )annerI 10 The $issi(ation of energy is )ore ra(i$ .hen the resonator is i))erse$ in air than it .oul$ 7e in a (ractically continuous )e$iu)8 for instance8 oil0 !0The $issi(ation o.ing to the (resence of air ren$ers the $ifference 7et.een )agnetic an$ non9)agnetic )etals )ore stri2ing0 The first conclusion follo.s $irectly fro) the (rece$ing re)ar2sJ the secon$ follo.s front the t.o facts that the resonator recei-es al.ays the sa)e a)ount of energy8 in$e(en$ent of the nature of the )etal8 an$ that the )agnetis) of the )etal increases the i)(e$ance of the circuit0 A resonator of )agnetic )etal 7eha-es -irtually as though its circuit .ere longer0 There
is a greater (otential $ifference set u( (er unit of lengthJ although this rosy not sho. itself in the $eflection of the electro)eter o.ing to the lateral $issi(ation0 The effect of the increase$ i)(e$ance is stri2ingly illustrate$ in the t.o e'(eri)ents of <rof0 3Her2nes .hen co((er is $e(osite$ u(on an iron .ire8 an$ ne't iron u(on a co((er .ire0 Consi$era7le thic2ness of co((er $e(osit .as require$ in the for)er e'(eri)ent8 7ut -ery little thic2ness of iron in the latter8 as shoul$ 7e e'(ecte$0 Ta2ing the a7o-e -ie.s8 , 7elie-e8 that in the e'(eri)ents of <rof0 3Her2nes .hich lea$ hi) to un$ou7te$ly correct conclusions8 the air is a factor fully as i)(ortant8 if not )ore so8 than the resistance of the )etals0
18-9-0"-11: T,e 5,ysiologi(al and Ot,er *ffe(ts of 0ig, 7re8uen(y Currents

by Nikola Tesla The Electrical Engineer ,n TH" "#"CT+,CA# "1G,1""+8 of Eanuary !48 18938 , note an article 7y /r0 A0 A0 C0 >.inton8 referring to )y e'(eri)ents .ith high frequency currents0 /r0 >.inton uses in these e'(eri)ents the )etho$ of con-erting $escri7e$ 7y )e in )y (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 in /ay8 18918 an$ (u7lishe$ in The "lectrical "ngineer of Euly 88 18918 .hich has since 7een e)(loye$ 7y a nu)7er of e'(eri)entersJ 7ut it has so)e.hat sur(rise$ )e to o7ser-e that he )a2es use of an or$inary -i7rating contact97rea2er8 .hereas he coul$ ha-e e)(loye$ the )uch si)(ler )etho$ of con-erting continuous currents into alternating currents of any frequency .hich .as sho.n 7y )e t.o years ago0 This )etho$ $oes not in-ol-e the e)(loy)ent of any )o-ing (arts8 an$ allo.s the e'(eri)enter to -ary the frequency at .ill 7y si)(le a$Hust)ents0 , ha$ thought that )ost electricians .ere at (resent fa)iliar .ith this )o$e of con-ersion .hich (ossesses )any 7eautiful features0 The effects o7ser-e$ 7y /r0 >.inton are not ne. to )e an$ they )ight ha-e 7een antici(ate$ 7y those .ho ha-e carefully rea$ .hat , ha-e .ritten on the su7Hect0 3ut , cannot agree .ith so)e of the -ie.s e'(resse$ 7y hi)0 First of all8 in regar$ to the (hysiological effects0 , ha-e )a$e a clear state)ent at the 7eginning of )y (u7lishe$ stu$ies8 an$ )y continue$ e'(erience .ith these currents has only further strengthene$ )e is the o(inion then e'(resse$0 , state$ in )y (a(er8 7efore )entione$8 that it is an un$enia7le fact that currents of -ery high frequency are less inHurious than the lo. frequency currents8 7ut , ha-e also ta2en care to (re-ent the i$ea fro) gaining groun$ that these currents are a7solutely har)less8 as .ill 7e e-i$ent8 fro) the follo.ing quotationI ",f recei-e$ $irectly fro) a )achine or fro) a secon$ary of lo. resistance8 they (high frequency currents (ro$uce )ore or less (o.erful effects8 an$ )ay8 cause serious inHury8 es(ecially .hen use$ in conHunction .ith con$ense$0" This refers to currents of or$inary (otential $ifferences such as are use$ in general co))ercial (ractice0 As regar$s the currents of -ery high (otential $ifferences8 .hich .ere e)(loye$ an )y e'(eri)ents8 , ha-e ne-er consi$ere$ the currents strength8 7ut the energy .hich the hu)an 7o$y is ca(a7le of recei-ing .ithout inHury8 an$ , ha-e e'(resse$ this quite clearly on )ore than one occasion0 For instance8 , state$ that "the higher8 the frequency the greater the a)ount of electrical energy .hich )ay 7e (asse$ through the 7o$y .ithout serious $isco)fort0" An$ on another occasion .hen a high tension coil .as short9circuite$ though the 7o$y of the e'(eri)enter , state$ that the i))unity .as $ue to the fact that less energy .as a-aila7le e'ternally to the coil .hen the e'(eri)enter's 7o$y Hoine$ the ter)inals0 This is (ractically .hat /r0 >.inton e'(resses in another .ayJ na)ely8 7y saying that .ith "high frequency currents it is (ossi7le to o7tain effects .ith e'cee$ingly s)all currents8" etc0 ,n regar$ to the e'(eri)ents .ith la)( fila)ents8 , ha-e8 , 7elie-e8 e'(resse$ )yself .ith equal clearness0 , ha-e (ointe$ out so)e (heno)ena of i)(e$ance .hich at that ti)e (1891 .ere consi$ere$ -ery striating8 an$ , ha-e also (ointe$ out the great i)(ortance of the rarefie$ gas surroun$ing the fila)ent .hen .e ha-e to $eal .ith currents of such high frequency0 The heating of the fila)ent 7y s co)(arati-ely s)all current is not8 as /r0 >.inton thin2s8 $ue to its i)(e$ance or increase$ oh)ic resistance8 7ut (rinci(ally to the (resence of rarefie$ gas in the 7ul70 A)(le e-i$ence of the truth of this can 7e o7taine$ in -ary )any e'(eri)ents8 an$ to cite the) .oul$ 7e )erely lengthening this co))unication un$uly0 #i2e.ise8 o7ser-ations )a$e .hen the e'(eri)enter's 7o$y .as inclu$e$ in the (ath of the $ischarge8 are8 in )y o(inion8 not i)(e$ance8 7ut ca(acity8 (heno)ena0 The s(ar2 7et.een the han$s is the shorter8 the larger the surface of the 7o$y8 an$ no s(ar2 .hate-er .oul$ 7e o7taine$ if the surface of the 7o$y .ere sufficiently large0 , .oul$ here (oint out that one is a(t to fall into the error of su((osing that the s(ar2 .hich is (ro$uce$ 7et.een t.o (oints on a con$uctor8 not -ery $istant fro) each other8 is $ue to the i)(e$ance of the con$uctor0 This is certainly the case .hen the current is of consi$era7le strength8 as for instance .hen8 li2e in the Fara$ay e'(eri)ent or so)e of =r0 #o$geNs8 a hea-ily9charge$ 7attery of #ey$en Hars 7attery of #ey$en Hars is $ischarge$ through a 7ent .ire0 3ut .hen there is a -i7ration along a .ire .hich is constantly )aintaine$8 an$ the current is ina((recia7le .hereas the (otential at the coil ter)inal is e'cee$ingly high8 then lateral $issi(ation co)es into (lay (ro)inently0 There is then o.ing to this $issi(ation8 a ra(i$ fall of (otential along the .ire an$ high (otential $ifferences )ay e'ist 7et.een (oints only a short $istance a(art This is of course not to 7e confoun$e$ .ith those $ifferences of (otential o7ser-e$ 7et.een (oints .hen there are fi'e$ .ares .ith -entral an$ no$al (oints )aintaine$ on a con$uctor0 The lateral $issi(ation8 an$ not the s2in effect8 is8 , thin28 the reason .hy so great an
a)ount of energy )ay 7e (asse$ into the 7o$y of a (erson .ithout causing $isco)fort0 ,t al.ays affor$s )e great (leasure to note that so)ething .hich , ha-e suggeste$ is 7eing e)(loye$ for so)e instructi-e or (ractical (ur(oseJ 7ut , )ay 7e (ar$one$ for )entioning that other o7ser-ations )a$e 7y /r0 >.inton8 an$ 7y other e'(eri)enters8 ha-e recently 7een 7rought for.ar$ as no-el8 an$ arrange)ents of a((aratus .hich , ha-e suggeste$ ha-e 7een use$ re(eate$ly 7y so)e .ho a((arently are in co)(lete ignorance of .hat , ha-e $one in this $irection0
18-9-0"-"/: On 'ig,t and Ot,er 0ig, 7re8uen(y 5,enomena

by Nikola Tesla Delivered before the 9ranklin Institute+ 3hiladel*hia+ 9ebruary 101: and before the National Electric %ight Association+ &t. %ouis+ /arch 101: :NT#O%=CTO#@ A SOM* T0O=B0TS ON T0* *@* &hen .e loo2 at the .orl$ aroun$ us8 on 1ature8 .e are i)(resse$ .ith its 7eauty an$ gran$eur0 "ach thing .e (ercei-e8 though it )ay 7e -anishingly s)all8 is in itself a .orl$8 that is8 li2e the .hole of the uni-erse8 )atter an$ force go-erne$ 7y la.8Ka .orl$8 the conte)(lation of .hich fills us .ith feelings of .on$er an$ irresisti7ly urges us to ceaseless thought an$ inquiry0 3ut in all this -ast .orl$8 of all o7Hects our senses re-eal to us8 the )ost )ar-ellous8 the )ost a((ealing to our i)agination8 a((ears no $ou7t a highly $e-elo(e$ organis)8 a thin2ing 7eing0 ,f there is anything fitte$ to )a2e us a$)ire 1ature's han$i.or28 it is certainly this inconcei-a7le structure8 .hich (erfor)s its innu)era7le )otions of o7e$ience to e'ternal influence0 To un$erstan$ its .or2ings8 to get a $ee(er insight into this 1ature's )aster(iece8 has e-er 7een for thin2ers a fascinating ai)8 an$ after )any centuries of ar$uous research )en ha-e arri-e$ at a fair un$erstan$ing of the functions of its organs an$ senses0 Again8 in all the (erfect har)ony of its (arts8 of the (arts .hich constitute the )aterial or tangi7le of our 7eing8 of all its organs an$ senses8 the eye is the )ost .on$erful0 ,t is the )ost (recious8 the )ost in$is(ensa7le of our (erce(ti-e or $irecti-e organs8 it is the great gate.ay through .hich all 2no.le$ge enters the )in$0 ;f all our organs8 it is the one8 .hich is in the )ost inti)ate relation .ith that .hich .e call intellect0 >o inti)ate is this relation8 that it is often sai$8 the -ery soul sho.s itself in the eye0 ,t can 7e ta2en as a fact8 .hich the theory of the action of the eye i)(lies8 that for each e'ternal i)(ression8 that is8 for each i)age (ro$uce$ u(on the retina8 the en$s of the -isual ner-es8 concerne$ in the con-eyance of the i)(ression to the )in$8 )ust 7e un$er a (eculiar stress or in a -i7ratory state8 ,t no. $oes not see) i)(ro7a7le that8 .hen 7y the (o.er of thought an i)age is e-o2e$8 a $istinct refle' action8 no )atter ho. .ea28 is e'erte$ u(on certain en$s of the -isual ner-es8 an$ therefore u(on the retina0 &ill it e-er 7e .ithin hu)an (o.er to analyse the con$ition of the retina .hen $istur7e$ 7y thought or refle' action8 7y the hel( of so)e o(tical or other )eans of such sensiti-eness8 that a clear i$ea of its state )ight 7e gaine$ at any ti)eF ,f this .ere (ossi7le8 then the (ro7le) of rea$ing one's thoughts .ith (recision8 li2e the characters of an o(en 7oo28 )ight 7e )uch easier to sol-e than )any (ro7le)s 7elonging to the $o)ain of (ositi-e (hysical science8 in the solution of .hich )any8 if not the )aHorityI of scientific )en i)(licitly 7elie-e0 Hel)holtB has sho.n that the fun$i of the eye are the)sel-es8 lu)inous8 an$ he .as a7le to see8 in total $ar2ness8 the )o-e)ent of his ar) 7y the light of his o.n eyes0 This is one of the )ost re)ar2a7le e'(eri)ents recor$e$ in the history of science8 an$ (ro7a7ly only a fe. )en coul$ satisfactorily re(eat it8 for it is -ery li2ely8 that the lu)inosity of the eyes is associate$ .ith unco))on acti-ity of the 7rain an$ great i)aginati-e (o.er0 ,t is fluorescence of 7rain action8 as it .ere0 Another fact ha-ing a 7earing on this su7Hect .hich has (ro7a7ly 7een note$ 7y )any8 since it is state$ in (o(ular e'(ressions8 7ut .hich , cannot recollect to ha-e foun$ chronicle$ as a (ositi-e result of o7ser-ation is8 that at ti)es8 .hen a su$$en i$ea or i)age (resents itself to the intellect8 there is a $istinct an$ so)eti)es (ainful sensation of lu)inosity (ro$uce$ in the eye8 o7ser-a7le e-en in 7roa$ $aylight0 The saying then8 that the soul sho.s itself in the eye8 is $ee(ly foun$e$8 an$ .e feel that it e'(resses a great truth0 ,t has a (rofoun$ )eaning e-en for one .ho8 li2e a (oet or artist8 only follo.ingJ his in7orn instinct or lo-e for 1ature8 fin$s $elight in ai)less thoughts an$ in the )ere conte)(lation of natural (heno)ena8 7ut a still )ore (rofoun$ )eaning for one .ho8 in the s(irit of (ositi-e scientific in-estigation8 see2s to ascertain the causes of the effects0 ,t is (rinci(ally the natural (hiloso(her8 the (hysicist8 for .ho) the eye is the su7Hect of the )ost intense a$)iration0 T.o facts a7out the eye )ust forci7ly i)(ress the )in$ of the (hysicist8 not.ithstan$ing he )ay thin2 or say that it is an i)(erfect o(tical instru)ent8 forgetting8 that the -ery conce(tion of that .hich is (erfect or see)s so to hi)8 has 7een gaine$ through this sa)e instru)ent0 First8 the eye is8 as far as our (ositi-e 2no.le$ge goes8 the only organ .hich is $irectly affecte$ 7y that su7tle )e$iu)8 .hich as science teaches us8 )ust fill all s(aceJ secon$ly8 it is the )ost sensiti-e of our organs8 inco)(ara7ly )ore sensiti-e to e'ternal i)(ressions than any other0
The organ of hearing i)(lies the i)(act of (on$era7le 7o$ies8 the organ of s)ell the transference of $etache$ )aterial (articles8 an$ the organs of taste0 an$ of touch or force8 the $irect contact8 or at least so)e interference of (on$era7le )atter8 an$ this is true e-en in those instances of ani)al organis)s8 in .hich so)e of these organs are $e-elo(e$ to a $egree of truly )ar-ellous (erfection0 This 7eing so8 it see)s .on$erful that the organ of sight solely shoul$ 7e ca(a7le of 7eing stirre$ 7y that8 .hich all our other organs are (o.erless to $etect8 yet .hich (lays an essential (art in all natural (heno)ena8 .hich trans)its all energy an$ sustains all )otion an$8 that )ost intricate of all8 life8 7ut .hich has (ro(erties such that e-en a scientifically traine$ )in$ cannot hel( $ra.ing a $istinction 7et.een it an$ all that is calle$ )atter0 Consi$ering )erely this8 an$ the fact that the eye8 7y its )ar-ellous (o.er8 .i$ens our other.ise -ery narro. range of (erce(tion far 7eyon$ the li)its of the s)all .orl$ .hich is our o.n8 to e)7race )yria$s of other .orl$s8 suns an$ stars in the infinite $e(ths of the uni-erse8 .oul$ )a2e it Hustifia7le to assert8 that it is an organ of a higher or$er0 ,ts (erfor)ances are 7eyon$ co)(rehension0 1ature as far as .e 2no. ne-er (ro$uce$ anything )ore .on$erful0 &e can get 7arely a faint i$ea of its (ro$igious (o.er 7y analysing .hat it $oes an$ 7y co)(aring0 &hen ether .a-es i)(inge u(on the hu)an 7o$y8 they (ro$uce the sensations of .ar)th or col$8 (leasure or (ain8 or (erha(s other sensations of .hich .e are not a.are8 an$ any $egree or intensity of these sensations8 .hich $egrees are infinite in nu)7er8 hence an infinite nu)7er of $istinct sensations0 3ut our sense of touch8 or our sense of force8 cannot re-eal to us these $ifferences in $egree or intensity8 unless they are -ery great0 1o. .e can rea$ily concei-e ho. an organis)8 such as the hu)an8 in the eternal (rocess of e-olution8 or )ore (hiloso(hically s(ea2ing8 a$a(tation to 1ature8 7eing constraine$ to the use of only the sense of touch or force8 for instance8 )ight $e-elo( this sense to such a $egree of sensiti-eness or (erfection8 that it .oul$ 7e ca(a7le of $istinguishing the )inutest $ifferences in the te)(erature of a 7o$y e-en at so)e $istance8 to a hun$re$th8 or thousan$th8 or )illionth (art of a $egree0 Det8 e-en this a((arently i)(ossi7le (erfor)ance .oul$ not 7egin to co)(are .ith that of the eye8 .hich is ca(a7le of $istinguishing an$ con-eying to the )in$ in a single instant innu)era7le (eculiarities of the 7o$y8 7e it in for)8 or colour8 or other res(ects0 This (o.er of the eye rests u(on t.o thins8 na)ely8 the rectilinear (ro(agation of the $istur7ance 7y .hich it is effecte$8 an$ u(on its sensiti-eness0 To say that the eye is sensiti-e is not saying anything0 Co)(are$ .ith it8 all other organs are )onstrously cru$e0 The organ of s)ell .hich gui$es a $og on the trail of a $eer8 the organ of touch or force .hich gui$es an insect in its .an$erings8 the organ of hearing8 .hich is affecte$ 7y the slightest $istur7ances of the air8 are sensiti-e organs8 to 7e sure8 7ut .hat are they co)(are$ .ith the hu)an eyeY 1o $ou7t it res(on$s to the faintest echoes or re-er7erations of the )e$iu)J no $ou7t8 it 7rings us ti$ings fro) other .orl$s8 infinitely re)ote8 7ut in a language .e cannot as yet al.ays un$erstan$0 An$ .hy notF 3ecause .e li-e in a )e$iu) fille$ .ith air an$ other gases8 -a(ours an$ a $ense )ass of soli$ (articles flying a7out0 These (lay an i)(ortant (art in )any (heno)enaJ they fritter a.ay the energy of the -i7rations 7efore they can reach the eyeJ they too8 are the carriers of ger)s of $estruction8 they get into our lungs an$ other organs8 clog u( the channels an$ i)(erce(ti7ly8 yet ine-ita7ly8 arrest the strea) of life0 Coul$ .e 7ut $o a.ay .ith all (on$era7le )atter in the line of sight of the telesco(e8 it .oul$ re-eal to us un$rea)e$ of )ar-els0 "-en the unai$e$ eye8 , thin2J .oul$ he ca(a7le of $istinguishing in the (ure )e$iu)8 s)all o7Hects at $istances )easure$ (ro7a7ly 7y hun$re$s or (erha(s thousan$s of )iles0 3ut there is so)ething else a7out the eye .hich i)(resses us still )ore than these .on$erful features .hich .e o7ser-e$8 -ie.ing it fro) the stan$(oint of a (hysicist8 )erely as an o(tical instru)ent8Kso)ething .hich a((eals to us )ore than its )ar-ellous faculty of 7eing $irectly affecte$ 7y the -i7rations of the )e$iu)8 .ithout interference of gross )atter8 an$ )ore than its inconcei-a7le sensiti-eness an$ $iscerning (o.er0 ,t is its significance in the (rocesses of life0 1o )atter .hat one's -ie.s on nature an$ life )ay 7e8 he )ust stan$ a)aBe$ .hen8 for the first ti)e in his8 thoughts8 he realiBes the i)(ortance of the eye in the (hysical (rocesses an$ )ental (erfor)ances of the hu)an organis)0 An$ ho. coul$ it 7e other.ise8 .hen he realiBes8 that the eye is the )eans through .hich the hu)an race has acquire$ the entire 2no.le$ge it (ossesses8 that it controls all our )otions8 )ore still8 an$ our actions0 There is no .ay of acquiring 2no.le$ge e'ce(t through the eye0 &hat is the foun$ation of all (hiloso(hical syste)s of ancient an$ )o$ern ti)es8 in fact8 of all the (hiloso(hy of )enF , a) , thin2J , thin28 therefore , a)0 3ut ho. coul$ , thin2 an$ ho. .oul$ , 2no. that , e'ist8 if , ha$ not the eyeF For 2no.le$ge in-ol-e0J consciousnessJ consciousness in-ol-es i$eas8 conce(tionsJ conce(tions in-ol-e (ictures or i)ages8 an$ i)ages the sense of -ision8 an$ therefore the organ of sight0 3ut ho. a7out 7lin$ )en8 .ill 7e as2e$F Des8 a 7lin$ )an )ay $e(ict in )agnificent (oe)s8 for)s an$ scenes fro) real life8 fro) a .orl$ he (hysically $oes not see0 A 7lin$ )an )ay touch the 2eys of an instru)ent .ith unerring (recision8 )ay )o$el the fastest 7oat8 )ay $isco-er an$ in-ent8 calculate an$ construct8 )ay $o still greater .on$ersK7ut all the 7lin$ )en .ho ha-e $one such things ha-e $escen$e$ fro) those .ho ha$ seeing eyes0 1ature )ay reach the sa)e result in )any .ays0 #i2e a .a-e in the (hysical .orl$8 in the infinite ocean of the )e$iu) .hich (er-a$es all8 so in the .orl$ of
organis)I8 in life8 an i)(ulse starte$ (rocee$s on.ar$8 at ti)es8 )ay 7e8 .ith the s(ee$ of light8 at ti)es8 again8 so slo.ly that for ages an$ ages it see)s to stayJ (assing through (rocesses of a co)(le'ity inconcei-a7le to )en8 7ut in Jill its for)s8 in all its stages8 its energy0 e-er an$ e-er integrally (resent0 A single ray of light fro) a $istant star falling u(on the eye of a tyrant in 7y9gone ti)es8 )ay ha-e altere$ the course of his life8 )ay ha-e change$ the $estiny of nations8 )ay ha-e transfor)e$ the surface of the glo7e8 so intricate8 so inconcei-a7ly co)(le' are the (rocesses in 1ature0 ,n no .ay can .e get such an o-er.hel)ing i$ea of the gran$eur of 1ature8 as .hen .e consi$er8 that in accor$ance .ith the la. of the conser-ation of energy8 throughout the infinite8 the forces are in a (erfect 7alance8 an$ hence the energy of a single thought )ay $eter)ine the )otion of a Cni-erse0 ,t is not necessary that e-ery in$i-i$ual8 not e-en that e-ery generation or )any generations8 shoul$ ha-e the (hysical instru)ent of sight8 in or$er to 7e a7le to for) i)ages an$ to thin28 that is8 for) i$eas or conce(tionsJ 7ut so)eti)e or other8 $uring the (rocess of e-olution8 the eye certainly )ust ha-e e'iste$8 else thought8 as .e un$erstan$ it8 .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7leJ else conce(tions8 li2e s(irit8 intellect8 )in$8 call it as you )ay8 coul$ not e'ist0 ,t is concei-a7le8 that in so)e other .orl$8 in so)e other 7eings8 the eye is re(lace$ 7y a $ifferent organ8 equally or )ore (erfect8 7ut these 7eings cannot 7e )en0 1o. .hat (ro)(ts us all to -oluntary )otions an$ actions of any 2in$F Again the eye0 ,f , a) conscious of the )otion8 , )ust ha-e an i$ea or conce(tion8 that is8 an i)age8 therefore the eye0 ,f , a) not (recisely conscious of the )otion8 it is8 7ecause the i)ages are -ague or in$istinct8 7eing 7lurre$ 7y the su(eri)(osition of )any0 3ut .hen , (erfor) the )otion8 $oes the i)(ulse .hich (ro)(ts )e to the action co)e fro) .ithin or fro) .ithoutF The greatest (hysicists ha-e not $is$aine$ to en$ea-our to ans.er this an$ si)ilar questions an$ ha-e at tunes a7an$one$ the)sel-es to the $elights of (ure an$ unrestraine$ thought0 >uch questions are generally consi$ere$ not to 7elong to the real) of (ositi-e (hysical science8 7ut .ill 7efore long 7e anne'e$ to its $o)ain0 Hel)holtB has (ro7a7ly thought )ore on life than any )o$ern scientist0 #or$ :el-in e'(resse$ his 7elief that life's (rocess is electrical an$ that there is a force inherent to the organis) an$ $eter)ining its )otions0 Hust as )uch as , a) con-ince$ of any (hysical truth , a) con-ince$ that the )oti-e i)(ulse )ust co)e fro) the outsi$e0 For8 consi$er the lo.est organis) .e 2no.Kan$ there are (ro7a7ly )any lo.er onesKan aggregation of a fe. cells only0 ,f it is ca(a7le of -oluntary )otion it can (erfor) an infinite nu)7er of )otions8 all $efinite an$ (recise0 3ut no. a )echanis) consisting of a finite nu)7er of (arts an$ fe. at that8 cannot (erfor) are infinite nu)7er of $efinite )otions8 hence the i)(ulses .hich go-ern its )o-e)ents )ust co)e fro) the en-iron)ent0 >o8 the ato)8 the ulterior ele)ent of the Cni-erse's structure8 is tosse$ a7out in s(ace eternally8 a (lay to e'ternal influences8 li2e a 7oat in a trou7le$ sea0 &ere it to sto( its )otion it .oul$ $ieI )atter at rest8 if such a thing coul$ e'ist8 .oul$ 7e )atter $ea$0 =eath of )atterY 1e-er has a sentence of $ee(er (hiloso(hical )eaning 7een uttere$0 This is the .ay in .hich <rof0 =e.ar forci7ly e'(resses it in the $escri(tion of his a$)ira7le e'(eri)ents8 in .hich liqui$ o'ygen is han$le$ as one han$les .ater8 an$ air at or$inary (ressure is )a$e to con$ense an$ e-en to soli$ify 7y the intense col$I "'(eri)ents8 .hich ser-e to illustrate8 in his language8 the last fee7le )anifestations of life8 the last qui-erings of )atter a7out to $ie0 3ut hu)an eyes shall not .itness such $eath0 There is no $eath of )atter8 for throughout the infinite uni-erse8 all has to )o-e8 to -i7rate8 that is8 to li-e0 , ha-e )a$e the (rece$ing state)ents at the (eril of trea$ing u(on )eta(hysical groun$J in )y $esire to intro$uce the su7Hect of this lecture in a )anner not altogether uninteresting8 , )ay ho(e8 to an au$ience such as , ha-e the honour to a$$ress0 3ut no.8 then8 returning to the su7Hect8 this $i-ine organ of sight8 this in$is(ensa7le instru)ent for thought an$ all intellectual enHoy)ent8 .hich lays o(en to us the )ar-els of this uni-erse8 through .hich .e ha-e acquire$ .hat 2no.le$ge .e (ossess8 an$ .hich (ro)(ts us to8 an$ controls8 all our (hysical an$ )ental acti-ity0 3y .hat is it affecte$F 3y lightY &hat is lightF &e ha-e .itnesse$ the great stri$es .hich ha-e 7een )a$e in all $e(art)ents of science in recent years0 >o great la-e 7een the a$-ances that .e cannot refrain fro) as2ing oursel-es8 ,s this all trueJ or is it 7ut a $rea)F Centuries ago )en ha-e li-e$8 ha-e thought8 $isco-ere$8 in-ente$8 an$ ha-e 7elie-e$ that they .ere soaring8 .hile they .ere )erely (rocee$ing at a snail's (ace0 >o .e too )ay 7e )ista2en0 3ut ta2ing the truth of the o7ser-e$ e-ents as one of the i)(lie$ facts of science8 .e )ust reHoice in the8 i))ense (rogress alrea$y )a$e an$ still )ore in the antici(ation of .hat )ust co)e8 Hu$ging fro) the (ossi7ilities o(ene$ u( 7y )o$ern research0 There is8 ho.e-er8 an a$-ance .hich .e ha-e 7een .itnessing8 .hich )ust 7e (articularly gratifying to e-ery lo-er of (rogress0 ,t is not a $isco-ery8 or an in-ention8 or an achie-e)ent in any (articular $irection0 ,t is an a$-ance in all $irections of scientific thought an$ e'(eri)ent , )ean the generaliBation of the natural forces an$ (heno)ena8 the loo)ing u( of a certain 7roa$ i$ea on the scientific horiBon0 ,t is this i$ea .hich has8 ho.e-er8 long ago ta2en (ossession of the )ost a$-ance$ )in$s8 to .hich , $esire to call your attention8 an$ .hich , inten$ to illustrate in a general .ay8 in these e'(eri)ents8 as the first ste( in ans.ering the question "&hat is lightF" an$ to realiBe the )o$ern )eaning of this .or$0
,t is 7eyon$ the sco(e of )y lecture to $.ell u(on the su7Hect of light in general8 )y o7Hect 7eing )erely to 7ring (resently to your notice a certain class of light effects an$ a nu)7er of (heno)ena o7ser-e$ in (ursuing the stu$y of these effects0 3ut to he consistent in )y re)ar2s it is necessary to state that8 accor$ing to that i$ea8 no.8 acce(te$ 7y the )aHority of scientific )en as a (ositi-e result of theoretical an$ e'(eri)ental in-estigation8 the -arious for)s or )anifestations of energy .hich .ere generally $esignate$ as "electric" or )ore (recisely "electro)agnetic" are energy )anifestations of the sa)e nature as those of ra$iant heat an$ light0 Therefore the (heno)ena of light an$ heat an$ others 7esi$es these8 )ay 7e calle$ electrical (heno)ena0 Thus electrical science has 7eco)e the )other science of all an$ its stu$y has 7eco)e all i)(ortant0 The $ay .hen .e shall 2no. e'actly .hat "electricity" is8 .ill chronicle an e-ent (ro7a7ly greater8 )ore i)(ortant than any other recor$e$ in the history of the hu)an race0 The ti)e .ill co)e .hen the co)fort8 the -ery e'istence8 (erha(s8 or )an .ill $e(en$ u(on that .on$erful agent0 For our e'istence an$ co)fort .e require heat8 light an$ )echanical (o.er0 Ho. $o .e no. get all theseF &e get the) fro) fuel8 .e get the) 7y consu)ing )aterial0 &hat .ill )an $o .hen the forests $isa((ear8 .hen the coal fiel$s are e'hauste$F ;nly one thing accor$ing to our (resent 2no.le$ge .ill re)ainJ that is8 to trans)it (o.er at great $istances0 /en .ill go to the .aterfalls8 to the ti$es8 .hich are the stores of an infinitesi)al (art of 1ature's i))easura7le energy0 There .ill they harness the energy an$ trans)it the sa)e to their settle)ents8 to .ar) their ho)es 7y8 to gi-e the) light8 an$ to 2ee( their o7e$ient sla-es8 the )achines8 toiling0 3ut ho. .ill they trans)it this energy if not 7y electricityF Eu$ge then8 if the co)fort8 nay8 the -ery e'istence8 of )an .ill not $e(en$ on electricity0 , a) a.are that this -ie. is not that of a (ractical engineer8 7ut neither is it that of an illusionist8 for it is certain8 that (o.er trans)ission8 .hich at (resent is )erely a sti)ulus to enter(rise8 .ill so)e $ay 7e a $ire necessity0 ,t is )ore i)(ortant for the stu$ent8 .ho ta2es u( the stu$y of light (heno)ena8 to )a2e hi)self thoroughly acquainte$ .ith certain )o$ern -ie.s8 than to (eruse entire 7oo2s on the su7Hect of light itself8 as $isconnecte$ fro) these -ie.s0 &ere , therefore to )a2e these $e)onstrations 7efore stu$ents see2ing infor)ationKan$ for the sa2e of the fe. of those .ho )ay 7e (resent8 gi-e )e lea-e to so assu)eKit .oul$ 7e )y (rinci(al en$ea-our to i)(ress these -ie.s u(on their )in$s in this series of e'(eri)ents0 ,t )ight 7e sufficient for this (ur(ose to (erfor) a si)(le an$ .ell92no.n e'(eri)ent0 , )ight ta2e a fa)iliar a((liance8 a #ey$en Har8 charge it fro) a frictional )achine8 an$ then $ischarge it0 ,n e'(laining to you its (er)anent state .hen charge$8 an$ its transitory con$ition .hen $ischarging8 calling your attention to the forces .hich enter into (lay an$ to the -arious (heno)ena they (ro$uce8 an$ (ointing out the relation of the forces an$ (heno)ena8 , )ight fully succee$ in illustrating that )o$ern i$ea0 1o $ou7t8 to the thin2er8 this si)(le e'(eri)ent .oul$ a((eal as )uch as the )ost )agnificent $is(lay0 3ut this is to 7e an e'(eri)ental $e)onstration8 an$ one .hich shoul$ (ossess8 7esi$es instructi-e8 also entertaining features an$ as such8 a si)(le e'(eri)ent8 such as the one cite$8 .oul$ not go -ery far to.ar$s the attain)ent of the lecturer's ai)0 , )ust therefore choose another .ay of illustrating8 )ore s(ectacular certainly8 7ut (erha(s also )ore instructi-e0 ,nstea$ of the frictional )achine an$ #ey$en Har8 , shall a-ail )yself in these e'(eri)ents of an in$uction coil of (eculiar (ro(erties8 .hich .as $escri7e$ in $etail 7y )e in a lecture 7efore the #on$on ,nstitution of "lectrical "ngineers8 in Fe708 189!0 This in$uction coil is ca(a7le of yiel$ing currents of enor)ous (otential $ifferences8 alternating .ith e'tre)e ra(i$ity0 &ith this a((aratus , shall en$ea-our to sho. you three $istinct classes of effects8 or (heno)ena8 an$ it is )y $esire that each e'(eri)ent8 .hile ser-ing for the (ur(oses of illustration8 shoul$ at the sa)e ti)e teach us so)e no-el truth8 or sho. us so)e no-el as(ect of this fascinating science0 3ut 7efore $oing this8 it see)s (ro(er an$ useful to $.ell u(on the a((aratus e)(loye$8 an$ )etho$ of o7taining the high (otentials an$ high9frequency currents .hich are )a$e use of in these e'(eri)ents0 ON T0* A55A#AT=S AN% M*T0O% O7 CON6*#S:ON& These high9frequency currents are o7taine$ in a (eculiar )anner0 The )etho$ e)(loye$ .as a$-ance$ 7y )e a7out t.o years ago in an e'(eri)ental lecture 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers0 A nu)7er of .ays8 as (ractise$ in the la7oratory8 of o7taining these currents either fro) continuous or lo. frequency alternating currents8 is $iagra))atically in$icate$ in Fig0 1/1%48 .hich .ill 7e later $escri7e$ in $etail0 The general (lan is to charge con$ensers8 fro) a $irect or alternate9current source8 (refera7ly of high9tension8 an$ to $ischarge the) $isru(ti-ely .hile o7ser-ing .ell92no.n con$itions necessary to )aintain the oscillations of the current0 ,n -ie. of the general interest ta2en in high9frequency currents an$ effects (ro$uci7le 7y the)8 it see)s to )e a$-isa7le to $.ell at so)e length u(on this )etho$ of con-ersion0 ,n or$er to gi-e you a clear i$ea of the action8 , .ill su((ose that a continuous9current generator is e)(loye$8 .hich is often -ery con-enient0 ,t is $esira7le that the generator shoul$ (ossess such high tension as to 7e a7le to 7rea2 through a s)all air s(ace0
,f this is not the case8 then au'iliary )eans ha-e to 7e resorte$ to8 so)e of .hich .ill 7e in$icate$ su7sequently0 &hen the con$ensers are charge$ to a certain (otential8 the air8 or insulating s(ace8 gi-es .ay an$ a $isru(ti-e $ischargeI occurs0 There is then a su$$en rush of current an$ generally a large (ortion of accu)ulate$ electrical energy s(en$s itself0 The con$ensers are thereu(on quic2ly charge$ an$ the sa)e (rocess is re(eate$ in )ore or less ra(i$ succession0 To (ro$uce such su$$en rushes of current it is necessary to o7ser-e certain con$itions0 ,f the rate at .hich the con$ensers are $ischarge$ is the sa)e as that at .hich they are charge$8 then8 clearly8 in the assu)e$ case the con$ensers $o not co)e into (lay0 ,f the rate of $ischarge 7e s)aller than the rate of charging8 then8 again8 the con$ensers cannot (lay an i)(ortant (art0 3ut if8 on the contrary8 the rate of $ischarging is greater than that of charging8 then a succession of rushes of current is o7taine$0 ,t is e-i$ent that8 if the rate at .hich the energy is $issi(ate$ 7y the $ischarge is -ery )uch greater than the rate of su((ly to the con$ensers8 the su$$en rushes .ill 7e co)(arati-ely fe.8 .ith long9ti)e inter-als 7et.een0 This al.ays occurs .hen a con$enser of consi$era7le ca(acity is charge$ 7y )eans of a co)(arati-ely s)all )achine0 ,f the rates of su((ly an$ $issi(ation are not .i$ely $ifferent8 then the rushes of current .ill 7e in quic2er succession8 an$ this the )ore8 the )ore nearly equal 7oth the rates are8 until li)itations inci$ent to each case an$ $e(en$ing u(on a nu)7er of causes are reache$0 Thus .e are a7le to o7tain fro) a continuous9current generator as ra(i$ a succession of $ischarges as .e li2e0 ;f course8 the higher the tension of the generator8 the s)aller nee$ 7e the ca(acity of the con$ensers8 an$ for this reason8 (rinci(ally8 it is of a$-antage to e)(loy a generator of -ery high tension0 3esi$es8 such a generator (er)its the attaining of greater rates of -i7ration0
The rushes of current )ay 7e of the sa)e $irection un$er the con$itions 7efore assu)e$8 7ut )ost generally there is an oscillation su(eri)(ose$ u(on the fun$a)ental -i7ration of the current0 &hen the con$itions are so $eter)ine$ that there are no oscillations8 the current i)(ulses are uni$irectional an$ thus a )eans is (ro-i$e$ of transfor)ing a continuous current of high tension8 into a $irect current of lo.er tension8 .hich , thin2 )ay fin$ e)(loy)ent in the arts0 This )etho$ of con-ersion is e'cee$ingly interesting an$ , .as )uch i)(resse$ 7y its 7eauty .hen , first concei-e$ it0 ,t is i$eal in certain res(ects0 ,t in-ol-es the e)(loy)ent of no )echanical $e-ices of any 2in$8 an$ it allo.s of o7taining currents of any $esire$ frequency fro) an or$inary circuit8 $irect or alternating0 The frequency of the fun$a)ental $ischarges $e(en$ing on the relati-e rates of su((ly an$ $issi(ation can 7e rea$ily -arie$ .ithin .i$e li)its8 7y si)(le a$Hust)ents of these quantities8 an$ the frequency of the su(eri)(ose$ -i7ration 7y the $eter)ination of the ca(acity8 self9in$uction an$ resistance of the circuit0 The (otential of the currents8 again8 )ay 7e raise$ as high as any insulation is ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing safely 7y co)7ining ca(acity an$ self9in$uction or 7y in$uction in a secon$ary8 .hich nee$ ha-e 7ut co)(arati-ely fe. turns0 As the con$itions are often such that the inter)ittence or oscillation $oes not rea$ily esta7lish itself8 es(ecially .hen a $irect current source is e)(loye$8 it is of a$-antage to associate an interru(ter .ith the arc8 as , ha-e8 so)e ti)e ago8 in$icate$ the use of an air97last or )agnet8 or other such $e-ice rea$ily at hin$0 The )agnet is e)(loye$ .ith s(ecial a$-antage in the con-ersion of $irect currents8 as it is then -ery effecti-e0 ,f the (ri)ary source is an alternate current generator0 it is $esira7le8 as , ha-e state$ on another occasion8 that the frequency shoul$ 7e lo.8 an$ that tile current for)ing the arc 7e large8 in or$er to ren$er the )agnet )ore effecti-e0
A for) of such $ischarger .ith a )agnet .hich has 7een foun$ con-enient8 an$ a$o(te$ after so)e trials8 in the con-ersion of $irect currents (articularly8 is illustrate$ in Fig0 !/1%%0 1 > are the (ole (ieces of a -ery strong )agnet .hich is e'cite$ 7y a coil c0 The (ole (ieces are slotte$ for a$Hust)ent an$ can 7e fastene$ in any (osition 7y scre.s s sl0 The $ischarge ro$s $ $18 thinne$ $o.n on the en$s in or$er to allo. a closer a((roach of the )agnetic (ole (ieces8 (ass through the colu)ns of 7rass 7 71 an$ are fastene$ in (osition 7y scre.s s! s!0 >(rings r r1 an$ collars c c1 are sli((e$ on the ro$s8 the latter ser-ing to set the (oints of the ro$s at a certain suita7le $istance 7y )eans of scre.s s3 s3 an$ the for)er to $ra. the (oints a(art0 &hen it is $esire$ to start the arc8 one of the large ru77er han$les h h1 is ta((e$ quic2ly .ith the han$8 .here7y the (oints of the ro$s are 7rought in contact 7ut are instantly se(arate$ 7y the s(rings r r10 >uch an arrange)ent has 7een foun$ to 7e often necessary8 na)ely in cases .hen the "0 /0 F0 .as not large enough to cause the $ischarge to 7rea2 through the ga(8 an$ also .hen it .as $esira7le to a-oi$ short circuiting of the generator 7y the )etallic contact of the ro$s0 The ra(i$ity of the interru(tions of the current .ith a )agnet $e(en$s on the intensity of the )agnetic fiel$ an$ on the (otential $ifference at the en$ of the arc0 The interru(tions are generally in such quic2 succession as to (ro$uce a )usical soun$0 Dears ago it .as o7ser-e$ that .hen a (o.erful in$uction coil is $ischarge$ 7et.een the (oles of a strong )agnet8 the $ischarge (ro$uces a lou$ noise not unli2e a s)all (istol shot0 ,t .as -aguely state$ that the s(ar2 .as intensifie$ 7y the (resence of the )agnetic fiel$0 ,t is no. clear that the $ischarge current8 flo.ing for so)e ti)e8 .as interru(te$ a great nu)7er of ti)es 7y the )agnet8 thus (ro$ucing the soun$0 The (heno)enon is es(ecially )ar2e$ .hen the fiel$ circuit of a large )agnet or $yna)o is 7ro2en in a (o.erful )agnetic fiel$0 &hen the current through the ga( is co)(arati-ely large8 it is of a$-antage to sli( on the (oints of the $ischarge ro$s (ieces of -ery har$ car7on an$ let the arc (lay 7et.een the car7on (ieces0 This (reser-es the ro$s8 an$ 7esi$es has the a$-antage of 2ee(ing the air s(ace hotter8 as the heat is not con$ucte$ a.ay as quic2ly through the car7ons8 an$ the result is that a s)aller "0 /0 F0 in the arc ga( is require$ to )aintain a succession of $ischarges0 Another for) of $ischarger8 .hich )ay 7e e)(loye$ .ith a$-antage in so)e cases8 is illustrate$ in Fig0 3/1%*0 ,n this for) the $ischarge ro$s $ $1 (ass through (erforations in a .oo$en 7o' 38 .hich is thic2ly coate$ .ith )ica on the insi$e8 as in$icate$ 7y the hea-y lines0 The (erforations are (ro-i$e$ .ith )ica tu7es ) )1 of so)e thic2ness8 .hich are (refera7ly not in contact .ith the ro$s $ $10 The 7o' has a co-er c .hich is a little larger an$ $escen$s on the outsi$e of the 7o'0 The s(ar2 ga( is .ar)e$ 7y a s)all la)( l containe$ in the 7o'0 A (late ( a7o-e the la)( allo.s the $raught to (ass only through the chi)ney a of the la)(8 the air entering through holes o o in or near the 7otto) of the 7o' an$ follo.ing the (ath in$icate$ 7y the arro.s0
&hen the $ischarger is in o(eration8 the $oor of the 7o' is close$ so that the light of the arc is not -isi7le outsi$e0 ,t is $esira7le to e'clu$e the light as (erfectly as (ossi7le8 as it interferes .ith so)e e'(eri)ents0 This for) of
$ischarger is si)(le an$ -ery effecti-e .hen (ro(erly )ani(ulate$0 The air 7eing .ar)e$ to a certain te)(erature8 has its insulating (o.er i)(aire$J it 7eco)es $ielectrically .ea28 as it .ere8 an$ the consequence is that the arc can 7e esta7lishe$ at )uch greater $istance0 The arc shoul$8 of course8 7e sufficiently insulating to allo. the $ischarge to (ass through the ga( $isru(ti-ely0 The arc for)e$ un$er such con$itions8 .hen long8 )ay 7e )a$e e'tre)ely sensiti-e8 an$ the .ealI $raught through the la)( chi)ney a is quite sufficient to (ro$uce ra(i$ interru(tions0 The a$Hust)ent is )a$e 7y regulating the te)(erature an$ -elocity of the $raught0 ,nstea$ of using the la)(8 it ans.ers the (ur(ose to (ro-i$e for a $raught of .ar) air in other .ays0 A -ery si)(le .ay .hich has 7een (ractise$ is to enclose the arc in a long -ertical tu7e8 .ith (lates on the to( an$ 7otto) for regulating the te)(erature an$ -elocity of the air current0 >o)e (ro-ision ha$ to 7e )a$e for $ea$ening the soun$0 The air )ay 7e ren$ere$ $ielectrically .ea2 also 7y rarefaction0 =ischargers of this 2in$ ha-e li2e.ise 7een use$ 7y )e in connection .ith a )agnet0 A large tu7e is for this (ur(ose (ro-i$e$ .ith hea-y electro$es of car7on or )etal8 7et.een .hich the $ischarge is )a$e to (ass8 the tu7e 7eing (lace$ in a (o.erful )agnetic fiel$ The e'haustion of the tu7e is carrie$ to a (oint at .hich the $ischarge 7rea2s through easily8 7ut the (ressure shoul$ 7e )ore than *4 )illi)etres8 at .hich the or$inary threa$ $ischarge occurs0 ,n another for) of $ischarger8 co)7ining the features 7efore )entione$8 the $ischarge .as )a$e to (ass 7et.een t.o a$Husta7le )agnetic (ole (ieces8 the s(ace 7et.een the) 7eing 2e(t at an ele-ate$ te)(erature0 ,t shoul$ 7e re)ar2e$ here that .hen such8 or interru(ting $e-ices of any 2in$8 are use$ an$ the currents are (asse$ through the (ri)ary of a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil8 it is not8 as a rule8 of a$-antage to (ro$uce a nu)7er of interru(tions of the current (er secon$ greater than the natural frequency of -i7ration of the $yna)o su((ly circuit8 .hich is or$inarily s)all0 ,t shoul$ also 7e (ointe$ out here8 that .hile the $e-ices )entione$ in connection .ith the $isru(ti-e $ischarge are a$-antageous un$er certain con$itions8 they )ay 7e so)eti)es a source of trou7le8 as they (ro$uce inter)ittences an$ other irregularities in the -i7ration .hich it .oul$ 7e -ery $esira7le to o-erco)e0 There is8 , regret to say8 in this 7eautiful )etho$ of con-ersion a $efect8 .hich fortunately is not -ital8 0an$ .hich , ha-e 7een gra$ually o-erco)ing0 , .ill 7est call attention to this $efect an$ in$icate a fruitful line of .or28 7y co)(aring the electrical (rocess .ith its )echanical analogue0 The (rocess )ay 7e illustrate$ in this )anner0 ,)agine a tan2J .ith a .i$e o(ening at the 7otto)8 .hich is 2e(t close$ 7y s(ring (ressure8 7ut so that it sna(s off su$$en/y .hen the liqui$ in the tan2 has reache$ a certain height0 #et the flui$ 7e su((lie$ to the tan2 7y )eans of a (i(e fee$ing at a certain rate0 &hen the critical height of the liqui$ is reache$8 the s(ring gi-es .ay an$ the 7otto) of the tan2 $ro(s out0 ,nstantly the liqui$ falls through the .i$e o(ening8 an$ the s(ring8 reasserting itself8 closes the 7otto) again0 The tan2 is no. fille$8 an$ after a certain ti)e inter-al the sa)e (rocess is re(eate$0 ,t is clear8 that if the (i(e fee$s the flui$ quic2er than the 7otto) outlet is ca(a7le of letting it (ass through8 the 7otto) .ill re)ain off an$ the tan2J .ill still o-erflo.0 ,f the rates of su((ly are e'actly equal8 then the 7otto) li$ .ill re)ain (artially o(en an$ no -i7ration of the sa)e an$ of the liqui$ colu)n .ill generally occur8 though it )ight8 if starte$ 7y so)e )eans0 3ut if the inlet (i(e $oes not fee$ the flui$ fast enough for the outlet8 then there .ill 7e al.ays -i7ration0 Again8 in such case8 each ti)e the 7otto) fla(s u( or $o.n8 the s(ring an$ the liqui$ colu)n8 if the (lia7ility of the s(ring an$ the inertia of the )o-ing (arts are (ro(erly chosen8 .ill (erfor) in$e(en$ent -i7rations0 ,n this analogue the flui$ )ay 7e li2ene$ to electricity or electrical energy8 the tan2 to the con$enser8 the s(ring to the $ielectric8 an$ the (i(e to the con$uctor through .hich electricity is su((lie$ to the con$enser0 To )a2e this analogy quite co)(lete it is necessary to )a2e the assu)(tion8 that the 7otto)8 each ti)e it gi-es .ay8 is 2noc2e$ -iolently against a non9elastic sto(8 this i)(act in-ol-ing so)e loss of energyJ an$ that8 7esi$es8 so)e $issi(ation of energy results $ue to frictional losses0 ,n the (rece$ing analogue the liqui$ is su((ose$ to 7e un$er a stea$y (ressure0 ,f the (resence of the flui$ 7e assu)e$ to -ary rhyth)ically8 this )ay 7e ta2en as corres(on$ing to the case of an alternating current0 The (rocess is then not quite as si)(le to consi$er8 7ut the action is the sa)e in (rinci(le0 ,t is $esira7le8 in or$er to )aintain the -i7ration econo)ically8 to re$uce the i)(act an$ frictional losses as )uch as (ossi7le0 As regar$s the latter8 .hich in the electrical analogue corres(on$ to the losses $ue to the resistance of the circuits8 it is i)(ossi7le to o7-iate the) entirely8 7ut they can 7e re$uce$ to a )ini)u) 7y a (ro(er selection of the $i)ensions of the circuits an$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of thin con$uctors in the for) of stran$s0 3ut the loss of energy cause$ 7y the first 7rea2ing through of the $ielectricK.hich in the a7o-e e'a)(le corres(on$s to the -iolent 2noc2 of the 7otto) against the inelastic sto(K.oul$ 7e )ore i)(ortant to o-erco)e0 At the )o)ent of the 7rea2ing through8 the air s(ace has a -ery high resistance8 .hich is (ro7a7ly re$uce$ to a -ery s)all -alue .hen the current has reache$ so)e strength8 an$ the s(ace is 7rought to a high te)(erature0 ,t .oul$ )aterially $i)inish the loss of energy if the s(ace .ere al.ays 2e(t at an e'tre)ely high te)(erature8 7ut
then there .oul$ 7e no $isru(ti-e 7rea20 3y .ar)ing the s(ace )o$erately 7y )eans of a la)( or other.ise8 the econo)y as far as the arc is concerne$ is sensi7ly increase$0 3ut the )agnet or other interru(ting $e-ice $oes not $i)inish the loss in the arc0 #i2e.ise8 a Het of air only facilitates the carrying off of the energy0 Air8 or a gas in general8 7eha-es curiously in this res(ect0 &hen t.o 7o$ies charge$ to a -ery high (otential8 $ischarge $isru(ti-ely through an air s(ace8 any a)ount of energy )ay 7e carrie$ off 7y the air0 This energy is e-i$ently $issi(ate$ 7y 7o$ily carriers8 in i)(act an$ collisional losses of the )olecules0 The e'change of the )olecules in the s(ace occurs .ith inconcei-a7le ra(i$ity0 A (o.erful $ischarge ta2ing (lace 7et.een t.o electro$es8 they )ay re)ain entirely cool8 an$ yet the loss in the air )ay re(resent any a)ount of energy0 ,t is (erfectly (ractica7le8 .ith -ery great (otential $ifferences in the ga(8 to $issi(ate se-eral horse9(o.er in the arc of the $ischarge .ithout e-en noticing a s)all increase in the te)(erature of the electro$es0 All the frictional losses occur then (ractically in the air0 ,f the e'change of the air )olecules is (re-ente$8 as 7y enclosing the air her)etically8 the gas insi$e of the -essel is 7rought quic2ly to a high te)(erature8 e-en .ith a -ery s)all $ischarge0 ,t is $ifficult to esti)ate ho. )uch of the energy is lost in soun$ .a-es8 au$i7le or not8 in a (o.erful $ischarge0 &hen the currents through the ga( are large8 the electro$es )ay 7eco)e ra(i$ly heate$8 7ut this is not a relia7le )easure of the energy .aste$ in the arc8 as the loss through the ga( itself )ay 7e co)(arati-ely s)all0 The air or a gas in general is at or$inary (ressure at least8 clearly not the 7est )e$iu) through .hich a $isru(ti-e $ischarge shoul$ occur0 Air or other gas un$er great (ressure is of curse a )uch )ore suita7le )e$iu) for the $ischarge ga(0 , ha-e carrie$ on long9continue$ e'(eri)ents in this $irection8 unfortunately less (ractica7le on account of the $ifficulties an$ e'(ense in getting air un$er great (ressure0 3ut e-en if the )e$iu) in the $ischarge s(ace is soli$ or liqui$8 still the sa)e losses ta2e (lace8 though they are generally s)aller8 for Hust as soon as the arc is esta7lishe$8 the soli$ or liqui$ is -olatiliBe$0 ,n$ee$8 there is no 7o$y 2no.n .hich .oul$ not 7e $isintegrate$ 7y the arc8 an$ it is an o(en question a)ong scientific )en8 .hether an arc $ischarge coul$ occur at all in the air itself .ithout the (articles of the electro$es 7eing torn off0 &hen the current through the ga( is -ery s)all an$ the arc -ery long8 , 7elie-e that a relati-ely consi$era7le a)ount of heat is ta2en u( in the $isintegration of the electro$es8 .hich (artially on this account )ay re)ain quite col$0 The i$eal )e$iu) for a $ischarge ga( shoul$ only crac20 an$ the i$eal electro$e shoul$ 7e of so)e )aterial .hich cannot 7e $isintegrate$0 &ith s)all currents through the ga( it is 7est to e)(loy alu)iniu)8 7ut not .hen the currents are large0 The $isru(ti-e 7rea2 in the air8 or )ore or less in any or$inary )e$iu)8 is not of the nature of a crac28 7ut it is rather co)(ara7le to the (iercing of innu)era7le 7ullets through a )ass offering great frictional resistances to the )otion of the 7ullets8 this in-ol-ing consi$era7le loss of energy0 A )e$iu) .hich .oul$ )erely crac2 .hen straine$ electrostaticallyKan$ this (ossi7ly )ight 7e the case .ith a (erfect -acuu)8 that is8 (ure etherK.oul$ in-ol-e a -ery s)all loss in the ga(8 so s)all as to 7e entirely negligi7le8 at least theoretically8 7ecause a crac2 )ay 7e (ro$uce$ 7y an infinitely s)all $is(lace)ent0 ,n e'hausting an o7long 7ul7 (ro-i$e$ .ith t.o alu)iniu) ter)inals8 .ith the greatest care8 , ha-e succee$e$ in (ro$ucing such a -acuu) that the secon$ary $ischarge of a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil .oul$ 7rea2 $isru(ti-ely through the 7ul7 in the for) of fine s(ar2 strea)s0 The curious (oint .as that the $ischarge .oul$ co)(letely ignore the ter)inals an$ start far 7ehin$ the t.o alu)iniu) (lates .hich ser-e$ as electro$es0 This e'traor$inary high -acuu) coul$ only 7e )aintaine$ for a -ery short .hile0 To return to the i$eal )e$iu)J thin28 for the sa2e of illustration8 of a (iece of glass or si)ilar 7o$y cla)(e$ in a -ice8 an$ the latter tightene$ )ore an$ )ore0 At a certain (oint a )inute increase of the (ressure .ill cause the Jglass to crac20 The loss of energy in-ol-e$ in s(litting the glass )ay 7e (ractically nothing8 for though the force is great8 the $is(lace)ent nee$ 7e 7ut e'tre)ely s)all0 1o. i)agine that the glass .oul$ (ossess the (ro(erty of closing again (erfectly the crac2 u(on a )inute $i)inution of the (ressure0 This is the .ay the $ielectric in the $ischarge s(ace shoul$ 7eha-e0 3ut inas)uch as there .oul$ 7e al.ays so)e loss in the ga(8 the )e$iu)8 .hich shoul$ 7e continuous shoul$ e'change through the ga( at a ra(i$ rate0 ,n the (rece$ing e'a)(le8 the glass 7eing (erfectly close$8 it .oul$ )ean that the $ielectric in the $ischarge s(ace (ossesses a great insulating (o.erJ the glass 7eing crac2e$8 it .oul$ signify that the )e$iu) in the s(ace is a goo$ con$uctor0 The $ielectric shoul$ -ary enor)ously in resistance 7y )inute -ariations of the "0 /0 F0 across the $ischarge s(ace0 This con$ition is attaine$8 7ut in an e'tre)ely i)(erfect )anner8 7y .ar)ing the air s(ace to a0 certain critical te)(erature8 $e(en$ent on the "0 /0 F0 across the ga(8 or 7y other.ise i)(airing the insulating (o.er of the air0 3ut as a )atter of fact the air $oes ne-er 7rea2 $o.n $isru(ti-ely8 if this ter) 7e rigorously inter(rete$8 for 7efore the su$$en rush of the current occurs8 there is al.ays a .ea2 current (rece$ing it8 .hich rises first gra$ually an$ then .ith co)(arati-e su$$enness0 That is the reason .hy the rate of change is -ery )uch greater .hen glass8 for instance8 is 7ro2en through8 than .hen the 7rea2 ta2es (lace through an air s(ace of equi-alent $ielectric strength0 As a )e$iu) for the $ischarge s(ace8 a soli$8 or e-en a liqui$8 .oul$ 7e (refera7le therefore0 ,t is so)e.hat $ifficult to concei-e of a soli$ 7o$y .hich .oul$ (ossess the (ro(erty of closing instantly after it has 7een crac2e$0 3ut a liqui$8 es(ecially un$er great (ressure8 7eha-es (ractically li2e a soli$8 .hile it (ossesses the (ro(erty of closing the crac20 Hence it .as thought that a liqui$ insulator )ight 7e )ore suita7le as a $ielectric than air0 Follo.ing out this i$ea8 a nu)7er of $ifferent for)s of
$ischargers in .hich a -ariety of such insulators8 so)eti)es un$er great (ressure8 .ere e)(loye$8 ha-e 7een e'(eri)ente$ u(on0 ,t is thought sufficient to $.ell in a fe. .or$s u(on one of the for)s e'(eri)ente$ u(on0 ;ne of these $ischargers is illustrate$ in Figs0 6a an$ 670 A hollo. )etal (ulley < (Fig0 6a 8 .as fastene$ u(on an ar7our a8 .hich 7y suita7le )eans .as rotate$ at a consi$era7le s(ee$0 ;n the insi$e of the (ulley8 7ut $isconnecte$ fro) the sa)e8 .as su((orte$ a thin $isc h (.hich is sho.n thic2 for the sa2e of clearness 8 of har$ ru77er in .hich there .ere e)7e$$e$ t.o )etal seg)ents s s .ith )etallic e'tensions e e into .hich .ere scre.e$ con$ucting ter)inals t t co-ere$ .ith thic2 tu7es of har$ ru77er t t0 The ru77er $isc 7 .ith its )etallic seg)ents s s8 .as finishe$ in a lathe8 an$ its entire surface highly (olishe$ so as to offer the s)allest (ossi7le frictional resistance to the )otion through a flui$0 ,n the hollo. of the (ulley an insulating liqui$ such as a thin oil .as (oure$ so as to reach -ery nearly to the o(ening left in the flange f8 .hich .as scre.e$ tightly on the front si$e of the (ulley0 The ter)inals t t8 .ere connecte$ to the o((osite coatings of a 7attery of con$ensers so that the $ischarge occurre$ through the liqui$0 &hen the (ulley .as rotate$8 the liqui$ .as force$ against the ri) of the (ulley an$ consi$era7le flui$ (ressure resulte$0 ,n this si)(le .ay the $ischarge ga( .as fille$ .ith a )e$iu) .hich 7eha-e$ (ractically li2e a soli$8 .hich (ossesse$ the $uality of closing instantly u(on the occurrence of the 7rea28 an$ .hich )oreo-er .as circulating through the ga( at a ra(i$ rate0 Gery (o.erful effects .ere (ro$uce$ 7y $ischarges of this 2in$ .ith liqui$ interru(ters8 of .hich a nu)7er of $ifferent for)s .ere )a$e0 ,t .as foun$ that8 as e'(ecte$8 a longer s(ar2 for a gi-en length of .ire .as o7taina7le in this .ay than 7y using air as an interru(ting $e-ice0 Generally the s(ee$8 an$ therefore also the flui$ (ressure8 .as li)ite$ 7y reason of the flui$ friction8 in the for) of $ischarger $escri7e$8 7ut the (ractically o7taina7le s(ee$ .as )ore than sufficient to (ro$uce a nu)7er of 7rea2s suita7le for the circuits or$inarily use$0 ,n such instances the )etal (ulley < .as (ro-i$e$ .ith a fe. (roHections in.ar$ly8 an$ a $efinite nu)7er of 7rea2s .as then (ro$uce$ .hich coul$ 7e co)(ute$ fro) the s(ee$ of rotation of the (ulley0 "'(eri)ents .ere also carrie$ on .ith liqui$s of $ifferent insulating (o.er .ith the -ie. of re$ucing the loss in the arc0 &hen an insulating liqui$ is )o$erately .ar)e$8 the loss in the arc is $i)inishe$0 A (oint of so)e i)(ortance .as note$ in e'(eri)ents .ith -arious $ischarges of this 2in$0 ,t .as foun$8 for instance8 that .hereas the con$itions )aintaine$ in these for)s .ere fa-oura7le for the (ro$uction of a great s(ar2 length8 the current so o7taine$ .as not 7est suite$ to the (ro$uction of light effects0 "'(erience un$ou7te$ly has sho.n8 that for such (ur(oses a har)onic rise an$ fall of the (otential is (refera7le0 3e it that a soli$ is ren$ere$ incan$escent8 or (hos(horescent8 or 7e it that energy is trans)itte$ 7y con$enser coating through the glass8 it is quite certain that a har)onically rising an$ falling (otential (ro$uces less $estructi-e action8 an$ that the -acuu) is )ore (er)anently )aintaine$0 This .oul$ 7e easily e'(laine$ if it .ere ascertaine$ that the (rocess going on in an e'hauste$ -essel is of an electrolytic nature0 ,n the $iagra))atical s2etch8 Fig0 1/1%48 .hich has 7een alrea$y referre$ to8 the cases .hich are )ost li2ely to 7e )et .ith in (ractice are illustrate$0 ;ne has at his $is(osal either $irect or alternating currents fro) a su((ly station0 ,t is con-enient for an e'(eri)enter in an isolate$ la7oratory to e)(loy a )achine G8 such as illustrate$8 ca(a7le of gi-ing 7oth 2in$s of currents0 ,n such case it is also (refera7le to use a )achine .ith )ulti(le circuits8 as in )any e'(eri)ents it is useful an$ con-enient to ha-e at one's $is(osal currents of $ifferent (hases0 ,n the s2etch8 = re(resents the $irect an$ A the alternating circuit0 ,n each of these8 three 7ranch circuits are sho.n8 all of .hich are (ro-i$e$ .ith $ou7le line s.itches s s s s s s0 Consi$er first the $irect current con-ersionJ la re(resents the si)(lest case0 ,f the "0 /0 F0 of the generator is sufficient to 7rea2 through a s)all air s(ace8 at least .hen the latter is .ar)e$ or other.ise ren$ere$ (oorly insulating8 there is no $ifficulty in )aintaining a -i7ration .ith fair econo)y 7y Hu$icious a$Hust)ent of the ca(acity8 self9in$uction an$ resistance of the circuit #0 containing the $e-ices l l )0 The )agnet 18 >8 can 7e in this case a$-antageously co)7ine$ .ith the air s(ace8 The $ischarger $ $ .ith the )agnet )ay 7e (lace$ either .ay8 as in$icate$ 7y the full or 7y the $otte$ lines0 The circuit la .ith the connections an$ $e-ices is su((ose$ to (ossess $i)ensions such as are suita7le for the )aintenance of a -i7ration0 3ut usually the "0 /0 F0 on the circuit or 7ranch la .ill 7e so)ething li2e a 155 -olts or so8 an$ in this case it is not sufficient to 7rea2 through the ga(0 /any $ifferent )eans )ay 7e use$ to re)e$y
this 7y raising the "0 /0 F0 across the ga(0 The si)(lest is (ro7a7ly to insert a large self9in$uction coil in series .ith the circuit #0 &hen the arc is esta7lishe$8 as 7y the $ischarger illustrate$ in Fig0 !/1%%8 the )agnet 7lo.s the arc out the instant it is for)e$0 1o. the e'tra current of the 7rea28 7eing of high "0 /0 F08 7rea2s through the ga(8 an$ a (ath of lo. resistance for the $yna)o current 7eing again (ro-i$e$8 there is a su$$en rush of current fro) the $yna)o u(on the .ea2ening or su7si$ence of the e'tra current0 This (rocess is re(eate$ in ra(i$ succession8 an$ in this )anner , ha-e )aintaine$ oscillation .ith as lo. as 45 -olts8 or e-en less8 across the ga(0 3ut con-ersion on this (lan is not to 7e reco))en$e$ on account of the too hea-y currents through the ga( an$ consequent heating of the electro$esJ 7esi$es8 the frequencies o7taine$ in this .ay are lo.8 o.ing to the high self9in$uction necessarily associate$ .ith the circuit0 ,t is -ery $esira7le to ha-e the "0 /0 F0 as high as (ossi7le8 first8 in or$er to increase the econo)y of the con-ersion8 an$ secon$ly8 to o7tain high frequencies0 The $ifference of (otential in this electric oscillation is8 of course8 the equi-alent of the stretching force in the )echanical -i7ration of the s(ring0 To o7tain -ery ra(i$ -i7ration in a circuit of so)e inertia8 a great stretching force or $ifference of (otential is necessary0 ,nci$entally8 .hen the "0 /0 F0 is -ery great8 the con$enser .hich is usually e)(loye$ in connection .ith the circuit nee$ 7ut ha-e a s)all ca(acity8 an$ )any other a$-antages are gaine$0 &ith a -ie. of raising the "0 /0 F0 to a )any ti)es greater -alue than o7taina7le fro) or$inary $istri7ution circuits8 a rotating transfor)er g is use$8 as in$icate$ at ,, a8 Fig0 18 or else a se(arate high (otential )achine is $ri-en 7y )eans of a )otor o(erate$ fro) the generator G0 The latter (lan is in fact (refera7le8 as changes are easier )a$e0 The connections fro) the high tension .in$ing are quite si)ilar to those in 7ranch la .ith the e'ce(tion that a con$enser C8 .hich shoul$ 7e a$Husta7le8 is connecte$ to the high tension circuit0 Csually8 also8 an a$Husta7le self9in$uction coil in series .ith the circuit has 7een e)(loye$ in these e'(eri)ents0 &hen the tension of the currents is -ery high8 the )agnet or$inarily use$ in connection .ith the $ischarger is of co)(arati-ely s)all -alue8 as it is quite easy to a$Hust the $i)ensions of the circuit so that oscillation is )aintaine$0 The e)(loy)ent of a stea$y "0 /0 F0 in the high frequency con-ersion affor$s so)e a$-antages o-er the e)(loy)ent of alternating "0 /0 F08 as the a$Hust)ents are )uch si)(ler an$ the action can 7e easier controlle$0 3ut unfortunately one is li)ite$ 7y the o7taina7le (otential $ifference0 The .in$ing also 7rea2s $o.n easily in consequence of the s(ar2s .hich for) 7et.een the sections of the ar)ature or co))utator .hen a -igourous oscillation ta2es (lace0 3esi$es8 these transfor)ers are e'(ensi-e to 7uil$0 ,t has 7een foun$ 7y e'(erience that it is 7est to follo. the (lan illustrate$ at /et8 ,n this arrange)ent a rotating transfor)er g8 is e)(loye$ to con-ert the lo. tension $irect currents into lo. frequency alternating currents8 (refera7ly also of s)all tension0 The tension of the currents is then raise$ in a stationary transfor)er T0 The secon$ary s of this transfor)er is connecte$ to an a$Husta7le con$enser C .hich $ischarges through the ga( or $ischarger d d8 (lace$ in either of the .ays in$icate$8 through the (ri)ary < of a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil8 the high frequency current 7eing o7taine$ fro) the secon$ary s of this coil8 as $escri7e$ on (re-ious occasions0 This .ill un$ou7te$ly 7e foun$ the chea(est an$ )ost con-enient .ay of con-erting $irect currents0 The three 7ranches of the circuit A re(resent the usual cases )et in (ractice .hen alternating currents are con-erte$0 ,n Fig0 1/1%48 ,b a con$enser C8 generally of large ca(acity8 is connecte$ to the circuit # containing the $e-ices l l8 ) )0 The $e-ices ) ) are su((ose$ to 7e of high self9in$uction so as to 7ring the frequency of the circuit )ore or less to that of the $yna)o0 ,n this instance the $ischarger $ $ shoul$ 7est ha-e a nu)7er of )a2es an$ 7rea2s (er secon$ equal to t.ice the frequency of the $yna)o0 ,f not so8 then it shoul$ ha-e at least a nu)7er equal to a )ulti(le or e-en fraction of the $yna)o frequency0 ,t shoul$ 7e o7ser-e$8 referring to , b8 that the con-ersion to a high (otential is also effecte$ .hen the $ischarger $ $8 .hich is sho.n in the s2etch8 is o)itte$0 3ut the effects .hich are (ro$uce$ 7y currents .hich rise instantly to high -alues8 as in a $isru(ti-e $ischarge8 are entirely $ifferent fro) those (ro$uce$ 7y $yna)o currents .hich rise an$ fall har)onically0 >o8 for instance8 there )ight 7e in a gi-en case a nu)7er of )a2es an$ 7rea2s at $ $ equal to Hust t.ice the frequency of the $yna)o8 or in other .or$s8 there )ay 7e the sa)e nu)7er of fun$a)ental oscillations as .oul$ 7e (ro$uce$ .ithout the $ischarge ga(8 an$ there )ight e-en not 7e any quic2er su(eri)(ose$ -i7rationJ yet the $ifferences of (otential at the -arious (oints of the circuit8 the i)(e$ance an$ other (heno)ena8 $e(en$ent u(on the rate of change8 .ill 7ear no si)ilarity in the t.o cases0 Thus8 when working with currents discharging disruptively, the element chiefly to be considered is not the frequency 8 as a stu$ent )ight 7e a(t to 7elie-e8 but the rate of change per unit of time &ith lo. frequencies in a certain )easure the sa)e effects )ay 7e o7taine$ as .ith high frequencies8 (ro-i$e$ the rate of change is sufficiently great0 >o if a lo. frequency current is raise$ to a (otential of8 say8 *48555 -olts8 an$ the high tension current (asse$ through a series of high resistance la)( fila)ents8 the i)(ortance of the rarefie$ gas surroun$ing the fila)ent is clearly note$8 as .ill 7e seen laterJ or8 if a lo. frequency current of se-eral thousan$ a)(eres is (asse$ through a )etal 7ar8 stri2ing (heno)ena of i)(e$ance are o7ser-e$8 Hust as .ith currents of high frequencies0 3ut it is8 of course8 e-i$ent that .ith lo. frequency currents it is i)(ossi7le to o7tain such rates of change (er unit of ti)e as .ith high frequencies8 hence the effects (ro$uce$ 7y the latter are )uch )ore (ro)inent0 ,t is $ee)e$ a$-isa7le to )a2e the (rece$ing re)ar2s8 inas)uch as )any )ore recently $escri7e$ effects ha-e 7een un.ittingly
i$entifie$ .ith high frequencies0 !requency alone in reality does not mean anything, e"cept when an undisturbed harmonic oscillation is considered0 ,n the 7ranch ,,,b a si)ilar $is(osition to that in ,b is illustrate$8 .ith the $ifference that the currents $ischarging through the ga( $ $ are use$ to in$uce currents in the secon$ary s of a transfor)er T0 ,n such case the secon$ary shoul$ 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith an a$Husta7le con$enser for the (ur(ose of tuning it to the (ri)ary0 ,,b illustrates a (lan of alternate current high frequency con-ersion .hich is )ost frequently use$ an$ .hich is foun$ to 7e )ost con-enient0 This (lan has 7een $.elt u(on in $etail on (re-ious occasions an$ nee$ not 7e $escri7e$ here0 >o)e of these results .ere o7taine$ 7y the use of a high frequency alternator0 A $escri(tion of such )achines .ill 7e foun$ in )y original (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 an$ in (erio$icals of that (erio$8 nota7ly in The "lectrical "ngineer of /arch 188 18910 , .ill no. (rocee$ .ith the e'(eri)ents0 ON 50*NOM*NA 5#O%=C*% ;@ *'*CT#OSTAT:C 7O#C* The first class of effects , inten$ to sho. you are effects (ro$uce$ 7y electrostatic force0 ,t is the force .hich go-erns the )otion of the ato)s8 .hich causes the) to colli$e an$ $e-elo( the life9sustaining energy of heat an$ light8 an$ .hich causes the) to aggregate in an infinite -ariety of .ays8 accor$ing to 1ature's fanciful $esigns8 an$ to for) all these .on$rous structures .e (ercei-e aroun$ usJ it is8 in fact8 if our (resent -ie.s 7e true8 the )ost i)(ortant force for us to consi$er in0 1ature0 As the ter) electrostatic )ight i)(ly a stea$y electric con$ition8 it shoul$ 7e re)ar2e$8 that in these e'(eri)ents the force is not constant8 7ut -aries at a rate .hich )ay 7e consi$ere$ )o$erate8 a7out one )illion ti)es a secon$8 or therea7outs0 This ena7les )e to (ro$uce )any effects .hich are not (ro$uci7le .ith an un-arying force0 &hen t.o con$ucting 7o$ies are insulate$ an$ electrifie$8 .e say that an electrostatic force is acting 7et.een the)0 This force )anifests itself in attractions8 re(ulsions an$ stresses in the 7o$ies an$ s(ace or )e$iu) .ithout0 >o great )ay 7e the strain e'erte$ in the air8 or .hate-er se(arates the t.o con$ucting 7o$ies8 that it )ay 7rea2 $o.n8 an$ .e o7ser-e s(ar2s or 7un$les of light or strea)ers8 as they are calle$0 These strea)ers for) a7un$antly .hen the force through the air is ra(i$ly -arying0 , .ill illustrate this action of electrostatic force in a no-el e'(eri)ent in .hich , .ill e)(loy the in$uction coil 7efore referre$ to0 The coil is containe$ in a trough fille$ .ith oil8 an$ (lace$ un$er the ta7le0 The t.o en$s of 0the secon$ary .ire (ass through the t.o thic2 colu)ns of har$ ru77er .hich (rotru$e to sol-e height a7o-e the ta7le0 ,t is necessary to insulate the en$s or ter)inals of the secon$ary hea-ily .ith har$ ru77er8 7ecause e-en $ry .oo$ is 7y far too (oor an insulator for these currents of enor)ous (otential $ifferences0 ;n one of the ter)inals of the coil8 , 8ha-e (lace$ a large s(here of sheet 7rass8 .hich is connecte$ to a larger insulate$ 7rass (late8 in or$er to ena7le )e to (erfor) the e'(eri)ents un$er con$itions8 .hich8 as you .ill see8 are )ore suita7le for this e'(eri)ent0 , no. set the coil to .or2 an$ a((roach the free ter)inal .ith a )etallic o7Hect hel$ in )y han$8 this si)(ly to a-oi$ 7urns As , a((roach the )etallic o7Hect to a $istance of eight or ten inches8 a torrent of furious s(ar2s 7rea2s forth fro) the en$ of the secon$ary .ire8 .hich (asses through the ru77er colu)n0 The s(ar2s cease .hen the )etal in )y han$ touches the .ire0 /y ar) is no. tra-erse$ 7y a (o.erful electric current8 -i7rating at a7out the rate of one )illion ti)es a secon$0 All aroun$ )e the electrostatic force )a2es itself felt8 an$ the air )olecules an$ (articles of $ust flying a7out are acte$ u(on an$ are ha))ering -iolently against )y 7o$y0 >o great is this agitation of the (articles8 that .hen the lights are turne$ out you )ay see strea)s of fee7le light a((ear on so)e (arts of )y 7o$y0 &hen such a strea)er 7rea2s out on any (art of the 7o$y8 it (ro$uces a sensation li2e the (ric2ing of a nee$le0 &ere the (otentials sufficiently high an$ the frequency of the -i7ration rather lo.8 the s2in .oul$ (ro7a7ly 7e ru(ture$ un$er the tre)en$ous strain8 an$ the 7loo$ .oul$ rush out .ith great force in the for) of fine s(ray or Het so thin as to 7e in-isi7le8 Hust as oil .ill .hen (lace$ on the (ositi-e ter)inal of a HoltB )achine0 The 7rea2ing through of the s2in though it )ay see) i)(ossi7le at first8 .oul$ (erha(s occur8 7y reason of the tissues un$er the s2in 7eing inco)(ara7ly 7etter con$ucting0 This8 at least8 a((ears (lausi7le8 Hu$ging fro) so)e o7ser-ations0
, can )a2e these strea)s of light -isi7le to all8 7y touching .ith the )etallic o7Hect one of the ter)inals as 7efore8 an$ a((roaching )y free han$ to the 7rass s(here8 .hich is connecte$ to the secon$ ter)inal of the coil0 As the han$ is a((roache$8 the air 7et.een it an$ the s(here8 or in the i))e$iate neigh7ourhoo$8 is )ore -iolently agitate$8 an$ you see strea)s of light no. 7rea2 forth fro) )y finger ti(s an$ fro) the .hole han$ (Fig0 4 0 &ere , to a((roach the han$ closer8 (o.erful s(ar2s .oul$ Hu)( fro) the 7rass s(here to )y han$8 .hich )ight 7e inHurious0 The strea)ers offer no (articular incon-enience8 e'ce(t that in the en$s of the finger ti(s a 7urning sensation is felt0 They shoul$ not 7e confoun$e$ .ith those (ro$uce$ 7y an influence )achine8 7ecause in )any res(ects they 7eha-e $ifferently0 , ha-e attache$ the 7rass s(here an$ (late to one of the ter)inals in or$er to (re-ent the for)ation of -isi7le strea)ers on that ter)inal8 also in or$er to (re-ent s(ar2s fro) Hu)(ing at a consi$era7le $istance0 3esi$es8 the attach)ent is fa-oura7le for the .or2ing of the coil0 The strea)s of light .hich you ha-e o7ser-e$ issuing fro) )y han$ are $ue to a (otential of a7out !558555 -olts8 alternating in rather irregular inter-als8 so)eti)es li2e a )illion ti)es a secon$0 A -i7ration of the sa)e a)(litu$e8 7ut four ti)es as fast8 to )aintain .hich o-er 385558555 -olts .oul$ 7e require$8 .oul$ 7e )ore than sufficient to en-elo( )y 7o$y in a co)(lete sheet of fla)e0 3ut this fla)e .oul$ not 7urn )e u(J quite contrarily8 the (ro7a7ility is 8that , .oul$ not 7e inHure$ in the least0 Det a hun$re$th (art of that energy8 other.ise $irecte$J .oul$ 7e a)(ly sufficient to 2ill a (erson0 The a)ount of energy .hich )ay thus 7e (asse$ into the 7o$y of a (erson $e(en$s on the frequency an$ (otential of the currents8 an$ 7y )a2ing 7oth of these -ery great8 a -ast a)ount of energy )ay 7e (asse$ into the 7o$y .ithout causing any $isco)fort8 e'ce(t (erha(s8 in the ar)8 .hich is tra-erse$ 7y a true con$uction current0 The reason .hy no (ain in the 7o$y is felt8 an$ no inHurious effect note$8 is that e-ery.here8 if a current 7e i)agine$ to flo. through the 7o$y8 the $irection of its flo. .oul$ 7e at right angles to the surfaceJ hence the 7o$y of the e'(eri)enter offers an enor)ous section to the current8 an$ the $ensity is -ery s)all8 .ith the e'ce(tion of the ar)8 (erha(s8 .here the $ensity )ay 7e consi$era7le0 3ut if only a s)all fraction of that energy .oul$ 7e a((lie$ in such a .ay that a current .oul$ tra-erse the 7o$y in the sa)e )anner as a lo. frequency current8 a shoc2 .oul$ 7e recei-e$ .hich )ight 7e fatal0 A $irect or lo. frequency alternating current is fatal8 , thin28 (rinci(ally 7ecause its $istri7ution through the 7o$y is not unifor)8 as it )ust $i-i$e itself in )inute strea)lets of great $ensity8 .here7y so)e organs are -itally inHure$0 That such a (rocess occurs , ha-e not the least $ou7t8 though no e-i$ence )ight a((arently e'ist8 or 7e foun$ u(on e'a)ination0 The surest to inHure an$ $estroy life8 is a continuous current8 7ut the )ost (ainful is an alternating current of -ery lo. frequency0 The e'(ression of these -ie.s8 .hich are the result of long continue$ e'(eri)ent an$ o7ser-ation8 7oth .ith stea$y an$ -arying currents8 is elicite$ 7y the interest .hich is at (resent ta2en in this su7Hect8 an$ 7y the )anifestly erroneous i$eas .hich are $aily (ro(oun$e$ in Hournals on this su7Hect0 , )ay illustrate an effect of the electrostatic force 7y another stri2ing e'(eri)ent8 7ut 7efore8 , )ust call your attention to one or t.o facts0 , ha-e sai$ 7efore8 that .hetJ the )e$iu) 7et.een t.o o((ositely electrifie$ 7o$ies is straine$ 7eyon$ a certain li)it it gi-es .ay an$8 state$ in (o(ular language8 the o((osite electric charges unite an$ neutraliBe each other0 This 7rea2ing $o.n of the )e$iu) occurs (rinci(ally .hen the force acting 7et.een the 7o$ies is stea$y8 or -aries at a )o$erate rate0 &ere the -ariation sufficiently ra(i$8 such a $estructi-e 7rea2 .oul$ not occur8 no )atter ho. great the force8 for all the energy .oul$ 7e s(ent in ra$iation8 con-ection an$ )echanical an$ che)ical action0 Thus the s(ar2 length8 or greatest $istance .hich a s(ar2 .ill Hu)( 7et.een the electrifie$ 7o$ies is the s)aller8 the greater the -ariation or ti)e rate of change0 3ut this rule )ay 7e ta2en to 7e true only in a general .ay8 .hen co)(aring rates .hich are .i$ely $ifferent0 , .ill sho. you 7y an e'(eri)ent the $ifference in the effect (ro$uce$ 7y a ra(i$ly -arying an$ a stea$y or )o$erately -arying force0 , ha-e here t.o large circular 7rass (lates ( ( (Fig0 %a an$ Fig0 %7 8 su((orte$ on )o-a7le insulating stan$s on the ta7le8 connecte$ to the en$s of the secon$ary of a coil si)ilar to the one use$ 7efore0 , (lace the (lates ten or t.el-e inches a(art an$ set the coil to .or20 Dou see the .hole s(ace 7et.een
the (lates8 nearly t.o cu7ic feet8 fille$ .ith unifor) light8 Fig0 %a0 This light is $ue to the strea)ers you ha-e seen in the first e'(eri)ent8 .hich are no. )uch )ore intense0 , ha-e alrea$y (ointe$ out the i)(ortance of these strea)ers in co))ercial a((aratus an$ their still greater i)(ortance in so)e (urely scientific in-estigations8 ;ften they are to .ea2 to 7e -isi7le8 7ut they al.ays e'ist8 consu)ing energy an$ )o$ifying the action of 0the a((aratus0 &hen intense8 as they are at (resent8 they (ro$uce oBone in great quantity8 an$ also8 as <rofessor Croo2es has (ointe$ out8 nitrous aci$0 >o quic2 is the che)ical action that if a coil8 such as this one8 is .or2e$ for a -ery long ti)e it .ill )a2e the at)os(here of a s)all roo) un7eara7le8 for the eyes an$ throat are attac2e$0 3ut .hen )o$erately (ro$uce$8 the strea)ers refresh the at)os(here .on$erfully8 li2e a thun$er9 stor)8 an$ e'ercises unquestiona7ly a 7eneficial effect0 ,n this e'(eri)ent the force acting 7et.een the (lates changes in intensity an$ $irection at a -ery ra(i$ rate0 , .ill no. )a2e the rate of change (er unit ti)e )uch s)aller0 This , effect 7y ren$ering the $ischarges through the (ri)ary of the in$uction coil less frequent8 an$ also 7y $i)inishing the ra(i$ity of the -i7ration in the secon$ary0 The for)er result is con-eniently secure$ 7y lo.ering the "0 /0 F0 o-er the air ga( in the (ri)ary circuit8 the latter 7y a((roaching the t.o 7rass (lates to a $istance of a7out three or four inches0 &hen the coil is set to .or28 you see no strea)ers or light 7et.een the (lates8 yet the )e$iu) 7et.een the) is un$er a tre)en$ous strain0 , still further aug)ent the strain 7y raising the "0/0 F0 in the (ri)ary circuit8 an$ soon you see the air gi-e a.ay an$ the hall is illu)inate$ 7y a sho.er of 7rilliant an$ noisy s(ar2s8 Fig0 %70 These s(ar2s coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ also .ith un-arying forceJ they ha-e 7een for )any years a fa)iliar (heno)enon8 though they .ere usually o7taine$ fro) an entirely $ifferent a((aratus0 ,n $escri7ing these t.o (heno)ena so ra$ically $ifferent in a((earance8 , ha-e a$-ise$ly s(o2en of a "force" acting 7et.een the (lates0 ,t .oul$ 7e in accor$ance .ith the acce(te$ -ie.s to say8 that there .as an "alternating "0/0F0"8 acting 7et.een the (lates0 This ter) is quite (ro(er an$ a((lica7le in all cases .here there is e-i$ence of at least a (ossi7ility of an essential inter9$e(en$ence of the electric state of the (lates8 or electric action in their neigh7ourhoo$0 3ut if the (lates .ere re)o-e$ to an infinite $istance8 or if at a finite $istance8 there is no (ro7a7ility or necessity .hate-er for such $e(en$ence0 , (refer to use the ter) "electrostatic force8" an$ to say that such a force is acting aroun$ each (late or electrifie$ insulate$ 7o$y in general0 There is an incon-enience in using this e'(ression as the ter) inci$entally8 )eans a stea$y electric con$itionJ 7ut a (ro(er no)enclature .ill e-entually settle this $ifficulty0 , no. return to the e'(eri)ent to .hich , ha-e alrea$y allu$e$8 an$ .ith .hich , $esire to illustrate a stri2ing effect (ro$uce$ 7y a ra(i$ly -arying electrostatic force0 , attach to the en$ of the .ire8 l (Fig0 * 8 .hich is in connection .ith one of the ter)inals of the secon$ary of the in$uction coil8 an e'hauste$ 7ul7 70 This 7ul7 contains a thin car7on fila)ent f8 .hich is fastene$ to a (latinu) .ire .8 seale$ in the glass an$ lea$ing outsi$e of the 7ul78 .here it connects to the .ire l0 The 7ul7 )ay 7e e'hauste$ to any $egree attaina7le .ith or$inary a((aratus0 Eust a )o)ent 7efore8 you ha-e .itnesse$ the 7rea2ing $o.n of the air 7et.een the charge$ 7rass (lates0 Dou 2no. that a (late of glass8 or any other insulating )aterial8 .oul$ 7rea2 $o.n in li2e )anner0 Ha$ , therefore a )etallic coating attache$ to the outsi$e of the 7ul78 or (lace$ near the sa)e8 an$ .ere this coating connecte$ to the other ter)inal of the coil8 .oul$ 7e (re(are$ to see the glass gi-e .ay if the strain .ere sufficiently increase$0 "-en .ere the coating not connecte$ to the other ter)inal8 7ut to an insulate$ (late8 still8 if you ha-e follo.e$ recent $e-elo()ents8 you .oul$ naturally e'(ect a ra(ture of the glass0
3ut it .ill certainly sur(rise you to note that un$er the action of the -arying electrostatic force8 the glass gi-es .ay .hen all other 7o$ies are re)o-e$ fro) the 7ul70 ,n fact8 all the surroun$ing 7o$ies .e (ercei-e )ight 7e re)o-e$ to an infinite $istance .ithout affecting the result in the slightest0 &hen the coil is set to .or28 the glass is in-aria7ly 7ro2en through at the seal8 or other narro. channel8 an$ the -acuu) is quic2ly i)(aire$0 >uch a $a)aging 7rea2 .oul$ not occur .ith a stea$y force8 e-en if the sa)e .ere )any ti)es greater0 The 7rea2 is $ue to the agitation of the )olecules of the gas .ithin the 7ul78 an$ outsi$e of the sa)e0 This agitation8 .hich is generally )ost -iolent in the narro. (ointe$ channel near the seal8 causes a heating an$ ru(ture of the glass0 This ru(ture .oul$8 ho.e-er8 not occur8 not e-en .ith a -arying force8 if the )e$iu) filling the insi$e of the 7ul78 an$ that surroun$ing it8 .ere (erfectly ho)ogeneous0 The 7rea2 occurs )uch quic2er if the to( of the 7ul7 is $ra.n out into a fine fi7re0 ,n 7ul7s use$ .ith these coils such narro.8 (ointe$ channels )ust therefore 7e a-oi$e$0 &hen a con$ucting 7o$y is i))erse$ in air8 or si)ilar insulating )e$iu)8 consisting of8 or containing8 s)all freely )o-a7le (articles ca(a7le of 7eing electrifie$8 an$ .hen the electrification of the 7o$y is )a$e to un$ergo a -ery ra(i$ changeK.hich is equi-alent to saying that the electrostatic force acting aroun$ the 7o$y is -arying in intensity8Kthe s)all (articles are attracte$ an$ re(elle$8 an$ their -iolent i)(acts against the 7o$y )ay cause a )echanical )otion of the latter0 <heno)ena of this 2in$ are note.orthy8 inas)uch as they ha-e not 7een o7ser-e$ 7efore .ith a((aratus such as has 7een co))only in use0 ,f a -ery light con$ucting s(here 7e sus(en$e$ oil an e'cee$ingly fine .ire8 an$ charge$ to a stea$y (otential8 ho.e-er high8 the s(here .ill re)ain at rest0 "-en if the (otential .oul$ 7e ra(i$ly -arying8 (ro-i$e$ that the s)all (articles of )atter8 )olecules or ato)s8 are e-enly $istri7ute$8 no )otion of the s(here shoul$ result0 3ut if one si$e of the con$ucting s(here is co-ere$ .ith a thic2 insulating layer8 the i)(acts of the (articles .ill cause the s(here to )o-e a7out8 generally in irregular cur-es8 Fig0 8a0 ,n li2e )anner8 as , ha-e sho.n on a (re-ious occasion8 a fan of sheet )etal8 Fig0 878 co-ere$ (artially .ith insulating )aterial as in$icate$8 an$ (lace$ u(on the ter)inal of the coil so as to turn freely on it8 is s(un aroun$0
All these (heno)ena you ha-e .itnesse$ an$ others .hich .ill 7e sho.n later8 are $ue to the (resence of a )e$iu) li2e air8 an$ .oul$ not occur in a continuous )e$iu)0 The action of the air )ay 7e illustrate$ still 7etter 7y the follo.ing e'(eri)ent0 , ta2e a glass tu7e t8 Fig0 98 of a7out an inch in $ia)eter8 .hich has a (latinu) .ire
. seale$ in the lo.er en$8 an$ to .hich is attache$ a thin la)( fila)ent f0 , connect the .ire .ith the ter)inal of the coil an$ set the coil to .or20 The (latinu) .ire is no. electrifie$ (ositi-ely an$ negati-ely in ra(i$ succession an$ the .ire an$ air insi$e of the tu7e is ra(i$ly heate$ 7y the i)(acts of the (articles8 .hich )ay 7e so -iolent as to ren$er the fila)ent incan$escent0 3ut if , (our oil in the tu7e8 Hust as soon as the .ire is co-ere$ .ith the oil8 all action a((arently ceases an$ there is no )ar2e$ e-i$ence of heating0 The reason of this is that the oil is a (ractically continuous )e$iu)0 The $is(lace)ents in such a continuous )e$iu) are8 .ith these frequencies8 to all a((earance inco)(ara7ly s)aller than in air8 hence the .or2 (erfor)e$ in such a )e$iu) is insignificant0 3ut oil .oul$ 7eha-e -ery $ifferently .ith frequencies )any ti)es as great8 for e-en though the $is(lace)ents 7e s)all8 if the frequency .ere )uch greater8 consi$era7le .or2 )ight 7e (erfor)e$ in the oil0
The electrostatic attractions an$ re(ulsions 7et.een 7o$ies of )easura7le $i)ensions are8 of all the )anifestations of this force8 the first so9calle$ electrical (heno)ena note$0 3ut though they ha-e 7een 2no.n to us for )any centuries8 the (recise nature of the )echanis) concerne$ in these actions is still un2no.n to us8 an$ has not 7een e-en quite satisfactorily e'(laine$0 &hat 2in$ of )echanis) )ust that 7eF &e cannot hel( .on$ering .hen .e o7ser-e t.o )agnets attracting an$ re(elling each other .ith a force of hun$re$s of (oun$s .ith a((arently nothing 7et.een the)0 &e ha-e in our co))ercial $yna)os )agnets ca(a7le of sustaining in )i$9air tons of .eight0 3ut .hat are e-en these forces acting 7et.een )agnets .hen co)(are$ .ith the tre)en$ous attractions an$ re(ulsions (ro$uce$ 7y electrostatic force8 to .hich there is a((arently no li)it as to intensity0 ,n lightning $ischarges 7o$ies are often charge$ to so high a (otential that they are thro.n a.ay .ith inconcei-a7le force an$ torn asun$er or shattere$ into frag)ents0 >till e-en such effects cannot co)(are .ith the attractions an$ re(ulsions .hich e'ist 7et.een charge$ )olecules or ato)s8 an$ .hich are sufficient to (roHect the) .ith s(ee$s of )any 2ilo)etres a secon$8 so that un$er their -iolent i)(act 7o$ies are ren$ere$ highly incan$escent an$ are -olatiliBe$0 ,t is of s(ecial interest for the thin2er .ho inquires into the nature of these forces to note that .hereas the actions 7et.een in$i-i$ual )olecules or ato)s occur see)ingly un$er any con$itions8 the attractions an$ re(ulsions of 7o$ies of )easura7le $i)ensions i)(ly a )e$iu) (ossessing insulating (ro(erties0 >o8 if airJ either 7y 7eing rarefie$ or heate$8 is ren$ere$ )ore or less con$ucting8 these actions 7et.een t.o electrifie$ 7o$ies (ractically cease8 .hile the actions 7et.een the in$i-i$ual ato)s continue to )anifest the)sel-es0 An e'(eri)ent )ay ser-e as an illustration an$ as a )eans of 7ringing out other features of interestI >o)e ti)e ago , sho.e$ that a la)( fila)ent or .ire )ounte$ in a 7ul7 an$ connecte$ to one of the ter)inals of a high tension secon$ary coil is set s(inning8 the to( of the fila)ent generally $escri7ing a circle0 This -i7ration .as -ery energetic .hen the air in the 7ul7 .as at or$inary (ressure an$ 7eca)e less energetic .hen the air in the 7ul7 .as strongly co)(resse$0 ,t cease$ altogether .hen the air .as e'hauste$ so as to 7eco)e co)(arati-ely goo$ con$ucting0 , foun$ at that ti)e that no -i7ration toolI (lace .hen the 7ul7 .as -ery highly e'hauste$0 3ut , conHecture$ that the -i7ration .hich , ascri7e$ to the electrostatic action 7et.een the .alls of the 7ul7 an$ the fila)ent shoul$ ta2e (lace also in a highly e'hauste$ 7ul70 To test this un$er con$itions .hich .ere )ore fa-oura7le8 a 7ul7 li2e the one in Fig0 15J .as constructe$0 ,t co)(rise$ a glo7e 78 in the nec2 of .hich .as seale$ a (latinu) .ire .8 carrying a thin la)( fila)ent f0 ,n the lo.er (art of the glo7e a tu7e t .as seale$ so as to surroun$ the fila)ent0 The e'haustion .as carrie$ as far as it .as (ractica7le .ith the a((aratus e)(loye$0
This 7ul7 -erifie$ )y e'(ectation8 for the fila)ent .as set s(inning .hen the current .as turne$ on8 an$ 7eca)e incan$escent0 ,t also sho.e$ another interesting feature8 7earing u(on the (rece$ing re)ar2s8 na)ely8 .hen the fila)ent ha$ 7een 2e(t incan$escent so)e ti)e8 the narro. tu7e an$ the s(ace insi$e .ere 7rought to an ele-ate$ te)(erature8 an$ as the gas in the tu7e then 7eca)e con$ucting8 the electrostatic attraction 7et.een the glass an$ the fila)ent 7eca)e -ery .ea2 or cease$8 an$ the fila)ent ca)e to rest8 &hen it ca)e to rest it .oul$ glo. far )ore intensely0 This .as (ro7a7ly $ue to its assu)ing the (osition in the centre of the tu7e .here the )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent .as )ost intense8 an$ also (artly to the fact that the in$i-i$ual i)(acts .ere )ore -iolent an$ that no (art of the su((lie$ energy .as con-erte$ into )echanical )o-e)ent0 >ince8 in accor$ance .ith acce(te$ -ie.s8 in this e'(eri)ent the incan$escence )ust 7e attri7ute$ to the i)(acts of the (articles8 )olecules or ato)s in tire heate$ s(ace8 these (articles )ust therefore8 in or$er to e'(lain such action8 7e assu)e$ to 7eha-e as in$e(en$ent carriers of electric charges i))erse$ in an insulating )e$iu)J yet there is no attracti-e force 7et.een the glass tu7e an$ the fila)ent 7ecause the s(ace in the tu7e is8 as a .hole8 con$ucting0 ,t is of so)e interest to o7ser-e in this connection that .hereas the attraction 7et.een t.o electrifie$ 7o$ies )ay cease o.ing to the i)(airing of the insulating (o.er of the )e$iu) in .hich they are i))erse$8 the re(ulsion 7et.een the 7o$ies )ay still 7e o7ser-e$0 This )ay 7e e'(laine$ in a (lausi7le .ay0 &hen the 7o$ies are (lace$ at so)e $istance in a (oorly con$ucting )e$iu)8 such as slightly .ar)e$ or rarefie$ air8 an$ are su$$enly electrifie$8 o((osite electric charges 7eing i)(arte$ to the)8 these charges equaliBe )ore or less 7y lea2age through the air0 3ut if the 7o$ies are si)ilarly electrifie$8 there is less o((ortunity affor$e$ for such $issi(ation8 hence the re(ulsion o7ser-e$ in such case is greater than the attraction0 +e(ulsi-e actions in a gaseous )e$iu) are ho.e-er8 as <rof0 Croo2es has sho.n8 enhance$ 7y )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent0 ON C=##*NT O# %@NAM:C *'*CT#:C:T@ 50*NOM*NA >o far8 , ha-e consi$ere$ (rinci(ally effects (ro$uce$ 7y a -arying electrostatic force in an insulating )e$iu)8 such as air0 &hen such a force is acting u(on a con$ucting 7o$y of )easura7le $i)ensions8 it causes .ithin the sa)e8 or on its surface8 $is(lace)ents of the electricity8 an$ gi-es rise to electric currents8 an$ these (ro$uce another 2in$ of (heno)ena8 so)e of .hich , shall (resently en$ea-our to illustrate0 ,n (resenting this secon$ class of electrical effects8 , .ill a-ail )yself (rinci(ally of such as are (ro$uci7le .ithout any return circuit8 ho(ing to interest you the )ore 7y (resenting these (heno)ena in a )ore or less no-el as(ect0 ,t has 7een a long ti)e custo)ary8 o.ing to 0the li)ite$ e'(erience .ith -i7ratory currents8 to consi$er an electric current as so)ething circulating in a close$ con$ucting (ath0 ,t .as astonishing at first to realiBe that a current )ay flo. through the con$ucting (ath e-en if the latter 7e interru(te$J an$ it .as still )ore sur(rising to learn8 that so)eti)es it )ay 7e e-en easier to )a2e a current flo. un$er such con$itions than through a close$ (ath0 3ut that ol$ i$ea is gra$ually $isa((earing8 e-en a)ong (ractical )en8 an$ .ill soon 7e entirely forgotten0
,f , connect an insulate$ )etal (late 38 Fig0 11/1*48 to one of the ter)inals T of the in$uction coil 7y )eans of a .ire8 though this (late 7e -ery .ell insulate$8 a current (asses through the .ire .hen the coil is set to .or20 First , .ish to gi-e you e-i$ence that there is a current (assing through the connecting .ire0 An o7-ious .ay of $e)onstrating this is to insert 7et.een the ter)inal of the coil an$ the insulate$ (late a -ery thin (latinu) or Ger)an sil-er .ire " an$ 7ring the latter to incan$escence or fusion 7y the current0 This requires a rather large (late or else current i)(ulses of -ery high (otential an$ frequency0 Another .ay is to ta2e a coil 28 Fig0 11/1*48 containing )any turns of thin insulate$ .ire an$ to insert the sa)e in the (ath of the current to the (late0 &hen , connect one of the en$s of the coil to the .ire lea$ing to another insulate$ (late < 18 an$ its other en$ to the ter)inal T1 of the in$uction coil8 an$ set the latter to .or28 a current (asses through the inserte$ coil 2 an$ the e'istence of the current )ay 7e )a$e )anifest in -arious .ays0 For instance8 , insert an iron core i .ithin the coil0 The current 7eing one of -ery high frequency8 .ill8 if it 7e of so)e strength8 soon 7ring the iron core to a noticea7ly higher te)(erature8 as the hysteresis an$ current losses are great .ith such high frequencies0 ;ne )ight ta2e a core of s)all siBe8 la)inate$ or not8 it .oul$ )atter littleJ 7ut or$inary iron .ire 1/1%th or 1/8th of an inch thic2 is suita7le for the (ur(ose0 &hile the in$uction coil is .or2ing8 a current tra-erses the inserte$ coil an$ only a fe. )o)ents are sufficient to 7ring the iron .ire i to an ele-ate$ te)(erature sufficient to soften the sealing .a' s an$ cause a (a(er .asher * fastene$ 7y it to the iron .ire to fall off0 3ut .ith the a((aratus such as , ha-e here8 other8 )uch )ore interesting8 $e)onstrations of this 2in$ can 7e )a$e0 , ha-e a secon$ary s8 FigJ0 1!/1*%8 of coarse .ire8 .oun$ u(on a coil si)ilar to the first0 ,n the (rece$ing e'(eri)ent the current through the coil 28 Fig0 11/1*48 .as -ery s)all8 7ut there 7eing )any turns a strong heating effect .as8 ne-ertheless8 (ro$uce$ in the iron .ire0 Ha$ , (asse$ that current through a con$uctor in or$er to sho. the heating of the latter8 the current )ight ha-e 7een too s)all to (ro$uce the effect $esire$0 3ut .ith this coil (ro-i$e$ .ith a secon$ary .in$ing8 , can no. transfor) the fee7le current of high tension .hich (asses through the (ri)ary < into a strong secon$ary current of lo. tension8 an$ this current .ill quite certainly $o .hat , e'(ect0 ,n a s)all glass tu7e (t8 Fig0 1!/1*% 8 , ha-e enclose$ a coile$ (latinu) .ire8 "8 this )erely in or$er to (rotect the .ire0 ;n each en$ of the glass tu7e is seale$ a ter)inal of stout .ire to .hich one of the en$s of the (latinu) .ire "8 is connecte$0 , Hoin the ter)inals of the secon$ary coil to these ter)inals an$ insert the (ri)ary (8 7et.een the insulate$ (late 318 an$ the ter)inal T18 of the in$uction coil as 7efore0 The latter 7eing set to .or28 instantly the (latinu) .ire " is ren$ere$ incan$escent an$ can 7e fuse$8 e-en if it 7e -ery thic20
,nstea$ of the (latinu) .ire , no. ta2e an or$inary 459-olt 1% c (0 la)(0 &hen , set the in$uction coil in o(eration the la)( fila)ent is 7rought to high incan$escence0 ,t is8 ho.e-er8 not necessary to use the insulate$ (late8 for the la)( (l Fig0 13 is ren$ere$ incan$escent e-en if the (late <1 7e $isconnecte$0 The secon$ary )ay also he connecte$ to the (ri)ary as in$icate$ 7y the $otte$ line in Fig0 138 to $o a.ay )ore or less .ith the electrostatic in$uction or to )o$ify the action other.ise0
, )ay here call attention to a nu)7er of interesting o7ser-ations .ith the la)(0 First8 , $isconnect one of the ter)inals of the la)( fro) the secon$ary s0 &hen the in$uction coil (lays8 a glo. is note$ .hich fills the .hole 7ul70 This glo. is $ue to electrostatic in$uction0 ,t increases .hen the 7ul7 is gras(e$ .ith the han$8 an$ the ca(acity of the e'(eri)enter's 7o$y thus a$$e$ to the secon$ary circuit0 The secon$ary8 in effect8 is equi-alent to a )etallic coating8 .hich .oul$ 7e (lace$ near the (ri)ary0 ,f the secon$ary8 or its equi-alent8 the coating8 .ere (lace$ sy))etrically to the (ri)ary8 the electrostatic in$uction .oul$ 7e nil un$er or$inary con$itions8 that is8 .hen a (ri)ary return circuit is use$8 as 7oth hal-es .oul$ neutraliBe each other0 The secon$ary is in fact (lace$ sy))etrically to the (ri)ary8 7ut the action of 7oth hal-es of the latter8 .hen only one of its en$s is connecte$ to the in$uction coil8 is not e'actly equalJ hence electrostatic in$uction ta2es (lace8 an$ hence the glo. in the 7ul70 , can nearly equaliBe the action of 7oth hal-es of the (ri)ary 7y connecting the other8 free en$ of the sa)e to the insulate$ (late8 as in the (rece$ing e'(eri)ent0 &hen the (late is connecte$8 the glo. $isa((ears0 &ith a s)aller (late it .oul$ not entirely $isa((ear an$ then it .oul$ contri7ute to the 7rightness of the fila)ent .hen the secon$ary is close$8 7y .ar)ing the air in the 7ul70
To $e)onstrate another interesting feature8 , ha-e a$Huste$ the coils use$ in a certain .ay0 , first connect 7oth the ter)inals of the la)( to the secon$ary8 one en$ of the (ri)ary 7eing connecte$ to the ter)inal T1 of the in$uction coil an$ the other to the insulate$ (late <8 as 7efore0 &hen the current is turne$ on8 the la)( glo.s 7rightly8 as sho.n in Fig0 1678 in .hich C is a fine .ire coil an$ s a coarse .ire secon$ary .oun$ u(on it0 ,f the insulate$ (late <1 is $isconnecte$8 lea-ing one of the en$s a of the (ri)ary insulate$8 the fila)ent 7eco)es $ar2 or generally it $i)inishes in 7rightness (Fig0 16a 0 Connecting again the (late <1 an$ raising the frequency of the current8 , )a2e the fila)ent quite $ar2 or 7arely re$ (Fig0 147 0 ;nce )ore , .ill $isconnect the (late0 ;ne .ill of course infer that .hen the (late is $isconnecte$8 the current through the (ri)ary .ill 7e .ea2ene$8 that therefore the "0 /0 F0 .ill fall in the secon$ary 0s an$ that the 7rightness of the la)( .ill $i)inish0 This )ight 7e the case an$ the result can 7e secure$ 7y an easy a$Hust)ent of the coilsJ also 7y -arying the frequency an$ (otential of the currents0 3ut it is (erha(s of greater interest to note8 that the la)( increases in 7rightness .hen the (late is $isconnecte$ (FigJ 14a 0 ,n this case all the energy the (ri)ary recei-es is no. sun2 info it8 li2e the charge of a 7attery in an ocean ca7le8 7ut )ost of that energy is reco-ere$ through the secon$ary an$ use$ to light the la)(0 The current tra-ersing the (ri)ary is strongest at the en$ 7 .hich is connecte$ to the ter)inal T8 of the in$uction coil8 an$ $i)inishes in strength to.ar$s the re)ote en$ a0 3ut the $yna)ic in$ucti-e effect e'erte$ u(on the secon$ary s is no. greater than 7efore8 .hen the sus(en$e$ (late .as connecte$ to the (ri)ary0 These results )ight ha-e 7een (ro$uce$ 7y a nu)7er of causes0 For instance8 the (late <1 7eing connecte$8
the reaction fro) the coil C )ay 7e such as to $i)inish the (otential at the ter)inal T1 of the in$uction coil8 an$ therefore .ea2en the current through the (ri)ary of the coil C0 ;r the $isconnecting of the (late )ay $i)inish the ca(acity effect .ith relation to the (ri)ary of the latter coil to such an e'tent that the current through it is $i)inishe$8 though the (otential at the ter)inal T1 of the in$uction coil )ay 7e the sa)e or e-en higher0 ;r the result )ight ha-e 7een (ro$uce$ 7y the change of (lease of the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary currents an$ consequent reaction0 3ut the chief $eter)ining factor is the relation of the self9in$uction an$ ca(acity of coil C an$ (late <1 an$ the frequency of the currents0 The greater 7rightness of the fila)ent in Fig0 14a0 is8 ho.e-er8 in (art $ue to the heating of the rarefie$ gas in the la)( 7y electrostatic in$uctionJ .hich8 as 7efore re)ar2e$8 is greater .hen the sus(en$e$ (late is $isconnecte$0
>till another feature of so)e interest , tray here 7ring to your attention0 &hen the insulate$ $ate is $isconnecte$ an$ the secon$ary of the coil o(ene$8 7y a((roaching0 a s)all o7Hect to the secon$ary8 7ut -ery s)all s(ar2s can 7e $ra.n fro) it8 sho.ing that the electrostatic in$uction is s)all in this case0 3ut u(on the secon$ary 7eing close$ u(on itself or through the la)(8 the fila)ent8 glo.ing 7rightly8 strong s(ar2s are o7taine$ fro) the secon$ary0 The electrostatic in$uction is no. )uch greater8 7ecause the close$ secon$ary $eter)ines a greater flo. of current through the (ri)ary an$ (rinci(ally through that half of it .hich is connecte$ to the in$uction coil0 ,f no. the 7ul7 7e gras(e$ .ith the han$8 the ca(acity of the secon$ary .ith reference to the (ri)ary is aug)ente$ 7y the e'(eri)enter's 7o$y an$ the lu)inosity of the fila)ent is increase$8 the ,ncan$escence no. 7eing $ue (artly to the flo. of current through the fila)ent an$ (artly to the )olecular 7o)7ar$)ent of the rarefie$ gas in the 7ul70
The (rece$ing e'(eri)ents .ill ha-e (re(are$ one for the ne't follo.ing results of interest8 o7taine$ in the course of these in-estigations0 >ince , can (ass a current through an insulate$ .ire )erely 7y connecting one of its en$s to the source of electrical energy8 since , can in$uce 7y it another current8 )agnetiBe all iron core8 an$8 in short8 (erfor) all o(erations as though a return circuit .ere use$8 clearly , can also $ri-e a )otor 7y the ai$ of only one .ire0 ;n a for)er occasion , ha-e $escri7e$ a si)(le for) of )otor co)(rising a single e'citing coil8 an iron core an$ $isc0 Fig0 1% illustrates a )o$ifie$ .ay of o(erating such an alternate current )otor 7y currents in$uce$ in a transfor)er connecte$ to one lea$8 an$ se-eral other arrange)ents of circuits for o(erating a certain class of alternating )otors foun$e$ on the action of currents of $iffering (hase0 ,n -ie. of the (resent state of the art it is thought sufficient to $escri7e these arrange)ents in a fe. .or$s only0 The $iagra)8 Fig0 1% ,,08 sho.s a (ri)ary coil <8 connecte$ .ith one of its en$s to the line # lea$ing fro) a high tension transfor)er ter)inal T10 ,n in$ucti-e relation to this (ri)ary < is a secon$ary s of coarse .ire in the circuit of .hich is a coil C0 The currents in$uce$ in the secon$ary energiBe the iron core i8 .hich is (refera7ly8 7ut not necessarily8 su7$i-i$e$8 an$ set the )etal $isc $ in rotation0 >uch a )otor /! as $iagra))atically sho.n in Fig0 1% ,,08 has 7een calle$ a ")agnetic lag )otor"8 7ut this e'(ression )ay 7e o7Hecte$ to 7y those .ho attri7ute the rotation of the $isc to e$$y currents circulating in )inute (aths .hen the core i is finally su7$i-i$e$0 ,n or$er to o(erate such a )otor effecti-ely on the (lan in$icate$8 the frequencies shoul$ not he too high8 not )ore than four or fi-e thousan$8 though the rotation is (ro$uce$ e-en .ith ten thousan$ (er secon$8 or )ore0 ,n Fig0 1% ,08 a )otor /1 ha-ing t.o energiBing circuits8 A an$ 38 is $iagra))atically in$icate$0 The circuit A is connecte$ to the line # an$ in series .ith it is a (ri)ary <8 .hich )ay ha-e its free en$ connecte$ to an insulate$ (late <18 such connection 7eing in$icate$ 7y the $otte$ lines0 The other )otor circuit 3 is connecte$ to the secon$ary s .hich is in in$ucti-e relation to the (ri)ary <0 &hen the transfor)er ter)inal T1 is alternately electrifie$8 currents tra-erse the o(en line # an$ also circuit A an$ (ri)ary <0 The currents through the latter in$uce secon$ary currents in the circuit >8 .hich (ass through the energiBing coil 3 of the )otor0 The currents through the secon$ary > an$ those through the (ri)ary < $iffer in (hase 95 $egrees8 or nearly so8 an$ are ca(a7le of rotating an ar)ature (lace$ in in$ucti-e relation to the circuits A an$ 30 ,n Fig0 1% ,,,08 a si)ilar )otor / 3 .ith t.o energiBing circuits A1 an$ 31 is illustrate$0 A (ri)ary <8 connecte$ .ith one of its en$s to the line # has a secon$ary >8 .hich is (refera7ly .oun$ for a tolera7ly high "0 /0 F08 an$ to .hich the t.o energiBing circuits of the )otor are connecte$8 one $irectly to the en$s of the secon$ary an$ the other through a con$enser C8 7y the action of .hich the currents tra-ersing the circuit A1 an$ 31 are )a$e to $iffer in (hase0 ,n Fig0 1% ,G08 still another arrange)ent is sho.n0 ,n this case t.o (ri)aries <1 an$ <! are connecte$ to the line #8 one through a con$enser C of s)all ca(acity8 an$ the other $irectly0 The (ri)aries are (ro-i$e$ .ith secon$aries >1 an$ >! .hich are in series .ith the energiBing circuits8 A! an$ 3! an$ a )otor /3 the con$enser C again ser-ing to (ro$uce the requisite $ifference in the (hase of the currents tra-ersing the )otor circuits0 As such (hase )otors .ith t.o or )ore circuits are no. .ell 2no.n in the art8 they ha-e 7een here illustrate$ $iagra))atically0 1o $ifficulty .hate-er is foun$ in o(erating a )otor in the )anner in$icate$8 or in si)ilar .aysJ an$ although such e'(eri)ents u( to this $ay (resent only scientific interest8 they )ay at a (erio$ not far $istant8 7e carrie$ out .ith (ractical o7Hects in -ie.0 ,t is thought useful to $e-ote here a fe. re)ar2s to the su7Hect of o(erating $e-ices of all 2in$s 7y )eans of only one lea$ing .ire0 ,t is quite o7-ious8 that .hen high9frequency currents are )a$e use of8 groun$ connections are Kat least .hen the "0 /0 F0 of the currents is greatK7etter than a return .ire0 >uch groun$ connections are
o7Hectiona7le .ith stea$y or lo. frequency currents on account of $estructi-e che)ical actions of the for)er an$ $istur7ing influences e'erte$ 7y 7oth on the neigh7ouring circuitsJ 7ut .ith high frequencies these actions (ractically $o not e'ist0 >till8 e-en groun$ connections 7eco)e8 su(erfluous .hen the "0 /0 F0 is -ery high8 for soon a con$ition is reache$8 .hen the current )ay 7e (asse$ )ore econo)ically through o(en8 than through close$8 con$uctors0 +e)ote as )ight see) an in$ustrial a((lication of such single .ire trans)ission of energy to one not e'(erience$ in such lines of e'(eri)ent8 it .ill not see) so to anyone .ho for so)e ti)e has carrie$ on in-estigations of such nature0 ,n$ee$ , cannot see .hy such a (lan8 shoul$ not 7e (ractica7le0 1or shoul$ it 7e thought that for carrying out such a (lan currents of -ery high frequency are e'(ressly require$8 for Hust as soon as (otentials of say 358555 -olts are use$8 the single .ire trans)ission )ay 7e effecte$ .ith lo. frequencies8 an$ e'(eri)ents ha-e 7een )a$e 7y )e fro) .hich these inferences are tra$e0
&hen the frequencies are -ery high it has 7een foun$ in la7oratory (ractice quite easy to regulate the effects in the )anner sho.n in $iagra) Fig0 1*0 Here t.o (ri)aries < an$ <1 are sho.n8 each connecte$ .ith one of its en$s to the line # an$ .ith the other en$ to the con$enser (lates C an$ C8 res(ecti-ely0 1ear these are (lace$ other con$enser (lates C1 an$ C18 the for)er 7eing connecte$ to the line # an$ the latter to an insulate$ larger (late <!0 ;n the (ri)aries are .oun$ secon$aries > an$ >18 of coarse .ire8 connecte$ to the $e-ices $ an$ l res(ecti-ely0 3y -arying the $istances of the con$enser (lates C an$ C18 an$ C an$ C1 the currents through the secon$aries > an$ >1 are -arie$ in intensity0 The curious feature is the great sensiti-eness8 the slightest change in the $istance of the (lates (ro$ucing consi$era7le -ariations in the intensity or strength of the currents0 The sensiti-eness )ay 7e ren$ere$ e'tre)e 7y )a2ing the frequency such8 that the (ri)ary itself8 .ithout any (late attache$ to its free en$8 satisfies8 in conHunction .ith the close$ secon$ary8 the con$ition of resonance0 ,n such con$ition an e'tre)ely s)all change in the ca(acity of the free ter)inal (ro$uces great -ariations0 For instance8 , ha-e 7een a7le to a$Hust the con$itions so that the )ere a((roach of a (erson to the coil (ro$uces a consi$era7le change in the 7rightness of the la)(s attache$ to the secon$ary0 >uch o7ser-ations an$ e'(eri)ents (ossess8 of course8 at (resent8 chiefly scientific interest8 7ut they )ay soon 7eco)e of (ractical i)(ortance0 Gery high frequencies are of course not (ractica7le .ith )otors on account of the necessity of e)(loying iron cores0 3ut one )ay use su$$en $ischarges of lo. frequency an$ thus o7tain certain a$-antages of high9 frequency currents .ithout ren$ering the iron core entirely inca(a7le of follo.ing the changes an$ .ithout entailing a -ery great e'(en$iture of energy in the core0 , ha-e foun$ it quite (ractica7le to o(erate .ith such lo. frequency $isru(ti-e $ischarges of con$ensers8 alternating9current )otors0 A certain class of such )otors .hich , a$-ance$ a fe. years ago8 .hich contain close$ secon$ary circuits8 .ill rotate quite -igourously .hen the $ischarges are $irecte$ through the e'citing coils0 ;ne reason that such a )otor o(erates so .ell .ith these $ischarges is that the $ifference of (hase 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary currents is 95 $egrees8 .hich is generally not the case .ith har)onically rising an$ falling currents of lo. frequency0 ,t )ight not 7e .ithout interest to sho. an e'(eri)ent .ith a si)(le )otor of this 2in$8 inas)uch as it is co))only thought that $isru(ti-e $ischarges are unsuita7le for such (ur(oses0 The )otor is illustrate$ in Fig0 18/18!0 ,t co)(rises a rather large iron core i .ith slots on the to( into .hich are e)7e$$e$ thic2 co((er .ashers c c0 ,n (ro'i)ity to the core is a freely9)o-a7le )etal $isc D0 The core is (ro-i$e$ .ith a (ri)ary e'citing coil C1 the en$s a an$ b of .hich are connecte$ to the ter)inals of the secon$ary & of an or$inary transfor)er8 the (ri)ary 3 of the latter 7eing connecte$ to an alternating $istri7ution circuit or generator 5 of lo. or )o$erate frequency0 The ter)inals of the secon$ary & are attache$ to a con$enser 2 .hich $ischarges through an air ga( d d .hich )ay 7e (lace$ in series or shunt to the coil C10 &hen the con$itions are (ro(erly chosen the $isc D rotates .ith consi$era7le effort an$ the iron core i $oes not get -ery (erce(ti7ly hot0 &ith currents fro) a high9frequency alternator8 on the contrary8 the core gets ra(i$ly hot an$ the $isc rotates .ith a )uch s)aller effort0 To (erfor) the e'(eri)ent
(ro(erly it shoul$ 7e first ascertaine$ that the $isc D is not set in rotation .hen the $ischarge is not occurring at d d0 ,t is (refera7le to use a large iron core an$ a con$enser of large ca(acity so as to 7ring the su(eri)(ose$ quic2er oscillation to a -ery lo. (itch or to $o a.ay .ith it entirely0 3y o7ser-ing certain ele)entary rules , ha-e also foun$ it (ractica7le to o(erate or$inary series or shunt $irect9current )otors .ith such $isru(ti-e $ischarges8 an$ this can 7e $one .ith or .ithout a return .ire0
:M5*%ANC* 50*NOM*NA A)ong the -arious current (heno)ena o7ser-e$8 (erha(s the )ost interesting are those of i)(e$ance (resente$ 7y con$uctors to currents -arying at a ra(i$ rate0 ,n )y first (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 , ha-e $escri7e$ a fe. stri2ing o7ser-ations of this 2in$0 Thus , sho.e$ that .hen such currents or su$$en $ischarges are (asse$ through a thic2 )etal 7ar there )ay 7e (oints on the 7ar only a fe. inches a(art8 .hich ha-e a sufficient (otential $ifference 7et.een the) to )aintain at 7right incan$escence an or$inary fila)ent la)(0 , ha-e also $escri7e$ the curious 7eha-iour of rarefie$ gas surroun$ing a con$uctor8 $ue to such su$$en rushes of current0 These (heno)ena ha-e since 7een )ore carefully stu$ie$ an$ one or t.o no-el e'(eri)ents of this 2in$ are $ee)e$ of sufficient interest to 7e $escri7e$ here0 +eferring to Fig0 19a/183a8 3 an$ 31 are -ery stout co((er 7ars connecte$ at their lo.er en$s to (lates C an$ C18 res(ecti-ely8 of a con$enser8 the o((osite (lates of the latter 7eing connecte$ to the ter)inals of the secon$ary > of a high9 tension transfor)er8 the (ri)ary < of .hich is su((lie$ .ith alternating currents fro) an or$inary lo.9frequency $yna)o G or $istri7ution circuit0
The con$enser $ischarges through an a$Husta7le ga( $ $ as usual0 3y esta7lishing a ra(i$ -i7ration it .as foun$ quite easy to (erfor) the follo.ing curious e'(eri)ent0 The 7ars 3 an$ 3 1 .ere Hoine$ at the to( 7y a lo.9 -oltage la)( l3 a little lo.er .as (lace$ 7y )eans of cla)(s C C8 a 459-olt la)( l !J an$ still lo.er another 1559 -olt la)( l1J an$ finally8 at a certain $istance 7elo. the latter la)(8 an e'hauste$ tu7e T0 3y carefully $eter)ining the (ositions of these $e-ices it .as foun$ (ractica7le to )aintain the) all at their (ro(er illu)inating (o.er0 Det
they .ere all connecte$ in )ulti(le arc to the t.o stout co((er 7ars an$ require$ .i$ely $ifferent (ressures0 This e'(eri)ent requires of course so)e ti)e for a$Hust)ent 7ut is quite easily (erfor)e$0 ,n Figs0 19b/183b an$ 19c/183c8 t.o other e'(eri)ents are illustrate$ .hich8 unli2e the (re-ious e'(eri)ent8 $o not require -ery careful a$Hust)ents0 ,n Fig0 19b/183b8 t.o la)(s8 l1 an$ l!8 the for)er a 1559-olt an$ the latter a 459-olt are (lace$ in certain (ositions as in$icate$8 the 1559-olt la)( 7eing 7elo. the 459-olt la)(0 &hen the arc is (laying at $ $ an$ the su$$en $ischarges are (asse$ through the 7ars 3 3 18 the 459-olt la)( .ill8 as a rule8 7urn 7rightly8 or at least this result is easily secure$8 .hile the 1559-olt la)( .ill 7urn -ery lo. or re)ain quite $ar28 Fig0 19b/183b0 1o. the 7ars 3 31 )ay 7e Hoine$ at the to( 7y a thic2 cross 7ar 3! an$ it is quite easy to )aintain the 1559-olt la)( at full can$le9(o.er .hile the 459-olt la)( re)ains $ar28 Fig0 19 c/183c0 These results8 as , ha-e (ointe$ out (re-iously8 shoul$ not 7e consi$ere$ to 7e $ue e'actly to frequency 7ut rather to the ti)e rate of change .hich )ay 7e great8 e-en .ith lo. frequencies0 A great )any other results of the sa)e 2in$8 equally interesting8 es(ecially to those .ho are only use$ to )ani(ulate stea$y currents8 )ay 7e o7taine$ an$ they affor$ (recious clues in in-estigating the nature of electric currents0 ,n the (rece$ing e'(eri)ents , ha-e alrea$y ha$ occasion to sho. so)e light (heno)ena an$ it .oul$ no. 7e (ro(er to stu$y these in (articularJ 7ut to )a2e this in-estigation )ore co)(lete , thin2 it necessary to )a2e first a fe. re)ar2s on the su7Hect of electrical resonance .hich has to 7e al.ays o7ser-e$ in carrying out these e'(eri)ents0 ON *'*CT#:CA' #*SONANC* The effects of resonance are 7eing )ore an$ )ore note$ 7y engineers an$ are 7eco)ing of great i)(ortance in the (ractical o(eration of a((aratus of all 2in$s .ith alternating currents0 A fe. general re)ar2s )ay therefore 7e )a$e concerning these effects0 ,t is clear8 that if .e succee$ in e)(loying the effects of resonance (ractically in the o(eration of electric $e-ices the return .ire .ill8 as a )atter of course8 7eco)e unnecessary8 for the electric -i7ration )ay 7e con-eye$ .ith one .ire Hust as .ell as8 an$ so)eti)es e-en 7etter than8 .ith t.o0 The question first to ans.er is8 then8 .hether (ure resonance effects are (ro$uci7le0 Theory an$ e'(eri)ent 7oth sho. that such is i)(ossi7le in 1ature8 for as the oscillation 7eco)es )ore an$ )ore -igourous8 the losses in the -i7rating 7o$ies an$ en-ironing )e$ia ra(i$ly increase an$ necessarily chec2 the -i7ration .hich other.ise .oul$ go on increasing fore-er0 ,t is a fortunate circu)stance that (ure resonance is not (ro$uci7le8 for if it .ere there is no telling .hat $angers )ight not lie in .ait for the innocent e'(eri)enter0 3ut to a certain $egree resonance is (ro$uci7le8 the )agnitu$e of the effects 7eing li)ite$ 7y the i)(erfect con$ucti-ity an$ i)(erfect elasticity of the )e$ia or8 generally state$8 7y frictional losses0 The s)aller these losses8 the )ore stri2ing are the effects0 The sa)e is the case in )echanical -i7ration0 A stout steel 7ar )ay 7e set in -i7ration 7y $ro(s of .ater falling8 u(on it at (ro(er inter-alsJ an$ .ith glass8 .hich is )ore (erfectly elastic8 the resonance effect is still )ore re)ar2a7le8 for a go7let )ay 7e 7urst 7y singing into it a tone of the (ro(er (itch0 The electrical resonance is the )ore (erfectly attaine$8 the s)aller the resistance or the i)(e$ance of the con$ucting (ath an$ the )ore (erfect the $ielectric0 ,n a #ey$en Har $ischarging through a short stran$e$ ca7le of thin .ires these require)ents are (ro7a7ly 7est fulfille$8 an$ the resonance effects are 8 therefore -ery (ro)inent0 >uch is not the case .ith $yna)o )achines8 transfor)ers an$ their circuits8 or .ith co))ercial a((aratus in general in .hich the (resence of iron cores co)(licates the action or ren$ers it i)(ossi7le0 ,n regar$ to #ey$en Hars .ith .hich resonance effects are frequently $e)onstrate$8 , .oul$ say that the effects o7ser-e$ are often attri7ute$ 7ut are sel$o) $ue to true resonance8 for an error is quite easily )a$e in this res(ect0 This )ay 7e un$ou7te$ly $e)onstrate$ 7y the follo.ing e'(eri)ent0 Ta2e8 for instance8 t.o large insulate$ )etallic (lates or s(heres .hich , shall $esignate A an$ 3J (lace the) at a certain s)all $istance a(art an$ charge the) fro) a frictional or influence )achine to a (otential so high that Hust a slight increase of the $ifference of (otential 7et.een the) .ill cause the s)all air or insulating s(ace to 7rea2 $o.n0 This is easily reache$ 7y )a2ing a fe. (reli)inary trials0 ,f no. another (lateKfastene$ on an insulating han$le an$ connecte$ 7y a .ire to one of the ter)inals of a high tension secon$ary of an in$uction coil8 .hich is )aintaine$ in action 7y an alternator ((refera7ly high frequency Kis a((roache$ to one of the charge$ 7o$ies A or 38 so a s to 7e nearer to either one of the)8 the $ischarge .ill in-aria7ly occur 7et.een the)J at least it .ill8 if the (otential of the coil in connection .ith the (late is sufficiently high0 3ut the e'(lanation of this .ill soon 7e foun$ in the fact that the a((roache$ (late acts in$ucti-ely u(on the 7o$ies A an$ 3 an$ causes a s(ar2 to (ass 7et.een the)0 &hen this s(ar2 occurs8 the charges .hich .ere (re-iously i)(arte$ to these 7o$ies fro) the influence )achine8 )ust nee$s 7e lost8 since the 7o$ies are 7rought in electrical connection through the arc for)e$0 1o. this arc is for)e$ .hether there 7e resonance or not0 3ut e-en if the s(ar2 .oul$ not 7e (ro$uce$8 still there is an alternating "0 /0 F0 set u( 7et.een the 7o$ies .hen the (late is 7rought near one of the)J therefore the a((roach of the (late8 if it $oes not al.ays actually8 .ill8 at any rate8 ten$ to 7rea2 $o.n the air s(ace 7y in$ucti-e action0 ,nstea$ of the s(heres or (lates A an$ 3
.e )ay ta2e the coatings of a #ey$en Har .ith the sa)e result8 an$ in (lace of the )achine8K.hich is a high frequency alternator (refera7ly8 7ecause it is )ore suita7le for the e'(eri)ent an$ also for the argu)ent8K.e )ay ta2e another #ey$en Har or 7attery of Hars0 &hen such Hars are $ischarging through a circuit of lo. resistance the sa)e is tra-erse$ 7y currents of -ery high frequency0 The (late )ay no. 7e connecte$ to one of the coatings of the secon$ Har8 an$ .hen it is 7rought near to the first Har Hust (re-iously charge$ to a high (otential fro) an influence )achine8 the result is the sa)e as 7efore8 an$ the first Har .ill $ischarge through a s)all air s(ace u(on the secon$ 7eing cause$ to $ischarge0 3ut 7oth Hars an$ their circuits nee$ not 7e tune$ any closer than a 7asso (rofun$o is to the note (ro$uce$ 7y a )osquito8 as s)all s(ar2s .ill 7e (ro$uce$ through the air s(ace8 or at least the latter .ill 7e consi$era7ly )ore straine$ o.ing to the setting u( of an alternating "0 /0 F0 7y in$uction8 .hich ta2es (lace .hen one of the Hars 7egins to $ischarge0 Again another error of a si)ilar nature is quite easily )a$e0 ,f the circuits of the t.o Hars are run (arallel an$ close together8 an$ the e'(eri)ent has 7een (erfor)e$ of $ischarging one 7y the other8 an$ no. a coil of .ire 7e a$$e$ to one of the circuits .hereu(on the e'(eri)ent $oes not succee$8 the conclusion that this is $ue to the fact that the circuits are no. not tune$8 .oul$ 7e far fro) 7eing safe0 For the t.o circuits act as con$enser coatings an$ the a$$ition of the coil to one of the) is equi-alent to 7ri$ging the)8 at the (oint .here the coil is (lace$8 7y a s)all con$enser8 an$ the effect of the latter )ight 7e to (re-ent the s(ar2 fro) Hu)(ing through the $ischarge s(ace 7y $i)inishing the alternating "0 /0 F0 acting across the sa)e0 All these re)ar2s8 an$ )any )ore .hich )ight 7e a$$e$ 7ut for fear of .an$ering too far fro) the su7Hect8 are )a$e .ith the (ar$ona7le intention of cautioning the unsus(ecting stu$ent8 .ho )ight gain an entirely un.arrante$ o(inion of his s2ill at seeing e-ery e'(eri)ent succee$J 7ut they are in no .ay thrust u(on the e'(erience$ as no-el o7ser-ations0 ,n or$er to )a2e relia7le o7ser-ations of electric resonance effects it is -ery $esira7le8 if not necessary8 to e)(loy an alternator gi-ing currents .hich rise an$ fall har)onically8 as in .or2ing .ith )a2e an$ 7rea2 currents the o7ser-ations are not al.ays trust.orthy8 since )any (heno)ena8 .hich $e(en$ on the rate of change8 )ay 7e (ro$uce$ .ith .i$ely $ifferent frequencies0 "-en .hen )a2ing such o7ser-ations .ith an alternator one is a(t to 7e )ista2en0 &hen a circuit is connecte$ to an alternator there are an in$efinite nu)7er of -alues for ca(acity an$ self9in$uction .hich8 in conHunction8 .ill satisfy the con$ition of resonance0 >o there are in )echanics an infinite nu)7er of tuning for2s .hich .ill res(on$ to a note of a certain (itch8 or loa$e$ s(rings .hich ha-e a $efinite (erio$ of -i7ration0 3ut the resonance .ill 7e )ost (erfectly attaine$ in that case in .hich the )otion is effecte$ .ith the greatest free$o)0 1o. in )echanics8 consi$ering the -i7ration in the co))on )e$iu)Kthat is8 airKit is of co)(arati-ely little i)(ortance .hether one tuning for2 7e so)e.hat larger than another8 7ecause the losses in the air are not -ery consi$era7le0 ;ne )ay8 of course8 enclose a tuning for2 in an e'hauste$ -essel an$ 7y thus re$ucing the air resistance to a )ini)u) o7tain 7etter resonant action0 >till the $ifference .oul$ not 7e -ery great0 3ut it .oul$ )a2e a great $ifference if the tuning for2 .ere i))erse$ in )ercury0 ,n the electrical -i7ration it is of enor)ous i)(ortance to arrange the con$itions so that the -i7ration is effecte$ .ith the greatest free$o)0 The )agnitu$e of the resonance effect $e(en$s8 un$er other.ise equal con$itions8 on the quantity of electricity set in )otion or on the strength of the current $ri-en through the circuit0 3ut the circuit o((oses the (assage of 0the currents 7y reason of its i)(e$ance an$ therefore8 to secure the 7est action it is necessary to re$uce the i)(e$ance to a )ini)u)0 ,t is i)(ossi7le to o-erco)e it entirely8 7ut )erely in (art8 for the oh)ic resistance cannot 7e o-erco)e0 3ut .hen the frequency of the i)(ulses is -ery great8 the flo. of the current is (ractically $eter)ine$ 7y self9in$uction0 1o. self9in$uction can 7e o-erco)e 7y co)7ining it .ith ca(acity0 ,f the relation 7et.een these is such8 that at the frequency use$ they annul each other8 that is8 ha-e such -alues as to satisfy the con$ition of resonance8 an$ the greatest quantity of electricity is )a$e to flo. through the e'ternal circuit8 then the 7est result is o7taine$0 ,t is si)(ler an$ safer to Hoin the con$enser in series .ith the self9in$uction0 ,t is clear that in such co)7inations there .ill 7e8 for a gi-en frequency8 an$ consi$ering only the fun$a)ental -i7ration8 -alues .hich .ill gi-e the 7est result8 .ith the con$enser in shunt to the self9 in$uction coilJ of course )ore such -alues than .ith the con$enser in series0 3ut (ractical con$itions $eter)ine the selection0 ,n the latter case in (erfor)ing the e'(eri)ents one )ay ta2e a s)all self9in$uction an$ a large ca(acity or a s)all ca(acity an$ a large self9in$uction8 7ut the latter is (refera7le8 7ecause it is incon-enient to a$Hust a large ca(acity 7y s)all ste(s0 3y ta2ing a coil .ith a -ery large self9in$uction the critical ca(acity is re$uce$ to a -ery s)all -alue8 an$ the ca(acity of the coil itself )ay 7e sufficient0 ,t is easy8 es(ecially 7y o7ser-ing certain artifices8 to .in$ a coil through .hich the i)(e$ance .ill 7e re$uce$ to the -alue of the oh)ic resistance onlyJ an$ for any coil there is8 of course8 a frequency at .hich the )a'i)u) current .ill 7e )a$e to (ass through the coil0 The o7ser-ation of the relation 7et.een self9in$uction8 ca(acity an$ frequency is 7eco)ing i)(ortant in the o(eration of alternate current a((aratus8 such as transfor)ers or )otors8 7ecause 7y a Hu$icious $eter)ination of the ele)ents the e)(loy)ent of an e'(ensi-e con$enser 7eco)es unnecessary0 Thus it is (ossi7le to (ass through the coils of an alternating current )otor un$er the nor)al .or2ing con$itions the require$ current .ith a lo. "0 /0 F0 an$ $o a.ay entirely .ith the false current8 an$ the larger the )otor8 the easier such a (lan 7eco)es (ractica7leJ 7ut it is necessary for this to e)(loy currents of -ery high (otential or
high frequency0
,n Fig0 !5 , / 186 ,0 is sho.n a (lan .hich has 7een follo.e$ in the stu$y of the resonance effects 7y )eans of a high frequency alternator0 C1 is a coil of )any turns8 .hich is $i-i$e$ into s)all se(arate sections for the (ur(ose of a$Hust)ent0 The final a$Hust)ent .as )a$e so)eti)es .ith a fe. thin iron .ires (though this is not al.ays a$-isa7le or .ith a close$ secon$ary0 The coil C1 is connecte$ .ith one of its en$s to the line # fro) the alternator G an$ .ith the other en$ to one of the (lates C of a con$enser C C18 the (late (C1 of the latter 7eing connecte$ to a )uch larger (late <10 ,n this )anner 7oth ca(acity an$ self9in$uction .ere a$Huste$ to suit the $yna)o frequency0 As regar$s the rise of (otential through resonant action8 of course8 theoretically8 it )ay a)ount to anything since it $e(en$s on self9in$uction an$ resistance an$ since these )ay ha-e any -alue0 3ut in (ractice one is li)ite$ in the selection of these -alues an$ 7esi$es these8 there are other li)iting causes0 ;ne )ay start .ith8 say8 18555 -olts an$ raise the "0 /0 F0 to 45 ti)es that -alue8 7ut one cannot start .ith 1558555 an$ raise it to ten ti)es that -alue 7ecause of the losses in the )e$ia .hich are great8 es(ecially if the frequency is high0 ,t shoul$ 7e (ossi7le to start .ith8 for instance8 t.o -olts fro) a high or lo. frequency circuit of a $yna)o an$ raise the "0 /0 F0 to )any hun$re$ ti)es that -alue0 Thus coils of the (ro(er $i)ensions )ight 7e connecte$ each .ith only one of its en$s to the )ains fro) a )achine of lo. "0 /0 F08 an$ though the circuit of the )achine would not 1e (losed in t,e ordinary a((e$tan(e of t,e term8 yet the )achine )ight 7e 7urne$ out if a (ro(er resonance effect .oul$ 7e o7taine$0 , ha-e not 7een a7le to (ro$uce8 nor ha-e , o7ser-e$ .ith currents fro) a $yna)o )achine8 such great rises of (otential0 ,t is (ossi7le8 if not (ro7a7le8 that .ith currents o7taine$ fro) a((aratus containing iron the $istur7ing influence of the latter is the cause that these theoretical (ossi7ilities cannot 7e realiBe$0 3ut if such is the case , attri7ute it solely to the hysteresis an$ Foucault current losses in the core0 Generally it .as necessary to transfor) u(.ar$8 .hen the "0 /0 F0 .as -ery lo.8 an$ usually an or$inary for) of in$uction coil .as e)(loye$8 7ut so)eti)es the arrange)ent illustrate$ in Fig0 !5 ,,08 has 7een foun$ to 7e con-enient0 ,n this case a coil C is )a$e in a great )any sections8 a fe. of these 7eing use$ as a (ri)ary0 ,n this )anner 7oth (ri)ary an$ secon$ary are a$Husta7le0 ;ne en$ of the coil is connecte$ to the line #1 fro) the alternator8 an$ the other line # is connecte$ to the inter)e$iate (oint of the coil0 >uch a coil .ith a$Husta7le (ri)ary an$ secon$ary .ill 7e foun$ also con-enient in e'(eri)ents .ith the $isru(ti-e $ischarge0 &hen true resonance is o7taine$ the to( of the .a-e )ust of course 7e on the free en$ of the coil as8 for instance8 at the ter)inal of the (hos(horescence 7ul7 30 This is easily recogniBe$ 7y o7ser-ing the (otential of a (oint on the .ire . near to the coil0 ,n connection .ith resonance effects an$ the (ro7le) of trans)ission of energy o-er a single con$uctor .hich .as (re-iously consi$ere$8 , .oul$ say a fe. .or$s on a su7Hect .hich constantly fills )y thoughts an$ .hich concerns the .elfare of all0 , )ean the trans)ission of intelligi7le signals or (erha(s e-en (o.er to any $istance .ithout the use of .ires0 , a) 7eco)ing $aily )ore con-ince$ of the (ractica7ility of the sche)eJ an$ though , 2no. full .ell that the great )aHority of scientific )en .ill not 7elie-e that such results can 7e (ractically an$ i))e$iately realiBe$8 yet , thin2 that all consi$er the $e-elo()ents in recent years 7y a nu)7er of .or2ers to ha-e 7een such as to encourage thought an$ e'(eri)ent in this $irection0 /y con-iction has gro.n so strong8 that , no longer loo2 u(on this (lan of energy or intelligence trans)ission as a )ere theoretical (ossi7ility8 7ut as a serious (ro7le) in electrical engineering8 .hich )ust 7e carrie$ out so)e $ay0 The i$ea of trans)itting intelligence .ithout .ires is the natural outco)e of the )ost recent results of electrical in-estigations0 >o)e enthusiasts ha-e e'(resse$ their 7elief that tele(hony to any $istance 7y in$uction through the air is (ossi7le0 , cannot stretch )y i)agination so far8 7ut , $o fir)ly 7elie-e that it is (ractica7le to $istur7 7y )eans of (o.erful )achines the electrostatic con$ition of the earth an$ thus trans)it intelligi7le signals an$ (erha(s (o.er0 ,n fact8 .hat is there against the carrying out of such a sche)eF &e no. 2no. that electric -i7ration )ay 7e trans)itte$ through a single con$uctor0 &hy then not try to a-ail oursel-es of the earth for this (ur(oseF &e nee$ not 7e frightene$ 7y the i$ea of $istance0 To the .eary .an$erer counting the )ile9(osts the earth )ay a((ear -ery large 7ut to that ha((iest of all )en8 the astrono)er8 .ho gaBes at the hea-ens an$ 7y their stan$ar$ Hu$ges the
)agnitu$e of our glo7e8 it a((ears -ery s)all0 An$ so , thin2 it )ust see) to the electrician8 for .hen he consi$ers the s(ee$ .ith .hich an electric $istur7ance is (ro(agate$ through the earth all his i$eas of $istance )ust co)(letely -anish0 A (oint of great i)(ortance .oul$ 7e first to 2no. .hat is the ca(acity of the earthF an$ .hat charge $oes it contain if electrifie$F Though .e ha-e no (ositi-e e-i$ence of a charge$ 7o$y e'isting in s(ace .ithout other o((ositely electrifie$ 7o$ies 7eing near8 there is a fair (ro7a7ility that the earth is such a 7o$y8 for 7y .hate-er (rocess it .as se(arate$ fro) other 7o$iesKan$ this is the acce(te$ -ie. of its originKit )ust ha-e retaine$ a charge8 as occurs in all (rocesses of )echanical se(aration0 ,f it 7e a charge$ 7o$y insulate$ in s(ace its ca(acity shoul$ 7e e'tre)ely s)all8 less than one9thousan$th of a fara$0 3ut the u((er strata of the air are con$ucting8 an$ so8 (erha(s8 is the )e$iu) in free s(ace 7eyon$ the at)os(here8 an$ these )ay contain an o((osite charge0 Then the ca(acity )ight 7e inco)(ara7ly greater0 ,n any case it is of the greatest i)(ortance to get an i$ea of .hat quantity of electricity the earth contains0 ,t is $ifficult to say .hether .e shall e-er acquire this necessary 2no.le$ge8 7ut there is ho(e that .e )ay8 an$ that is8 7y )eans of electrical resonance0 ,f e-er .e can ascertain at .hat (erio$ the earth's charge8 .hen $istur7e$8 oscillates .ith res(ect to an o((ositely electrifie$ syste) or 2no.n circuit8 .e shall 2no. a fact (ossi7ly of the greatest i)(ortance to the .elfare of the hu)an race0 , (ro(ose to see2 for the (erio$ 7y )eans of an electrical oscillator8 or a source of alternating electric currents0 ;ne of the ter)inals of the source .oul$ 7e connecte$ to earth as8 for instance8 to the city .ater )ains8 the other to an insulate$ 7o$y of large surface0 ,t is (ossi7le that the outer con$ucting air strata8 or free s(ace8 contain an o((osite charge an$ that8 together .ith the earth8 they for) a con$enser of -ery large ca(acity0 ,n such case the (erio$ of -i7ration )ay 7e -ery lo. an$ an alternating $yna)o )achine )ight ser-e for the (ur(ose of the e'(eri)ent0 , .oul$ then transfor) the current to a (otential as high as it .oul$ 7e foun$ (ossi7le an$ connect the en$s of the high tension secon$ary to the groun$ an$ to the insulate$ 7o$y0 3y -arying the frequency of the currents an$ carefully o7ser-ing the (otential of the insulate$ 7o$y an$ .atching for the $istur7ance at -arious neigh7ouring (oints of the earth's surface resonance )ight 7e $etecte$0 >houl$8 as the )aHority of scientific )en in all (ro7a7ility 7elie-e8 the (erio$ 7e e'tre)ely s)all8 then a $yna)o )achine .oul$ not $o an$ a (ro(er electrical oscillator .oul$ ha-e to 7e (ro$uce$ an$ (erha(s it )ight not 7e (ossi7le to o7tain such ra(i$ -i7rations0 3ut .hether this 7e (ossi7le or not8 an$ .hether the earth contains a charge or not8 an$ .hate-er )ay 7e its (erio$ of -i7ration8 it certainly is (ossi7leKfor of this .e ha-e $aily e-i$enceKto (ro$uce so)e electrical $istur7ance sufficiently (o.erful to 7e (erce(ti7le 7y suita7le instru)ents at any (oint of the earth's surface0
Assu)e that a source of alternating currents 7e connecte$8 as in Fig0 !1 / 1848 .ith one of its ter)inals to earth (con-eniently to the .ater )ains an$ .ith the other to a 7o$y of large surface <0 &hen the electric oscillation is set u( there .ill 7e a )o-e)ent of electricity in an$ out of <8 an$ alternating currents .ill (ass through the earth8 con-erging to8 or $i-erging fro)8 the (oint C .here the groun$ connection is )a$e0 ,n this )anner neigh7ouring (oints on the earth's surface .ithin a certain ra$ius .ill 7e $istur7e$0 3ut the $istur7ance .ill $i)inish .ith the $istance8 an$ the $istance at .hich the effect .ill still 7e (erce(ti7le .ill $e(en$ on the quantity of electricity set in )otion0 >ince the 7o$y < is insulate$8 in or$er to $is(lace a consi$era7le quantity8 the (otential of the source )ust 7e e'cessi-e8 since there .oul$ 7e li)itations as to the surface of <0 The con$itions )ight 7e a$Huste$ so that the generator or source > .ill set u( the sa)e electrical )o-e)ent as though its circuit .ere close$0 Thus it is certainly (ractica7le to i)(ress an electric -i7ration at least of a certain lo. (erio$ u(on the earth 7y )eans of (ro(er )achinery0 At .hat $istance such a -i7ration )ight 7e )a$e (erce(ti7le can only 7e conHecture$0 , ha-e on another occasion consi$ere$ the question ho. the earth )ight 7eha-e to electric $istur7ances0 There is no $ou7t that8 since in such an e'(eri)ent the electrical $ensity at the surface coul$ 7e 7ut e'tre)ely s)all consi$ering the siBe of the earth8 the air .oul$ not act as a -ery $istur7ing factor8 an$ there .oul$ 7e not )uch energy lost through the action of the air8 .hich .oul$ 7e the case if the $ensity .ere great0 Theoretically8 thenJ it coul$ not require a great a)ount of energy to (ro$uce a $istur7ance (erce(ti7le at great $istance8 or e-en all o-er the surface of the glo7e0
1o.8 it is quite certain that at any (oint .ithin a certain ra$ius of the source > a (ro(erly a$Huste$ self9in$uction an$ ca(acity $e-ice can 7e set in action 7y resonance0 3ut not only can this 7e $one8 7ut another source >1 Fig0
!18 si)ilar to >8 or any nu)7er of such sources8 can 7e set to .or2 in synchronis) .ith the latter8 an$ the -i7ration thus intensifie$ an$ s(rea$ o-er a large area8 or a flo. of electricity (ro$uce$ to or fro) the source >1 if the sa)e 7e of o((osite (hase to the source >0 , thin2 that 7eyon$ $ou7t it is (ossi7le to o(erate electrical $e-ices in a city through the groun$ or (i(e syste) 7y resonance fro) an electrical oscillator locate$ at a central (oint0 3ut the (ractical solution of this (ro7le) .oul$ 7e of inco)(ara7ly s)aller 7enefit to )an than the realiBation of the sche)e of trans)itting intelligence8 or (erha(s (o.er8 to any $istance through the earth or en-ironing )e$iu)0 ,f this is at all (ossi7le8 $istance $oes not )ean anything0 <ro(er a((aratus )ust first 7e (ro$uce$ 7y )eans of .hich the (ro7le) can 7e attac2e$ an$ , ha-e $e-ote$ )uch thought to this su7Hect0 , a) fir)ly con-ince$ that it can 7e $one an$ ho(e that .e shall li-e to see it $one0 ON T0* ':B0T 50*NOM*NA 5#O%=C*% ;@ 0:B0-7#*C=*NC@ C=##*NTS O7 0:B0 5OT*NT:A' AN% B*N*#A' #*MA#!S #*'AT:NB TO T0* S=;D*CT +eturning no. to the light effects .hich it has 7een the chief o7Hect to in-estigate8 it is thought (ro(er to $i-i$e these effects into four classesI 10 ,ncan$escence of a soli$0 !0 <hos(horescence0 30 ,ncan$escence or (hos(horescence of a rarefie$ gasJ an$ 60 #u)inosity (ro$uce$ in a gas at or$inary (ressure0 The first question isI Ho. are these lu)inous effects (ro$uce$F ,n or$er to ans.er this question as satisfactorily as , a) a7le to $o in the light of acce(te$ -ie.s an$ .ith the e'(erience acquire$8 an$ to a$$ so)e interest to this $e)onstration8 , shall $.ell here u(on a feature .hich , consi$er of great i)(ortance8 inas)uch as it (ro)ises8 7esi$es8 to thro. a 7etter light u(on the nature of )ost of the (heno)ena (ro$uce$ 7y high9frequency electric currents0 , ha-e on other occasions (ointe$ out the great i)(ortance of the (resence of the rarefie$ gas8 or ato)ic )e$iu) in general8 aroun$ the con$uctor through .hich alternate currents of high frequency are (asse$8 as regar$s the heating of the con$uctor 7y the currents0 /y e'(eri)ents8 $escri7e$ so)e ti)e ago8 ha-e sho.n that8 the higher the frequency an$ (otential $ifference of the currents8 the )ore i)(ortant 7eco)es the rarefie$ gas in .hich the con$uctor is i))erse$8 as a factor of the heating0 The (otential $ifference8 ho.e-er8 is8 as , then (ointe$ out8 a )ore i)(ortant ele)ent than the frequency0 &hen 7oth of these are sufficiently high8 the heating )ay 7e al)ost entirely $ue to the (resence of the rarefie$ gas0 The e'(eri)ents to follo. .ill sho. the i)(ortance of the rarefie$ gas8 or8 generally8 of gas at or$inary or other (ressure as regar$s the incan$escence or other lu)inous effects (ro$uce$ 7y currents of this 2in$0 , ta2e t.o or$inary 459-olt 1% C0 <0 la)(s .hich are in e-ery res(ect ali2e8 .ith the e'ce(tion8 that one has 7een o(ene$ at the to( an$ the air has fille$ the 7ul78 .hile the other is at the or$inary $egree of e'haustion of co))ercial la)(s0 &hen , attach the la)( .hich is e'hauste$ to the ter)inal of the secon$ary of the coil8 .hich , ha-e alrea$y use$8 as in e'(eri)ents illustrate$ in Fig0 14a for instance8 an$ turn on the current8 the fila)ent8 as you ha-e 7efore seen8 co)es to high incan$escence0 &hen , attach the secon$ la)(8 .hich is fille$ .ith air8 instea$ of the for)er8 the fila)ent still glo.s8 7ut )uch less 7rightly0 This e'(eri)ent illustrates only in (art the truth of the state)ents 7efore )a$e0 The i)(ortance of the fila)ent's 7eing i))erse$ in rarefie$ gas is (lainly noticea7le 7ut not to such a $egree as )ight 7e $esira7le0 The reason is that the secon$ary of this coil is .oun$ for lo. tension8 ha-ing only 145 turns8 an$ the (otential $ifference at the ter)inals of the la)( is therefore s)all0 &ere , to ta2e another coil .ith )any )ore turns in the secon$ary8 the effect .oul$ 7e increase$8 since it $e(en$s (artially on the (otential $ifference8 as 7efore re)ar2e$0 3ut since the effect li2e.ise $e(en$s on the frequency8 it )ay 7e (ro(erly state$ that it $e(en$s on the ti)e rate of the -ariation of the (otential $ifference0 The greater this -ariation8 the )ore i)(ortant 7eco)es the gas as an ele)ent of heating0 , can (ro$uce a )uch greater rate of -ariation in another .ay8 .hich8 7esi$es8 has the a$-antage of $oing a.ay .ith the o7Hections8 .hich )ight 7e )a$e in the e'(eri)ent Hust sho.n8 e-en if 7oth the la)(s .ere connecte$ in series or )ulti(le arc to the coil8 na)ely8 that in consequence of the reactions e'isting 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary coil the conclusions are ren$ere$ uncertain0 This result , secure 7y charging8 fro) an or$inary transfor)er .hich is fe$ fro) the alternating current su((ly station8 a 7attery of con$ensers8 an$ $ischarging the latter $irectly through a circuit of s)all self9in$uction8 as 7efore illustrate$ in Figs0 19a8 197 an$ 19c0
,n Figs0 !!a8 !!7 an$ !!c8 the hea-y co((er 7ars 331 are connecte$ to the o((osite coatings of a 7attery of con$ensers8 or generally in such .ay8 that the high frequency or su$$en $ischarges are )a$e to tra-erse the)0 , connect first an or$inary 459-olt incan$escent la)( to the 7ars 7y )eans of the cla)(s C C0 The $ischarges 7eingJ (asse$ through the la)(8 the fila)ent is ren$ere$ incan$escent8 though the current through it is -ery s)all8 an$ .oul$ not 7e nearly sufficient to (ro$uce a -isi7le effect un$er the con$itions of or$inary use of the la)(0 ,nstea$ of this , no. attach to the 7ars another la)( e'actly li2e the first8 7ut .ith the seal 7ro2en off8 the 7ul7 7eing therefore fille$ .ith air at or$inary (ressure0 &hen the $ischarges are $irecte$ through the fila)ent8 as 7efore8 it $oes not 7eco)e incan$escent0 3ut the result )ight still 7e attri7ute$ to one of the )any (ossi7le reactions0 , therefore connect 7oth the la)(s in )ulti(le arc as illustrate$ in Fig0 !!a0 <assing tile $ischarges through 7oth the la)(s8 again the fila)ent in the e'hauste$ la)( l glo.s -ery 7rightly .hile that in the non9 e'hauste$ la)( l1 re)ains $ar28 as (re-iously0 3ut it shoul$ not 7e thought that the latter la)( is' ta2ing only a s)all fraction of the energy su((lie$ to 7oth the la)(sJ on the contrary8 it )ay consu)e a consi$era7le (ortion of the energy an$ it )ay 7eco)e e-en hotter than the one .hich 7urns 7rightly0 ,n this e'(eri)ent the (otential $ifference at the ter)inals of the la)(s -aries in sign theoretically three to four )illion ti)es a secon$0 The en$s of the fila)ents are corres(on$ingly electrifie$8 an$ the gas in the 7ul7s is -iolently agitate$ an$ a large (ortion of the su((lie$ energy is thus con-erte$ into heat0 ,n the non9e'hauste$ 7ul78 there 7eing a fe. )illion ti)es )ore gas )olecules than in the e'hauste$ one8 the 7o)7ar$)ent8 .hich is )ost -iolent at the en$s of the fila)ent8 in the nec2 of the 7ul78 consu)es a large (ortion of the energy .ithout (ro$ucing any -isi7le effect0 The reason is that8 there 7eing )any )olecules8 the 7o)7ar$)ent is quantitati-ely consi$era7le8 7ut the in$i-i$ual i)(acts are not -ery -iolent8 as the s(ee$s of the )olecules are co)(arati-ely s)all o.ing to the s)all free (ath0 ,n the e'hauste$ 7ul78 on the contrary8 the s(ee$s are -ery great8 an$ the in$i-i$ual i)(acts are -iolent an$ therefore 7etter a$a(te$ to (ro$uce a -isi7le effect0 03esi$es8 the con-ection of heat is greater in the for)er 7ul70 ,n 7oth the 7ul7s the current tra-ersing the fila)ents is -ery s)all8 inco)(ara7ly s)aller than that .hich they require on an or$inary lo.9frequency circuit0 The (otential $ifference8 ho.e-er8 at the en$s of the fila)ents is -ery great an$ )ight 7e (ossi7ly !58555 -olts or )ore8 if the fila)ents .ere straight an$ their en$s far a(art0 ,n the or$inary la)( a s(ar2 generally occurs 7et.een the en$s of the fila)ent or 7et.een the (latinu) .ires outsi$e8 7efore such a $ifference of (otential can 7e reache$0 ,t )ight 7e o7Hecte$ that in the e'(eri)ent 7efore sho.n the la)(s8 7eing in )ulti(le arc8 the e'hauste$ la)( )ight ta2e a )uch larger current an$ that the effect o7ser-e$ )ight not 7e e'actly attri7uta7le to the action of the gas in the 7ul7s0 >uch o7Hections .ill lose )uch .eight if , connect the la)(s in series8 .ith the .ine result0 &hen this is $one an$ the $ischarges are $irecte$ through the fila)ents8 it is again note$ that the fila)ent in the non9e'hauste$ 7ul7 l8 re)ains $ar28 .hile that in the e'hauste$ one (l glo.s e-en snore intensely than un$er its nor)al con$itions of .or2ing8 Fig0 !!70 Accor$ing to general i$eas the current through the fila)ents shoul$ no. 7e the sa)e8 .ere it not )o$ifie$ 7y the (resence of the gas aroun$ the fila)ents0 At this Huncture , )ay (oint out another interesting feature8 .hich illustrates the effect of the rate of change of (otential of the currents0 , .ill lea-e the t.o la)(s connecte$ in series to the 7ars 3318 as in the (re-ious e'(eri)ent8 Fig0 !!78 7ut .ill (resently re$uce consi$era7ly the frequency of the currents8 .hich .as e'cessi-e in the e'(eri)ent Hust 7efore sho.n0 This , )ay $o 7y inserting a self9in$uction coil in the (ath of the $ischarges8 or 7y aug)enting the ca(acity of the con$ensers0 &hen , no. (ass these lo.9frequency $ischarges through the la)(s8 the e'hauste$ la)( l again is as 7right as 7efore8 7ut it is note$ also that the non9e'hauste$ la)( l1 glo.s8 though not quite as intensely as the other0 +e$ucing the current through the la)(s8 , )ay 7ring the fila)ent in the latter la)( to re$ness8 an$8 though the fila)ent in the e'hauste$ la)( l is 7right8 Fig0 !!c8 the
$egree of its incan$escence is )uch s)aller than in Fig0 !!7J .hen the currents .ere of a )uch higher frequency0 ,n these e'(eri)ents the gas acts in t.o o((osite .ays in $eter)ining the $egree of the incan$escence of the fila)ents8 that is8 7y con-ection an$ 7o)7ar$)ent0 The higher the frequency an$ (otential of the currents8 the )ore i)(ortant 7eco)es the 7o)7ar$)ent0 The con-ection on the contrary shoul$ 7e the s)aller8 the higher the frequency0 &hen the currents are stea$y there is (ractically no 7o)7ar$)ent8 an$ con-ection )ay therefore .ith such currents also consi$era7ly )o$ify the $egree of incan$escence an$ (ro$uce results si)ilar to those Hust 7efore sho.n0 Thus8 it t.o la)(s e'actly ali2e8 one e'hauste$ an$ one not e'hauste$8 are connecte$ in )ulti(le arc or series to a $irect9current )achine8 the fila)ent in the non9e'hauste$ la)( .ill require a consi$era7ly greater current to 7e ren$ere$ incan$escent0 This result is entirely $ue to con-ection8 an$ the effect is the )ore (ro)inent the thinner the fila)ent0
<rofessor Ayrton an$ /r0 :ilgour so)e ti)e ago (u7lishe$ quantitati-e results concerning the ther)al e)issi-ity 7y ra$iation an$ con-ection in .hich the effect .ith thin .ires .as clearly sho.n0 This effect )ay 7e stri2ingly illustrate$ 7y (re(aring a nu)7er of s)all8 short8 glass tu7es8 each containing through its a'is the thinnest o7taina7le (latinu) .ire0 ,f these tu7es 7e highly e'hauste$8 a nu)7er of the) )ay 7e connecte$ in )ulti(le arc to a $irect9current )achine an$ all of the .ires )ay 7e 2e(t at incan$escence .ith a s)aller current than that require$ to ren$er incan$escent a single one of the .ires if the tu7e 7e not e'hauste$0 Coul$ the tu7es 7e so highly e'hauste$ that con-ection .oul$ 7e nil8 then the relati-e a)ounts of heat gi-en off 7y con-ection an$ ra$iation coul$ 7e $eter)ine$ .ithout the $ifficulties atten$ing ther)al quantitati-e )easure)ents0 ,f a source of electric i)(ulses of high frequency an$ -ery high (otential is e)(loye$8 a still greater nu)7er of the tu7es )ay 7e ta2en an$ the .ires ren$ere$ incan$escent 7y a current not ca(a7le of .ar)ing (erce(ti7ly a .ire of the sa)e siBe i))erse$ in air at or$inary (ressure8 an$ con-eying the energy to all of the)0 , )ay here $escri7e a result .hich is still )ore interesting8 an$ to .hich , ha-e 7een le$ 7y the o7ser-ation of these (heno)ena0 , note$ that s)all $ifferences in the $ensity of the air (ro$uce$ a consi$era7le $ifference in the $egree of incan$escence of the .ires8 an$ , thought that8 since in a tu7e8 through .hich a lu)inous $ischarge is (asse$8 tile gas is generally not of unifor) $ensity8 a -ery thin .ire containe$ in the tu7e )ight 7e ren$ere$ incan$escent at certain (laces of s)aller $ensity of the gas8 .hile it .oul$ re)ain $ar2 at the (laces of greater $ensity8 .here the con-ection .oul$ 7e greater an$ the 7o)7ar$)ent less intense0 Accor$ingly a tu7e t .as (re(are$8 as illustrate$ in Fig0 !38 .hich containe$ through the )i$$le a -ery fine (latinu) .ire .0 The tu7e .as e'hauste$ to a )o$erate $egree an$ it .as foun$ that .hen it .as attache$ to the ter)inal of a high9 frequency coil the (latinu) .ire .8 .oul$ in$ee$8 7eco)e incan$escent in (atches8 as illustrate$ in Fig0 !30 #ater a nu)7er of these tu7es .ith one or )ore .ires .ere (re(are$8 each sho.ing this result0 The effect .as 7est note$ .hen the striate$ $ischarge occurre$ in the tu7e8 7ut .as also (ro$uce$ .hen the striae .ere not -isi7le8 sho.ing that8 e-en then8 the gas in the tu7e .as8 not or unifor) $ensity0 The (osition of the striae .as generally such8 that the rarefactions corres(on$e$ to the (laces of incan$escence or greater 7rightness on the .ire .0 3ut in a fe. instances it .as note$8 that the 7right s(ots on the .ire .ere co-ere$ 7y the $ense (arts of the striate$ $ischarge as in$icate$ 7y l in Fig0 !38 though the effect .as 7arely (erce(ti7le0 This .as e'(laine$ in a (lausi7le .ay 7y assu)ing that the con-ection .as not .i$ely $ifferent in the $ense an$ rarefie$ (laces8 an$ that the 7o)7ar$)ent .as greater on the $ense (laces of the striate$ $ischarge0 ,t is8 in fact8 often o7ser-e$ in 7ul7s8 that un$er certain con$itions a thin .ire is 7rought to higher incan$escence .hen the air is not too highly rarefie$0 This is the case .hen the (otential of the coil is not high enough for the -acuu)8 7ut the result )ay 7e attri7ute$ to )any $ifferent causes0 ,n all cases this curious (heno)enon of incan$escence $isa((ears .hen the tu7e8 or rather the .ire8 acquires throughout a unifor) te)(erature0
=isregar$ing no. the )o$ifying effect of con-ection there are then t.o $istinct causes .hich $eter)ine the incan$escence of a .ire or fila)ent .ith -arying currents8 that is8 con$uction current an$ 7o)7ar$)ent0 &ith stea$y currents .e ha-e to $eal only .ith the for)er of these t.o causes8 an$ the heating effect is a )ini)u)8 since the resistance is least to stea$y flo.0 &hen the current is a -arying one the resistance is greater8 an$ hence the heating effect is increase$0 Thus if the rate of change of the current is -ery great8 the resistance )ay increase to such an e'tent that the fila)ent is 7rought to incan$escence .ith ina((recia7le currents8 an$ .e are a7le to ta2e a short an$ thic2 7loc2 of car7on or other )aterial an$ 7ri)8 it to 7right incan$escence .ith a current inco)(ara7ly s)aller than that require$ to 7ring to the sa)e $euce of incan$escence an or$inary thin la)( fila)ent .ith a stea$y or lo. frequency current0 This result is i)(ortant8 an$ illustrates ho. ra(i$ly our -ie.s on these su7Hects are changing8 an$ ho. quic2ly our fiel$ of 2no.le$ge is e'ten$ing0 ,n the art of incan$escent lighting8 to -ie. this result in one as(ect only8 it has 7een co))only consi$ere$ as an essential require)ent for (ractical success8 that the la)( fila)ent shoul$ 7e thin an$ of high resistance0 3ut no. .e 2no. that the resistance of the fila)ent to the stea$y flo. $oes not )ean anythingJ the fila)ent )ight as .ell 7e short an$ thic2J for if it 7e i))erse$ in rarefie$ gas it .ill 7eco)e incan$escent 7y the (assage of a s)all current0 ,t all $e(en$s on the frequency an$ (otential of the currents0 &e )ay conclu$e fro) this8 that it .oul$ 7e of a$-antage8 so far as the la)( is consi$ere$8 to e)(loy high frequencies for lighting8 as they allo. the use of short an$ thic2 fila)ents an$ s)aller currents0
,f a .ire or fila)ent 7e i))erse$ in a ho)ogeneous )e$iu)8 all the heating is $ue to true con$uction current8 7ut if it 7e enclose$ in an e'hauste$ -essel the con$itions are entirely $ifferent0 Here the gas 7egins to act an$ the heating effect of the con$uction current8 as is sho.n in )any e'(eri)ents8 )ay 7e -ery s)all co)(are$ .ith that of the 7o)7ar$)ent0 This is es(ecially the case if the circuit is not close$ an$ the (otentials are of course -ery high0 >u((ose that a fine fila)ent enclose$ in an e'hauste$ -essel 7e connecte$ .ith one of its en$s to the ter)inal of a high tension coil an$ .ith its other en$ to a large insulate$ (late0 Though the circuit is not close$8 the fila)ent8 as , ha-e 7efore sho.n8 is 7rought to incan$escence0 ,f the frequency an$ (otential 7e co)(arati-ely lo.8 the fila)ent is heate$ 7y the current (assing through it0 ,f the frequency an$ (otential8 an$ (rinci(ally the latter8 7e increase$8 the insulate$ (late nee$ 7e 7ut -ery s)all8 or )ay 7e $one a.ay .ith entirelyJ stillI the fila)ent .ill 7eco)e incan$escent8 (ractically all the heating 7eing then $ue to the 7o)7ar$)ent0 A (ractical .ay of co)7ining 7oth the effects of con$uction currents an$ 7o)7ar$)ent is ,llustrate$ in Fig0 !68 in .hich an or$inary la)( is sho.n (ro-i$e$ .ith a -ery thin fila)ent .hich has one of the en$s of the latter connecte$ to a sha$e ser-ing the (ur(ose of the insulate$ (late8 an$ the other en$ to the ter)inal of a high tension source0 ,t shoul$ not 7e thought that only rarefie$ gas is an i)(ortant factor in the heating of a con$uctor
7y -arying currents8 7ut gas at or$inary (ressure )ay 7eco)e i)(ortant8 if the (otential $ifference an$ frequency of the currents is e'cessi-e0 ;n this su7Hect , ha-e alrea$y state$8 that .hen a con$uctor is fuse$ 7y a stro2e of lightning8 the current through it )ay 7e e'cee$ingly s)all8 not e-en sufficient to heat the con$uctor (erce(ti7ly8 .ere0 the latter i))erse$ in a ho)ogeneous )e$iu)0 Fro) the (rece$ing it is clear that .hen a con$uctor of high resistance is connecte$ to the ter)inals of a source of high frequency currents of high (otential8 there )ay occur consi$era7le $issi(ation of energy8 (rinci(ally at the en$s of the con$uctor8 in consequence of the action of the gas surroun$ing the con$uctor0 ;.ing to this8 the current through a section of the con$uctor at a (oint )i$.ay 7et.een its en$s )ay 7e )uch s)aller than through a section near the en$s0 Further)ore8 the current (asses (rinci(ally through the outer (ortions of the con$uctor8 7ut this effect is to 7e $istinguishe$ fro) the s2in effect as or$inarily inter(rete$8 for the latter .oul$8 or shoul$8 occur also in a continuous inco)(ressi7le )e$iu)0 ,f a great )any incan$escent la)(s are connecte$ in series to a source of such currents8 the la)(s at the en$s )ay 7urn 7rightly8 .hereas those in the )i$$le )ay re)ain entirely $ar20 This is $ue (rinci(ally to 7o)7ar$)ent8 as 7efore state$0 3ut e-en if the currents 7e stea$y8 (ro-i$e$ the $ifference of (otential is -ery great8 the la)(s at the en$ .ill 7urn )ore 7rightly than those in the )i$$le0 ,n such case there is no rhyth)ical 7o)7ar$)ent8 an$ the result is (ro$uce$ entirely 7y lea2age0 This lea2age or $issi(ation into s(ace .hen the tension is high8 is consi$era7le .hen incan$escent la)(s are use$8 an$ still )ore consi$era7le .ith arcs8 for the latter act li2e fla)es0 Generally8 of course8 the $issi(ation is )uch s)aller .ith stea$y8 than .ith -arying8 currents0 , ha-e contri-e$ an e'(eri)ent .hich illustrates in an interesting )anner the effect of lateral $iffusion0 ,f a -ery long tu7e is attache$ to the ter)inal of a high frequency coil8 the lu)inosity is greatest near the ter)inal an$ falls off gra$ually to.ar$s the re)ote en$0 This is )ore )ar2e$ if the tu7e is narro.0 A s)all tu7e a7out one9half inch in $ia)eter an$ t.el-e inches long (Fig0 !4 8 has one of its en$s $ra.n out into a fine fi7re f nearly three feet long0 The tu7e is (lace$ in a 7rass soc2et T .hich can 7e scre.e$ on the ter)inal T1 of the in$uction coil0 The $ischarge (assing through the tu7e first illu)inates the 7otto) of the sa)e8 .hich is of co)(arati-ely large sectionJ 7ut through the long glass fi7re the $ischarge cannot (ass0 3ut gra$ually the rarefie$ gas insi$e 7eco)es .ar)e$ an$ )ore con$ucting an$ the $ischarge s(rea$s into the glass fi7re0 This s(rea$ing is so slo.8 that it )ay ta2e half a )inute or )ore until the $ischarge has .or2e$ through u( to the to( of the glass fi7re8 then (resenting the a((earance of a strongly lu)inous thin threa$0 3y a$Husting the (otential at the ter)inal the light )ay 7e )a$e to tra-el u(.ar$s at any s(ee$0 ;nce8 ho.e-er8 the glass fi7re is heate$8 the $ischarge 7rea2s through its entire length instantly0 The interesting (oint to 7e note$ is that8 the higher the frequency of the currents8 or in other .or$s8 the greater relati-ely the lateral $issi(ation8 at a slo.er rate )ay the light 7e )a$e to (ro(agate through the fi7re0 This e'(eri)ent is 7est (erfor)e$ .ith a highly e'hauste$ an$ freshly )a$e tu7e0 &hen the tu7e has 7een use$ for so)e ti)e the e'(eri)ent often fails0 ,t is (ossi7le that the gra$ual an$ slo. i)(air)ent of the -acuu) is the cause0 This slo. (ro(agation of the $ischarge through a -ery narro. glass tu7e corres(on$s e'actly to the (ro(agation of heat through a 7ar .ar)e$ at one en$0 The quic2er the heat is carrie$ a.ay laterally the longer ti)e it .ill ta2e for the heat to .ar) the re)ote en$0 &hen the current of a lo. frequency coil is (asse$ through the fi7re fro) en$ to en$8 then the lateral $issi(ation is s)all an$ the $ischarge instantly 7rea2s through al)ost .ithout e'ce(tion0
After these e'(eri)ents an$ o7ser-ations .hich ha-e sho.n the i)(ortance of the $iscontinuity or ato)ic structure of the )e$iu) an$ .hich .ill ser-e to e'(lain8 in a )easure at least8 the nature of the four 2in$s of light effects (ro$uci7le .ith these currents8 , )ay no. gi-e you an illustration of these effects0 For the sa2e of interest , )ay $o this in a )anner .hich to )any of you )ight 7e no-el0 Dou ha-e seenI 7efore that .e )ay no. con-ey the electric -i7ration to a 7o$y 7y )eans of a single .ire or con$uctor of any hin$0 >ince the hu)an fra)e is con$ucting , )ay con-ey the -i7ration through )y 7o$y0 First8 as in so)e (re-ious e'(eri)ents8 , connect )y 7o$y .ith one of the ter)inals of a high9tension transfor)er an$ ta2e in )y han$ an e'hauste$ 7ul7 .hich contains a s)all car7on 7utton )ounte$ u(on a (latinu) .ire lea$ing to the outsi$e of the 7ul78 an$ the 7utton is ren$ere$ incan$escent as soon as the transfor)er is set to .or2 (Fig0 !% 0 , )ay (lace a con$ucting sha$e on the 7ul7 .hich ser-es to intensify the action8 7ut it is not necessary0 1or is it require$ that the 7utton shoul$ 7e in con$ucting connection .ith the han$ through a .ire lea$ing through the glass8 for sufficient energy )ay 7e trans)itte$ through the glass itself 7y in$ucti-e action to ren$er the 7utton incan$escent0 1e't , ta2e a highly e'hauste$ 7ul7 containing a strongly (hos(horescent 7o$y8 a7o-e .hich is )ounte$ a s)all (late of alu)iniu) on a (latinu) .ire lea$ing to the outsi$e8 an$ the currents flo.ing through )y 7o$y e'cite intense (hos(horescence in the 7ul7 (Fig0 !* 0 1e't again , ta2e in )y han$ a si)(le e'hauste$ tu7e8 an$ in the sa)e )anner the gas insi$e the tu7e is ren$ere$ highly incan$escent or (hos(horescent (Fig0 !8 0 Finally8 , )ay ta2e in )y han$ a .ire8 7are or co-ere$ .ith thic2 insulation8 it is quite i))aterialJ the electrical -i7ration is so intense as to co-er the .ire .ith a lu)inous fil) (Fig0 !9 0
A fe. .or$s )ust no. 7e $e-ote$ to each of these (heno)ena0 ,n the first (lace8 , .ill consi$er the incan$escence of a 7utton or of a soli$ in general8 an$ $.ell u(on so)e facts .hich a((ly equally to all these (heno)ena0 ,t .as (ointe$ out 7efore that .hen a thin con$uctor8 such as a la)( fila)ent8 for instance8 is connecte$ .ith one of its en$s to the ter)inal of a transfor)er of high tension the fila)ent is 7rought to incan$escence (artly 7y a con$uction current an$ (artly 7y 7o)7ar$)ent0 The shorter an$ thic2er the fila)ent the )ore i)(ortant 7eco)es the latter8 an$ finally8 re$ucing the fila)ent to a )ere 7utton8 all the heating )ust (ractically 7e attri7ute$ to the 7o)7ar$)ent0 >o in the e'(eri)ent 7efore sho.n8 the 7utton is ren$ere$ incan$escent 7y the rhyth)ical i)(act of freely )o-a7le s)all 7o$ies in the 7ul70 These 7o$ies )ay 7e the
)olecules of the resi$ual gas8 (articles of $ust or lu)(s torn fro) the electro$eJ .hate-er they are8 it is certain that the heating of the 7utton is essentially connecte$ .ith the (ressure of such freely )o-a7le (articles8 or of ato)ic )atter in general in the 7ul70 The heating is the )ore intense the greater the nu)7er of i)(acts (er secon$ an$ the greater the energy of each i)(act0 Det the 7utton .oul$ 7e heate$ also if it .ere connecte$ to a source of a stea$y (otential0 ,n such a case electricity )oul$ 7e carrie$ a.ay fro) the 7utton 7y the freely )o-a7le carriers or (articles flying a7out8 an$ the quantity of electricity thus carrie$ a.ay )ight 7e sufficient to 7ring the 7utton to incan$escence 7y its (assage through the latter0 3ut the 7o)7ar$)ent coul$ not 7e of great i)(ortance in such case0 For this reason it .oul$ require a co)(arati-ely -ery great su((ly of energy to the 7utton to )aintain it at incan$escence .ith a stea$y (otential0 The higher the frequency of the electric i)(ulses the )ore econo)ically can the 7utton 7e )aintaine$ at incan$escence0 ;ne of the chief reasons .hy this is so8 is8 , 7elie-e8 that .ith i)(ulses of -ery high frequency there is less e'change of the freely )o-a7le carriers aroun$ the electro$e an$ this )eans8 that in the 7ul7 the heate$ )atter is 7etter confine$ to the neigh7ourhoo$ of the 7utton0 ,f a $ou7le 7ul78 as illustrate$ in Fig0 35 7e )a$e8 co)(rising a large glo7e 3 an$ a s)all one 78 each containing as usual a fila)ent f )ounte$ on a (latinu) .ire . an$ .1 it is foun$8 that if the fila)ents f f 7e e'actly ali2e8 it requires less energy to 2ee( the fila)ent in the glo7e 7 at a certain $egree of incan$escence8 than that in the glo7e 30 This is $ue to the confine)ent of the )o-a7le (articles aroun$ the 7utton0 ,n this case it is also ascertaine$8 that the fila)ent in the s)all glo7e 7 is less $eteriorate$ .hen )aintaine$ a certain length of ti)e at incan$escence0 This is a necessary consequence of the fact that the gas in the s)all 7ul7 7eco)es strongly heate$ an$ therefore a -ery goo$ con$uctor8 an$ less .or2 is then (erfor)e$ on the 7utton8 since the 7o)7ar$)ent 7eco)es less intense as the con$ucti-ity of the gas increases0 ,n this construction8 of course8 the s)all 7ul7 7eco)es -ery hot an$ .hen it reaches an ele-ate$ te)(erature the con-ection an$ ra$iation on the outsi$e increase0 ;n another occasion , ha-e sho.n 7ul7s in .hich this $ra.7ac2 .as largely a-oi$e$0 ,n these instances a -ery s)all 7ul78 containing a refractory 7utton8 .as )ounte$ in a large glo7e an$ the s(ace 7et.een the .alls of 7oth .as highly e'hauste$0 The outer large glo7e re)aine$ co)(arati-ely cool in such constructions8 &hen the large glo7e .as on the (u)( an$ the -acuu) 7et.een the .alls )aintaine$ (er)anent 7y the continuous action of the (u)(8 the outer glo7e .oul$ re)ain quite col$8 .hile the 7utton in the s)all 7ul7 .as 2e(t at incan$escence0 3ut .hen the seal .as )a$e8 an$ the 7utton in the s)all 7ul7 )aintaine$ incan$escent so)e length of ti)e8 the large glo7e too .oul$ 7eco)e .ar)e$0 Fro) this , conHecture that if -acuous s(ace (as <rof0 =e.ar fin$s cannot con-ey heat8 it is so )erely in -irtue of our ra(i$ )otion through s(ace or8 generally s(ea2ing8 7y the )otion of the )e$iu) relati-ely to us8 for a (er)anent con$ition coul$ not 7e )aintaine$ .ithout the )e$iu) 7eing constantly rene.e$0 A -acuu) cannot8 accor$ing to all e-i$ence8 7e (er)anently )aintaine$ aroun$ a hot 7o$y0
,n these constructions8 7efore )entione$8 the s)all 7ul7 insi$e .oul$8 at least in the first stages8 (re-ent all 7o)7ar$)ent against the outer large glo7e0 ,t occurre$ to )e then to ascertain ho. a )etal sie-e .oul$ 7eha-e in this res(ect8 an$ se-eral 7ul7s8 as illustrate$ in Fig0 318 .ere (re(are$ for this (ur(ose0 ,n a glo7e 78 .as )ounte$ a thin fila)ent f (or 7utton u(on a (latinu) .ire . (assing through a glass ste) an$ lea$ing to the outsi$e of the glo7e0 The fila)ent f .as surroun$e$ 7y a )etal sie-e s0 ,t .as foun$ in e'(eri)ents .ith such 7ul7s that a sie-e .ith .i$e )eshes a((arently $i$ not in the slightest affect the 7o)7ar$)ent against the glo7e 70 &hen the -acuu) .as high8 the sha$o. of the sie-e .as clearly (roHecte$ against the glo7e an$ the latter .oul$ get hot in a short .hile0 ,n so)e 7ul7s the sie-e 8- .as connecte$ to a (latinu) .ire seale$ in the glass0 &hen this .ire .as connecte$ to the other ter)inal of the in$uction coil (the "0 /0 F0 7eing 2e(t lo. in this case 8 or to an insulate$ (late8 the 7o)7ar$)ent against the outer glo7e 7 .as $i)inishe$0 3y ta2ing a sie-e .ith fine
)eshes the 7o)7ar$)ent against the glo7e 7 .as al.ays $i)inishe$8 7ut e-en then if the e'haustion .as carrie$ -ery far8 an$ .hen the (otential of the transfor)er .as -ery high8 the glo7e 7 .oul$ 7e 7o)7ar$e$ an$ heate$ quic2ly8 though no sha$o. of the sie-e .as -isi7le8 o.ing to the s)allness of the )eshes0 3ut a glass tu7e or other continuous 7o$y )ounte$ so as to surroun$ the fila)ent8 $i$ entirely cut off the 7o)7ar$)ent an$ for a .hile the outer glo7e 7 .oul$ re)ain (erfectly col$0 ;f course .hen the glass tu7e .as sufficiently heate$ the 7o)7ar$)ent against the outer glo7e coul$ 7e note$ at once0 The e'(eri)ents .ith these 7ul7s see)e$ to sho. that the s(ee$s of the (roHecte$ )olecules or (articles )ust 7e consi$era7le (though quite insignificant .hen co)(are$ .ith that of light 8 other.ise it .oul$ 7e $ifficult to un$erstan$ ho. they coul$ tra-erse a fine )etal sie-e .ithout 7eing affecte$8 unless it .ere foun$ that such s)all (articles or ato)s cannot 7e acte$ u(on $irectly at )easura7le $istances0 ,n regar$ to the s(ee$ of the (roHecte$ ato)s8 #or$ :el-in has recently esti)ate$ it at a7out one 2ilo)etre a secon$ or therea7outs in an or$inary Croo2es 7ul70 As the (otentials o7taina7le .ith a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil are )uch higher than .ith or$inary coils8 the s(ee$s )ust8 of course8 7e )uch greater .hen the 7ul7s are lighte$ fro) such a coil0 Assu)ing the s(ee$ to 7e as high as fi-e 2ilo)etres an$ unifor) through the .hole traHectory8 as it shoul$ 7e in a -ery highly e'hauste$ -essel8 then if the alternate electrifications of the electro$e .oul$ 7e of a frequency of fi-e )illion8 the greatest $istance a (article coul$ get a.ay fro) the electro$e .oul$ 7e one )illi)etre8 an$ if it coul$ 7e acte$ u(on $irectly at that $istance8 the e'change of electro$e )atter or of the ato)s .oul$ 7e -ery slo. an$ there .oul$ 7e (ractically no 7o)7ar$)ent against the 7ul70 This at least shoul$ 7e so8 if the action of an electro$e u(on the ato)s of the resi$ual gas .oul$ 7e such as u(on electrifie$ 7o$ies .hich .e can (ercei-e0 A hot 7o$y enclose$ in a n e'hauste$ 7ul7 (ro$uces al.ays ato)ic 7o)7ar$)ent8 7ut a hot 7o$y has no $efinite rhyth)8 for its )olecules (erfor) -i7rations of all 2in$s0 ,f a 7ul7 containing a 7utton or fila)ent 7e e'hauste$ as high as is (ossi7le .ith tile greatest care an$ 7y the use of the 7est artifices8 it is often o7ser-e$ that the $ischarge cannot8 at first8 7rea2 through8 7ut after so)e ti)e8 (ro7a7ly in consequence of so)e changes .ithin the 7ul78 the $ischarge finally (asses through an$ the 7utton is ren$ere$ incan$escent0 ,n fact8 it a((ears that the higher the $egree of e'haustion the easier is the incan$escence (ro$uce$0 There see) to 7e no other causes to .hich the incan$escence )ight 7e attri7ute$ in such case e'ce(t to the 7o)7ar$)ent or si)ilar action of the resi$ual gas8 or of (articles of )atter in general0 3ut if the 7ul7 7e e'hauste$ .ith the greatest care can these (lay an i)(ortant (artF Assu)e the -acuu) in the 7ul7 to 7e tolera7ly (erfect8 the great interest then centres in the questionI ,s the )e$iu) .hich (er-a$es all s(ace continuous or ato)icF ,f ato)ic8 then the heating of a con$ucting 7utton or fila)ent in an e'hauste$ -essel )ight 7e $ue largely to ether 7o)7ar$)ent8 an$ then the heating of a con$uctor in general through .hich currents of high frequency or high (otential are (asse$ )ust 7e )o$ifie$ 7y the 7eha-iour of such )e$iu)J then also the s2in effect8 the a((arent increase of the oh)ic resistance8 etc08 a$)it8 (artially at least8 of a $ifferent e'(lanation0 ,t is certainly )ore in accor$ance .ith )any (heno)ena o7ser-e$ .ith high frequency currents to hol$ that all s(ace is (er-a$e$ .ith free ato)s8 rather than to assu)e that it is $e-oi$ of these8 an$ $ar2 an$ col$8 for so it )ust 7e8 if fille$ .ith a continuous )e$iu)8 since in such there can 7e neither heat nor light0 ,s then energy trans)itte$ 7y in$e(en$ent carriers or 7y the -i7ration of a continuous )e$iu)F This i)(ortant question is 7y no )eans as yet (ositi-ely ans.ere$0 3ut )ost of the effects .hich are here consi$ere$8 es(ecially the light effects8 incan$escence8 or (hos(horescence8 in-ol-e the (resence of free ato)s an$ .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7le .ithout these0 ,n regar$ to the incan$escence of a refractory 7utton (or fila)ent in an e'hauste$ recei-er8 .hich has 7een one of the su7Hects of this in-estigation8 the chief e'(eriences8 .hich )ay ser-e as a gui$e in constructing such 7ul7s8 )ay 7e su))e$ u( as follo.sI 10 The 7utton shoul$ 7e as s)all as (ossi7le8 s(herical8 of a s)ooth or (olishe$ surface8 an$ of refractory )aterial .hich .ithstan$s e-a(oration 7est0 !0 The su((ort of the 7utton shoul$ 7e -ery thin an$ screene$ 7y an alu)iniu) an$ )ica sheet8 as , ha-e $escri7e$ on another occasion0 30 The e'haustion of the 7ul7 shoul$ 7e as high as (ossi7le0 60 The frequency of the currents shoul$ 7e as high as (ractica7le0 40 The currents shoul$ 7e of a har)onic rise an$ fall8 .ithout su$$en interru(tions0 %0 The heat shoul$ 7e confine$ to the 7utton 7y inclosing the sa)e in a s)all 7ul7 or other.ise0 *0 The s(ace 7et.een the .alls of the s)all 7ul7 an$ the outer glo7e shoul$ 7e highly e'hauste$0 /ost of the consi$erations .hich a((ly to the incan$escence of a soli$ Hust consi$ere$ )ay li2e.ise 7e a((lie$ to (hos(horescence0 ,n$ee$8 in an e'hauste$ -essel the (hos(horescence is8 as a rule8 (ri)arily e'cite$ 7y the (o.erful 7eating of the electro$e strea) of ato)s against the (hos(horescent 7o$y0 "-en in )any cases8 .here there is no e-i$ence of such a 7o)7ar$)ent8 , thin2 that (hos(horescence is e'cite$ 7y -iolent i)(acts of ato)s8 .hich are not necessarily thro.n off fro) the electro$e 7ut are acte$ u(on fro) the sa)e in$ucti-ely through the )e$iu) or through chains of other ato)s0 That )echanical shoc2s (lay an i)(ortant (art in e'citing
(hos(horescence in a 7ul7 )ay 7e seen fro) the follo.ing e'(eri)ent0 ,f a 7ul78 constructe$ as that illustrate$ in Fig0 158 7e ta2en an$ e'hauste$ .ith the greatest care so that the $ischarge cannot (ass8 the fila)ent facts 7y electrostatic in$uction u(on the tu7e t an$ the latter is set in -i7ration0 ,f the tu7e o 7e rather .i$e8 a7out an inch or so8 the fila)ent )ay 7e so (o.erfully -i7rate$ that .hene-er it hits the glass tu7e it e'cites (hos(horescence0 3ut the (hos(horescence ceases .hen the fila)ent co)es to rest0 The -i7ration can 7e arreste$ an$ again starte$ 7y -arying the frequency of the currents0 1o. the fila)ent has its o.n (erio$ of -i7ration8 an$ if the frequency of the currents is such that there is resonance8 it is easily set -i7rating8 though the (otential of the currents 7e s)all0 , ha-e often o7ser-e$ that the fila)ent in the 7ul7 is $estroye$ 7y such )echanical resonance0 The fila)ent -i7rates as a rule so ra(i$ly that it cannot 7e seen an$ the e'(eri)enter )ay at first 7e )ystifie$0 &hen such an e'(eri)ent as the one $escri7e$ is carefully (erfor)e$8 the (otential of the currents nee$ 7e e'tre)ely s)all8 an$ for this reason , infer that the (hos(horescence is then $ue to the )echanical shoc2 of the fila)ent against the glass8 Hust as it is (ro$uce$ 7y stri2ing a loaf of sugar .ith a 2nife0 The )echanical shoc2 (ro$uce$ 7y the (roHecte$ ato)s is easily note$ .hen a 7ul7 containing a 7utton is gras(e$ in the han$ an$ the current turne$ on su$$enly0 , 7elie-e that a 7ul7 coul$ 7e shattere$ 7y o7ser-ing the con$itions of resonance0
,n the e'(eri)ent 7efore cite$ it is8 of course8 o(en to say8 that the glass tu7e8 u(on co)ing in contact .ith the fila)ent8 retains a charge of a certain sign u(on the (oint of contact0 ,f no. the fila)ent )ain touches the glass at the sa)e (oint .hile it is o((ositely charge$8 the charges equaliBe un$er e-olution of light0 3ut nothing of i)(ortance .oul$ 7e gaine$ 7y such an e'(lanation0 ,t is unquestiona7le that the initial charges gi-en to the ato)s or to the glass (lay so)e (art in e'citing (hos(horescence0 >o for instance8 if a (hos(horescent 7ul7 7e first e'cite$ 7y a high frequency coil 7y connecting it to one of the ter)inals of the latter an$ the $egree of lu)inosity 7e note$ an$ then the 7ul7 7e highly charge$ fro) a HoltB )achine 7y attaching it (refera7ly to the (ositi-e ter)inal of the )achine8 it is foun$ that .hen the 7ul7 is again connecte$ to the ter)inal of the high frequency coil8 the (hos(horescence is far )ore intense0 ;n another occasion , ha-e consi$ere$ the (ossi7ility of so)e (hos(horescent (heno)ena in 7ul7s 7eing (ro$uce$ 7y the incan$escence of an infinitesi)al layer on the surface of the (hos(horescent 7o$y0 Certainly the i)(act of the ato)s is (o.erful enough to (ro$uce intense incan$escence 7y the collisions8 since they 7ring quic2ly to a high te)(erature a 7o$y of consi$era7le 7ul20 ,f any such effect e'ists8 then the 7est a((liance for (ro$ucing (hos(horescence in a 7ul78 .hich .e 2no. so far8 is a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil gi-ing an enor)ous (otential .ith 7ut fe. fun$a)ental $ischarges8 say !4935 (er secon$8 Hust enough to (ro$uce a continuous i)(ression u(on the eye0 ,t is a fact that such a coil e'cites (hos(horescence un$er al)ost any con$ition an$ at all $egrees of e'haustion8 an$ , ha-e o7ser-e$ effectJ .hich a((ear to 7e $ue to (hos(horescence e-en at or$inary (ressures of the at)os(here8 .hen the (otentials are e'tre)ely high0 3ut if (hos(horescent light is (ro$uce$ 7y the equaliBation of charges of electrifie$ ato)s (.hate-er this )ay )ean ulti)ately 8 then the higher the frequency of the i)(ulses or alternate electrifications8 the )ore econo)ical .ill 7e the light (ro$uction0 ,t is a long 2no.n an$ note.orthy fact that all the (hos(horescent 7o$ies are (oor con$uctors of electricity an$ heat8 an$ that all 7o$ies cease to e)it (hos(horescent light .hen they are 7rought to a certain te)(erature0 Con$uctors on the contrary $o not (ossess this quality0 There are 7ut fe. e'ce(tions to the rule0 Car7on is one of the)0 3ecquerel note$ that car7on (hos(horesces at a certain ele-ate$ te)(erature (rece$ing the $ar2 re$0 This (heno)enon )ay 7e easily o7ser-e$ in 7ul7s (ro-i$e$ .ith a rather large car7on electro$e (say8 a s(here of si' )illi)etres $ia)eter 0 ,f the current is turne$ on after a fe. secon$s8 a sno. .hite fil) co-ers the electro$e8 Hust 7efore it 7ets $ar2
re$0 >i)ilar effects are note$ .ith other con$ucting 7o$ies8 7ut )any scientific )en .ill (ro7a7ly not attri7ute the) to true (hos(horescence0 &hether true incan$escence has anything to $o .ith (hos(horescence e'cite$ 7y ato)ic i)(act or )echanical shoc2s still re)ains to 7e $eci$e$8 7ut it is a fact that all con$itions8 .hich ten$ to localiBe an$ increase the heating effect at the (oint of i)(act8 are al)ost in-aria7ly the )ost fa-oura7le for the (ro$uction of (hos(horescence0 >o8 if the electro$e 7e -ery s)all8 .hich is equi-alent to saying in general8 that the electric $ensity is greatJ if the (otential 7e high8 an$ if the gas 7e highly rarefie$8 all of .hich things i)(ly high s(ee$ of the (roHecte$ ato)s8 or )atter8 an$ consequently -iolent i)(actsKthe (hos(horescence is -ery intense0 ,f a 7ul7 (ro-i$e$ .ith a large an$ s)all electro$e 7e attache$ to the ter)inal of an in$uction coil8 the s)all electro$e e'cites (hos(horescence .hile the large one )ay not $o so8 7ecause of the s)aller electric $ensity an$ hence s)aller s(ee$ of the ato)s0 A 7ul7 (ro-i$e$ .ith a large electro$e )ay 7e gras(e$ .ith the han$ .hile the electro$e is connecte$ to the ter)inal of the coil an$ it )ay not (hos(horesceJ 7ut if instea$ of gras(ing the 7ul7 .ith the han$8 the sa)e 7e touche$ .ith a (ointe$ .ire8 the (hos(horescence at once s(rea$s through the 7ul78 7ecause of the great $ensity at the (oint of contact0 &ith lo. frequencies it see)s that gases of great ato)ic .eight e'cite )ore intense (hos(horescence than those of s)aller .eight8 as for instance8 hy$rogen0 &ith high frequencies the o7ser-ations are not sufficiently relia7le to $ra. a conclusion0 ;'ygen8 as is .ell92no.n8 (ro$uces e'ce(tionally strong effects8 .hich )ay 7e in (art $ue to che)ical action0 A 7ul7 .ith hy$rogen resi$ue see)s to 7e )ost easily e'cite$0 "lectro$es .hich are )ost easily $eteriorate$ (ro$uce )ore intense (hos(horescence in 7ul7s8 7ut the con$ition is not (er)anent 7ecause of the i)(air)ent of the -acuu) an$ the $e(osition of the electro$e )atter u(on the (hos(horescent surfaces0 >o)e liqui$s8 as oils8 for instance8 (ro$uce )agnificent effects of (hos(horescence (or fluorescenceF 8 7ut they last only a fe. secon$s0 >o if a 7ul7 has a trace of oil on the .alls an$ the current is turne$ on8 the (hos(horescence only (ersists for a fe. )o)ents until the oil is carrie$ a.ay0 ;f all 7o$ies so far trie$8 sul(hi$e of Binc see)s to 7e the )ost susce(ti7le to (hos(horescence0 >o)e sa)(les8 o7taine$ through the 2in$ness of <rof0 Henry in <aris8 .ere e)(loye$ in )any of these 7ul7s0 ;ne of the $efects of this sul(hi$e is8 that it loses its quality of e)itting light .hen 7rought to a te)(erature .hich is 7y no )eans high0 ,t can therefore8 7e use$ only for fee7le intensities0 An o7ser-ation .hich )ight $eser-e notice is8 that .hen -iolently 7o)7ar$e$ fro) an alu)iniu) electro$e it assu)es a 7lac2 color8 7ut singularly enough8 it returns to the original con$ition .hen it cools $o.n0 The )ost i)(ortant fact arri-e$ at in (ursuing in-estigations in this $irection is8 that in all cases it is necessary8 in or$er to e'cite (hos(horescence .ith a )ini)u) a)ount of energy8 to o7ser-e certain con$itions0 1a)ely8 there is al.ays8 no )atter .hat the frequency of the currents8 $egree of e'haustion an$ character of the 7o$ies in the 7ul78 a certain (otential (assu)ing the 7ul7 e'cite$ fro) one ter)inal or (otential $ifference (assu)ing the 7ul7 to 7e e'cite$ .ith 7oth ter)inals .hich (ro$uces the )ost econo)ical result0 ,f the (otential 7e increase$8 consi$era7le energy )ay 7e .aste$ .ithout (ro$ucing any )ore light8 an$ if it 7e $i)inishe$8 then again the light (ro$uction is not as econo)ical0 The e'act con$ition un$er .hich the 7est result is o7taine$ see)s to $e(en$ on )any things of a $ifferent nature8 an$ it is to 7e yet in-estigate$ 7y other e'(eri)enters8 7ut it .ill certainly ha-e to 7e o7ser-e$ .hen such (hos(horescent 7ul7s are o(erate$8 if the 7est results are to 7e o7taine$0 Co)ing no. to the )ost interesting of these (heno)ena8 the incan$escence or (hos(horescence of gases8 at lo. (ressures or at the or$inary (ressure of the at)os(here8 .e )ust see2 the e'(lanation of these (heno)ena in the sa)e (ri)ary causes8 that is8 in shoc2s or i)(acts of the ato)s0 Eust as )olecules or ato)s 7eating u(on a soli$ 7o$y e'cite (hos(horescence in the sa)e or ren$er it incan$escent8 so .hen colli$ing a)ong the)sel-es they (ro$uce si)ilar (heno)ena0 3ut this is a -ery insufficient e'(lanation an$ concerns only the cru$e )echanis)0 #ight is (ro$uce$ 7y -i7rations .hich go on at a rate al)ost inconcei-a7le0 ,f .e co)(ute8 fro) the energy containe$ in the for) of 2no.n ra$iations in a $efinite s(ace the force .hich is necessary to set u( such ra(i$ -i7rations8 .e fin$8 that though the $ensity of the ether 7e inco)(ara7ly s)aller than that of any
7o$y .e 2no.8 e-en hy$rogen8 the force is so)ething sur(assing co)(rehension0 &hat is this force8 .hich in )echanical )easure )ay a)ount to thousan$s of tons (er square inchF ,t is electrostatic force in the light of )o$ern -ie.s0 ,t is i)(ossi7le to concei-e ho. a 7o$y of )easura7le $i)ensions coul$ 7e charge$ to so high a (otential that the force .oul$ 7e sufficient to (ro$uce these -i7rations0 #ong 7efore any such charge coul$ 7e i)(arte$ to the 7o$y it .oul$ 7e shattere$ into ato)s0 The sun e)its light an$ heat8 an$ so $oes an or$inary fla)e or incan$escent fila)ent8 7ut in neither of these can the force 7e accounte$ for if it 7e assu)e$ that it is associate$ .ith the 7o$y as a .hole0 ;nly in one .ay )ay .e account for it8 na)ely8 7y i$entifying it .ith the ato)0 An ato) is so s)all8 that if it 7e charge$ 7y co)ing in contact .ith an electrifie$ 7o$y an$ the charge 7e assu)e$ to follo. the sa)e la. as in the case of 7o$ies of )easura7le $i)ensions8 it )ust retain a quantity of electricity .hich is fully ca(a7le of accounting for these forces an$ tre)en$ous rates of -i7ration0 3ut the ato) 7eha-es singularly in this res(ectKit al.ays ta2es the sa)e "charge"0 ,t is -ery li2ely that resonant -i7ration (lays a )ost i)(ortant (art in all )anifestations of energy in nature0 Throughout s(ace all )atter is -i7rating8 an$ all rates of -i7ration are re(resente$8 fro) the lo.est )usical note to the highest (itch of the che)ical rays8 hence an ato)8 or co)(le' of ato)s8 no )atter .hat its (erio$8 )ust fin$ a -i7ration .ith .hich it is in resonance0 &hen .e consi$er the enor)ous ra(i$ity of the light -i7rations8 .e realiBe the i)(ossi7ility of (ro$ucing such -i7rations $irectly .ith any a((aratus of )easura7le $i)ensions8 an$ .e are $ri-en to the only (ossi7le )eans of attaining the o7Hect of setting u( .a-es of light 7y electrical )eans an$ econo)ically8 that is8 to affect the )olecules or ato)s of a gas8 to cause the) to colli$e an$ -i7rate0 &e then )ust as2 oursel-esKHo. can free )olecules or ato)s 7e affecte$F
,t is a fact that they can 7e affecte$ 7y electrostatic force8 as is a((arent in )any of these e'(eri)ents0 3y -arying the electrostatic force .e can agitate the ato)s8 an$ cause the) to colli$e acco)(anie$ 7y e-olution of heat an$ light0 ,t is not $e)onstrate$ 7eyon$ $ou7t that -ie can affect the) other.ise0 ,f a lu)inous $ischarge is (ro$uce$ in a close$ e'hauste$ tu7e8 $o the ato)s arrange the)sel-es in o7e$ience to any other 7ut to electrostatic force acting in straight lines fro) ato) to ato)F ;nly recently , in-estigate$ the )utual action 7et.een t.o circuits .ith e'tre)e rates of -i7ration0 &hen a 7attery of a fe. Hars (c c c c8 Fig0 3! 8 is $ischarge$ through a (ri)ary < of lo. resistance (the connections 7eing as illustrate$ in Figs0 19a8 197 an$ 19c 8 an$ the frequency of -i7ration is )any )illions there are great $ifferences of (otential 7et.een (oints on the (ri)ary not )ore than a fe. inches a(art0 These $ifferences )ay 7e 158555 -olts (er inch8 if not )ore8 ta2ing the )a'i)u) -alue of the "0 /0 F0 The secon$ary > is therefore acte$ u(on 7y electrostatic in$uction8 .hich is in such e'tre)e cases of )uch greater i)(ortance than the electro9$yna)ic0 To such su$$en i)(ulses the (ri)ary as .ell as the secon$ary are (oor con$uctors8 an$ therefore great $ifferences of (otential )ay 7e (ro$uce$ 7y electrostatic in$uction 7et.een a$Hacent (oints on the secon$ary0 Then s(ar2s )ay Hu)( 7et.een the .ires an$ strea)ers 7eco)e -isi7le in the $ar2 if the light of the $ischarge through the s(ar2 ga( $ $ 7e carefully e'clu$e$0 ,f no. .e su7stitute a close$ -acuu) tu7e for the )etallic secon$ary >8 the $ifferences of (otential (ro$uce$ in the tu7e 7y electrostatic in$uction fro) the (ri)ary are fully sufficient to e'cite (ortions of itJ 7ut as the (oints of certain $ifferences of (otential on the (ri)ary are not fi'e$8 7ut are generally constantly changing in (osition8 a lu)inous 7an$ is (ro$uce$ in the tu7e8 a((arently not touching the glass8 as it shoul$8 if the (oints of )a'i)u) an$ )ini)u) $ifferences of (otential .ere fi'e$ on the (ri)ary0 , $o not e'clu$e the (ossi7ility of such a tu7e 7eing e'cite$ only 7y electro9$yna)ic in$uction8 for -ery a7le (hysicists hol$ this -ie.J 7ut in )y o(inions8 there is as yet no (ositi-e (roof gi-en that ato)s of a gas in a close$ tu7e )ay arrange the)sel-es in chains un$er the action of anI electro)oti-e i)(ulse (ro$uce$ 7y electro9$yna)ic in$uction in the tu7e0 , ha-e 7een una7le so far to (ro$uce striae in a tu7e8 ho.e-er long8 an$ at .hate-er $egree of e'haustion8 that is8 striae at right angles to the su((ose$ $irection of the $ischarge or the a'is of the tu7eJ 7ut , ha-e $istinctly o7ser-e$ in a large 7ul78 in .hich a .i$e lu)inous 7an$ .as (ro$uce$ 7y (assing a $ischarge of a 7attery through a .ire surroun$ing the 7ul78 a circle of fee7le lu)inosity 7et.een t.o lu)inous 7an$s8 one of .hich .as )ore intense than the other0 Further)ore8 .ith )y (resent e'(erience , $o not thin2 that such a gas $ischarge in a close$ tu7e can -i7rate8 that is8 -i7rate as a .hole0 , a) con-ince$ that no $ischarge through a gas can -i7rate0 The ato)s of a gas
7eha-e -ery curiously in res(ect to su$$en electric i)(ulses0 The gas $oes not see) to (ossess any a((recia7le inertia to such i)(ulses8 for it is a fact8 that the higher the frequency of the i)(ulses8 .ith the greater free$o) $oes the $ischarge (ass through the gas0 ,f the gas (ossesses no inertia then it cannot -i7rate8 for so)e inertia is necessary for the free -i7ration0 , conclu$e fro) this that if a lightning $ischarge occurs 7et.een t.o clou$s8 there can 7e no oscillation8 such as .oul$ 7e e'(ecte$8 consi$ering the ca(acity of the clou$s0 3ut if the lightning $ischarge stri2e the earth8 there is al.ays -i7rationKin the earth8 7ut not in the clou$0 ,n a gas $ischarge each ato) -i7rates at its o-en rate8 7ut there is no -i7ration of the con$ucting gaseous )ass as a .hole0 This is an i)(ortant consi$eration in the great (ro7le) of (ro$ucing light econo)ically8 for it teaches us that to reach this result .e )ust use i)(ulses of -ery high frequency an$ necessarily also of high (otential0 ,t is a fact that o'ygen (ro$uces a )ore intense light in a tu7e0 ,s it 7ecause o'ygen ato)s (ossess so)e inertia an$ the -i7ration $oes not $ie out instantlyF 3ut then nitrogen shoul$ 7e as goo$8 an$ chlorine an$ -a(ors of )any other 7o$ies )uch 7etter than o'ygen8 unless the )agnetic (ro(erties of the latter enter (ro)inently into (lay0 ;r8 is the (rocess in the tu7e of an electrolytic natureF /any o7ser-ations certainly s(ea2 for it8 the )ost i)(ortant 7eing that )atter is al.ays carrie$ a.ay fro) the electro$es an$ the -acuu) in a 7ul7 cannot 7e (er)anently )aintaine$0 ,f such (rocess ta2es (lace in reality8 then again )ust .e ta2e refuge in high frequencies8 for8 .ith such8 electrolytic action shoul$ 7e re$uce$ to a )ini)u)8 if not ren$ere$ entirely i)(ossi7le0 ,t is an un$enia7le fact that .ith -ery high frequencies8 (ro-i$e$ the i)(ulses 7e of har)onic nature8 li2e those o7taine$ fro) an alternator8 there is less $eterioration an$ the -acua are )ore (er)anent0 &ith $isru(ti-e $ischarge coils there are su$$en rises of (otential an$ the -acua are )ore quic2ly i)(aire$8 for the electro$es are $eteriorate$ in a -ery short ti)e0 ,t .as o7ser-e$ in so)e large tu7es8 .hich .ere (ro-i$e$ .ith hea-y car7on 7loc2s 3 318 connecte$ to (latinu) .ires . .1 (as illustrate$ in Fig0 33 8 an$ .hich .ere e)(loye$ in e'(eri)ents .ith the $isru(ti-e $ischarge instea$ of the or$inary air ga(8 that the car7on (articles un$er the action of the (o.erful )agnetic fiel$ in .hich the tu7e .as (lace$8 .ere $e(osite$ in regular fine lines in the )i$$le of the tu7e8 as illustrate$0 These lines .ere attri7ute$ to the $eflection or $istortion of the $ischarge 7y the )agnetic fiel$8 7ut .hy the $e(osit occurre$ (rinci(ally .here the fiel$ .as )ost intense $i$ not a((ear quite clear0 A fact of interest8 li2e.ise note$8 .as that the (resence of a strong )agnetic fiel$ increases the $eterioration of the electro$es8 (ro7a7ly 7y reason of the ra(i$ interru(tions it (ro$uces8 .here7y there is actually a higher "0 /0 F0 )aintaine$ 7et.een the electro$es0 /uch .oul$ re)ain to 7e sai$ a7out the lu)inous effects (ro$uce$ in gases at lo. or or$inary (ressures0 &ith the (resent e'(eriences 7efore us .e cannot say that the essential nature of these char)ing (heno)ena is sufficiently 2no.n0 3ut in-estigations in this $irection are 7eing (ushe$ .ith e'ce(tional ar$our0 "-ery line of scientific (ursuit has its fascinations8 7ut electrical in-estigation a((ears to (ossess a (eculiar attraction8 for there is no e'(eri)ent or o7ser-ation of any 2in$ in the $o)ain of this .on$erful science .hich .oul$ not forci7ly a((eal to us0 Det to )e it see)s8 that of all the )any )ar-ellous things .e o7ser-e8 a -acuu) tu7e8 e'cite$ 7y an electric i)(ulse fro) a $istant source8 7ursting forth out of the $ar2ness an$ illu)inating the roo) .ith its 7eautiful light8 is as lo-ely a (heno)enon as can greet our eyes0 /ore interesting still it a((ears .hen8 re$ucing the fun$a)ental $ischarges across the ga( to a -ery s)all nu)7er an$ .a-ing the tu7e a7out .e (ro$uce all 2in$s of $esigns in lu)inous lines0 >o 7y .ay of a)use)ent , ta2e a straight long tu7e8 or a square one8 or a square attache$ to a straight tu7e8 an$ 7y .hirling the) a7out in the han$8 , i)itate the s(o2es of a .heel8 a Gra))e .in$ing8 a $ru) .in$ing8 an alternate current )otor .in$ing8 etc0 ( Fig0 36 0 Gie.e$ fro) a $istance the effect is .ea2 an$ )uch of its 7eauty is lost8 7ut 7eing near or hol$ing the tu7e in the han$8 one cannot resist its char)0
,n (resenting these insignificant results , ha-e not atte)(te$ to arrange an$ coor$inate the)8 as .oul$ 7e (ro(er in a strictly scientific in-estigation8 in .hich e-ery succee$ing result shoul$ 7e a logical sequence of the (rece$ing8 so that it )ight 7e guesse$ in a$-ance 7y the careful rea$er or attenti-e listener0 , ha-e (referre$ to concentrate )y energies chiefly u(on a$-ancing no-el facts or i$eas .hich )ight ser-e as suggestions to others8 an$ this )ay ser-e as an e'cuse for the lac2 of har)ony0 The e'(lanations of the (heno)ena ha-e 7een gi-en in goo$ faith an$ in the s(irit of a stu$ent (re(are$ to fin$ that they a$)it of a 7etter inter(retation0 There can 7e no great har) in a stu$ent ta2ing an erroneous -ie.8 7ut .hen great )in$s err8 the .orl$ )ust $early (ay for their )ista2es0
18-5-0/-00: Tesla2s Os(illator and Ot,er :nEentions

4y Thomas 2ommerford /artin 2entury /aga;ine AN A=T0O#:TAT:6* ACCO=NT O7 SOM* O7 0:S #*C*NT *'*CT#:CA' FO#!&1 :;3"#"FF8 the great +ussian general8 once sai$ of the (olitical con$itions in Central Asia8 that they change$ e-ery )o)entJ hence the necessity for -igilance8 no less the (rice of e)(ire than of li7erty0 Thus changeful8 also8 is the as(ect of that -ast ne. electrical $o)ain .hich the thought an$ in-ention of our age ha-e su7$ue$0 They .ho .oul$ infor) the)sel-es e'(ertly a7out it8 in .hate-er res(ect8 )ust e-er 2ee( u( an attitu$e of straine$ attention0 ,ts theoretical (ro7le)s assu)e no-el (hases $aily0 ,ts ol$ a((liances ceaselessly gi-e .ay to successors0 ,ts )etho$s of (ro$uction8 $istri7ution8 an$ utiliBation -ary fro) year to year0 ,ts influence on the ti)es is e-er $ee(er8 yet one can ne-er 7e quite sure into .hat (art of the social or in$ustrial syste) it is ne't to thrust a re-olutionary force0 ,ts fanciful $rea)s of yester$ay are the )agnificent triu)(hs of to9)orro.8 an$ its a$-ance to.ar$ $o)ination in the t.entieth century is as irresisti7le as that of stea) in the nineteenth0 Throughout this change there has (re-aile$ a consistency of (ur(oseI a stea$y ai) has 7een le-elle$ at $efinite goalsJ .hile useful arts in )ultitu$e attest the soli$ity of the .or2 $one0 ,f8 therefore8 .e fin$ a tre)en$ous out7urst of acti-ity at the -ery )o)ent .hen8 after t.enty9fi-e years of su(erlati-e (ro$ucti-eness8 electricians .ere rea$y8 .ith the refor)ing "nglish states)an8 to rest an$ 7e than2ful8 .e )ay safely assu)e that electricity has reache$ another of those crucial (oints at .hich it 7eco)es .orth the .hile of the casual outsi$e o7ser-er to glance at .hat is going on0 To the ti)i$ an$ the conser-ati-e8 e-en to )any initiate$8 these ne. $e(artures ha-e in$ee$ 7eco)e e'as(erating0 They $e)an$ the unlearning of esta7lishe$ facts8 an$ insist on right9a7out9 faces that $isregar$ (hiloso(hical $ignity0 The sensations of a $og atte)(ting to $rin2 sea9.ater after a lifeti)e s(ent on inlan$ la2es are fee7le co)(are$ .ith those of )en .ho $isco-er that electricity is quite other than the flui$ .hich they ha-e 7elie-e$ it to 7e fro) their youth u(8 an$ that actually there is no such thing as electricity or an electric current0 "lectricity has8 in$ee$8 ta2en $istincti-ely ne. groun$ of late yearsJ an$ its (resent state of unrestK unsur(asse$8 (erha(s8 in other regions of researchKis $ue to recent theory an$ (ractice8 7len$e$ in a stri2ing )anner in the $isco-eries of /r0 1i2ola Tesla8 .ho8 though not altogether alone8 has co)e to 7e a fore)ost an$ ty(ical figure of the era no. 7egun0 He in-ites attention to9$ay8 .hether for (rofoun$ in-estigations into the nature of electricity8 or for 7eautiful in-entions in .hich is offere$ a concrete e)7o$i)ent of the latest )eans for attaining the en$s )ost sought after in the $istri7ution of light8 heat8 an$ (o.er8 an$ in the $istant co))unication of intelligence0 Any one $esirous of un$erstan$ing the tren$ an$ sco(e of )o$e) electrical a$-ance .ill fin$ )any clues in the .or2 of this in-entor0 The (resent article $iscloses a fe. of the )ore i)(ortant results .hich he has attaine$8 so)e of the )etho$s an$ a((aratus .hich he e)(loys8 an$ one or t.o of the theories to .hich he resorts for an e'(lanation of .hat is acco)(lishe$0 3y a 7rief (reli)inary sur-ey8 .e )ay $eter)ine our historical longitu$e an$ latitu$e8 an$ thus ascertain a little )ore (recisely .here .e are0 ,t is necessary to reca(itulate facts 2no.n an$ acce(te$0 #et it8 then8 7e re)ar2e$ that asi$e fro) the theories an$ inter(retations that ha-e 7eset the science8 electricity as an art has for three hun$re$ years 7een $irecte$ chiefly to securing an a7un$ant8 chea(8 efficient8 an$ econo)ical su((ly of the (rotean agency8 7e it .hat it )ay0 Frictional )achine8 #ey$en Har8 coil8 7attery8 )agnet8 $yna)o8 oscillator8K these are 7ut the ste(s in a (rocess as regular an$ .ell9$efine$ as those .hich ta2e us fro) the a7original cra$ling of gol$ out of ri-er san$s u( to the refining of ore .ith all the a((liances of )o$e) )echanis) an$ che)istry0 "ach stage in electrical e-olution has seen the conquest of so)e hitherto un2no.n artK electrothera(y8 telegra(hy8 tele(hony8 electric lighting8 electric heating8 (o.er trans)issionJ yet each has ha$ li)itations set on it 7y the con$itions (re-ailing0 &ith a )ere 7attery )uch can 7e $oneJ .ith a )agnet8 still )oreJ .ith a $yna)o8 .e touch (ossi7ilities of all 2in$s8 for .e co)(el the strea)s8 the coalfiel$s8 an$ the .in$s to $o us ser-iceI 7ut .ith /r0 Tesla's ne. oscillator .e )ay enlist e-en the ether9.a-es8 an$ turn our .ay.ar$ recruits into resistless traine$ forces8 s.ee(ing across continents of uni)agine$ o((ortunity0 The $yna)o8 slo.ly (erfecte$ these fifty years8 has ren$ere$ enor)ous 7enefits8 an$ is $estine$ to )uch further usefulness0 3ut all that .e learn no. a7out it of any intrinsic -alue is to 7uil$ it 7igger8 or to s(ecialiBe itJ an$ the )o)ent a $e-ice reaches that con$ition of $e-elo()ent8 the hu)an intellect casts a7out for so)ething else in .hich the ele)ents are to 7e su7tler an$ less gross0 3ase$ u(on currents furnishe$ 7y )o$ern $yna)o9electric )achines8 the arc9light an$ the trolley9car see2 to )ono(oliBe street illu)ination an$ trans(ortation8 .hile the incan$escent la)( has (re9e)(te$ for e'clusi-e occu(ancy the interiors of our halls an$ ho)es0 Det the
a7an$on)ent of gas8 horses8 an$ sails is slo.8 7ecause the $yna)o an$ its au'iliaries ha-e narro. 7oun$aries8 tres(assing .hich8 they cease to offer any a$-antage0 &e can all re)e)7er the high ho(es .ith .hich8 for e'a)(le8 incan$escent lighting .as intro$uce$ so)e fifteen years ago0 "-en the )ost cynical $etractor of it .ill a$)it that its a$o(tion has 7een quic2 an$ .i$es(rea$J 7ut as a si)(le )atter of fact8 to9$ay8 all the la)(s an$ all the lighting $yna)os in the country .oul$ 7arely )eet the nee$s of 1e. Dor2 an$ Chicago if the t.o cities .ere to use no other illu)inant than electricity0 ,n all "nglan$ there are only 18*458555 incan$escent la)(s contesting for su(re)acy .ith (ro7a7ly *485558555 gas97urners8 an$ the rate of increase is s)all8 if in$ee$ it e'cee$s that of gas0 "-i$ently8 so)e factor is .anting8 an$ a ne. (oint of $e(arture8 e-en in )ere co))ercial .or28 is to 7e sought8 so that .ith longer circuits8 7etter current9generating a((aratus8 an$ la)(s that .ill not 7urn out8 the (o(ular $e)an$ for a (ure an$ (erfect light can 7e )et0 ,n (o.er trans)ission8 also8 unsatisfie$ (ro7le)s of equal )agnitu$e cro( u(0 K,s there any loa$ that .ater cannot liftF Kas2e$ ")erson0 K,f there 7e8 try stea)J or if not that8 try electricity0 ,s there any e'hausting of these )eansFK 1one8 (ro-i$e$ that our )echanics 7e right0 ,t )ust not 7e su((ose$ that the ne. electricity is iconoclastic0 ,n the )in$s of a great )any (eo(le of culture the i$ea (re-ails that in-ention is as largely a (rocess of (ulling $o.n as of 7uil$ing u(J an$ electricity8 in s(rea$ing fro) one 7ranch of in$ustry to another8 encounters the (reHu$ice that al.ays re7uffs the inno-ator0 The assu)(tion is false0 ,t )ay 7e true that in the gla$iatorial arena .here the (rinci(les of science conten$8 one (arty or the other al.ays succu)7s an$ $rags out its $ea$J 7ut in the arts long sur-i-al is the la. for all the a((liances that ha-e 7een foun$ of any nota7le utility0 ,t si)(ly 7eco)es a question of the contracting s(here .ithin .hich the ol$ a((aratus is he$ge$ 7y the a$-ent of the ne.J an$ that relation once esta7lishe$ 7y (rocesses co)(le' an$ long continue$8 ca(a7le e-en of )athe)atical $eter)ination8 the t.o go on together8 co)(le)entary in their a$Hust)ent to s(ecific hu)an nee$s0 ,n its latest outgro.ths8 electrical a((lication e'e)(lifies this0 After )any years' use of $yna)o9electric )achinery gi-ing .hat is 2no.n as a Kcontinuous current8K the art has reache$ the conclusion that only .ith the Kalternating currentK can it fulfil the later $uties lai$ u(on it8 an$ acco)(lish the earlier tas2s that re)ain untouche$0 &ith the continuous current .e ha-e learne$ the ru$i)ents of lighting an$ (o.er $istri7ution0 &ith the alternating current8 )ani(ulate$ an$ coa'e$ to yiel$ its highest efficiency8 .e )ay sol-e the (ro7le)s of aerial an$ )arine na-igation 7y electricity8 o(erate large rail.ay syste)s8 trans)it the energy of 1iagara hun$re$s of )iles8 an$8 in /r0 Tesla's o.n (hrase8 Khoo2 our )achinery $irectly to that of 1ature0K TH" G"1"+AT,;1 ;F CC++"1T0 #"T us see .herein lies the $ifference 7et.een these t.o 2in$s of currents0 ,n all $yna)os the generation of .hat .e call electric current is effecte$ 7y the .hirling of coils of .ire in front of )agnets8 or con-ersely0 The .ires that lea$ a.ay fro) the )achine an$ 7ac2 to it to co)(lete the necessary circuit8 )ay 7e co)(are$ to a circle of troughs or to a (i(e9lineJ the coils an$ )agnets are co)(ara7le to (u)( )echanis)J an$ the la)(s or )otors $ri-en 7y the current8 to fountains or faucets s(ace$ out on the trough circle0 This co)(arison is cru$ity itself8 7ut it gi-es a fairly e'act i$ea0 The current tra-els along the surface of the .ire rather than insi$e8 its )agnetic or ether .horls rese)7ling ru77er 7an$s sli$ing along a lea$9(encil0 A )achine that (ro$uces continuous current8 $i((ing its .ire coils or 7uc2ets into the )agnetic fiel$ of force8 has all its Hets8 as they co)e aroun$ to $ischarge the)sel-es8 hea$e$ one .ay8 an$ co)(licate$ $e-ices calle$ Kco))utatorsK ha-e 7een una-oi$a7le for the (ur(ose of KrectifyingK the)0 A )achine that (ro$uces alternating currents8 on the contrary8 has its Hets thro.n first into one en$ of the trough syste)8 an$ then into the other8 an$ therefore $is(enses .ith the rectifying or co))utating -al-es0 ;n the other han$8 it requires (eculiar a$Hust)ent of its fountains an$ faucets to the strea)s rushing in either .ay0 ,t is an inherent $isa$-antage of the continuous9 current syste) that it cannot $eli-er energy successfully at any great $istance at high (ressure8 an$ that therefore the (i(e9line )ust 7e relati-ely as 7ul2y as .ere the hollo. .oo$en logs .hich .ere once e)(loye$ for .ater9con$uits in 1e. Dor20 The a$-antage of the alternating current is that it can 7e $eli-ere$ at e'cee$ingly high (ressures o-er -ery slen$er .ires8 an$ use$ either at that (ressure or at lo.er or higher ones8 o7taine$ 7y )eans of a Ktransfor)er8K .hich8 accor$ing to its use8 ans.ers 7oth to the i$ea of a )agnetic re$ucing -al-e8 an$ to that of a s(ring97oar$ accelerating the ra(i$ity of )otion of any o7Hect alighting on it0 ;7-iously a transfor)er cannot return )ore than is (ut into it8 so that it gi-es out the current recei-e$ .ith less (ressure 7ut in greater -olu)e8 or raise$ in (ressure 7ut $i)inishe$ in the -olu)e of the strea)0 ,n so)e li2e )anner a regi)ent of sol$iers )ay 7e 7rought 7y e'(ress to any .harf8 an$ transferre$8 ,n$ian file8 to a sailing 7arge or an ocean liner in$ifferentlyJ 7ut throughout the tri( the sol$iers .ill constitute the sa)e regi)ent8 an$ .hen (ic2e$ u( 7y another train across the ferry8 the 7o$y8 though there 7e loss 7y $esertion an$ sic2ness8 .ill retain its i$entity8 e-en if the ran2s are 7ro2en in filling the cars8 an$ are refor)e$ four a7reast at the en$ of the Hourney0
A#T"+1AT,1G CC++"1T>0 #"T us8 still reca(itulating fa)iliar facts8 )a2e the ne't ste( in our re-ie. of .hat is in-ol-e$ in the resort to alternating currents0 ,t .as state$ a7o-e that the current9consu)ing $e-ices such as )otors8 li2ene$ to fountains8 nee$e$ (eculiar a$Hust)ents to the inflo. first fro) one si$e an$ then fro) the other0 1ot to (ut it at all too strongly8 they .oul$ not .or28 an$ ha-e largely re)aine$ ino(erati-e to the (resent ti)e0 #a)(s .oul$ 7urn8 7ut )otors .oul$ not run8 an$ this fact li)ite$ seriously the a$o(tion an$ range of the other.ise fle'i7le an$ useful alternating current until /r0 Tesla $isco-ere$ a 7eautiful an$ unsus(ecte$ solution of the (ro7le)8 an$ thus e)7ar2e$ on one (art of the .or2 no. re-ealing gran$er (ossi7ilities e-ery $ay0 The trans)ission of the (o.er of 1iagara has 7eco)e (ossi7le since the $isco-ery of the )etho$0 ,n his so9calle$ Krotating )agnetic fiel$8K a (ulley )ounte$ u(on a shaft is (er(etually running after a )agnetic K(ole K.ithout e-er 7eing a7le to catch it0 The fun$a)ental i$ea is to (ro$uce )agnetis) shifting circularly8 in contrast .ith the ol$ an$ 2no.n (heno)enon of )agnetis) in a fi'e$ (osition0 Those .ho ha-e seen the (atient ani)al insi$e the trea$)ill .heel of the .ell at Caris7roo2e Castle can for) an i$ea of the ingenuity of /r0 Tesla's (lan0 ;r$inarily8 alternating9current generators8 such as are no. in co))on use8 ha-e a great nu)7er of (roHecting (oles to cause the alternations of current8 an$ hence their KfrequencyK is highKthat is8 the current )a2es a great )any to9an$9fro )otions (er secon$8 an$ each e779an$9flo. in the circuit is ter)e$ the K(erio$K or K frequency8K one alternation 7eing the rise fro) Bero to )a'i)u) -alue an$ $o.n to nothing again8 an$ the other the sa)e thing 7ac2.ar$0 ,f .e rule$ a horiBontal straight line8 an$ then $re. a roun$97ellie$ Hogarth cur-e of 7eauty across it8 the half of the cur-e a7o-e the line .oul$ 7e illustrati-e of the (ositi-e flo.8 the lo.er half of the negati-e flo.J the to( of one o-al an$ the 7otto) of the other o-al .oul$ 7e the )a'i)a res(ecti-elyJ (ositi-e an$ negati-e n an$ the (oint .here the cur-e crosse$ the[ straight line .oul$ )ar2 the instant .hen the current changes its $irection0 A s.inging (en$ulu) is an analogy fa-oure$ 7y scientists in their en$ea-ours to illustrate (o(ularly the (rocess of the generation of the alternating current0 "ach ti)e the co((er .ire in the coils on the $yna)o ar)ature is rotate$ (ast the (ole of the $yna)o fiel$8 the currents in each coil follo. this rise an$ fallJ so that the nu)7er of the )agnets an$ coils $eter)ines the (erio$ or frequency8 as state$0 The )ore nu)erous the )agnets8 an$ the faster the rotation of the coils8 the quic2er .ill 7e the e77s an$ flo.s of current0 3ut the character of the .or2 to 7e $one8 an$ e'isting con$itions8 go-ern the rate at .hich the current is thus to 7e set -i7ratingJ an$ no s)all a)ount of s2ill an$ 2no.le$ge enters here0 The )en .ho can (re$icate the right thing to $o are still fe. an$ far 7et.een0 The fiel$ has as yet 7een little e'(lore$0 /oreo-er8 in one of the $ee(est (ro7le)s no. engaging the thought of electrical engineers8Kna)ely8 the (ro$uction of chea( light an$ chea( (o.er 7y these ne. )eans8Ko((osite con$itions (ull $ifferent .ays0 /r0 Tesla )a$e u( his )in$ so)e ti)e ago that for )otor .or2 it .as 7etter to ha-e fe. frequenciesJ an$ the .hole $rift of (o.er trans)ission is on that (ath8 the frequency a$o(te$ for the .or2 at 1iagara 7eing only t.enty9fi-e0 3ut8 as .as natural8 he ran through the .hole scale of lo. an$ high frequencies8 an$ soon $isco-ere$ that for o7taining light8 one great secret lay in the utiliBation of currents of high frequency an$ high (otential0 >o)e years ago8 after $ealing .ith the (o.er (ro7le) as a7o-e $escri7e$8 /r0 Tesla attac2e$ the light (ro7le) 7y 7uil$ing a nu)7er of no-el alternating9current generators for the (ur(ose8 an$ attaine$ .ith the) alternations u( to 358555 (er secon$0 These )achines transcen$e$ anything theretofore 2no.n in the art8 an$ their currents .ere further raise$ in (ressure 7y Kste( u(K transfor)ers an$ con$ensers0 3ut these $yna)os ha$ their shortco)ings0 The nu)7er of the (oles an$ coils coul$ not 7e in$efinitely increase$8 an$ there .as a li)it to the s(ee$0 To go to the higher frequencies8 therefore8 /r0 Tesla ne't in-ente$ his K$isru(ti-e $ischarge coil8K .hich (er)itte$ hi) to reach re)ar2a7ly high frequency an$ high (ressure8 an$8 .hat is )ore8 to o7tain these qualities fro) any or$inary current8 .hether alternating or continuous0 &ith this a((aratus he sur(rise$ the scientists 7oth of this country an$ of "uro(e in a series of )ost interesting $e)onstrations0 ,t is not too )uch to say that these e'(eri)ents )ar2e$ an e(och in electricity8 yiel$ing results .hich lie at the root of his later .or2 .ith the oscillator in an inconcei-a7ly .i$er range of (heno)ena0 TH" T">#A ;>C,##AT;+0 C< to this (oint .e ha-e 7een consi$ering 7oth continuous9current an$ alternating9current $yna)os as $ri-en 7y the or$inary stea) engine0 <erha(s nine tenths of all the hun$re$s of thousan$s of $yna)os in the .orl$ to9$ay are so o(erate$8 the re)ain$er 7eing $ri-en 7y .ater9.heels8 gas9engines8 an$ co)(resse$ air0 1o.8 each ste( fro) consu)ing the coal un$er the 7oilers that $eli-er stea) to the engines8 u( to the glo. of the fila)ent in an incan$escent la)(8 is atten$e$ .ith loss0 As in e-ery other cycle that has to $o .ith heat transfor)ation8 the energy is )ore or less frittere$ a.ay8 Hust as in Euly the loa$ in an ice)an's cart cru)7les an$ )elts in transit along the street0 Actual tests (ro-e that the energy )anifesting itself as light in an incan$escent la)( is 7arely fi-e (er cent0 of that recei-e$ as current0 ,n the lu)inosity of a gas fla)e the efficiency is e-en s)aller0 <rofessor Tyn$all (uts the useful light9.a-es of a gas fla)e at less than one (ercent of all the .a-es cause$ 7y
the co)7ustion going on in it0 ,f .e .ere $ealing .ith a corru(t city go-ern)ent8 such .retche$ .aste an$ inefficiency .oul$ not 7e tolerate$J an$ in sa$ reality the e'tra-agance is 7ut on a (ar .ith the .anton $estruction of .hole forests for the sa2e of a fe. stic2s of lu)7er0 Ar)ies of in-entors ha-e flung the)sel-es on the $ifficulties in-ol-e$ in these 7ar7aric losses occurring at e-ery stage of the calorific8 )echanical8 an$ electric (rocessesJ an$ it is in$ee$ li2ely that )any lines of i)(ro-e)ent ha-e alrea$y 7een co)(elle$ to yiel$ their ut)ost8 reaching ter)inal for)s0 A )o)ent's thought .ill sho. that one )ain o7Hect )ust 7e the eli)ination of certain ste(s in the transfer of the energyJ an$ o7-iously8 if engine an$ $yna)o 7oth ha-e large losses8 it .ill 7e a gain to )erge the t.o (ieces of a((aratus0 The ol$9fashione$ electric9light station or street9rail.ay (o.er9 house is a gi$$y )aBe of 7elts an$ shaftingJ in the later (lants engine an$ $yna)o are cou(le$ $irectly together on one 7ase0 This is a nota7le stri$e8 7ut it still lea-es us .ith a $yna)o in .hich so)e (art of the .ire .oun$ on it is not utiliBe$ at e-ery instant8 an$ .ith an engine of co)(licate$ )echanis)[ The stea)9cylin$er8 .ith its (iston8 is the only thing actually $oing .or28 an$ all the rest of the i)(osing collection of fly9.heel8 go-ernor9 7alls8 eccentrics8 -al-es8 an$ .hat not8 is for the (ur(ose of control an$ regulation0
!I# $ %IA#&A' (! W(&)I*# +A&T, (! -A&./ !(&' (! T-,.A (,CI..AT(&, A, I! ,--* !&(' A0(1-, I* ,-CTI(* 2!&(' 3T4- -.-CT&ICA. -*#I*--&,3 0/ +-&'I,,I(* 5
,n his oscillator /r0 Tesla8 to 7egin .ith8 has stri((e$ the engine of all this go-erning )echanis)0 3y gi-ing also to the coils in .hich the current is create$ as they cut the Klines of forceK of the )agnets8 a to9an$9fro or reci(rocating )otion8 so that the influence on the) is equal in e-ery $irection8 he has o-erco)e the loss of the i$le (art of the .ire e'(erience$ in rotating ar)aturesJ an$8 )oreo-er8 greatest achie-e)ent of all8 he has )a$e the currents regulate the )echanical )otions0 1o )atter ho. close the go-erning of the engine that $ri-es the or$inary $yna)o8 .ith re-ol-ing ar)ature8 there is so)e irregularity in the generation of current0 ,n the Tesla oscillator8 if its in-entor an$ the e-i$ence of one's eyes )ay 7e 7elie-e$8 the -i7rations of the current are a7solutely stea$y an$ unifor)8 so that one coul$ 2ee( the ti)e of $ay .ith the )achine a7out as .ell as .ith a cloc20 ,t .as this su(erlati-e stea$iness of the -i7ration or frequency that /r0 Tesla ai)e$ at8 for one thing0 The -ariations cause$ 7y the ol$er a((aratus )ight 7e slight8 7ut )inute errors )ulti(lie$ 7y high rates of occurrence soon 7eco)e (erce(ti7le8 an$ )ilitate against $esira7le unifor)ity an$ (recision of action0 3ac2 of the ten$encies to irregularity in the ol$9fashione$ electrical a((aratus .ere the equal or greater ten$encies in the stea)9engineJ an$ o-er an$ a7o-e all .ere the frightful losses $ue to the inefficient con-ersion in 7oth of the (o.er release$ fro) the fuel un$er the 7oiler generating the stea)0 Gain in one $irection .ith a ra$ical inno-ation usually )eans gain in )any others8 through a gro.ing series0 , confess , $o not 2no. .hich of the a$-antages of the oscillator to (lace firstJ an$ , $ou7t .hether its in-entor has yet 7een a7le to sit $o.n an$ su) u( all the realities an$ (ossi7ilities to .hich it is a 2ey0 ;ne thing he $oesI he (resses for.ar$0 ;ur illustration8 Fig0 !8 sho.s one of his latest for)s of oscillator in (ers(ecti-e8 .hile the $iagra)8 Fig0 18 e'hi7its the internal )echanis) of one of the early for)s0 Fig0 ! .ill ser-e as a te't for the su7sequent hea$s of $iscourse0 The stea)9chest is situate$ on the 7e$9(late 7et.een the t.o electro)agnetic syste)s8 each of .hich consists of fiel$ coils 7et.een .hich is to )o-e the ar)ature or coil of .ire0 There are t.o (istons to recei-e the i)(etus of the inco)ing stea) in the chest8 an$ in the (resent instance stea) is su((lie$ at a (ressure of 345 (oun$s8 although as lo. as 85 is also use$ in li2e oscillators8 .here stea) of the
higher (ressure is not o7taina7le0 &e note i))e$iately the a7sence of all the go-erning a((liances of the or$inary engine0 They are non9e'istent0 The stea) chest is the engine8 7are$ to the s2in li2e a (riBefighter8 .ith e-ery ounce counting0 3esi$es easily utiliBing stea) at a re)ar2a7ly high (ressure8 the oscillator hol$s it un$er no less re)ar2a7le control8 an$8 strangest of all8 nee$s no (ac2ing to (re-ent lea20 ,t is a fair inference8 too8 that8 $enu$e$ in this .ay of su(erfluous .eight an$ $ri-en at high (ressure8 the engine )ust ha-e an econo)y far 7eyon$ the co))on0 &ith an a7sence of friction $ue to the auto)atic cushioning of the light .or2ing (arts8 it is also (ractically in$estructi7le0 /oreo-er8 for the sa)e (ressure an$ the sa)e (iston s(ee$ the engine has a7out one thirtieth or one fortieth of the usual .eight8 an$ occu(ies a (ro(ortionately s)aller s(ace0 This $i)inution of 7ul2 an$ area is equally true of the electrical (art0 The engine9(istons carry at their en$s the ar)ature coils8 an$ these they thrust reci(rocati-ely in an$ out of the )agnetic fiel$ of the fiel$ coils8 thus generating current 7y their action0
!I# 6 .AT-,T !(&' (! T-,.A (,CI..AT(&, C('0I*I*# I* (*- '-C4A*I,' %/*A'( A*% ,T-A' -*#I*-
,f one .atches any $yna)o8 it .ill 7e seen that the coils constituting the Kar)atureK are s.ung aroun$ in front of )agnets8 -ery )uch as a turnstile re-ol-es insi$e the 7arrica$ing (ostsJ an$ the current that goes out to $o .or2 on the line circuit is generate$ in$ucti-ely in the coils8 7ecause they cut lines of influence e)anating fro) the en$s of the )agnets8 an$ for)ing .hat has 7een 2no.n since Fara$ay's ti)e as the Kfiel$ of force0K ,n the Tesla oscillator8 the rotary )otion of the coils is entirely a7an$one$8 an$ they are si)(ly $arte$ to an$ fro at a high s(ee$ in front of the )agnets8 thus cutting the lines of the Kfiel$ of forceK 7y shooting in an$ out of the) -ery ra(i$ly8 shuttle9fashion0 The great o7Hect of cutting as )any lines of an intense fiel$ of force as s.iftly8 s)oothly8 regularly8 an$ econo)ically as (ossi7le is thus acco)(lishe$ in a ne. an$8 /r0 Tesla 7elie-es8 altogether 7etter .ay0 The follo.ing $escri(tion of re)ar2a7le ne. (heno)ena in electricity .ill Hustify hi) in regar$ing the oscillator as an e'tre)ely -alua7le instru)ent of research8 .hile ti)e .ill $e)onstrate its -arious co))ercial an$ in$ustrial 7enefits0 ,nci$entally it )ay 7e re)ar2e$ that the cru$e i$ea of o7taining currents 7y )eans of a coil or a )agnetic core attache$ to the (iston of a reci(rocating stea)9engine8 is not in itself an entire no-elty0 ,t )ay also 7e note$ that stea)9tur7ines of e'tre)ely high rotati-e -elocity are so)eti)es use$ instea$ of slo.9)o-ing engines to $ri-e $yna)os0 3ut in the first class of long9a7an$one$ e'(eri)ents no (ractical result of any 2in$ .as e-er reache$ 7efore 7y any sort of $e-iceJ an$ in the secon$ class there is the o7Hection that the tur7ine is $ri-en 7y )eans of isolate$ shoc2s that cannot 7e o-erco)e 7y any $esign of the 7la$es8 an$ .hich frustrate any atte)(ts to
(erfor) .or2 of the 2in$ no. un$er sur-ey0 &hat .e are $ealing .ith here is a $ual8 interacting )achine8 half )echanical8 half electrical8 of s)allest 7ul28 e'tre)ely si)(le8 utiliBing stea) un$er con$itions unquestiona7ly of the highest efficiency8 its -i7rations in$e(en$ent of loa$ an$ (ressure8 $eli-ering currents of the greatest regularity e-er 2no.n for (ractical .or2 or research0 That such a co)7ination shoul$ (ro$uce electricity for half the consu)(tion of stea) (re-iously necessary .ith fa)iliar a((aratus in equi-alent results8 nee$ not sur(rise usJ yet thin2 ho. )uch a sa-ing of that 2in$ .oul$ )ean in .ell9nigh e-ery in$ustry consu)ing (o.erY TH" ;>C,##AT;+ A1= TH" <+;=CCT,;1 ;F #,GHT0 HAG,1G o7taine$ .ith the oscillator currents of high (otential8 high frequency8 an$ high regularity8 .hat shall 7e $one .ith the)F /r0 Tesla ha-ing alrea$y gra((le$ successfully .ith the great $ifficulties of long $istance (o.er trans)ission8 as narrate$ a7o-e8 has first ans.ere$ that question 7y 7ol$ly assailing the (ro7le) of the (ro$uction of light in a )anner nearer8 (erha(s8 to that .hich gi-es us sunshine than .as e-er atte)(te$ 7efore0 3et.een us an$ the sun stretches the tenuous8 sensiti-e ether8 an$ e-ery sensation of light that the eye e'(eriences is cause$ 7y the effect of fi-e hun$re$ trillions of .a-es e-ery secon$ i)(resse$ on the ether 7y the )olecular energy of the sun tra-elling along it rhyth)ically0 ,f the .a-es ha-e a lo.er frequency than this 45585558555855585558 they .ill chiefly engen$er heat0 ,n our artificial )etho$s of getting light .e i)itati-ely agitate the ether so (oorly that the .a-es our 7onfires set u( rarely get a7o-e the rate at .hich they 7eco)e sensi7le to us in heat8 an$ only a fe. .a-es attain the right (itch or ra(i$ity to cause the sensation of light0 At the u((er en$ of the 2ey7oar$ of -i7ration of the ether is a high8 shrill8 an$ yet inau$i7le note8Klight8K.hich .e .ant to stri2e an$ to 2ee( on stri2ingJ 7ut .e fu)7le at the lo.er8 7ass en$ of the instru)ent all the ti)e8 an$ ne-er touch that to()ost note .ithout .asting the largest (art of our energy on the inter)e$iate ones8 .hich .e $o not at all .ish to touch0 #ight (the high note .ithout heat (the lo.er notes is the $esi$eratu)0 The inefficiency of the gas fla)e has 7een )entione$0 ,n the or$inary incan$escent la)( the .aste is not so greatJ 7ut e-en there the net efficiency of any one hun$re$ units of energy (ut into it as electric current is at the )ost fi-e or si' of light8 the .aste occurring in the (rocess of setting the )olecules of the fila)ent an$ the little air left in the 7ul7 into the state of -i7ration un$er .hich they )ust .or2 7efore they can thro. out energy9.a-es on the ether8 .hich .ill 7e con-eye$ to us through the glass of the 7ul7 the ether as light rather than as heat0 The glass is as unconfining to the ether as a coarse sie-e is to .ater0 1o. /r0 Tesla ta2es his currents of high frequency an$ high (otential8 su7Hects the incan$escent la)( to the)8 an$8 s2i((ing so)e of those inter)e$iate .asteful heat stages of lo.er .a-e -i7ration e'(erience$ in the ol$ )etho$s8 gets the ether9charge$ )olecules )ore quic2ly into the intensely agitate$ con$ition necessary to yiel$ light0 Csing his currents8 (ro$uce$ electro)agnetically8 as .e ha-e seen8 to loa$ each fugiti-e )olecule .ith its charge8 .hich it recei-es an$ e'ercises electrostatically8 he gets the ether )e$iu) into a state of e'cite)ent in .hich it see)s to 7eco)e ca(a7le of al)ost anything0 ,n one of his first lectures8 /r0 Tesla sai$I "lectrostatic effects are in )any .ays a-aila7le for the (ro$uction of light0 For instance8 .e )ay (lace a 7o$y of so)e refractory )aterial in a close$8 an$ (refera7ly in a )ore or less air e'hauste$8 glo7e8 connect it to a source of high8 ra(i$ly alternating (otential8 causing the )olecules of the gas to stri2e it )any ti)es a secon$ at enor)ous s(ee$s8 an$ in this .ay8 .ith trillions of in-isi7le ha))ers8 (oun$ it until it gets incan$escent0 ;r .e )ay (lace a 7o$y in a -ery highly e'hauste$ glo7e8 an$ 7y e)(loying -ery high frequencies an$ (otentials )aintain it at any $egree of incan$escence0 ;r .e )ay $istur7 the ether carrie$ 7y the )olecules of a gas8 or their static charges8 causing the) to -i7rate or e)it light0 These antici(atory state)ents are confir)e$ to9$ay 7y .hat /r0 Tesla has actually $one in one ol$ .ay re-olutioniBe$8 an$ in three ne. .aysI (1 the incan$escence of a soli$J (! (hos(horescenceJ (3 incan$escence or (hos(horescence of a rarefie$ gasJ an$ (6 lu)inosity (ro$uce$ in a gas at or$inary (ressure0
!I# 7 !I&,T +4(T(#&A+4 -1-& TA)-* 0/ +4(,+4(&-,C-*T .I#4T T4- !AC- I, T4AT (! '& T-,.A, A*% T4- ,(U&C- (! .I#4T I, (*- (! 4I, +4(,+4(&-,C-*T 0U.0, TI'- (! -8+(,U&- -I#4T 'I*UT-, %AT- (! +4(T(#&A+4 9A*UA&/, $:;<
!I# < +4(,+4(#&A+4 (! 'r C.-'-*, 2'A&) TWAI*5, TA)-* I* T4- T-,.A .A0(&AT(&/ 9A*UA&/, $:;< TI'- (! -8+(,U&-, T-* 'I*UT-,
!I# = T4&-- +4(,+4(&-,C-*T 0U.0, U*%-& T-,T !(& ACTI*IC 1A.U-, +4(T(#&A+4-% 0/ T4-I& (W* .I#4T
#A/<> &,TH 3CTT;1> ;+ 3A+> ,1 <#AC" ;F F,#A/"1T>0 TA:,1G la)(s in the first category8 it )ay 7e state$ that it ha$ 7een co))only su((ose$ that the light9gi-ing con$uctor in the la)(8 to 7e efficient an$ (ractical8 shoul$ 7e fineJ hence the na)eK fila)entK gi-en to the car7on loo( so)e in such la)(s0 3ut .ith the Teslaic currents the resistance or friction of the fila)ent to the of flo. of current $oes not count for anythingI the fila)ent )ay Hust as .ell 7e short an$ thic28 for it .ill ra(i$ly reach an$ stea$ily )aintain (ro(er incan$escence 7y the (assage of a s)all current of the right high frequency an$ (otential0 An action is set u( as the result of .hich the fila)ent is hit )illions of ti)es a secon$ 7y the 7o)7ar$)ent of the )olecules aroun$ it in a )erciless ring of tor)entors0 The -i7rations of the current in si)ilar )anner .ill cause the infinite Hostling of the )olecules of soli$ an$ gas against a s)all (olishe$ car7on or )etallic 7utton or 7ar in a la)(8 an$ 7rilliant light is also o7taina7le in this .ay0 #,GHT A1= <H;T;G+A<H> &,TH T">#A <H;><H;+">C"1T 3C#3>0 ,1 the fiel$ of lighting 7y (hos(horescence .e reach hitherto un9tro$$en groun$0 <hos(horescent light has 7een associate$ .ith the i$ea of Kcol$ light8K or the (ro(erty of 7eco)ing lu)inous .ith the o)ission of the inter)e$iate ste( of co)7ustion8 as co))only un$erstoo$0 As a (hysical action8 .e 2no. it in the light of the firefly8 .hich <rofessor >0 <0 #angley rates at an efficiency of 155 (er cent08 all its ra$iations lying .ithin the li)its of the -isi7le s(ectru)0 3y )eans of the Teslaic currents (hos(horescent light strong enough e-en to (hotogra(h 7y has 7een o7taine$J an$ Fig0 38 re(resenting the in-entor hi)self8 is the first (ortrait or (hotogra(h of any 2in$ e-er ta2en 7y (hos(horescent light0 A 7ul7 .hose light9gi-ing )e)7er is coate$ .ith sul(hi$e of Binc treate$ in a s(ecial .ay .as ren$ere$ (hos(horescent 7y )eans of current o7taine$ fro) a high9frequency transfor)er coil0 The current use$ .as alternate$ or oscillate$ a7out 158555 ti)es (er secon$0 The e'(osure .as a7out eight )inutes0 Fig0 68 of /r0 Cle)ens (/ar2 T.ain 8 .as ta2en a fe. .ee2s laterKearly in 1896K.ith the ai$ of the sa)e 7ul78 an$ .ith an e'(osure of a7out ten )inutes0 ,n or$er to test )ore closely the actinic -alue of (hos(horescent light8 so)e 7ul7s su7Hect to high9frequency currents .ere (hotogra(he$8 or8 if .e )ay coin a ne. .or$8 K (hos(hogra(he$8K .ith a so)e.hat longer e'(osure0 They are sho.n in Fig0 40 The right9han$8 7right (air utiliBe sul(hi$e of Binc in for) for lu)inosity0 The thir$ 7ul78 seen faintly to the left of the)8 has a coating of sul(hi$e of calciu)0 Although8 Hu$ge$ 7y eye8 it glo.e$ .ith a 7rightness fully equal to that of the other t.o8 the actinic -alue .as e-i$ently )uch less0 ,t is8 (erha(s8 nee$less to say that these $e)onstrations in-ite to an en$less -ariety of e'(eri)ents8 in .hich in-estigators .ill fin$ a host of no-el (heno)ena a.aiting the) as to (hos(horescence an$ fluorescence (ro$uce$ .ith electrical currents0
!I# >
!I# ?
!I# :
!I#, >, ?, A*% : A&- T-,.A TU0-, I* %I!!-&-*T !(&', I* W4IC4 .I#4T I, (0TAI*-% WIT4(UT !I.A'-*T (& C('0U,TI(* 2+4(T(#&A+4-% 0/ T4-I& (W* .I#4T 5
#,GHT F+;/ "/<TD 3C#3> ,1 F+"" ><AC"0 TH" thir$ an$ fourth classes of lighting enu)erate$ a7o-e as o7taine$ 7y Teslaic currents are those cause$ 7y the incan$escence or (hos(horescence of a rarefie$ gas an$ the lu)inosity of a gas at or$inary (ressure0 &e get (ure8 7eautiful light .ithout any fila)ent or any co)7ustion0 ,n Figs0 %8 *8 an$ 8 .e ha-e tu7es or 7ul7s 7y )eans of .hich so)e of these interesting (heno)ena are o7taine$ an$ illustrate$0 The 7ul7s sho.n are )ore or less e'hauste$ of air0 ,n the case of Figs0 % an$ * the glass of the tu7es is the or$inary Ger)an glass0 ,n Fig0 88 uraniu) glassKgreenK.as e)(loye$0 This last .as hel$ in the han$ .hile a (hotogra(h .as ta2en of it 7y its o.n lightJ .hence the unstea$iness of the negati-e0 To o7tain the 7eautiful illu)ination seen in all three8 the 7ul7s .ere si)(ly a((roache$ .ithin a fe. inches of the ter)inal of a high9frequency coil or transfor)er0 Eust here it )ay 7e (ointe$ out that the la)(s are s(o2en of as unattache$8 in free s(ace0 ;r$inary incan$escent lighting is $one8 as e-ery7o$y 2no.s8 .ith the la)(s' 7ases fir)ly attache$ to the t.o current9 7earing .ires0 "-en .here the la)(s ha-e 7een use$ on the or$inary alternating circuits in .hich the transfor)er is e)(loye$ to Kste( $o.n8K or re$uce8 for safe use8 the higher9tension current 7rought to it 7y the .ire fro) the $yna)o8 the la)(s ha-e to 7e attache$ to the K secon$aryK .ires of the coil so as to )a2e a close$ circuit for the)0 3ut as .e rise in the frequency of the current8 as .e lea-e 7ehin$ the electro$yna)ic con$itions for the electrostatic ones8 so .e free oursel-es fro) the restrictions an$ li)itations of soli$ .ires for the con-eyance of the effects sought8 until at last .e reach a (oint .here all the ol$ i$eas of the necessity of a tangi7le circuit -anish0 ,t is all circuit if .e can (ro(erly $irect the right 2in$ of i)(ulses through it0 As /r0 Tesla long ago (ointe$ out8 )ost of the e'(eri)ents usually (erfor)e$ .ith a static )achine of glass (lates can also 7e (erfor)e$ .ith an in$uction9coil of .ire if the currents are alternate$ ra(i$ly enoughJ an$ it is in reality here that /r0 Tesla (arts co)(any .ith other $istinguishe$ .or2ers .ho ha-e fi'e$ their attention )erely on the results attaina7le .ith electro$yna)ic a((aratus0 3efore (assing on8 let us quote the in-entor hi)selfI <o.erful electrostatic effects are a sine qua non of light (ro$uction on the lines in$icate$ 7y theory0 "lectro)agnetic effects are (ri)arily una-aila7le8 for the reason that to (ro$uce the require$ effects .e .oul$ ha-e to (ass the current i)(ulses through a con$uctor .hich8 long 7efore the require$ frequency of the i)(ulses coul$ 7e reache$8 .oul$ cease to trans)it the)0 ;n the other han$8 electro)agnetic .a-es )any ti)es longer than those of light8 an$ (ro$uci7le 7y su$$en $ischarge of a con$enser8 coul$ not 7e utiliBe$8 it .oul$ see)8 unless .e a-aile$ oursel-es of their effect u(on con$uctors as in the (resent )etho$s8 .hich are .asteful0 &e coul$ not affect 7y )eans of such .a-es the static )olecular or ato)ic charges of a gas8 an$ cause the) to -i7rate an$ to e)it light0 #ong trans-erse .a-es cannot8 a((arently8 (ro$uce such effects8 since e'cessi-ely s)all electro)agnetic $istur7ances )ay (ass rea$ily through )iles of air0 >uch $ar2 .a-es8 unless they are of the length of true light9.a-es8 cannot8 it .oul$ see)8 e'cite lu)inous ra$iation in a Geissler tu7e8 an$ the lu)inous effects .hich are (ro$uci7le 7y in$uction in a tu7e $e-oi$ of electro$es8 , a) incline$ to consi$er as 7eing of an electrostatic nature0 To (ro$uce such lu)inous effects straight electrostatic thrusts are require$J these8 .hate-er 7e their frequency8 )ay $istur7 the )olecular charges an$ (ro$uce light0 "FF"CT> &,TH ATTC1"= 3CT &,="#D >"<A+AT"= C,+CC,T>0 A F"& e'(eri)ents (erfor)e$ in /r0 Tesla's la7oratory .or2 sho( affor$ an i$ea of the fle'i7ility of the )etho$s 7y .hich (o.erful electrostatic effects are (ro$uce$ across )any feet of inter-ening s(ace0 The .or2sho( is a roo) a7out forty 7y eighty feet8 an$ ten or t.el-e feet high0 A circuit of s)all ca7le is carrie$ aroun$ it fro) the
ter)inals of the oscillator0 ,n the center of the clear8 o(en s(ace is (lace$ a coil8 .oun$ $ru) fashion8 three or four feet high8 an$ unconnecte$ .ith the current source sa-e through the )e$iu) of the at)os(here0 The coil is (ro-i$e$8 as sho.n in the (icture8 .ith t.o con$enser (lates for a$Hust)ent8 stan$ing u( li2e cy)7als0 The (lates act after the )anner of a s(ring8 an$ the coil is co)(ara7le to an electro)agnetic .eight0 The syste) of a((aratus in the )i$$le of the roo) has therefore a certain (erio$ of -i7ration8 Hust as though it .ere a tuning9 for28 or a sheet of thin resonant glass0 Aroun$ the roo)8 o-er the ca7le8 there are sent fro) the oscillator electrical current -i7rations0 3y carefully a$Husting the con$enser (lates so that the (erio$icity or s.ing of the in$uce$ current is 7rought into ste( .ith that of the ca7le currents8 (o.erful s(ar2s are )a$e to (our across 7et.een the (lates in the $ense strea)s sho.n in Fig0 90 ,n this )anner it is easy to reach tensions as high as !558555 an$ 3558555 -olts0
!ig ; -"periment showing play of electric sparks between condenser plates, produced by electric charge The coil, standing in the center of a large room, is unconnected with the energi@ing circuit 2!rom flashlight photograph 5
1o one .ho has .itnesse$ these significant e'(eri)ents can fail to 7e i)(resse$ .ith the e-i$ence of the actuality of a )e$iu)8 call it ether or .hat you .ill8 .hich in s(ite of its .on$erful tenuity is as ca(a7le of trans)itting energy as though it .ere air or .ater0 >till )ore i)(ressi-e to a lay)an8 (erha(s8 is the confi$ence an$ easy (recision .ith .hich these fine a$Hust)ents are 7rought a7out0
!I# $A -8+-&I'-*T ,4(WI*# T4- .I#4TI*# U+ (! A* (&%I*A&/ I*CA*%-,C-*T .A'+, AT A %I,TA*C-, T4&(U#4 T4I*!.U-*C- (! -.-CT&I!I-% -T4-&BWA1-, 2!&(' !.A,4B.I#4T +4(T(#&A+4 5
,n Fig0 15 there is a si)ilar coil8 in the )i$$le of the sa)e roo)8 .hich has 7een so a$Huste$ to the -i7rations sent aroun$ the sho( that an or$inary si'teen9can$le9(o.er incan$escent la)( is .ell lighte$ u(0
!I# $$ -8+-&I'-*T I..U,T&ATI*# T4- .I#4TI*# (! A* I*CA*%-,C-*T .A'+ I* !&-- ,+AC- 0/ I*%UCTI(* !&(' C(I. 0-.(W, -*-&#IC-% 0/ %I,TA*T CI&CUIT A&(U*% T4- &((' T4- .((+ (! WI&- CA&&/I*# T4- .A'+ I, 4-.% 0/ 'r 'A&I(* C&AW!(&% 2!&(' !.A,4B.I#4T +4(T(#&A+4 5
Fig0 11 (ursues this a little further0 A7o-e the coil a circle of .ire is hel$ 7y an o7ser-er8 an incan$escent la)( is attache$ to the circle0 As 7efore8 the -i7ration of the ether in the coil is 7rought into har)ony .ith the -i7rations e)itte$ fro) the ca7le0 The in$ucti-e effect u(on the circle hel$ loosely in free s(ace 7y the o7ser-er is so (ronounce$ that la)( is i))e$iately lighte$ u(8 though it )ay connecte$ .ith 7ut one ter)inal .ire8 or .ith t.o0 A 1559-olt la)( is use$8 requiring .hen e)(loye$ or$inarily )ore than one tenth of a horse9(o.er right off the connecting circuit .ires $irect fro) the $yna)o to 7ring it u( to (ro(er illu)inating -alue0 Hence8 as .ill 7e seen8 there is actual (roof here of the trans)ission of at least that a)ount of energy across a s(ace of so)e t.enty feet an$ into the 7ul7 7y actually no .ire at all0 This nee$ not sur(rise us .hen .e re)e)7er that on a 7right $ay the ether $eli-ers stea$ily fro) the sun a horse9(o.er of energy to e-ery se-en square feet of the earth's surface to.ar$ itI so great is its ca(acity for trans)itting energy0 /r0 Tesla .ith his Kelectrostatic thrusts K has si)(ly learne$ the 2nac2 of loa$ing electrically on the goo$9nature$ ether a little of the (rotean energy of .hich no a)ount has yet suffice$ to 7rea2 it $o.n or (ut it out of te)(er0 &e )ay assu)e either an enor)ous s(ee$ in .hat )ay 7e calle$ the trans)itting .heel.or2 of the ether8 since the .eight is inconcei-a7ly s)allJ or else that the ether is a )ere trans)itter of energy 7y its .ell9nigh a7solute inco)(ressi7ility0
!I# $6 ,I'I.A& -8+-&I'-*T, I..U,T&ATI*# T4- +4-*('-*(* (! I'+-%A*C- T4- .((+ (! WI&-, CA&&/I*# TW( .A'+,, I, 4-.% 0/ 'r 9(,-+4 9-!!-&,(* 2!&(' !.A,4B.I#4T +4(T(#&A+4 5
CC+,;C> K,/<"=A1C"K <H"1;/"1;10 ,1 Fig0 1! .e ha-e another re)ar2a7le e'(eri)ent illustrate$0 >tan$ing o-er the coil in the centre of the roo)8 the o7ser-er hol$s a hoo( of stout .ire in his han$0 ;ne or )ore la)(s are connecte$ .ith t.o (oints on the .ire8 so that the la)(s are Kshort9circuite$K 7y the short 7ar of .ire0 The -i7rations are8 ho.e-er8 so e'tre)ely ra(i$ that in s(ite of the o((osite ter)inals 7eing unite$ in this .ay8 the current $oes not flo. (ast the) neglectfully8 in the a((arently easier (ath8 as it shoul$8 7ut 7rings the) to a 7right incan$escence0 &e ha-e here an e'a)(le of .hat is 2no.n as Ki)(e$anceK (heno)ena8 in .hich the current is o$$ly cho2e$ 7ac2 at certain (oints an$ not at others0 Cn$er the con$itions of Ki)(e$ance8K the 7est electrical con$uctor loses its (ro(erty of con$ucting8 an$ 7eha-es li2e a highly resisting su7stance0 "la7orating further these e'(eri)ental results8 /r0 Tesla sho.s that a gasKa (erfect non9con$uctor un$er or$inary circu)stancesK)ay 7e )ore con$ucti-e than the 7est co((er .ire8 (ro-i$e$ the currents -i7rate ra(i$ly enough0 The fantastic si$e of this (heno)enon he touche$ on (layfully once 7y suggesting that (erchance in such .ise .e )ight so)e $ay utiliBe gas to con-ey electricity8 an$ the ol$ gas9(i(e to insulate it0
!I# $7 ,I'I.A& -8+-&I'-*T, T4- 4I#4BT-*,I(* CU&&-*T 0&I*# +A,,-% T4&(U#4 T4- 0(%/ 0-!(&- IT 0-I*#, T4- .A'+, T( I*CA*%-,C-*C- T4- .((+ I, 4-.% (1-& T4- &-,(*ATI*# C(I. 0/ 'r C.-'-*, 2'A&) TWAI*5 2!&(' A !.A,4B.I#4T +4(T(#&A+4 5
#A/<> #,GHT"= 3D CC++"1T> <A>>"= TH+;CGH TH" HC/A1 3;=D0 ,1 Fig0 13 a )ost curious an$ .eir$ (heno)enon is illustrate$0 A fe. years ago electricians .oul$ ha-e consi$ere$ it quite re)ar2a7le8 if in$ee$ they $o not no.0 The o7ser-er hol$s a loo( of 7are .ire in his han$s0 The currents in$uce$ in the loo( 7y )eans of the KresonatingK coil o-er .hich it is hel$8 tra-erse the 7o$y of the o7ser-er8 an$ at the sa)e ti)e8 as they (ass 7et.een his 7are han$s8 they 7ring t.o or three la)(s hel$ there to 7right incan$escence0 >trange as it )ay see)8 these currents8 of a -oltage one or t.o hun$re$ ti)es as high as that e)(loye$ in electrocution8 $o not incon-enience the e'(eri)enter in the slightest0 The e'tre)ely high tension of the currents .hich /r0 Cle)ens is seen recei-ing (re-ents the) fro) $oing any har) to hi)0 T+A1>/,>>,;1 ;F ,1T"##,G"1C" 3D ATTC1"= ;+ K+">;1AT,1GK CC++"1T>0 +"F"+"1C" has 7een )a$e to the KresonatingK quality of the circuits an$ coils0 ,t .oul$ 7e .eariso)e8 an$ in$ee$ is not necessary8 here to $.ell on the $ifficulty often e'(erience$ in esta7lishing the relation ofK resonance8K an$ the instantaneity .ith .hich it can 7e $istur7e$0 ,t )ay 7e state$8 in or$er to gi-e so)e i$ea of the con$itions to 7e o7ser-e$ in these e'(eri)ents8 that .hen an electric circuit is tra-erse$ 7y a ra(i$ly oscillating current .hich sets ti( .a-es in the ether aroun$ the .ire8 the effect of these .a-es u(on another circuit situate$ at so)e $istance fro) the first can 7e largely -arie$ 7y (ro(er a$Hust)ents0 The effect is )ost (ronounce$ .hen the secon$ circuit is so a$Huste$ that its (erio$ of -i7ration is the sa)e as that of the first0 This har)oniBing is $eftly acco)(lishe$ 7y -arying either of the t.o ele)ents .hich chiefly go-ern the ra(i$ity of the -i7ration8 -iB08 the so9calle$ Kca(acityK an$ the Kself9in$uction0K &hate-er the e'act (rocess )ay 7e8 it is clear that these t.o quantities in their effect ans.er al)ost $irectly to .hat are 2no.n in )echanics as (lia7ility an$ as .eight or inertia0 Attach to a s(ring a .eight8 an$ it .ill -i7rate at a certain rate0 3y changing the .eight8 or )o$ifying the (lia7ility of the s(ring8 any (erio$ of -i7ration is o7taina7le0 ,n -ery e'act
a$Hust)ents8 )inute changes .ill co)(letely u(set the 7alance8 an$ the -ery last stra. of fine .ire8 for e'a)(le8 in the in$uction9coil .hich gi-es the self9in$uction .ill 7rea2 the s(ell0 As /r0 Tesla has sai$8 it is really a luc2y thing that (ure resonance is not o7taina7leJ for if it .ere8 all 2in$s of $angers )ight lie in store for us 7y the increasing oscillations of e-ery 2in$ that .oul$ 7e set u(0 ,t .ill8 ho.e-er8 ha-e 7een gathere$ that if one electrical circuit can 7e tune$ to another effecti-ely8 .e shall nee$ no return .ire8 as heretofore8 for )otors or for lights8 the one .ire 7eing8 if anything8 7etter than t.o8 (ro-i$e$ .e ha-e -i7ration of the right -alueJ an$ if .e ha-e that8 .e )ight get along .ithout any .ires or any Kcurrents0K Here again .e )ust quote /r0 TeslaI ,n connection .ith resonance effects an$ the (ro7le) of trans)ission of energy o-er a single con$uctor8 , .oul$ say a fe. .or$s on a su7Hect .hich constantly fills )y thoughts8 an$ .hich concerns the .elfare of all0 , )ean the trans)ission of intelligi7le signals8 or (erha(s e-en (o.er8 to any $istance .ithout the use of .ires0 , a) 7eco)ing $aily )ore con-ince$ of the (ractica7ility of the sche)eJ an$ though , 2no. full .ell that the )aHority of scientific )en .ill not 7elie-e that such results can 7e (ractically an$ i))e$iately realiBe$8 yet , thin2 that all consi$er the $e-elo()ents of recent years 7y a nu)7er of .or2ers to ha-e 7een such as to encourage thought an$ e'(eri)ent in this $irection0 /y con-iction has gro.n so strong that , no longer loo2 u(on this (lan of energy or intelligence trans)ission as a )ere theoretical (ossi7ility8 7ut as a serious (ro7le) in electrical engineering .hich )ust 7e carrie$ out so)e $ay0 The i$ea of trans)itting intelligence .ithout .ire is the natural outco)e of the )ost recent results of electrical in-estigations8 >o)e enthusiasts ha-e e'(resse$ their 7elief that tele(hony to any $istance 7y in$uction through the air is (ossi7le0 , cannot stretch )y i)agination so farJ 7ut , $o fir)ly 7elie-e that it is (ractica7le to $istur7 7y )eans of (o.erful )achines the electrostatic con$ition of the earth8 an$ thus trans)it intelligi7le signals an$ (erha(s (o.er0 ,n fact8 .hat is there against the carrying out of such a sche)eF &e no. 2no. that electric -i7ration )ay 7e trans)itte$ through a single con$uctor0 &hy8 then8 not try to a-ail oursel-es of the earth for this (ur(oseF &e nee$ not 7e frightene$ 7y the i$ea of $istance0 To the .eary .an$erer counting the of )ile9(osts the earth )ay a((ear -ery largeJ 7ut to that ha((iest of all )en8 the astrono)er .ho gaBes at the hea-ens8 an$ 7y their stan$ar$ Hu$ges the )agnitu$e of our glo7e8 it a((ears -ery s)all0 An$ so , thin2 it )ust see) to the electricianJ for .hen he consi$ers the s(ee$ .ith .hich an electric $istur7ance is (ro(agate$ through the earth8 all his i$eas of $istance )ust co)(letely -anish0 A (oint of great i)(ortance .oul$ 7e first to 2no. .hat is the ca(acity of the earth8 an$ .hat charge $oes it contain of electricity0 =,>TC+3A1C" A1= ="/;1>T+AT,;1 ;F TH" "A+TH'> "#"CT+,CA# CHA+G"0 <A+T of /r0 Tesla's )ore recent .or2 has 7een in the $irection here in$icate$J for in his oscillator he has not si)(ly a ne. (ractical $e-ice8 7ut a ne. i)(le)ent of scientific re9search0 &ith the oscillator8 if he has not as yet actually $eter)ine$ the earth's electrical charge or Kca(acity8K he has o7taine$ stri2ing effects .hich conclusi-ely $e)onstrate that he has succee$e$ in $istur7ing it0 He connects to the earth8 7y one of its en$s8 a coil (see Fig0 14 in .hich ra(i$ly -i7rating currents are (ro$uce$8 the other en$ 7eing free in s(ace0 &ith this coil he $oes actually .hat one .oul$ he $oing .ith a (u)( forcing air into an elastic foot7all0 At each alternate stro2e the 7all .oul$ e'(an$ an$ contract0 3ut it is e-i$ent that such a 7all8 if fille$ .ith air8 .oul$8 .hen su$$enly e'(an$e$ or contracte$8 -i7rate at its o.n rate0 1o. if the stro2es of the (u)( 7e so ti)e$ that they are in har)ony .ith the in$i-i$ual -i7rations of the 7all8 an intense -i7ration or surging .ill 7e o7taine$0 The (ur(le strea)ers electricity thus elicite$ fro) the earth an$ (ouring out to the a)7ient air are )ar-ellous0 >uch a $is(lay is seen in Fig0 168 .here the cro.n of the coil8 ta(ering u(.ar$ in a <ea2 of Teneriffe8 fla)es .ith the out7urst of a solar (hotos(here0
!I# $<
-!!-CT (! -.-CT&ICA. %I,C4A&#- !&(' T4- -A&T4 0/ T-,.A C(I. 2+4(T(#&A+4-% 0/ IT, (W* .I#4T 5
!I# $= T-,.A C(I. !(& A,C-&TAI*I*# A*% %I,C4A&#I*# T4- -.-CT&ICIT/ (! T4- -A&T4 T4- ,T&-A'-&, AT T(+ (! C(I. A&- (! +U&+.- 4U-, A*% I* !(&' &-,-'0.- !I.A'-*T, (! ,-AW--%, T4- -!!-CT (! 'A,, 0-I*# CAU,-% 0/ +&(.(*#-% -8+(,U&- (! !.A,4B.I#4T *-#ATI1-
The currents .hich are )a$e to (ass in an$ out of the earth 7y )eans of this coil can also 7e $irecte$ u(on the hu)an 7o$y0 An o7ser-er )ounte$ on a chair8 an$ touching the coil .ith a )etal ro$8 can8 7y careful a$Hust)ents8 $i-ert enough of it u(on hi)self to cause its )anifestation fro) an$ aroun$ hi) in s(linters of light0 This halo effect8 o7taine$ 7y sen$ing the electricity of the earth through a hu)an 7eing8Kthe highest charge (ositi-ely e-er gi-en in safety8Kis8 to say the least8 curious8 an$ $ee(ly suggesti-e0 /r0 Tesla's te)erity in trying the effect first u(on his o.n (erson can 7e Hustifie$ only 7y his close an$ accurate calculation of .hat the a)ount of the $ischarge fro) the earth .oul$ 7e0 Consi$ering that in the a$Hust)ents necessary here8 a s)all length of .ire or a s)all 7o$y of any 2in$ a$$e$ to the coil or 7rought into its -icinity )ay $estroy entirely all effect8 one can i)agine the (leasure .hich the in-estigator feels .hen thus re.ar$e$ 7y unique (heno)ena0 After searching .ith (atient toil for t.o or three years after a result calculate$ in a$-ance8 he is co)(ensate$ 7y 7eing a7le to .itness a )ost )agnificent $is(lay of fiery strea)s an$ lightning $ischarges 7rea2ing out fro) the ti( of the .ire .ith the roar of a gas9.ell0 Asi$e fro) their $ee( scientific i)(ort an$ their .on$rous fascination as a s(ectacle8 such effects (oint to )any ne. realiBations )a2ing for the higher .elfare of the hu)an race0 The trans)ission of (o.er an$ intelligence is 7ut one thingJ the )o$ification of cli)atic con$itions )ay7e another0 <erchance .e shall Kcall u(K /ars in this .ay so)e $ay8 the electrical charge of 7oth (lanets 7eing utiliBe$ in signals0 Here are great results8 lofty ai)s8 an$ no7le i$easJ an$ yet they are 7ut a 7eggarly fe. of all those .ith .hich /r0 Tesla8 7y his si)(le8 )o$est .or28 has associate$ his na)e $uring recent years0 He is not an i)(ractica7le -isionary8 7ut a .or2er .ho8 .ith soli$ achie-e)ents 7ehin$ hi)8 see2s larger an$ 7etter ones that lie 7efore8 as .ell as fuller 2no.le$ge0 , ha-e -enture$ to su((le)ent $ata as to his late in-entions 7y so)e of his -ie.s as to the ether8 .hich throughout this (resentation of his .or2 has 7een treate$ fa)iliarly as the )ai$9of9all9.or2 of the uni-erse0 All our e'(lanations of things are 7ut half9.ay houses to the ulti)ate facts0 ,t )ay 7e sai$8 then8 in conclusion8 that .hile /r0 Tesla $oes not hol$ <rofessor ;li-er #o$ge's ingenious 7ut intricate notion of t.o
electricities an$ t.o ethers8 an$ of the ether as itself electricity8 he $oes 7elong to .hat #or$ :el-in has s(o2en of as the nineteenth9century school of (lenu)8 acce(ting one ether for light8 heat8 electricity8 an$ )agnetis)8 out.ar$ )anifestations of an in.ar$ unity .hose secret .e shall so)e $ay learn0 Tho)as Co))erfor$ /artin0
1 The (hotogra(hs re(ro$uce$ in this article .ere ta2en8 un$er the s(ecial $irection of the in-entor8 7y Tonnele O Co0 ! A 7iogra(hical s2etch of /r0 Tesla8 7y the (resent .riter8 .ith (ortrait8 a((eare$ in TH" C"1TC+D for Fe7ruary8 18960K"=,T;+0
18-6-0/-01: On #efle(ted #oentgen #ays 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" ,n (re-ious co))unications in regar$ to the effects $isco-ere$ 7y +oentgen8 , ha-e confine$ )yself to gi-ing 7arely a 7rief outline of the )ost note.orthy results arri-e$ at in the course of )y in-estigations0 To state truthfully8 , ha-e -enture$ to e'(ress )yself8 the first ti)e8 after so)e hesitation an$ consequent $elay8 an$ only .hen , ha$ gaine$ the con-iction that the infor)ation , ha$ to con-ey .as a nee$ful oneJ for8 in co))on .ith others8 , .as not quite a7le to free )yself of a certain feeling .hich one )ust e'(erience .hen he is tres(assing on groun$ not 7elonging to hi)0 The $isco-erer .oul$ naturally hi)self arri-e at )ost of the facts in $ue ti)e8 an$ a courteous restraint in the announce)ent of the results on the (art of his co9.or2ers .oul$ not 7e a)iss0 Ho. )any ha-e sinne$ against )e 7y (roclai)ing their achie-e)ents Hust as , .as goo$ an$ rea$y to $o it )yselfY 3ut these $isco-eries of +oentgen8 e'actly of the or$er of the telesco(e an$ )icrosco(e8 his seeing through a great thic2ness of an o(aque su7stance8 his recor$ing on a sensiti-e (late of o7Hects other.ise in-isi7le8 .ere so 7eautiful an$ fascinating8 so full of (ro)ise8 that all restraint .as (ut asi$e8 an$ e-ery one a7an$one$ hi)self to the (leasures of s(eculation an$ e'(eri)ent0 &oul$ 7ut e-ery ne. an$ .orthy i$ea fin$ such an echoY ;ne single year .oul$ then equal a century of (rogress0 A $elight it .oul$ 7e to li-e in such age8 7ut a $isco-erer , .oul$ not .ish to 7e0 A)ongst the facts8 .hich , ha-e ha$ the honour to 7ring to notice8 is one clai)ing a large share of scientific interest8 as .ell as of (ractical i)(ortance0 , refer to the $e)onstration of the (ro(erty of reflection8 on .hich , ha-e $.elt 7riefly0 Ha-ing ha$ o((ortunities to )a2e )any o7ser-ations $uring )y e'(erience .ith -acuu) 7ul7s an$ tu7es8 .hich coul$ not 7e accounte$ for in any (lausi7le .ay on any theory of -i7ration as far as , coul$ Hu$ge8 , 7egan these in-estigations K $isincline$8 7ut e'(ectant to fin$ that the effects (ro$uce$ are $ue to a strea) of )aterial (articles0 , ha$ )any e-i$ences of the e'istence of such strea)s0 ;ne of these , )entione$8 $escri7ing the )etho$ of electrically e'hausting a tu7e0 >uch e'haustion8 , ha-e foun$8 ta2es (lace )uch quic2er .hen the glass is -ery thin than .hen the .alls are thic28 , (resu)e 7ecause of the easier (assage of the ions0 &hile a fe. )inutes are sufficient .hen the glass is -ery thin8 it often ta2es half an hour or )ore if the glass 7e thic2 or the electro$e -ery large0 ,n accor$ance .ith this i$ea , ha-e8 .ith a -ie. of o7taining the )ost efficient action8 selecte$ the a((aratus8 an$ ha-e foun$ at each ste( )y su((osition confir)e$ an$ )y con-iction strengthene$0 A strea) of )aterial (articles8 (ossessing a great -elocity8 )ust nee$s 7e reflecte$8 an$ , .as therefore quite (re(are$ K assu)ing )y original i$ea to 7e true K to $e)onstrate sooner or later this (ro(erty0 Consi$ering that the reflection shoul$ 7e the )ore co)(lete the s)aller the angle of inci$ence8 , a$o(te$ fro) the outset of )y in-estigations a tu7e or 7ul7 7 of the for) sho.n in Fig0 10 ,t .as )a$e of -ery thic2 glass8 .ith a 7otto) 7lo.n as thin as (ossi7le8 .ith the t.o o7-ious o7Hects of restricting the ra$iation to the si$es an$ facilitating the (assage through the 7otto)0 A single electro$e e8 in the for) of a roun$ $is2 of a $ia)eter slightly less than that of the tu7e8 .as (lace$ a7out an inch 7elo. the narro. nec2 n on the to(0
Fig0 10
The lea$ing9in con$uctor c .as (ro-i$e$ .ith a long .ra((ing .8 so as to (re-ent crac2ing8 7y the for)ation of s(ar2s at the (oint .here the .ire enters the 7ul70 ,t .as foun$ a$-antageous for a nu)7er of reasons to e'ten$ the .ra((ing a goo$ $istance 7eyon$ the nec28 on the insi$e an$ outsi$e as .ell8 an$ to (lace the seal9 off in the narro. nec20 ;n other occasions , ha-e $.elt on the e)(loy)ent of an electrostatic screen in connection .ith such single9ter)inal 7ul7s0 ,n the (resent instance the screen .as (refera7ly for)e$ 7y a 7ronBe (aintings8 slightly a7o-e the alu)iniu) electro$e an$ e'ten$ing to Hust a little 7elo. the .ra((ing of the .ire8 so as to allo. seeing constantly the en$ of the .ra((ing0 ;r else a s)all alu)iniu) (late s8 Fig0 !8 .as su((orte$ in the insi$e of the 7ul7 a7o-e the electro$e0 This static screen (ractically $ou7les the effect8 as it (re-ente$ all action a7o-e it0
Fig0 !0
Consi$ering8 further8 that the ra$iation si$e.ays .as restricte$ 7y the use of a -ery thic2 glass an$ )ost of it .as thro.n to the 7otto) 7y reflection8 as , then sur)ise$8 it 7eca)e e-i$ent that such a tu7e shoul$ (ro-e )uch )ore efficient than one of or$inary for)0 ,n$ee$8 , quic2ly foun$ that its (o.er u(on the sensiti-e (late .as -ery nearly four ti)es as great as that of a s(herical 7ul7 .ith an equi-alent area of i)(act0 This 2in$ of tu7e is also -ery .ell a$a(te$ for use .ith t.o ter)inals 7y (lacing an e'ternal electro$e e1 as in$icate$ 7y the $otte$ lines in Fig0 10 &hen the glass is ta2en thic2 the strea) is sensi7ly (arallel an$ concentrate$0 Further)ore8 7y )a2ing the tu7e as long as one $esire$8 it .as (ossi7le to e)(loy -ery high (otentials8 other.ise i)(ractica7le .ith short 7ul7s0 The use of high (otentials is of great i)(ortance8 as it allo.s shortening consi$era7ly the ti)e of e'(osure8 an$ affecting the (late at )uch greater $istances0 , a) en$ea-ouring to $eter)ine )ore e'actly the relation of the (otential to the effect (ro$uce$ u(on the sensiti-e (late0 , $ee) it necessary to re)ar2 that the electro$e shoul$ 7e of alu)iniu)8 as a (latinu) electro$e8 .hich is still (ersistently e)(loye$8 gi-es inferior results an$ the 7ul7 is $isa7le$ in co)(arati-ely short ti)e0 >o)e e'(eri)enters )ight fin$ trou7le in )aintaining a fairly constant -acuu)8 o.ing to a (eculiar (rocess of a7sor(tion in the 7ul78 .hich has 7een (ointe$ out early 7y Croo2es8 in consequence of .hich8 7y continue$ use8 the -acuu) )ay increase0 A con-enient .ay to (re-ent this , ha-e foun$ to 7e the follo.ingI The screen or alu)iniu) (late s8 Fig0 !8 is (lace$ $irectly u(on the .ra((ing of the lea$ing9in con$uctor c8 7ut so)e $istance 7ac2 fro) the en$0 The right $istance can 7e only $eter)ine$ 7y e'(erience0 ,f it is (ro(erly chosen8 then8 $uring the action of the 7ul78 the .ra((ing gets .ar)er8 an$ a s)all 7right s(ar2 Hu)(s fro) ti)e to ti)e fro) the .ire c to the alu)iniu) (late s through the .ra((ing .0 The (assage of this s(ar2 causes gases to 7e for)e$J .hich slightly i)(air the -acuu)J an$ in this )anner8 7y a little s2ilful )ani(ulation8 the (ro(er -acuu) )ay 7e constantly )aintaine$0 Another .ay of getting the sa)e result in a tu7e sho.n in Fig0 1 is to e'ten$ the .ra((ing so far insi$e that8 .hen the 7ul7 is' nor)ally .or2ing8 the .ra((ing is heate$ sufficiently to free gases to the require$ a)ount0
,t is for this (ur(ose con-enient to let the screen of 7ronBe (ainting 0s e'ten$ Hust a little 7elo. the .ra((ing8 so that the s(ar2 )ay 7e o7ser-e$0 There are8 ho.e-er8 )any other .ays of o-erco)ing this $ifficulty8 .hich )ay cause so)e annoyance to those .or2ing .ith ina$equate a((aratusI ,n or$er to insure the 7est action the e'(eri)enter shoul$ note the -arious stages .hich , ha-e (ointe$ out 7efore8 an$ through .hich the 7ul7 has to (ass $uring the (rocess of e'haustion0 He .ill first o7ser-e that .hen the Croo2es (heno)ena sho. the)sel-es )ost (ro)inently there is a re$$ish strea)er issuing fro) the electro$e8 .hich in the 7eginning co-ers the latter al)ost entirely0 C( to this (oint the 7ul7 (ractically $oes not affect the sensiti-e (late8 although the glass is -ery hot at the (oint of i)(act0 Gra$ually the re$$ish strea)er $isa((ears8 an$ Hust 7efore it ceases to 7e -isi7le the 7ul7 7egins to sho. 7etter actionJ 7ut still the effect u(on the (late is -ery .ea20 <resently a .hite or e-en 7luish strea) is o7ser-e$8 an$ after so)e ti)e the glass on the 7otto) of the 7ul7 gets a glossy a((earance0 The heat is still )ore intense an$ the (hos(horescence through the entire 7ul7 is e'tre)ely 7rilliantI ;ne shoul$ thin2 that such a 7ul7 )ust 7e effecti-e8 7ut a((earances are often $eceitful8 an$ the 7eautiful 7ul7 still $oes not .or20 "-en .hen the .hite0 or 7luish strea) ceases8 an$ the glass on the 7otto) is so hot as to 7e nearly )elting8 the effect on the (late is -ery .ea20 3ut at this stage there a((ears su$$enly at the 7otto)8 of the tu7e a star9sha(e$ changing $esign8 as if the electro$e .oul$ thro. off $ro(s of liqui$0 Fro) this )o)ent on the (o.er of the 7ul7 is tenfol$8 an$ at this stage it )ust al.ays 7e 2e(t to
gi-e the 7est resultsI , )ay re)ar28 ho.e-er8 that .hile it )ay 7e generally state$ the Croo2es -acuu) is not high enough for the (ro$uction of the +oentgen (heno)ena8 this is not literally true0 1or are the Croo2es (heno)ena (ro$uce$ at a (articular $egree of e'haustion8 7ut )anifest the)sel-es e-en .ith (oor -acua8 (ro-i$e$ the (otential is high enough0 This is li2e.ise true of the +oentgen effects0 1aturally8 to -erify this8 (ro-ision )ust 7e )a$e not to o-erheat the 7ul7 .hen the (otential is raise$0 This is easily $one 7y re$ucing the nu)7er of i)(ulses or their $uration8 .hen raising the (otentialI For such e'(eri)ents8 it .ill 7e foun$ of a$-antage to use in connection .ith the or$inary in$uction coil a rotating co))utator8 instea$ of a -i7rating 7ra2e0 3y changing the s(ee$ of the co))utator8 an$ also regulating the $uration of contact8 one is ena7le$ to a$Hust the con$itions to suit the $egree of -acuu) an$ (otential e)(loye$0 ,n )y e'(eri)ents on reflection8 (resently consi$ere$8 , ha-e use$ the a((aratus sho.n in FigI !0 ,t consists of a T9sha(e$ 7o' throughoutJ of a square cross9section0 The .alls are )ine of lea$ o-er one9eighth of an inch thic28 .hich8 un$er the con$itions of the e'(eri)ents8 .as foun$ to 7e entirely i)(er-ious8 e-en 7y long e'(osures to the rays0 ;n the to( en$ .as su((orte$ fir)ly the 7ul7 78 inclose$ in a glass tu7e t of thic2 3ohe)ian glassJ .hich reache$ so)e $istance into the lea$ 7o'0 The lo.er en$ of the 7o' .as tightly close$ 7y a (late9hol$er <18 containing the sensiti-e fil) (18 (rotecte$ as usual00 Finally the si$e en$ .as close$ 7y a si)ilar (late9hol$er <8 .ith the sensiti-e (rotecte$ fil) (0 To o7tain shar( i)ages the o7Hects o an$ o 18 e'actly ali2e8 .ere (lace$ in the centre of the fi7re co-er8 (rotecting the sensiti-e (lates0 ,n the central (ortion of the 7o'8 (ro-ision .as )a$e for inserting a (late r of )aterialJ the reflecti-e (o.er of .hich .as to 7e teste$J an$ the $i)ensions of the 7o' .ere such that the reflecte$ ray an$ the $irect one ha$ to go through the sa)e $istance8 the reflecting (late 7eing at an angle of 64 $egrees to the inci$ent as .ell as reflecte$ ray0 Care .as ta2en to e'clu$e all (ossi7ility of action u(on the (late (8 e'ce(t 7y reflecte$ rays8 an$ the reflecting (late r .as )a$e to fit tight all aroun$ in the lea$ 7o'8 so that no rays coul$ reach the fil) ( 18 e'ce(t 7y (assing through the (late to 7e teste$0 ,n )y earliest e'(eri)ents on reflection , o7ser-e$ only the effects of reflecte$ rays8 7ut in this instance8 on the suggestion of <rof8 &)0 A0 Anthony8 , (ro-i$e$ the a7o-e )eans for si)ultaneously e'a)ining the action of the $irect rays8 .hich e-entually (asse$ through the reflecting (late0 ,n this )anner it .as (ossi7le to co)(are the a)ount of 0the trans)itte$ an$ reflecte$ ra$iation0 The glass tu7e t surroun$ing the 7ul7 7 ser-e$ to ren$er the strea) (arallel an$ )ore intense0 3y ta2ing i)(ressions at -arious $istances , foun$ that through a consi$era7le $istance there .as 7ut little s(rea$ing of the 7un$le of rays or strea) of (articles0 To re$uce the error .hich is cause$ una-oi$a7ly 7y too long e'(osures an$ -ery s)all $istances8 , re$uce$ the e'(osure to an hour8 an$ the total $istance through .hich the rays ha$ to (ass 7efore reaching the sensiti-e (lates .as !5 inches8 the $istance fro) the 7otto) of the 7ul7 to the reflecting (late 7eing 13 inches0 ,t is nee$less to re)ar2 that all the (recautions in regar$ to the sensiti-e (lates K constancy of (otential8 unifor) .or2ing of the 7ul7s8 an$ )aintenance of the sa)e con$itions in general $uring these tests ha-e 7een ta2en8 as far as it .as (ractica7le0 The (lates to 7e teste$ .ere )a$e of unifor) siBe8 so as to fit the s(ace (ro-i$e$ in the lea$ 7o'0 ;f the con$uctors the follo.ing .ere teste$I 3rass8 toolsteel8 Binc8 alu)iniu) co((er8 lea$8 sil-er8 tinJ an$ nic2el8 an$ of the insulators8 lea$9glass8 e7onite8 an$ )ica0 The su))ary of the o7ser-ations is gi-en in the follo.ing ta7leI +eflecting 7o$y0 3rass0 Toolsteel0 Winc0 Alu)iniu)0 Co((er0 #ea$0 >il-er0 Tin0 1ic2elI #ea$9glass0 /ica0 "7onite0 ,)(ression 7y trans)itte$ rays0 >trong0 3arely (erce(ti7le0 1one0 Gery strong0 1one0 1one0 >trong8 a thin (late 7eing use$0 1one0 1one0 Gery strong0 Gery strong0 >trong0 ,)(ression 7y reflecte$ rays0 Fairly strong0 Gery fee7le0 Gery strong0 1one0 Fairly strong8 7ut )uch less than Binc0 Gery strong8 7ut a little .ea2er than Binc0 .ea2er than co((er0 Gery strongJ a7out li2e lea$0 A7out li2e co((er0 Fee7le0 Gery strongJ a7out li2e lea$0 A7out li2e co((er0
3y co)(aring8 as in (re-ious e'(eri)ents8 the intensity of the i)(ression 7y reflecte$ rays .ith an equi-alent i)(ression $ue to a $irect e'(osure of the sa)e 7ul7 an$ at the sa)e $istance K that is8 7y calculating fro) the ti)es of e'(osure un$er assu)(tion that the action u(on the (late .as (ro(ortionate to the ti)e K the follo.ing a((ro'i)ate results .ere o7taine$I +eflecting 7o$y0 3rass Toolsteel Winc Alu)iniu) Co((er #ea$ >il-er Tin 1ic2el #ea$9glass /ica "7onite ,)(ression8 7y $irect action0 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 ,)(ression 7y reflecte$ rays0 ! 584 3 5 ! !84 18*4 !84 ! 1 !84 !
&hile these figures can 7e 7ut rough a((ro'i)ations8 there is8 ne-ertheless8 a fair (ro7a7ility that they are correct8 in so far as the relati-e -alues of the i)(ressions 7y reflecte$ rays for the -arious 7o$ies are concerne$0 Arranging the )etals accor$ing to these -alues8 an$ lea-ing for the )o)ent the alloys or i)(ure 7o$ies out of question8 .e arri-e at the follo.ing or$erI Winc8 lea$8 tin8 co((er8 sil-er0 The tin a((ears to reflect fully as .ell as lea$8 7ut8 allo.ing for an error in the o7ser-ation8 .e )ay assu)e that it reflects less8 an$ in this case .e fin$ that this or$er is (recisely the contact series of )etals in air0 ,f this (ro-es true .e shall 7e confronte$ .ith the )ost e'traor$inary fact0 &hy is Binc8 for instance8 the 7est reflector a)ong the )etals teste$ an$ .hy8 at the sa)e ti)e8 is it one of the fore)ost in the contact seriesF , ha-e not as yet trie$ )agnesiu)0 The truth is that , .as so)e.hat e'cite$ o-er these results0 /agnesiu) shoul$ 7e e-en a 7etter reflector than Binc8 an$ so$iu) still 7etter than )agnesiu)0 Ho. can this singular relationshi( 7e e'(laine$F The only (ossi7le e'(lanation see)s to )e at (resent that the 7ul7 thro.s out strea)s of )atter in so)e (ri)ary con$ition8 an$ that the reflection of these strea)s is $e(en$ent u(on so)e fun$a)ental an$ electrical (ro(erty of the )etals0 This .oul$ see) to lea$ to the inference that these strea)s )ust 7e of unifor) electrificationJ that is8 that they )ust 7e ano$ic or catho$ic in character8 7ut not 7oth0 >ince the announce)ent8 , 7elie-e in France for the first ti)e8 that the strea)s are ano$ic8 , ha-e in-estigate$ the su7Hect an$ fin$ that , can not agree .ith this contention0 ;n the contrary8 , fin$ that ano$ic an$ catho$ic strea)s 7oth affect the (late8 an$8 further)ore8 , ha-e 7een le$ to the con-iction that the (hos(horescence of the glass has nothing .hate-er to $o .ith the (hotogra(hic i)(ressions0 An o7-ious (roof is that such i)(ressions are (ro$uce$ .ith alu)iniu) -essels .hen there is no (hos(horescence8 an$8 as regar$s the ano$ic or catho$ic character8 the si)(le fact that .e can (ro$uce i)(ressions 7y a lu)inous $ischarge e'cite$ 7y in$uction of a close$ -essel8 .hen there is neither ano$e nor catho$e8 .oul$ see) to $is(ose effectually of the assu)(tion that the strea)s are issuing solely fro) one of the electro$es0 ,t )ay8 (erha(s8 7e useful to (oint out here a si)(le fact in relation to the in$uction coils8 .hich )ay lea$ an e'(eri)enter into an error0 &hen a -acuu) tu7e is attache$ to the ter)inals of an in$uction coil8 7oth of the ter)inals are acte$ u(on ali2e as long as the tu7e is not -ery highly e'hauste$0 At a high $egree of e'haustion 7oth the electro$es act (ractically in$e(en$ently8 an$ since they 7eha-e as 7o$ies (ossessing consi$era7le ca(acity8 the consequence is that the coil is un7alance$0 ,f the catho$e8 for instance8 is -ery large8 the (ressure on the ano$e )ay rise consi$era7ly8 an$ if the latter is )a$e s)aller8 as is frequently the case8 the electric $ensity )ay 7e )any ti)es that on the catho$e0 ,t results fro) this that the ano$e gets -ery hot8 .hile the catho$e )ay 7e cool0 Auite the o((osite occurs if 7oth of the) are )a$e e'actly ali2e0 3ut assu)ing the a7o-e con$itions to e'ist8 the hotter ano$e e)its a )ore intense strea) than the cool catho$e8 since the -elocity of the (articles is $e(en$ent on the electrical $ensity8 an$ li2e.ise on the te)(erature0 Fro) the (re-ious tests air interesting o7ser-ation can also 7e )a$e in regar$ to the o(acity0 Far instance8 a 7rass (late one9si'teenth inch thic2 (ro-e$ fairly trans(arent .hile (lates of Binc an$ co((er of the sa)e thic2ness sho.e$ the)sel-es to 7e entirely o(aque0 >ince , ha-e in-estigate$ reflection an$ arri-e$ to results in this $irection8 , ha-e 7een a7le to (ro$uce stronger effects 7y e)(loying (ro(er reflectors0 3y surroun$ing a 7ul7 .ith a -ery thic2 glass tu7e the effect )ay 7e aug)ente$ -ery consi$era7ly0 The e)(loy)ent of a Binc reflector in one instance sho.e$ an increase of a7out 65 (er cent in the i)(ression (ro$uce$0 , attach great (ractical -alue to the e)(loy)ent of (ro(er reflectors8 7ecause 7y )eans of the) .e can e)(loy any quantity of 7ul7s8 an$ so (ro$uce any intensity of
ra$iation require$0 ;ne $isa((oint)ent in the course of these in-estigations has 7een the entire failure of )y efforts to $e)onstrate refraction0 , ha-e e)(loye$ lenses of all 2in$s an$ trie$ a great )any e'(eri)ents8 7ut coul$ not o7tain any (ositi-e result0
18-6-0/-08: On #oentgen #adiations 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" Ha-ing o7ser-e$ the une'(ecte$ 7eha-iour of the -arious )etals in regar$ to the reflection of these ra$iations8 (see "lectrical +e-ie. of A(ril 18 189% , ha-e en$ea-oure$ to settle se-eral still $ou7tful (oints0 As8 for the (resent8 it a((eare$0 chiefly $esira7le to esta7lish the e'act or$er of the )etals8 or con$uctors8 in regar$ to their (o.ers of reflection8 lea-ing for further in-estigation the $eter)ination of the )agnitu$e of the effects8 , )o$ifie$ slightly the a((aratus an$ (roce$ure $escri7e$ in )y co))unication Hust referre$ to0 The reflecting (lates .ere not )a$e each of one )etal8 as 7efore8 7ut of t.o )etals8 the reflecti-e (o.er of .hich .as to 7e co)(are$0 This .as $one 7y fastening u(on a (late of lea$ the t.o )etal (lates to 7e in-estigate$8 so that the reflecting surface .as $i-i$e$ in t.o hal-es 7y the Hoining line0 Further)ore8 to (re-ent any s(rea$ing an$ )ingling of the rays reflecte$ fro) 7oth hal-es8 , $i-i$e$ the lea$ 7o' into t.o co)(art)ents 7y a thic2 lea$ (late through the )i$$le0 Care .as ta2en that the $ensity of the rays falling u(on the reflecting surfaces .as as unifor) as (ossi7le8 ari$ .ith this o7Hect in -ie. the glass tu7e surroun$ing the 7ul7 .as lifte$ u( so as to Hust e'(ose the half9s(herical 7otto) of the latter0 The 7ul7 .as (lace$ as e'actly as it .as (ractica7le in the centre8 so that 7oth hal-es of the reflecting (late .ere equally e'(ose$ to the ra$iations0 Ha-ing faile$ to o7tain8 in for)er e'(eri)ents8 a recor$ for iron o.ing to an o-ersight8 I trie$ to ascertain its (osition in the series 7y co)(aring it .ith co((er8 using a (late )a$e u( of iron an$ co((er0 The e'(eri)ents sho.e$ that iron reflecte$ a7out as )uch as co((er8 7ut .hich )etal reflecte$ 7etter .as i)(ossi7le to $eter)ine .ith safety 7y this )etho$0 1e't , en$ea-oure$ to fin$ .hether tin or lea$ .as a 7etter reflector8 7y the sa)e )etho$0 Three e'(eri)ents .ere (erfor)e$8 an$ in each case the )etals 7eha-e$ nearly ali2e8 7ut tin a((eare$ Hust a trifle 7etter0 Finally , in-estigate$ the (ro(erties of )agnesiu) as co)(are$ .ith Binc0 ,n fact8 the e'(eri)ents sho.e$ that )agnesiu) reflecte$ a little 7etter0 , a) not yet satisfie$8 in -ie. of the i)(ortance of this relation of the )etals .ith the )eans e)(loye$8 an$ .ill try to $e-ise an a((aratus .hich .ill $o a.ay .ith all the $efects of the (resent0 The ti)e of the e'(osure , ha-e foun$ (ractica7le to re$uce to a fe. )inutes 7y the hel( of a fluorescent (a(er0 ,n )y (re-ious co))unications , ha-e 7arely hinte$ at the (ractical i)(ortance of the use of suita7le reflectors0 ;ne .oul$ 7e a(t to conclu$e that8 since un$er the con$itions of the (re-iously $escri7e$ e'(eri)ents8 Binc8 for instance8 reflecte$ only three (er cent of the inci$ent rays8 the gain secure$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of such Binc reflector .oul$ 7e s)all0 This8 of course8 .oul$ 7e an erroneous conclusion0 First of all it shoul$ 7e re)e)7ere$ that in the instances )entione$ 7efore the angle of inci$ence .as 64 $egrees8 an$ that for larger angles a )uch greater (ortion of the 0rays .oul$ 7e reflecte$0 The e'act la. of reflection is still to 7e $eter)ine$0 1o.8 let us su((ose the sha$o. of an o7Hect is8 ta2en at a $istance8 =0 ,n or$er to get a shar( sha$o. .e )ust ta2e this $istance not less than t.o feet8 an$ , a) fin$ing it )ore an$ )ore necessary to a$o(t a still greater $istance0 ,f8 for the sa2e of si)(licity8 .e assu)e a s(herical 7ul7 an$ electro$e8 the ra$iation .ill 7e unifor) on all si$es8 an$ any ele)ent of a surface of a s(here of ra$ius =8 $ra.n aroun$ the electro$e8 .ill recei-e an equal quantity of rays0 The total surface of this s(here .ill 7e 6 (i = !0 The o7Hect8 the sha$o. of .hich is to 7e ta2en8 )ay ha-e a s)all area a8 .hich gets only an insignificant (art of the total rays e)itte$8 this (art 7eing gi-en 7y the (ro(ortion
e-en then8 if D is -ery large an$ the o7Hect8 that is8 the area a+ s)all8 this ratio )ay 7e still so s)all that e-i$ently8 7y the use of a (ro(er reflector8 .e can8 easily concentrate u(on the area a an a)ount of rays se-eral ti)es e'cee$ing that .hich .oul$ fall u(on it .ithout the use of a reflector8 in s(ite of the fact that .e are a7le to reflect only a fe. (er cent of the total inci$ent rays0 As an e-i$ence of the effecti-eness of such a reflector8 the anne'e$ (rint of the shoul$er an$ ri7s of a )an is sho.n0 A funnel9sha(e$ Binc reflector8 t.o feet high8 .ith an o(ening of fi-e inches on the 7otto) an$ !3 inches at the to(8 .as use$ in the e'(eri)ent0 A tu7e8 si)ilar in e-ery res(ect to those (re-iously $escri7e$8 .as sus(en$e$ in the funnel8 so that Hust the static screen of the tu7e .as a7o-e the for)er0 The e'act $istance fro) the electro$e to the sensiti-e (late .as four an$ one9half feet0 The $istance fro) the en$ of the tu7e to the (late .as three an$ one9half feet0 The e'(osure laste$ 65 )inutes0 The (late sho.e$ -ery strongly an$ clearly e-ery 7one8 an$ shoul$er an$ ri7s8 7ut , can not tell ho. clearly they .ill a((ear in the (rint0 , selecte$ the sa)e o7Hect as in )y first re(ort in your colu)ns on this in-estigation8 so as to gi-e a 7etter i$ea of the (rogress )a$e0 The a$-ance .ill 7e 7est a((reciate$ 7y stating that the $istance in this case .as )uch )ore than $ou7le8 .hile the ti)e of e'(osure .as less than one9half0 The chief i)(ortance of a reflector consists8 ho.e-er8 in this8 that it
a a 0 ,n reality .e can not assu)e less than a/=!(i as effecti-e ratio8 7ut " -D D "
allo.s the use of )any 7ul7s .ithout sacrifice of (recision an$ clearness8 an$ also the concentration of a great quantity of ra$iation u(on a -ery s)all area0 >ince the use of (hos(horescent or fluorescent 7o$ies in connection .ith the sensiti-e fil) has 7een suggeste$ 7y <rofessors Henry an$ >al-ioni8 , ha-e foun$ it an easy )atter to shorten the ti)e of e'(osure to a fe. )inutes8 or e-en secon$s0 >o far8 it see)s that the tungstate of calciu)8 recently intro$uce$ 7y "$ison8 an$ )anufacture$ 7y /essrs0 Ayls.orth O Eac2son8 is the )ost sensiti-e 7o$y0 , o7taine$ a sa)(le of it an$ use$ it in a series of tests0 ,t fluoresces $eci$e$ly 7etter than 7ariu)9(latino9cyani$e8 7ut8 o.ing to the siBe of the crystals an$ necessarily une-en $istri7ution on the (a(er8 it $oes not lea-e a $ean i)(ression0 For use in connection .ith the sensiti-e fil)s8 it shoul$ 7e groun$ -ery fine8 an$ so)e .ay shoul$ 7e a$o(te$ of $istri7uting it unifor)ly0 The (a(er also )ust a$here fir)ly to the fil) all o-er the (late8 so as to get fairly shar( outlines0 The fluorescence of this 7o$y see)s to $e(en$ on a (eculiar ra$iation8 7ecause , teste$ se-eral 7ul7s8 .hich other.ise .or2e$ e'cellently8 .ithout (ro$ucing a -ery goo$ result8 an$ , al)ost gaine$ a false i)(ression00 ;ne or t.o of the 7ul7s8 ho.e-er8 effecte$ it -ery (o.erfully0 An i)(ression of the han$ .as ta2en at a $istance of a7out si' feet fro) the 7ul7 .ith an e'(osure of less 2han one )inute8 an$ e-en then it .as foun$ that the (late .as o-ere'(ose$0 , then too2 an i)(ression of the chest of a )an at a $istance of 1! feet fro) the en$ of the tu7e8 e'(osing fi-e )inutes0 The $e-elo(e$ (late sho.e$ the ri7s $early8 7ut the outlines .ere not shar(0 1e't8 , e)(loye$ a tu7e .ith a Binc reflector8 as 7efore $escri7e$8 ta2ing an i)(ression of the chest of an assistant at a $istance of four feet fro) the 7ul70 The latter .as straine$ a little too )uch in this e'(eri)ent an$ e'(lo$e$8 in consequence of the great internal (ressure against the 7o)7ar$e$ s(ot0 This 0 acci$ent .ill frequently occur .hen the 7ul7 is straine$ too8 high8 the (rece$ing out.ar$ sign 7eing an increase$ acti-ity an$ -a(orli2e a((earance of the gas in the 7ul7 an$ ra(i$ heating of the latter0 The (rocess causing the a7nor)al increase in the internal (ressure against the glass .all see)s to 7e $ue to so)e action o((osite to that note$ 7y Croo2es an$ >(ottis.oo$e8 an$ is -ery ra(i$8 an$ for this reason the e'(eri)enter shoul$ .atch carefully for these o)inous signs an$ instantly re$uce the (otential0 ;.ing to the unti)ely en$ of the 7ul7 in this last $escri7e$ e'(eri)ent8 the e'(osure laste$ only one )inute0 1e-ertheless8 a -ery strong i)(ression of the s2eleton of the chest8 sho.ing the right an$ left ri7s an$ other $etails8 .as o7taine$0 The outlines8 ho.e-er8 .ere again )uch less shar( than .hen the or$inary (rocess .ithout the (hos(horescent intensifier .as follo.e$8 although care .as ta2en to (ress the fluorescent (a(er fir)ly against the fil)0 Fro) the foregoing it is e-i$ent that8 .hen using the a7o-e )eans for shortening the ti)e of e'(osure8 the thic2ness of the o7Hect is not of -ery )uch consequence0 , o7taine$ a still 7etter i$ea of the quality of tungstate of calciu) 7y o7ser-ing the effect u(on a fluorescent screen )a$e of this che)ical0 >uch a screen8 together .ith a (a(er 7o'8 has 7een ter)e$ .ith the fanciful na)e "fluorosco(e0" ,t is really >al-ioni's Cry(tosco(e .ith the lens o)itte$8 .hich is a great $isa$-antage0 To a((reciate the (erfor)ances of such a screen8 it is necessary to .or2 at night8 .hen the eye has for a long ti)e 7een use$ to the $ar2ness8 an$ )a$e ca(a7le of noting the faint effects on the screen0 ,n one instance the (erfor)ance of this screen .as (articularly note.orthy0 ,t .as illu)inate$ at a $istance of !5 feet8 an$ e-en at a $istance of 65 feet , coul$ still o7ser-e a faint sha$o. (assing across the fiel$ of -ision8 .hen )o-ing the han$ in front of the instru)ent0 #oo2ing at a $istance of a7out three feet fro) the 7ul7 through the 7o$y of an assistant8 , coul$ $istinguish easily the s(inal colu)n in the u((er (art of the 7o$y8 .hich .as )ore trans(arent0 ,n the lo.er (art of the 7o$y the colu)n an$ the rest .ere (ractically not (erce(ti7le0 The ri7s .ere only -ery faintly seen0 The 7ones of the nec2 .ere (lainly noticea7le8 an$ , coul$ see through the 7o$y of the assistant -ery easily a square (late of co((er8 as it .as )o-e$ u( an$ $o.n in front of the 7ul70 &hen loo2ing through the hea$ , coul$ o7ser-e only the outline of the s2ull an$ the chin97one8 yet the fiel$ of -ision .as still 7right0 "-erything else a((eare$ in$istinct0 This sho.s that i)(ro-ing of fluorescence .ill not ai$ us -ery )uch in the e'a)ination of the internal (arts of the 7o$y0 The solution rather .ill co)e through the (ro$uction of -ery (o.erful ra$iations8 ca(a7le of (ro$ucing -ery strong0 sha$o.s0 , 7elie-e , ha-e in$icate$ the right .ay to secure this result0 Although it )ust 7e a$)itte$ that the (erfor)ance of such a screen is re)ar2a7le .ith the a((liances , ha-e use$8 , ha-e8 ne-ertheless8 con-ince$ )yself of its still li)ite$ -alue for the (ur(ose of e'a)ination0 &e can $istinguish the 7ones in the li)7s8 7ut not nearly as clearly as a (hotogra(hic i)(ression sho.s it0 "-entually8 ho.e-er8 .ith the hel( of strong ra$iations an$ goo$ reflectors8 such fluorescent screens )ay 7eco)e -alua7le instru)ents for in-estigation0 A fe. .ee2s ago8 .hen , o7ser-e$ a s)all screen of 7ariu)9 (latino9cyani$e flare u( at a great $istance fro) the 7ul78 , tol$ so)e frien$s that it )ight 7e (ossi7le to o7ser-e 7y the ai$ of such a screen o7Hects (assing through a street0 This (ossi7ility see)s to )e )uch nearer at (resent than it a((eare$ then0 Forty feet is a fair .i$th for a street8 an$ a screen lights u( faintly at that $istance fro) a single 7ul70 , )ention this o$$ i$ea only as an illustration of ho. these scientific $e-elo()ents )ay e-en affect our )orals an$ custo)s0 <erha(s .e shall shortly get so use$ to this state of things that no7o$y .ill feel the slightest e)7arrass)ent .hile he is conscious that his s2eleton an$ other (articulars are 7eing scrutiniBe$ 7y in$elicate o7ser-ers0 Fluorescent screens affor$ so)e hel( in getting an i$ea of the con$ition of the 7ul7 .hen .or2ing0 , ho(e$ to
fin$ so)e e-i$ence of refraction 7y )eans of such a screen8 (lacing a lens 7et.een it an$ the 7ul78 an$ -arying the focal $istance0 To )y $isa((oint)ent8 although the sha$o. of the lens .as o7ser-a7le at a $istance of !5 feet8 , coul$ see no trace of refraction0 The use of0 the screen for the (ur(ose of noting the effects of reflection an$ $iffraction (ro-e$ li2e.ise futile0
18-6-0/-"": #oentgen #ay :nEestigations 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" Further in-estigations concerning the 7eha-iour of the -arious )etals in regar$ to reflection of these ra$iations ha-e gi-en a$$itional su((ort to the o(inion .hich , ha-e 7efore e'(resse$J na)ely8 that Golta's electric contact series in air is i$entical .ith that .hich is o7taine$ .hen arranging the )etals accor$ing to their (o.ers of reflection8 the )ost electro9(ositi-e )etal 7eing the 7est reflector0 Confining )yself to the )etals easily e'(eri)ente$ u(on8 this series is )agnesiu)8 lea$8 tin8 iron8 co((er8 sil-er8 gol$ an$ (latinu)0 The lastna)e$ )etal shoul$ 7e foun$ to 7e the (oorest8 an$ so$iu) one of the 7est8 reflectors0 This relation is ren$ere$ still )ore interesting an$ suggesti-e .hen .e consi$er that this series is a((ro'i)ately the sa)e .hich is o7taine$ .hen arranging the )etals accor$ing to their energies of co)7ination .ith o'ygen8 as calculate$ fro) their che)ical equi-alents0 >houl$ the a7o-e relation 7e confir)e$ 7y other (hysicists8 .e shall 7e Hustifie$ to $ra. the follo.ing conclusionsI First8 the highly e'hauste$ 7ul7 e)its )aterial strea)s .hich8 i)(inging on a )etallic surface8 are reflecte$J secon$8 these strea)s are for)e$ of )atter in so)e (ri)ary or ele)entary con$itionJ thir$8 these )aterial strea)s are (ro7a7ly the sa)e agent .hich is the cause of the electro9)oti-e tension 7et.een )etals in close (ro'i)ity or actual contact8 an$ they )ay (ossi7ly8 to so)e e'tent8 $eter)ine the energy of co)7ination of the )etals .ith o'ygenJ fourth8 e-ery )etal or con$uctor is )ore or less a source of such strea)sJ fifth8 these strea)s or ra$iations )ust 7e (ro$uce$ 7y so)e ra$iations .hich e'ist in the )e$iu)J an$ si'th8 strea)s rese)7ling the catho$ic )ust 7e e)itte$ 7y the sun an$ (ro7a7ly also 7y other sources of ra$iant energy8 such as an arc light or 3unsen 7urner0 The first of these conclusions8 assu)ing the a7o-e9cite$ fact to 7e correct8 is e-i$ent an$ incontro-erti7le0 1o theory of -i7ration of any 2in$ .oul$ account for this singular relation 7et.een the (o.ers of reflection an$ electric (ro(erties of the )etals8 >trea)s of (roHecte$ )atter co)ing in actual contact .ith the reflecting' )etal surface affor$ the only (lausi7le e'(lanation0 The secon$ conclusion is li2e.ise o7-ious8 since no $ifference .hate-er is o7ser-e$ 7y e)(loying -arious qualities of glass for the 7ul78 electro$es of $ifferent )etals an$ any 2in$ of resi$ual gases0 "-i$ently8 .hate-er the )atter constituting the strea)s )ay 7e8 it )ust un$ergo a change in the (rocess of e'(ulsion8 or8 generally s(ea2ingJ (roHection K since the -ie.s in this regar$ still $iffer K in such a .ay as to lose entirely the characteristics .hich it (ossesse$ .hen for)ing the electro$e8 or .all of the 7ul78 or the gaseous contents of the latter0 The e'istence of the a7o-e relation 7et.een the reflecting an$ contact series forces us li2e.ise to the thir$ conclusion8 7ecause a )ere coinci$ence of that 2in$ is8 to say the least8 e'tre)ely i)(ro7a7le0 3esi$es8 the fact )ay 7e cite$ that there is al.ays a $ifference of (otential set u( 7et.een t.o )etal (lates at so)e $istance an$ in the (ath of the rays issuing fro) an e'hauste$ 7ul70 1o.8 since there e'ists an electric (ressure of $ifference of (otential 7et.een t.o )etals in $ose (ro'i)ity or contact8 .e )ust8 .hen consi$ering all the foregoing8 co)e to the fourth conclusion8 na)ely8 that the )etals e)it si)ilar strea)s8 an$ , therefore antici(ate that8 if a sensiti-e fil) 7e (lace$ 7et.een t.o (lates8 say8 of )agnesiu) an$ co((er8 a true +oentgen sha$o. (icture .oul$ 7e o7taine$ after a -ery long e'(osure in the $ar20 ;r8 in general8 such (icture coul$ 7e secure$ .hene-er the (late is (lace$ near a )etallic or con$ucting 7o$y8 lea-ing for the (resent the insulators out of consi$eration0 >o$iu)8 one of the first of the electric contact series8 7ut not yet e'(eri)ente$ u(on8 shoul$ gi-e out )ore of such strea)s than e-en )agnesiu)0 ;7-iously8 such strea)s coul$ not 7e fore-er e)itte$8 unless there is a continuous su((ly of ra$iation fro) the )e$iu) in so)e other for)J or (ossi7ly the strea)s .hich the 7o$ies the)sel-es e)it are )erely reflecte$ strea)s co)ing fro) other sources0 3ut since all in-estigation has strengthene$ the o(inion a$-ance$ 7y +oentgen that for the (ro$uction of these ra$iations so)e i)(act is aire$8 the for)er of the t.o (ossi7ilities is the )ore (ro7a7le one8 an$ .e )ust assu)e that the ra$iations e'isting in the )e$iu) an$ gi-ing rise to those here consi$ere$ (arta2e so)ething of the nature of catho$ic strea)s0 3ut if such strea)s e'ist all aroun$ us in the a)7ient )e$iu)8 the question arises8 .hence $o they co)eF The only ans.er isI Fro) the sun0 , infer8 therefore8 that the sun an$ other sources of ra$iant energy )ust8 in a less $egree8 e)it ra$iations or strea)s of )atter si)ilar to those thro.n off 7y an electro$e in a highly e'hauste$ inclosure0 This see)s to 7e8 at this )o)ent8 still a (oint of contro-ersy0 Accor$ing to )y (resent con-ictions a +oentgen sha$o. (icture shoul$8 .ith -ery long e'(osures8 7e o7taine$ fro) all sources of ra$iant energy8 (ro-i$e$ the ra$iations are (er)itte$ first to i)(inge u(on a )etal or other 7o$y0 The (rece$ing consi$erations ten$ to sho. that the lu)(s of )atter co)(osing a catho$ic strea) in the 7ul7
are 7ro2en u( into inco)(ara7ly s)aller (articles 7y i)(act against the .all of the latter8 an$8 o.ing to this8 are ena7le$ to (ass into the air0 All e-i$ence .hich , ha-e so far o7taine$ (oints rather to this than to the thro.ing off of (articles of the .all itself un$er the -iolent i)(act of the catho$ic strea)0 Accor$ing to )y con-ictions8 then8 the $ifference 7et.een #enar$ an$ +oentgen rays8 if there 7e any8 lies solely in this8 that the (articles co)(osing the latter are inco)(ara7ly s)aller an$ (ossess a higher -elocity0 To these t.o qualifications , chiefly attri7ute the non9$eflecti7ility 7y a )agnet .hich , 7elie-e .ill 7e $is(ro-e$ in the en$0 3oth 2in$s of rays8 ho.e-er8 affect the sensiti-e (late an$ fluorescent screen8 only the rays $isco-ere$ 7y +oentgen are )uch )ore effecti-e0 &e 2no. no. that these rays are (ro$uce$ un$er certain e'ce(tional con$itions in a 7ul78 the -acuu) 7eing e'tre)ely high8 an$ that the range of greatest acti-ity is rather s)all0 , ha-e en$ea-oure$ to fin$ .hether the reflecte$ rays (ossess certain $istincti-e features8 an$ , ha-e ta2en (ictures of -arious o7Hects .ith this (ur(ose in -ie.8 7ut no )ar2e$ $ifference .as note$ in any case0 , therefore conclu$e that the )atter co)(osing the +oentgen rays $oes not suffer further $egra$ation 7y i)(act against 7o$ies0 ;ne of the )ost i)(ortant tas2s for the e'(eri)enter re)ains still to $eter)ine .hat 7eco)es of the energy of these rays0 ,n a nu)7er of e'(eri)ents .ith rays reflecte$ fro) an$ trans)itte$ through a con$ucting of insulating (late8 , foun$ that only a s)all (art of the rays coul$ 7e accounte$ for0 For instance8 through a Binc (late8 one9si'teenth of an inch thic28 un$er an inci$ent angle of 64 $egrees8 a7out t.o an$ one9half (er cent .ere reflecte$ an$ a7out three (er cent trans)itte$ through the (late8 hence o-er 96 (er cent of the total ra$iation re)ain to 7e accounte$ for0 All the tests .hich , ha-e 7een a7le to )a2e ha-e confir)e$ +oentgen's state)ent that these rays are inca(a7le of raising the te)(erature of a 7o$y0 To trace this lost energy an$ account for it in a (lausi7le .ay .ill 7e equi-alent to )a2ing a ne. $isco-ery008 >ince it is no. $e)onstrate$ that all 7o$ies reflect )ore or less8 the $iffusion through the air is easily accounte$ for0 ;7ser-ing the ten$ency to scatter through the air8 , ha-e 7een le$ to increase the efficiency of reflectors 7y (ro-i$ing not oneJ 7ut se(arate$ successi-e layers for reflection8 7y )a2ing the reflector of thin sheets of )etalJ )ica or other su7stances0 The efficiency of )ica0 as a reflector , attri7ute chiefly to the fact that it is co)(ose$ of )any su(eri)(ose$ layers .hich reflect in$i-i$ually0 These )any successi-e reflections are8 in )y o(inion8 also the cause of the scattering through the air0 ,n )y co))unication to you of A(ril 18 , ha-e for the first ti)e state$ that these rays are co)(ose$ of )atter in a "(ri)ary" or ele)entary con$ition or state0 , ha-e chosen this )o$e of e'(ression in or$er to a-oi$ the use of the .or$ "ether"8 .hich is usually un$erstoo$ in the sense0 of the /a'.ellian inter(retation8 .hich .oul$ not 7e in accor$ .ith )y (resent con-ictions in regar$ to the nature of the ra$iations0 An o7ser-ation .hich )ight 7e of so)e interest is the follo.ingI A fe. years ago , $escri7e$ on one occasion a (heno)enon o7ser-e$ in highly e'hauste$ 7ul7s0 ,t is a 7rush or strea) issuing fro) a single electro$e un$er certain con$itions8 .hich rotates -ery ra(i$ly in consequence of the action of the earth's )agnetis)0 1o. , ha-e recently o7ser-e$ this sa)e (heno)enon in se-eral 7ul7s .hich .ere ca(a7le of i)(ressing the sensiti-e fil) an$ fluorescent screen -ery0 strongly0 As the 7rush is ra(i$ly t.irling aroun$ , ha-e conHecture$ that (erha(s also the #enar$ an$ +oentgen strea)s a'e rotating un$er the action of the earth's )agnetising an$ , a) en$ea-ouring to o7tain an e-i$ence of such )otion 7y stu$ying the action of a 7ul7 in -arious (ositions .ith res(ect to the )agnetic a'is of the earth0 ,n so far as the -i7rational character of the rays is concerne$8 , still hol$ that the -i7ration is )erely that .hich is con$itione$ 7y the a((aratus e)(loye$0 &ith the or$inary in$uction coil .e ha-e al)ost e'clusi-ely to $eal .ith a -ery lo. -i7ration i)(resse$ 7y the co))utating $e-ice or 7ra2e0 &ith the $isru(ti-e coil .e usually ha-e a -ery strong su(eri)(ose$ -i7ration in a$$ition to the fun$a)ental one8 an$ it is easy to trace so)eti)es as )uch as the fourth octa-e of the fun$a)ental -i7ration0 3ut , can not reconcile )yself .ith the i$ea of -i7rations a((ro'i)ating or e-en e'cee$ing those of light8 an$ thin2 that all these effects coul$ 7e as .ell (ro$uce$ .ith a stea$y electrical (ressure as fro) a 7attery8 .ith the e'clusion of all -i7ration .hich )ay8 occur8 e-en in such instance8 as has 7een (ointe$ out 7y =e #a +i-e0 ,n )y e'(eri)ents , ha-e trie$ to ascertain .hether a greater $ifference 7et.een the sha$o.s of the 7ones an$ flesh coul$ 7e o7taine$ 7y e)(loying currents of e'tre)ely high frequency8 7ut , ha-e 7een una7le to $isco-er any such effect .hich .oul$ 7e $e(en$ent on the frequency of the currents8 although the latter .ere -arie$ 7et.een as .i$e li)its as I.as (ossi7le0 3ut it is a rule that the )ore intense the action the 0shar(er the sha$o.s o7taine$8 (ro-i$e$ that the $istance is not too s)all0 ,t is further)ore of the greatest i)(ortance for the clearness of the sha$o.s that the rays shoul$ 7e (asse$ through so)e tu7ular reflector8 .hich ren$ers the) sensi7ly (arallel0 ,n or$er then to 7ring out as )uch $etail as (ossi7le on a sensiti-e (late8 .e ha-e to (rocee$ in (recisely the sa)e .ay as if .e ha$ to $eal .ith flying 7ullets hitting against a .all co)(ose$ of (arts of $ifferent $ensity .ith the (ro7le) 7efore us of (ro$ucing as large as (ossi7le a $ifference in the traHectories of the 7ullets .hich (ass through the -arious (arts of the .all0 /anifestly8 this $ifference .ill 7e the greater the greater the -elocity of the 7ulletsJ hence8 in or$er 'to 7ring out $etail8 -ery strong ra$iations are require$0 <rocee$ing on this theory , ha-e e)(loye$ e'ce(tionally thic2 fil)s an$ $e-elo(e$ -ery slo.ly8 an$ in this .ay clearer (ictures ha-e 7een o7taine$0 The i)(ortance of slo. $e-elo()ent has 7een first (ointe$ out 7y <rofessor &right8 of Dale0 ;f
course8 0if <rofessor Henry's suggestion of the use of a fluorescent 7o$y in contact .ith the sensiti-e fil) is )a$e use of8 the (rocess is re$uce$ to an or$inary quic2 (hotogra(hic (roce$ure8 an$ the a7o-e consi$eration $oes not a((ly0 ,t 7eing $esira7le to (ro$uce as (o.erful a ra$iation as (ossi7le8 , ha-e continue$ to $e-ote )y attention' to this (ro7le) an$ ha-e 7een quite successful0 First of all8 there e'iste$ li)itations in the -acuu) tu7e .hich $i$ not (er)it the a((lying of as high a (otential as , $esire$J na)ely8 .hen a certain high $egree of e'haustion .as reache$ a s(ar2 .oul$ for) 7ehin$ the electro$e8 .hich .oul$ (re-ent straining the tu7e )uch higher0 This incon-enience , ha-e o-erco)e entirely 7y )a2ing the .ire lea$ing to the electro$e -ery long an$ (assing it through a narro. channel8 so that the heat fro) the electro$e coul$ not cause the for)ation of such s(ar2s0 Another li)itation .as i)(ose$ 7y strea)ers .hich .oul$ 7rea2 out at the en$ of the tu7e .hen the (otential .as e'cessi-e0 This latter incon-enience , ha-e o-erco)e either 7y the use of a col$ 7last of air along the tu7e8 as , ha-e )entione$ 7efore8 or else 7y i))ersion of the tu7e in oil0 The oil8 as it is no. .ell 2no.n8 is a )eans of ren$ering i)(ossi7le the for)ation of strea)ers 7y the e'clusion of all air0 The use of the oil in connection .ith the (ro$uction of these ra$iations has 7een early a$-ocate$ in this country 7y <rofessor Tro.7ri$ge0 ;riginally , e)(loye$ a .oo$en 7o' )a$e thoroughly tight .ith .a' an$ fille$ .ith oil or other liqui$8 in .hich the tu7e .as i))erse$0 ;7ser-ing certain s(ecific actions8 , )o$ifie$ an$ i)(ro-e$ the a((aratus8 an$ in )y later in-estigations , ha-e e)(loye$ an arrange)ent as sho.n in the anne'e$ cut0 A 7ul7 78 of the 2in$ $escri7e$ 7efore8 .ith a lea$ing9in .ire an$ nec2 )uch longer than here sho.n8 .as8 inserte$ into a large an$ thic2 glass tu7e t0 The tu7e .as close$ in front 7y a $ia(hrag) $ of (erga)ent8 an$ 7y a ru77er (lug < in the 7ac20 The (lug .as (ro-i$e$ .ith t.o holes8 into the lo.er one of .hich a glass tu7e t 18 reaching to -ery nearly the en$ of the 7ul78 .as inserte$0 ;il of so)e 2in$ .as )a$e to flo. through ru77er tu7es r r fro) a large reser-oir +8 (lace$ on an a$Husta7le su((ort >8 to the lo.er reser-oir + 18 the (ath of the oil 7eing clearly o7ser-a7le fro) the $ra.ing0 3y a$Husting the $ifference of the le-el 7et.een the t.o reser-oirs it .as easy to )aintain a (er)anent con$ition of .or2ing0 The outer glass tu7e t ser-e$ in (art as a reflector8 .hile at the sa)e ti)e it (er)itte$ the o7ser-ation of the 7ul7 7 $uring the action0 The (lug <8 in .hich the con$uctor c .as tightly seale$8 .as so arrange$ that it coul$ 7e shifte$ in an$ out of the tu7e t8 so as to -ary the thic2ness of the oil tra-erse$ 7y the rays0 , ha-e o7taine$ so)e results .ith this a((aratus .hich clearly sho. the a$-antage of such $is(osition0 For instance8 at a $istance of 64 feet fro) the en$ of the 7ul7 )y assistants an$ )yself coul$ o7ser-e clearly the fingers of the han$ through a screen of tungstate of calciu)8 the rays tra-ersing a7out t.o an$ one half inches of oil an$ the $ia(hrag) $0 ,t is (ractica7le .ith such a((aratus to )a2e (hotogra(hs of s)all o7Hects at a $istance of 65 feet8 .ith only a fe. )inutes e'(osure8 7y the hel( of <rofessor Henry's )etho$0 3ut8 e-en .ithout the use of a fluorescent (o.$er8 short e'(osures are (ractica7le8 so that , thin2 the use of the a7o-e )etho$ is not essential for quic2 (roce$ure0 , rather 7elie-e that in the (ractical $e-elo()ent of this (rinci(le8 if it shall 7e necessary8 <rofessor >al-ioni's suggestion of a fluorescent e)ulsion8 co)7ine$ .ith a fil)8 .ill ha-e to 7e a$o(te$0 This is 7oun$ to gi-e 7etter results than an in$e(en$ent fluorescent screen8 an$ .ill -ery )uch si)(lify the (rocess0 , )ay say8 ho.e-er8 that8 since )y last co))unication8 consi$era7le i)(ro-e)ent has 7een )a$e in the screens0 The )anufacturers of "$ison's tungstate of calciu) are no. furnishing screens .hich gi-e fairly clean (ictures0 The (o.$er is fine an$ it is )ore unifor)ly $istri7ute$0 , consi$er8 also8 that the e)(loy)ent of a softer an$ thic2er (a(er than 7efore is of a$-antage0 ,t is Hust to re)ar2 that the tungstate of calciu) has also (ro-e$ to 7e an e'cellent fluorescent in the 7ul70 , teste$ its qualities for such use i))e$iately an$ fin$ it so "far une'celle$0 &hether it .ill 7e so for a long ti)e re)ains to 7e seen0 1e.s reaches us that se-eral fluorescent 7o$ies8 7etter than the cyani$es8 ha-e 7een $isco-ere$ a7roa$0 Another i)(ro-e)ent .ith a -ie. of increasing the shar(ness of the sha$o.s has 7een (ro(ose$ to )e 7y /r0 "0 +0 He.itt0 He assu)e$ that the a7sence of shar(ness of the outlines in the sha$o.s on the screen .as $ue to the s(rea$ of the fluorescence fro.n crystal to crystal0 He (ro(ose$ to a-oi$ this 7y using a thin alu)iniu) (late .ith )any (arallel 0groo-es0 Acting on this suggestion8 , )a$e so)e e'(eri)ents .ith .ire gauBe an$8 further)ore8 .ith screens )a$e of a )i'ture of a fluorescent .ith a non9fluorescent (o.$er0 T foun$ that the general 7rightness of the screen .as $i)inishe$8 7ut that .ith a strong ra$iation the sha$o.s a((eare$ shar(er0 This i$ea )ight 7e foun$ ca(a7le of useful a((lication0 3y the use of the a7o-e a((aratus , ha-e 7een ena7le$ to e'a)ine )uch 7etter than 7efore the 7o$y 7y )eans of the fluorescent screen0 <resently the -erte7ral colu)n can 7e seen quite clearly8 e-en in the lo.er (art of the 7o$y0 , ha-e also clearly note$ the outlines of the hi( 7ones0 #oo2ing in the region of the heart , ha-e 7een a7le to locate in un)ista2a7ly0 The 7ac2groun$ a((eare$ )uch 7righter8 an$ this $ifference in the intensity of the sha$o. an$ surroun$ing has sur(rise$ )e0 The ri7s , coul$ no. see on a nu)7er of occasions quite $istinctly8 as .ell as the shoul$er 7ones0 ;f course8 there is no $ifficulty .hate-er in o7ser-ing the 7ones of all li)7s0 , note$ certain (eculiar effects .hich , attri7ute to the oil0 For instance8 the rays (asse$ through (lates of )etal o-er one9eighth of an inch thic28 an$ in one instance , coul$ see quite clearly the 7ones of )y han$ through sheets of co((er8 iron an$ 7rass of a thic2ness of nearly' one9quarter of an inch0 Through glass the rays see)e$
to (ass .ith such free$o) that8 loo2ing through the screen in a $irection at right angles to the a'is of the tu7e8 the action .as )ost intense8 although the rays ha$ to (ass through a great thic2ness of glass an$ oil0 A glass sla7 nearly one9half of an inch thic28 hel$ in front of the screen8 har$ly $i))e$ the fluorescence0 &hen hol$ing the0 screen in front of the tu7e at a $istance of a7out three feet8 the hea$ of an assistant8 thrust 7et.een the screen an$ the tu7e8 cast 7ut a fee7le sha$o.0 ,t a((eare$ so)e ti)es as if the 7ones an$ the flesh .ere equally trans(arent to the ra$iations (assing through8 the oil0 &hen -ery close to the 7ul78 the screen .as illu)inate$ through the 7o$y of an assistant so strongly that8 .hen a han$ .as )o-e$9in8 front8 , coul$ clearly note the )otion of the han$0 through the 7o$y0 ,n one instance , coul$ e-en $istinguish the 7ones of the ar)0 Ha-ing o7ser-e$ the e'traor$inary trans(arency of the 7ones in so)e instances8 , at first sur)ise$ that the rays )ight 7e -i7rations of high (itch8 an$ that the oil ha$ in0 so)e .ay a7sor7e$ a (art of the)0 This -ie.8 ho.e-er8 7eca)e untena7le .hen , foun$ that at a certain $istance fro) the 7ul7 , o7taine$ a shar( sha$o. of the 7ones0 This latter o7ser-ation le$ )e to a((ly usefully the screen in ta2ing i)(ressions on the (late0 1a)ely8 in such 8case it is of a$-antage to first $eter)ine 7y )eans of the screen the (ro(er $istance at .hich the o7Hect is to 7e (lace$ 7efore ta2ing the i)(ression0 ,t .ill 7e foun$ that often the i)age is )uch clearer at a greater $istance0 ,n or$er8 to a-oi$ any error .hen o7ser-ing .ith the screen8 , ha-e surroun$e$ the 7o' .ith thic2 )etal (lates8 so as to (re-ent the fluorescence8 in consequence of the ra$iations8 reaching the screen fro) the si$es0 , 7elie-e that such an arrange)ent is a7solutely necessary if one .ishes to )a2e correct o7ser-ations0 =uring )y stu$y of the 7eha-iour of oils an$ other liqui$ insulators8 .hich , a) still continuing8 it has occurre$ to )e to in-estigate the i)(ortant effect $isco-ere$ 7y <rof0 E0 E0Tho)son0 He announce$ so)e ti)e ago that all 7o$ies tra-erse$ 7y +oentgen ra$iations 7eco)e con$uctors of electricity0 , a((lie$ a sensiti-e resonance test to the in-estigation of this (heno)enon in a )anner (ointe$ out in )y earlier .ritings on high frequency currents0 A secon$ary8 (refera7ly not in -ery close in$ucti-e relation to the (ri)ary circuit8 .as connecte$ to the latter an$ to the groun$8 an$ the -i7ration through the (ri)ary8 .as so a$Huste$ that true resonance too2 (lace0 As the secon$ary ha$ a consi$era7le nu)7er of turns8 -ery s)all 7o$ies attache$ to the free ter)inal (ro$uce$ consi$era7le -ariations of (otential on the latter0 <lacing a tu7e in a 7o' of .oo$ fille$ .ith oil an$ attaching it to the ter)inal8 , a$Huste$ the -i7ration through the (ri)ary so that resonance too2 (lace .ithout the 7ul7 ra$iating +oentgen rays to an a((recia7le e'tent0 , then change$ the con$itions so that the 7ul7 7eca)e -ery acti-e in the (ro$uction of the rays0 The oil shoul$ ha-e no.8 accor$ing to <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son's state)ent8 7eco)e a con$uctor an$ a -ery )ar2e$ change in the -i7ration shoul$ ha-e occurre$0 This .as foun$ not to 7e the case8 so that .e )ust see in the (heno)enon $isco-ere$ 7y E0 E0 Tho)son only a further e-i$ence that .e ha-e to $eal here .ith strea)s of )atter .hich8 tra-ersing the 7o$ies8 carry a.ay electrical charges0 3ut the 7o$ies $o not 7eco)e con$uctors in the co))on acce(tance of the ter)0 The )etho$ , ha-e follo.e$ is so $elicate that a )ista2e is al)ost an i)(ossi7ility0
18-6-05-0-: On A$$aratus for Cat,ogra$,y 4y Nikola Tesla

/ining and &cientific 3ress ,n or$er to (ro$uce the )ost intense effects8 .e ha-e first to consi$er that8 .hate-er their nature8 they $e(en$ necessarily on the intensity of the catho$e strea)s0 Then8 again8 7eing $e(en$ent on the )agnitu$e of the (otential8 it follo.s that the highest attaina7le electrical (ressure is $esira7le0 To o7tain high (otentials .e )ay a-ail oursel-es of an or$inary in$uction coil8 or of a static )achine8 or (refera7ly of a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil0 ,f .e (ut t.o electro$es in a 7ul78 or use one insi$e an$ another outsi$e electro$e8 .e li)it the (otential8 for the (resence not only of the ano$e8 7ut of any con$ucting o7Hect8 has the effect of re$ucing the (ractica7le (otential on the 'catho$e0 Thus8 to secure the result ai)e$ at8 one is $ri-en to the acce(tance of a single electro$e 7ul78 the other ter)inal 7eing as far re)ote as (ossi7le0 Ha-ing selecte$ the in$uction a((aratus an$ ty(e of 7ul78 the ne't i)(ortant consi$eration is the -acuu)0 ;n this 9 su7Hect , a) a7le to )a2e 2no.n a fact .ith .hich , ha-e long 7een acquainte$8 an$ of .hich , ha-e ta2en a$-antage in the (ro$uction of -acuu) Hac2ets an$ incan$escent 7ul7s8 an$ .hich , su7sequently foun$ to 7e of the ut)ost i)(ortance8 not to say essential8 for the (ro$uction' of intense +oentgen sha$o.s0 , refer to a )etho$ of rarefaction 7y electrical )eans to any $egree $esira7le8 far 7eyon$ that o7taina7le 7y )echanical a((liances0 Though this result can 7e reache$ 7 the use of a static )achine8 as .ell as of an or$inary in$uction coil gi-ing a sufficiently high (otential8 , ha-e foun$ that 7y far the )ost suita7le a((aratus8 an$ one .hich secures the quic2est action8 is a $isru(ti-e coil0 ,t is 7est to (rocee$ is this .ayI The 7ul7 is first e'hauste$ 7y )eans of an or$inary -acuu) (u)( to a rather high $egree8 though )y e'(eriences ha-e sho.n that this is not a7solutely necessary8 as , ha-e also foun$ it (ossi7le to rarefy8 7eginning fro) lo. (ressureI After 7eing ta2en $o.n fro) the (u)(8 the 7ul7 is attache$ to the ter)inal of the $isru(ti-e coil8 (refera7ly of high frequency of -i7rationJ an$ usually the follo.ing (heno)ena are note$I First8 there is a )il2y light s(rea$ing through the 7ul78 or (ossi7ly for a )o)ent the glass 7eco)es (hos(horescent8 if the 7ul7 has 7een e'hauste$ to a high $egree0 At any rate8 the (hos(horescence generally su7si$es quic2ly an$ the .hite light settles aroun$ the electro$e8 .hereu(on a $ar2 s(ace for)s at so)e $istance fro) the latter8 >hortly after.ar$s the light assu)es a re$$ish colour an$ the ter)inal gro.s -ery hot0 This heating8 ho.e-er8 is o7ser-e$ only .ith (o.erful a((aratus0 ,t is .ell to .atch the 7ul7 carefully an$ regulate the (otential at this stage8 as the electro$e )ight 7e quic2ly consu)e$0 After so)e ti)e the re$$ish light su7si$es8 the strea)s 7eco)ing again .hite8 .hereu(on they get .ea2er an$ .ea2er8 .a-ering aroun$ the electro$e until they finally $isa((ear0 /ean.hile8 the (hos(horescence of the glass gro.s )ore an$ )ore intense8 an$ the s(ot .here the strea) stri2es the .all 7eco)es -ery hot8 .hile the (hos(horescence aroun$ the electro$e ceases an$ the latter cools $o.n to such an e'tent that the glass near it )ay 7e actually ice9col$ to the touch0 The gas in the 7ul7 has then0 reache$ the require$ $egree of rarefaction0 The (rocess )ay 7e hastene$ 7y re(eate$ heating an$ cooling an$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of a s)all electro$e0 , )ay state here that the e'(eri)enter nee$ not 7e $eterre$ fro) using a glass 7ul78 as , 7elie-e the o(acity of glass8 as .ell as the trans(arency of alu)iniu)8 are so)e.hat e'aggerate$8 inas)uch as , ha-e foun$ that" a -ery thin alu)iniu) sheet thro.s a )ar2e$ sha$o.8 .hile8 on the other han$8 , ha-e o7taine$ i)(ressions through a thic2 glass (late0 The a7o-e )etho$ is not only -alua7le as a )eans of o7taining the high -acua $esire$8 7ut it is still )ore i)(ortant8 7ecause the (heno)ena o7ser-e$ thro. a light on the results o7taine$ 7y #enar$ an$ +oentgen0 Though the (heno)enon of rarefaction un$er a7o-e con$itions a$)its of $ifferent inter(retations8 the chief interest centres on one of the)80 to .hich , a$here K that is8 on the actual e'(ulsion of the (articles through the .alls of the 7ul70 , ha-e lately o7ser-es that the latter co))ences to act (ro(erly u(on the sensiti-e (late only fro) the (oint .hen the e'haustion 7egin8 to 7e noticea7le8 an$ the effects0 (ro$uce$ are the strongest .hen the (rocess of e'haustion is )ost ra(i$8 e-en though the (hos(horescence )ight not a((ear (articularly 7right0 "-i$ently8 then8 the t.o effects are closely connecte$8 an$ , a) getting )ore an$ )ore con-ince$ that .e ha-e to $ea$ .ith at strea) of )aterial (articles8 .hich stri2e the sensiti-e (late .ith great -elocities0 Ta2ing as a 7asis the esti)ate of #or$ :el-in on the s(ee$ of (roHecte$ (articles in a Croo2es' 7ul78 .e arri-e easily 7y the e)(loy)ent of -ery high (otentials to s(ee$s of as )uch as a hun$re$ 2ilo)etres a secon$0 ,t )ay not 7e 2no.n that e-en an or$inary strea)er8 7rea2ing out su$$enly an$ un$er great (ressure fro) the ter)inal of a $isru(ti-e coil8 (asses through a thic2 glass (late as though the latter .ere not (resent0 Cnquestiona7ly8 .ith such coils (ressures are (ractica7le .hich .ill (roHect the (articles in straight lines e-en0 un$er at)os(heric (ressure0 , ha-e o7taine$ $istinct i)(ressions in free air8 not 7y strea)ers8 as so)e e'(eri)enters ha-e $one8 using static )achines or in$uction coils8 7ut 7y actual (roHection8 the for)ation of strea)ers 7eing8 a7solutely (re-ente$ 7y careful static screening0
A -alua7le e-i$ence of the nature of the ra$iations an$ (rogress in the $irection of o7taining strong i)(ressions on the (late )ight 7e arri-e$ at 7y (erfecting (lates es(ecially sensiti-e to )echanical shoc2 or i)(act0 There are che)icals suita7le for this8 an$ the $e-elo()ent in this $irection )ay lea$ to the a7an$on)ent of the (resent (late0 Further)ore8 if .e ha-e to $eal .ith strea)s of )aterial (articles8 it see)s not i)(ossi7le to (roHect u(on the (late a suita7le su7stance to insure the 7est che)ical action0 3y e'(osing the hea$ to a (o.erful ra$iation strange effects ha-e 7een note$0 For instance8 , fin$ that there is a ten$ency to slee( an$ the ti)e see)s to (ass a.ay quic2ly0 There is a general soothing effect8 an$ , ha-e felt a sensation of .ar)th is the u((er (art of the hea$0 Au assistant in$e(en$ently confir)e$ the ten$ency to slee( an$ a quic2 la(se of ti)e0 >houl$ these re)ar2a7le effects 7e -erifie$ 7y )en .ith 2eener sense of o7ser-ation8 , shall still )ore fir)ly 7elie-e in the e'istence of )aterial strea)s (enetrating the s2ull0 Thus it )ay 7e (ossi7le to (rotect a suita7le che)ical into any (art of the 7o$y0 >ince )y a7o-e9)entione$ $isco-eries , ha-e )a$e consi$era7le (rogress8 an$ can (resently announce one )ore result of i)(ortance0 , ha-e lately o7taine$ sha$o.s 7y reflecte$ rays only8 thus $e)onstrating 7eyon$ $ou7t that the +oentgen rays (ossess this (ro(erty0 ;ne of the e'(eri)ents )ay 7e cite$ here0 A thic2 co((er tu7e8 a7out a foot long8 .as ta2en an$ one of its en$s tightly close$ 7y the (late97ol$er containing a sensiti-e (late8 (rotecte$ 7y a fi7re co-er as usualI 1ear the o(en en$ of the co((er tu7e .as (lace$ a thic2 (late glass at an angle of 64\ to the a'is of the tu7e0 A single ter)inal 7ul7 .as then sus(en$e$ a7o-e the glass (late at a $istance of a7out eight inches8 so that the 7un$le of rays fell u(on the latter at an angle of 64\8 an$ su((ose$ly reflecte$ rays (asse$ along the a'is of the co((er tu7e0 An e'(osure of forty9fi-e )inutes ga-e a clear an$ shar( sha$o. of a )etallic o7Hect0 This sha$o. .as (ro$uce$ 7y the reflecte$ rays8 as the $irect action .as a7solutely e'clu$e$8 it ha-ing 7een $e)onstrate$ that8 e-en un$er the se-erest tests .ith )uch stronger actions8 no i)(ression .hate-er coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ u(on the fil) through a thic2ness of co((er equal to that of the tu7e0 Conclu$ing fro) the intensity of the action 7y co)(arison .ith an equi-alent effect $ue to the $irect rays8 , fin$ that a((ro'i)ately t.o (er cent of the latter .ere reflecte$ fro) the glass (late in this e'(eri)ent0
18-6-0<-08: An :nteresting 7eature of -ray #adiations 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" The follo.ing o7ser-ations8 )a$e .ith 7ul7s e)itting +oentgen ra$iations8 )ay 7e of -alue in thro.ing a$$itional light u(on the nature of these ra$iations8 as .ell as illustrating 7etter (ro(erties alrea$y 2no.n0 ,n the )ain these o7ser-ations agree .ith the -ie.s .hich ha-e force$ the)sel-es u(on )y8 )in$ fro) the outset8 na)ely8 Ithat the rays consist of strea)s of )inute )aterial (articles (roHecte$ .ith great -elocity0 ,n nu)erous e'(eri)ents , ha-e foun$ that the )atter .hich8 7y i)(act .ithin the 7ul78 causes the for)ation of the rays )ay co)e fro) ti$ier of the electro$es0 ,nas)uch as the latter are 7y continue$ use $isintegrate$ to a )ar2e$ $egree8 it see)s )ore (lausi7le to assu)e that the (roHecte$ )atter consists of (arts of the electro$es the)sel-es rather than of the resi$ual gas0 Ho.e-er8 0other o7ser-ations8 u(on .hich , can not $.ell at (resent8 lea$ to this conclusion0 The lu)(s of (roHecte$ )atter are 7y i)(act further $isintegrate$ into (articles so )inute as to 7e a7le to (ass through the .alls of the 7ul7I or else they tear off such (articles fro) the .alls8 or generally 7o$ies8 against .hich they are (roHecte$0 At any rate8 an i)(act an$ consequent shattering see)s a7solutely necessary for the (ro$uction of +oentgen rays0 The -i7ration8 if there 7e any8 is only that .hich is i)(resse$ 7y the a((aratus8 an$ the -i7rations can only 7e longitu$inal0 The (rinci(al source of the rays is in-aria7ly the (lace of first i)(act .ithin the 7ul78 .hether it 7e the ano$e8 as in so)e for)s of tu7e8 or an inclose$ insulate$ 7o$y8 or the glass .all0 &hen the )atter thro.n off fro) an electro$e8 after stri2ing against an o7stacle8 is thro.n against another 7o$y8 as the .all of the 7ul78 for instance8 the (lace of secon$ i)(act is a -ery fee7le source of the rays0 These an$ other facts .ill 7e 7etter a((reciate$ 7y referring to the anne'e$8 figure8 in .hich a for) of tu7e is sho.n use$ in a nu)7er of )y e'(eri)ents0 The general for) is that $escri7e$ on (re-ious occasions0 A single electro$e e8 consisting of a )assi-e alu)iniu) (late8 is )ounte$ on a con$uctor t8 (ro-i$e$ .ith a glass .ra((ing . as usual8 an$ seale$ in one of the en$s of a straight tu7e 78 a7out fi-e centi)etres in $ia)eter an$ 35 centi)etres long0 The other en$ of the tu7e is 7lo.n out into a thin 7ul7 of a slightly larger $ia)eter8 an$ near this en$ is su((orte$ on a glass ste) a a funnel f of thin (latinu) sheet8 ,n such 7ul7s , ha-e use$ a nu)7er of $ifferent )etals for i)(act .ith a -ie. of increasing the intensity of the rays an$ also for the (ur(ose of reflecting an$ concentrating the)0 >ince8 ho.e-er8 in a later contri7ution8 <rofessor +oentgen has (ointe$ out that (latinu) gi-es the )ost intense rays8 , ha-e use$ chiefly this )etal8 fin$ing a )ar2e$ increase in the effect u(on the screen or sensiti-e (late0 The (articular o7Hect of the (resently $escri7e$ construction .as to ascertain .hether the rays generate$ at the inner surface of the (latinu) funnel f .oul$ 7e 7rought to a focus outsi$e of the 7ul78 an$ further8 .hether they .oul$ (rocee$ in straight lines fro) that (oint0 For this (ur(ose the a(e' of the (latinu) cone .as arrange$ to 7e a7out t.o centi)etres outsi$e of the 7ul7 at o0 &hen the 7ul7 .as (ro(erly e'hauste$ an$ set in action8 the glass .all 7elo. the funnel f 7eca)e strongly (hos(horescent8 7ut not unifor)ly8 as there .as a narro. ring r r on the (eri(hery 7righter than the rest8 this ring 7eing e-i$ently $ue to the rays reflecte$ fro) the (latinu) sheet0 <lacing a fluorescent screen in contact or quite close to the glass .all 7elo. the funnel8 the (ortion of the screen in the i))e$iate neigh7ourhoo$ of the (hos(horescent (atch .as 7rightly illu)inate$8 the outlines 7eing entirely in$istinct0 +ece$ing no. .ith the screen fro) the 7ul78 the strongly illu)inate$ s(ot 7eca)e s)aller an$ the outlines shar(er8 until8 .hen the (oint o .as reache$8 the lu)inous (art ha$ $.in$le$ $o.n to a s)all (oint0 /o-ing the screen a fe. )illi)etres 7eyon$ o cause$ a s)all $ar2 s(ot to a((ear8 .hich .i$ene$ into a circle an$ 7eca)e larger an$ larger in the sa)e )easure as the $istance fro) the 7ul7 .as increase$ (see > 8 until8 at a sufficiently large $istance8 the $ar2 circle co-ere$ the entire screen0 This e'(eri)ent illustrate$ in a 7eautiful .ay the (ro(agation in straight lines8 .hich +oentgen originally (ro-e$ 7y (inhole (hotogra(hs0 3ut8 7esi$es this8 an i)(ortant (oint .as note$J na)ely8 that the fluorescent glass .all e)itte$ (ractically no rays8 .hereas8 ha$ the (latinu) not 7een (resent8 it .oul$ ha-e 7een8 un$er si)ilar con$itions8 an efficient source of the rays8 for the glass8 e-en 7y .ea2 e'citation of the 7ul78 .as strongly heate$0 , can only e'(lain the a7sence of the ra$iation fro) the glass 7y assu)ing that the )atter (rocee$ing fro) the surface of the (latinu) sheet .as alrea$y in a finely $i-i$e$ state .hen it reache$ the glass .all0 A re)ar2a7le fact is8 also8 that8 at least 7y a .ea2 e'citation of the 7ul78 the e$ges of the $ar2 circle .ere -ery shar(8 .hich s(ea2s strongly against $iffusion0 3y e'citing the 7ul7 -ery strongly8 the 7ac2groun$ 7eca)e 7righter an$ the sha$o. > fainter8 though it continue$ to 7e (lainly -isi7le e-en then0 Fro) the (rece$ing it is e-i$ent 0that8 7y a suita7le construction of the 7ul78 the rays e)anating fro) the latter )ay 7e concentrate$ u(on any s)all area at so)e $istance8 an$ a (ractical a$-antage )ay 7e ta2en of this fact .hen (ro$ucing i)(ressions u(on a (late or e'a)ining 7o$ies 7y )eans of a fluorescent screen0
18-6-08-1": #oentgen #ays or Streams 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" ,n the original re(ort of his e(ochal $isco-eries8 +oentgen e'(resse$ his con-iction that the (heno)ena he o7ser-e$ .ere $ue to certain no-el $istur7ances in the ether0 This o(inion $eser-es to 7e consi$ere$ the )ore as it .as (ro7a7ly for)e$ in the first enthusias) o-er the re-elations8 .hen the )in$ of the $isco-erer .as ca(a7le of a )uch $ee(er insight into the nature of things0 ,t .as 2no.n since long ago that certain $ar2 ra$iations8 ca(a7le of (enetrating o(aque 7o$ies8 e'iste$8 an$ .hen the rectilinear (ro(agation8 the action on a fluorescent screen an$ on a sensiti-e fil) .as note$8 an o7-ious an$ una-oi$a7le inference .as that the ne. ra$iations .ere trans-erse -i7rations8 si)ilar to those 2no.n as light0 ;n the other han$8 it .as $ifficult to resist certain argu)ents in fa-our of the less (o(ular theory of )aterial (articles8 es(ecially as8 since the researches of #enar$8 it has 7eco)e -ery (ro7a7le that )aterial strea)s8 rese)7ling the catho$ic8 e'iste$ in free air8 Further)ore8 , )yself ha-e 7rought to notice the fact that si)ilar )aterial strea)s K .hich .ere su7sequently8 u(on +oentgen's announce)ent8 foun$ ca(a7le of (ro$ucing i)(ressions on a sensiti-e fil) K .ere o7taina7le in free air8 e-en .ithout the e)(loy)ent of a -acuu) 7ul78 si)(ly 7y the use of -ery high (otentials8 suita7le for i)(arting to the )olecules of the air or other (articles a sufficiently high J-elocity0 ,n reality8 such (uffs or Hets of (articles are for)e$ in the -icinity of e-ery highly charge$ con$uctor8 the (otential of .hich is ra(i$ly -arying8 an$ , ha-e sho.n that8 unless they are (re-ente$8 they are fatal to e-ery con$enser or high9(otential transfor)er8 no )atter ho. thic2 the insulation0 They also ren$er (ractically -alueless any esti)ate of the (erio$ of -i7ration of an electro9)agnetic syste) 7y the usual )a$e of calculation or )easure)ent in a static con$ition in all cases in .hich the (otential is -ery high an$ the frequency e'cessi-e0 ,t is significant that8 .ith these an$ other facts 7efore hi)8 +oentgen incline$ to the con-iction that the rays he $isco-ere$ .ere longitu$inal .a-es of ether0 After a long an$ careful in-estigation8 .ith a((aratus e'cellently suite$ for the (ur(ose8 ca(a7le of (ro$ucing i)(ressions0 at great $istances8 an$ after e'a)ining the results (ointe$ out 7y other e'(eri)enters8 , ha-e co)e to the conclusion .hich , ha-e alrea$y inti)ate$ in )y for)er contri7utions to your estee)e$ Hournal8 an$ .hich , no. fin$ courage to (ronounce .ithout hesitation8 that the original hy(othesis of +oentgen .ill 7e confir)e$ in t.o (articularsJ first8 in regar$ to the longitu$inal character of the $istur7ancesJ secon$8 in regar$ to the )e$iu) concerne$ in their (ro(agation0 The (resent e'(ression of )y -ie.s is )a$e solely for the (ur(ose of (reser-ing a faithful recor$ of .hat8 to )y )in$8 a((ears to 7e the true inter(retation of these ne. an$ i)(ortant )anifestations of energy0 +ecent o7ser-ations of so)e $ar2 ra$iations fro) no-el sources 7y 3ecquerel an$ others8 an$ certain $e$uctions of Hel)holtB8 see)ingly0 a((lica7le to the e'(lanation of the (eculiarities of the +oentgen rays8 ha-e gi-en a$$itional .eight to the argu)ents on 7ehalf of the theory of trans-erse -i7rations8 an$ accor$ingly this inter(retation of the (heno)ena is hel$ in fa-our0 3ut this -ie. is still of a (urely s(eculati-e character8 7eing8 as it is at (resent8 unsu((orte$ 7y any conclusi-e e'(eri)ent0 Contrarily8 there is consi$era7le e'(eri)ental e-i$ence that so)e )atter is (roHecte$ .ith great -elocity fro) the 7ul7s8 this )atter 7eing in all (ro7a7ility the only cause of the actions $isco-ere$ 7y +oentgen0 There is 7ut little $ou7t at (resent that a catho$ic strea) .ithin a 7ul7 is co)(ose$ of s)all (articles of )atter8 thro.n off .ith great -elocity fro) the electro$e0 The -elocity (ro7a7ly attaine$ is esti)a7le8 an$ fully accounta7le for the )echanical an$ heating effects (ro$uce$ 7y the i)(act against the .all or o7stacle .ithin the 7ul70 ,t is8 further)ore8 an acce(te$ -ie. that the (roHecte$ lu)(s of )atter act as inelastic 7o$ies8 si)ilarly to e-er so )any s)all lea$ 7ullets0 ,t can 7e easily sho.n that the -elocity of the strea) )ay 7e as )uch as 155 2ilo)etres a secon$8 or e-en )ore8 at least in 7ul7s .ith a single electro$e8 in .hich the (ractica7le -acua an$ (otentials are )uch higher than in the or$inary 7ul7s .ith t.o electro$es0 3ut8 no.8 )atter )o-ing .ith such great -elocity )ust surely (enetrate great thic2nesses of the o7struction in its (ath8 if the la.s of )echanical i)(act are at all a((lica7le to a catho$ic strea)0 , ha-e (resently so )uch fa)iliariBe$ )yself .ith this -ie. that8 if , ha$ no e'(eri)ental e-i$ence8 , .oul$ not question the fact that so)e )atter is (roHecte$ through the thin .all of a -acuu) tu7e0 The e'it fro) the latter is8 ho.e-er88 the )ore li2ely to occur8 as the lu)(s of )atter )ust 7e shattere$ into still )uch s)aller (articles 7y the i)(act8 Fro) )y e'(eri)ents on reflection of the +oentgen rays8 7efore re(orte$8 .hich8 .ith (o.erful ra$iations8 )ay 7e sho.n to e'ist un$er all angles of inci$ence8 it a((ears that the lu)(s or )olecules are in$ee$ shattere$ into frag)ents or constituents so s)all as to )a2e the) lose entirely so)e (hysical (ro(erties (ossesse$ 7efore the i)(act0 Thus8 the )aterial co)(osing the electro$e8 the .all of the 7ul7 or o7struction of any 2in$ (lace$ .ithin the latter8 are of a7solutely no
consequence8 e'ce(t in so far as the intensity of the ra$iations is concerne$0 ,t also a((ears8 as , ha-e (ointe$ out8 that no further $isintegration of the lu)(s is atten$ant u(on a secon$ i)(act0 The )atter co)(osing the catho$ic strea) is8 to all e-i$ence8 re$uce$ to )atter of so)e (ri)ary for)8 heretofore not 2no.n8 as such -elocities an$ such -iolent i)(acts ha-e (ro7a7ly ne-er 7een stu$ie$ or e-en attaine$ 7efore these e'traor$inary )anifestations .ere o7ser-e$0 ,s it not (ossi7le that the -ery ether -orte'es .hich8 accor$ing to #or$ :el-in's i$eal theory8 co)(ose the lu)(s8 are $issol-e$8 an$ that in the +oentgen (heno)ena .e )ay .itness a transfor)ation of or$inary )atter into etherF ,t is in this sense that80 , thin28 +oentgen's first hy(othesis .ill 7e confir)e$0 ,n such case there can 7e8 of course8 no question of .a-es other than the longitu$inal assu)e$ 7y hi)8 only8 in )y o(inion8 the frequency )ust 7e -ery s)all K that of the electro9)agnetic -i7rating syste) K generally not )ore than a fe. )illions a secon$0 ,f such (rocess of transfor)ation $oes ta2e (lace8 it .ill 7e $ifficult8 if not i)(ossi7le8 to $eter)ine the a)ount of energy re(resente$ in the ra$iations8 an$ the state)ent that this a)ount is -ery s)all shoul$ 7e recei-e$ .ith so)e caution0 , As to the rays e'hausti-ely stu$ie$ 7y #enar$8 .hich ha-e (ro-e$ to 7e the nucleus of these great realiBations8 , hol$ the) to 7e true catho$ic strea)s8 (roHecte$ through the .all of the tu7e0 Their $eflecti7ility 7y a )agnet sho.s to )y )in$ si)(ly that they $iffer 7ut little fro) those .ithin the 7ul70 The lu)(s of )atter are (ro7a7ly large an$ the -elocity s)all as co)(are$ .ith 0that of the +oentgen rays0 They shoul$8 ho.e-er 7e ca(a7le in a )inor $egree of all the actions of the latter0 These actions , consi$er to8 7e (urely I)echanical an$ o7taina7le 7y other )eans0 >o8 for instance8 , thin2 that if a gun loa$e$ .ith )ercury .ere fire$ through a thin 7oar$8 the (roHecte$ )ercury -a(our .oul$ cast a sha$o. of an o7Hect u(on a fil) )a$e es(ecially sensiti-e to )echanical i)(act8 or u(on a screen of )aterial ca(a7le of 7eing ren$ere$ fluorescent 7y such i)(act0 The follo.ing o7ser-ations )a$e 7y )yself an$ others s(ea2 )ore or less for the e'istence of the strea)s of )atter0 , K <H"1;/"1A ;F "]HAC>T,;1 ;n this su7Hect , ha-e e'(resse$ )yself on another occasion0 ,t is only necessary to once )ore (oint out that the effect o7ser-e$ 7y )e shoul$ not 7e confoun$e$ .ith that note$ 7y >(ottis.oo$e an$ Croo2es0 , e'(lain the latter (heno)enon as follo.sI The first fluorescence a((earing .hen the current is turne$ on8 is $ue to so)e organic )atter al)ost al.ays intro$uce$ in the 7ul7 in the (rocess of )anufacture0 A )inute layer of such )atter on the .all (ro$uces in-aria7ly this first fluorescence8 an$ the latter ne-er ta2es (lace .hen the 7ul7 has 7een e'hauste$ un$er a((lication of a high $egree of heat or .hen the organic )atter is other.ise $estroye$0 C(on the $isa((earance of the first fluorescence 0the rarefaction increases slo.ly8 this 7eing 0 a necessary result of (articles 7eing (roHecte$ fro) the electro$e an$ fastening the)sel-es u(on the .all0 These (articles a7sor7 a large (ortion of the resi$ual gas0 The latter can0 7e again free$ 7y the a((lication of heat to the 7ul7 or other.ise0 >o )uch of the effects o7ser-e$ 7y these in-estigators0 ,n the instance o7ser-e$ 7y )yself8 there )ust 7e actual e'(ulsion of )atter8 an$ for this s(ea2 follo.ing factsI (a the e'haustion is quic2er .hen the glass is thinJ (7 .hen the (otential is higherJ (c .hen the $ischarges are )ore su$$enJ ($ .hen there is no o7struction .ithin the 7ul7J (e the e'haustion ta2es (lace quic2est .ith an alu)iniu) or (latinu) electro$e8 the for)er )etal gi-ing (articles )o-ing .ith greatest -elocity8 the latter (articles of greatest .eightJ (f the glass .all8 .hen softene$ 7y the heat8 $oes not colla(se8 7ut 7ulges out.ar$lyJ (g the e'haustion ta2es (lace8 in so)e cases8 e-en if a s)all (erce(ti7le hole is (ierce$ through the glassJ (h all causes ten$ing to i)(art a greater -elocity to the (articles hasten the (rocess of e'haustion0 ,, K +"#AT,;1 3"T&""1 ;<AC,TD A1= ="1>,TD The i)(ortant fact (ointe$ out early 7y +oentgen an$ confir)e$ 7y su7sequent research8 na)ely8 that a 7o$y is the )ore o(aque to the rays the $enser it is8 can not 7e e'(laine$ as satisfactorily un$er any other assu)(tion as that of the rays 7eing strea)s of )atter8 in .hich case such si)(le relation 7et.een o(acity an$ $ensity .oul$ necessarily e'ist0 This relation is the )ore i)(ortant in its 7earing u(on the nature of the rays8 as it $oes not at all e'ist in light9gi-ing -i7rations8 an$ shoul$ consequently not 7e foun$ to so )ar2e$ a $egree an$ un$er all con$itions .ith -i7rations8 (resu)a7ly si)ilar to an$ a((ro'i)ating in frequency the light -i7rations0 ,,, K ="F,1,T,;1 ;F >HA=;&> ;1 >C+""1 ;+ <#AT" &hen ta2ing i)(ressions or o7ser-ing sha$o.s .hile -arying the intensity of the ra$iations8 7ut )aintaining all other con$itions as nearly as (ossi7le ali2e8 it is foun$ that the e)(loy)ent of )ore intense ra$iations secures little8 if any8 a$-antage8 as regar$s the $efinition of the $etails0 At first it .as thought that all' there .as nee$e$ .as to (ro$uce -ery (o.erful rays0 3ut the e'(erience .as $isa((ointing8 for8 .hile , succee$e$ in (ro$ucing rays ca(a7le of i)(ressing a (late at $istances of certainly not less than 35 )etres8 , o7taine$ 7ut
slightly 7etter results0 There .as one a$-antage in using such intense rays8 an$ this .as that the (late coul$ 7e further re)o-e$ fro) the source8 an$ consequently a 7etter sha$o. .as o7taine$0 3ut other.ise nothing to s(ea2 of .as gaine$0 The screen in the $ar2 7o' .oul$ 7e at ti)es ren$ere$ so 7right as to allo. rea$ing at so)e $istance (lainly8 7ut the sha$o. .as not )ore $istinct for all that0 ,n fact8 often a -ery strong ra$iation ga-e a (oorer i)(ression than a .ea2 one0 1o.8 a fact .hich , ha-e re(eate$ly o7ser-e$ an$ to .hich , attach great i)(ortance in this connection8 is the follo.ingI &hen ta2ing i)(ressions at a s)all $istance .ith a tu7e gi-ing -ery intense rays8 no sha$o.8 unless a scarcely (erce(ti7le one8 is o7taine$0 Thus8 for instance8 the flesh an$ 7ones of the han$ a((ear equally trans(arent0 ,ncreasing (resently gra$ually the $istance8 it is foun$ that the 7ones cast a sha$o.8 .hile the flesh lea-es no i)(ression0 The $istance still increase$8 the sha$o. of the flesh a((ears8 .hile that of the 7ones gro.s $ee(er8 an$ in this neigh7ourhoo$ a (lace can 7e foun$ at .hich the $efinition of the sha$o. is clearest0 ,f the $istance is still further continually increase$8 the $etail is lost8 an$ finally only a -ague sha$o. is (erce(ti7le8 sho.ing a((arently the outlines of the han$0 This often9note$ fact $isagrees entirely .ith any theory of trans-erse -i7rations8 7ut can 7e easily e'(laine$ on the assu)(tion of )aterial strea)s0 &hen the han$ is near an$ the -elocity of the strea) of (articles -ery great8 7oth 7one an$ flesh are easily (enetrate$8 an$ the effect $ue to the $ifference in the retar$ation of the (articles (assing through the heterogeneous (arts can not 7e o7ser-e$0 The screen can fluoresce only u( to a certain li)ite$ intensity8 an$ the fil) can 7e affecte$ only to a certain s)all $egree0 &hen the $istance is increase$8 or8 .hat is equi-alent8 .hen the intensity of the ra$iation is re$uce$8 the )ore0 resisting 7ones 7egin to thro. the sha$o. first0 C(on a further increase of the $istance the flesh 7egins li2e.ise to sto( enough of the (articles to lea-e a trace on the screen0 3ut in all cases8 at a certain $istance8 )anifestly that .hich un$er the con$itions of the e'(eri)ent gi-es the greatest $ifference in the traHectories of the (articles .ithin the range (erce(ti7le on the screen or fil)8 the clearest sha$o. is secure$0 ,G K TH" +AD> A+" A## ;F ;1" :,1= The (rece$ing e'(lains the a((arent e'istence of rays of $ifferent 2in$J that is8 of $ifferent rates of -i7ration8 as it is asserte$0 ,n )y o(inion8 the -elocity an$ (ossi7ly the siBe of the (articles 7oth are $ifferent8 an$ this fully accounts for the $iscor$ant results o7taine$ in regar$ to the trans(arency of -arious 7o$ies to these rays0 , foun$8 for e'a)(le8 in )any cases that alu)iniu) .as less trans(arent than glass8 an$ in so)e instances 7rass a((eare$ to 7e -ery trans(arent as co)(are$ .ith other )etallic 7o$ies0 >uch o7ser-ations sho.e$ that it .as necessary8 in )a2ing the co)(arison8 to ta2e rigorously equal thic2nesses of the 7o$ies an$ (lace the) as closely together as (ossi7le0 They also sho.e$ the fallacy of co)(aring results o7taine$ .ith $ifferent 7ul7s0 G K ACT,;1 ;1 TH" F,#/> /any e'(eri)ents .ith fil)s of $ifferent thic2nesses sho. that $eci$e$ly )ore $etail is o7taina7le .ith a thic2 fil) than .ith a thin one0 This a((ears to )e to 7e a further e-i$ence in su((ort of the a7o-e -ie.s8 as the result can 7e easily e'(laine$ .hen consi$ering the (rece$ing re)ar2s0 G, K TH" 7eha-iour ;F GA+,;C> 3;=,"> ,1 +"F#"CT,1G TH" +AD>8 on .hich , ha-e (re-iously $.elt8 .ill8 if -erifie$ 7y other e'(eri)enters8 lea-e no roo) for a $ou7t that the ra$iations are strea)s of so)e )atter8 or (ossi7ly of ether8 as 7efore o7ser-e$0 G,, K TH" "1T,+" A3>"1C" ;F +"F+ACT,;1 an$ other features (ossesse$ 7y the light .a-es has8 since +oentgen's announce)ent8 not yet 7een satisfactorily e'(laine$0 A trace at least of such an effect .oul$ 7e foun$ if the rays .ere trans-erse -i7rations0 G,,, K TH" =,>CHA+G" ;F C;1=CCT;+> 7y the rays sho.s8 in so far as l ha-e 7een a7le to follo. the researches of others8 that the electrical charge is ta2en off 7y the 7o$ily carriers0 ,t is also foun$ that the o(acity (lays an i)(ortant (art8 an$ the o7ser-ations are )ostly in accor$ .ith the a7o-e -ie.s0 ,] K TH" >;C+C" ;F TH" +AD> is8 , fin$8 al.ays the (lace of the first i)(act of the catho$ic strea)8 a secon$ i)(act (ro$ucing little or no rays0 This fact .oul$ 7e $ifficult to account for unless strea)s of )atter are assu)e$ to e'ist0
] K >HA=;&> ,1 ><AC" ;CT>,=" ;F TH" 3C#3 An al)ost crucial test of the e'istence of )aterial strea)s is affor$e$ 7y the for)ation of sha$o.s in s(ace at a $istance fro) the 7ul78 to .hich , ha-e calle$ attention quite recently0 , .ill (resently refer to )y (rece$ing co))unication on this su7Hect8 an$ .ill only (oint out that such sha$o.s coul$ not 7e for)e$ un$er the con$itions $escri7e$8 e'ce(t 7y strea)s of )atter0 ], K A## 3;=,"> A+" T+A1><A+"1T T; G"+D >T+;1G +AD> "'(eri)ents esta7lish this fact 7eyon$ any $ou7t0 &ith -ery intense ra$iations8 , o7tain8 easily8 i)(ressions through .hat )ay 7e consi$ere$ a great thic2ness of any )etal0 ,t is i)(ossi7le to e'(lain this on any theory of trans-erse -i7rations0 &e can sho. ho. one or other 7o$y )ight allo. the rays to (ass through8 7ut such e'(lanations are not a((lica7le to all 7o$ies .ithout e'ce(tion0 ;n the contrary8 assu)ing )aterial strea)sJ such a result is una-oi$a7le0 A great )any other o7ser-ations an$ facts )ight 7e a$$e$ to the a7o-e8 as further e-i$ence in su((ort of the a7o-e -ie.s0 , ha-e note$ certain (eculiarities of 7o$ies o7structing a catho$ic strea) .ithin the 7ul70 , ha-e o7ser-e$ that the sa)e rays are (ro$uce$ at all $egrees of e'haustion an$ using 7o$ies of -astly $ifferent (hysical (ro(erties8 an$ ha-e foun$ a nu)7er of features in regar$ to the (ressure8 the -acuu)8 the resi$ual gas8 the )aterial of the electro$e8 etc08 all of .hich o7ser-ations are )ore or less in accor$ .ith .hat , ha-e state$ 7efore0 , ho(e8 ho.e-er8 that there is enough in the (resent lines to enlist the attention of others0
18-6-1"-01: On t,e #oentgen Streams 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" The follo.ing lines )ay contain so)e useful infor)ation for (hysicists an$ (hysicians0 Those .ho8 in the e'ercise of their (rofessional $uties are a((lying the $isco-eries of +oentgen to the relief of the suffering 7y $eter)ining the (osition of foreign o7Hects or ascertaining the con$ition of local trou7les of )alfor)ations in the organis)8 are a(t to 7e $isa((ointe$ in )any instances0 &hile it is (erfectly easy to fin$ the (osition of a foreign o7Hect in the hea$8 nec2 an$ all soft tissues of the 7o$y8 an$ $etect so)e far gone trou7le in the lungs8 often the location of e-en such a large an$ o(aque o7Hect as a 7ullet8 .hen e)7e$$e$ in certain 7ony (arts of the trun2 of the (atient8 )ay 7e atten$e$ .ith $ifficulties0 >uccess .ill 7e in-aria7ly attaine$ if the suggestions .hich are gi-en 7elo.8 an$ .hich are the outco)e of a nu)7er of o7ser-ations of such cases8 are strictly follo.e$0 ,n or$er to )a2e the (resent state)ents self9containe$ an$ )ore useful8 , $ee) it of a$-antage to say a fe. .or$s in regar$ to the +oentgen rays0 Accor$ing to all e-i$ences so far o7taine$ 7y )e8 , entertain the -ie.8 .hich , ha-e e'(resse$ on other occasions8 that these rays are for)e$ 7y strea)s of so)e )atter (roHecte$ .ith great -elocity8 an$ generally inter)ittently8 fro) the .alls of the tu7e0 The inter)ittent character is only $ue to this feature of the a((aratus usually e)(loye$ for the (ro$uction of the raysJ 7ut the oscillatory or inter)ittent $ischarge is not a7solutely necessary8 as , ha-e (ro$uce$ uni$irectional currents of high tension .hich are li2e.ise ca(a7le of generating strong rays8 an$ as a static )achine )ay 7e use$ .ith a li2e result0 The )o$e of for)ation of these rays or strea)s is8 for the (resent (ur(oses8 of little i)(ortance0 The s)all (articles .ithin the 7ul78 .hich are the original cause8 )ay 7e ions8 for)e$ 7y a (rocess of electrolysis8 or they )ay 7e co)(arati-ely larger (articles of the electro$e8 or (erha(s )olecules of the resi$ual gas0 At any rate8 it is (ro7a7le that the (articles are -ery )inuteJ an$ that8 therefore8 the -elocities of the catho$ic strea)s .ithin the -essel are such an$ the i)(acts so -iolent as to cause a further $isintegration of the catho$ic )atter to state (ro7a7ly ne-er 7efore stu$ie$ 7y (hysicists0 &e )ay ha-e to $eal8 as , ha-e alrea$y suggeste$8 .ith an actual 7rea2ing u( of the ether9-orte'es8 .hich8 accor$ing to #or$ :el-in's theory8 co)(ose the )aterial (articlesJ or .e )ay 7e confronte$ .ith a $issolution of )atter into so)e un2no.n (ri)ary for)8 the A2asha of the ol$ Ge$as0 "'(eri)ents sho. that this )atter is reflecte$8 so)eti)es -ery .ell8 so)eti)es (oorlyJ 7ut in all cases the -arious )etals 7eha-e in a curious )anner8 .hich , ha-e stu$ie$8 an$ the results o7taine$8 though (ro7a7ly not free of error8 7ecause of the great $ifficulties in getting an e'act esti)ate in such an in-estigation8 .ere8 ne-ertheless8 sufficiently (ositi-e as to lea$ )e to the con-iction that the sa)e )e$iu) or ele)ent .hich is concerne$ in the setting u( of the electro )oti-e tension 7et.een )etals in contact is (resent in the strea)s of +oentgen0 ,t )ight ha-e 7een (ro(er to sayJ in the s(irit of )ore )o$ern -ie.s on contact electricity8 that these strea)s are for)e$ 7y ether8 7ut , ha-e (referre$ to use the ter) "(ri)ary )atter8 for8 although the e'(ression "ether" con-eys a (erfectly $efinite i$ea to the scientific )in$8 there e'ists8 ne-ertheless8 )uch -agueness as to the structure of this )e$iu)0 The )atter (roHecte$ is not re-eale$ 7y s(ectral analysis8 an$ it $oes not see) to (ro$uce any a((recia7le )echanical nor e-en heating effects8 nor is it $eflecte$ 7y a )agnet8 all of .hich facts ten$ to sho. that it can not 7e co)(ose$ of )olecules of any 2no.n su7stance0 The strea)s e'ercise a (o.erful action u(on a (hotogra(hic (late or fluorescent screen8 7ut , loo2 u(on these results as o7-ious consequences of the energetic i)(act0 ;f the -arious )ore or less (lausi7le -ie.s in regar$ to the for)ation of these strea)s outsi$e of the -essel8 the si)(lest8 to )y )in$8 is to assu)e an actual (roHection through the .alls of the 7ul7 of the $isintegrate$ catho$ic )atter0 Grante$ that there are (articles sufficiently s)all .ithin the 7ul78 then all -elocities8 u( to )any thousan$s of 2ilo)etres (er secon$8 are not only (ossi7le8 7ut also (ro7a7leJ an$8 e-en if the (articles .oul$ not 7e further $isintegrate$ 7y the i)(act against the .all or other co)(arati-ely o(aque 7o$y .ithin the 7ul78 they surely .oul$ (enetrate through great thic2nesses of )ost su7stances0 /y e'(eri)ents in this $irection 0ha-e sho.n that all the $isintegration is (ractically acco)(lishe$ in the first i)(act against the )ore or less i)(enetra7le o7stacle .ithin the 7ul78 the secon$ i)(act ha-ing see)ingly little effect8 as )ight 7e inferre$ fro) .ell esta7lishe$ )echanical (rinci(les0 , ha-e also foun$ that the (lace of first an$ )ost energetic i)(act8 7e it the ano$e8 catho$e or .all of the -essel8 is in-aria7ly the (rinci(al source of the rays or strea)s0 8Again8 quite in accor$ance .ith )echanical (rinci(les8 the (enetrati-e (o.er of the strea)s is the greater the )ore co)(lete the $isintegration0 Thus8 for instance8 rays .hich ha-e tra-erse$ thic2 o(aque o7Hects8 an$ are (resu)a7ly further $isintegrate$8 (ass )ore freely through $ense su7stances0 An o7ser-ation to this effect has li2e.ise 7een )a$e 7y <rofessor &right8 .ho .as the first to (u7lish $efinite results in the Cnite$ >tates0 , fin$ that 7ul7s .ith thic2 .alls gi-e rays of greater (enetrating (o.er0 ,t shoul$ 7e8 of course8 un$erstoo$ that , $o not )ean 7y this a greater out.ar$ effect0 ,t is (rinci(ally the a7o-e fact .hich )a2es it a((ear )ore (ro7a7le that the )atter
(roHecte$ is not a ho)ogeneous strea)8 7ut consists of (articles of -arie$ )agnitu$e )o-ing .ith $ifferent -elocities8 for8 .ere the for)er the case8 the (enetrati-e (o.er .oul$ $e(en$ chiefly on the -elocity0 ,n the (ractical use of the +oentgen strea)s it .oul$8 therefore8 see) -ery i)(ortant to fin$ a )etho$ of filtering an$ ren$ering the) ho)ogeneous8 for only 7y such a )etho$ can .e ho(e to o7tain e'act 'results in their in-estigation0 >trea)s of (erfectly unifor) -elocity an$ character8 if (ro$uce$8 .oul$ no $ou7t 7e )ore suita7le for the (ur(oses of research0 >ince the $isintegration of the electro$es8 es(ecially if they are of alu)iniu)8 is so slo. that no a((recia7le $i)inution of the .eight results e-en after long useJ it follo.s that the )atter con-eye$ 7y the +oentgen strea)s is so )inute as to esca(e $etection0 >o)e 7ul7s8 .hich , ha-e use$ for a nu)7er of )onths8 sho.e$ 'that the 7o)7ar$e$ s(ot of the glass .as entirely (er)eate$ .ith (articles of the alu)iniu) electro$e8 7ut it .oul$ (ro7a7ly require years of constant use to accu)ulate any a((recia7le a)ount of )atter outsi$e0 +eferring to a tu7e .ith an electro$e of alu)iniu)8 it is a note.orthy fact that8 if (ro(erly )anage$8 it $oes not i)(air in quality8 7ut8 on the contrary8 see)s to i)(ro-eJ .hereas .hen a (latinu) electro$e is use$8 the life of the 7ul7 is -ery short8 o.ing to the con$uctor 7eing $e(osite$ on the .alls8 .hich $e(osit8 as , ha-e e'(laine$ on another occasion8 ren$ers $ifficult the (assage of the $ischarge0 1a)ely8 as soon as so)e of the (roHecte$ (articles stri2e the con$ucting layer8 they i)(art a si)ilar electrification to the latter8 an$ a re(ulsion is e'erte$ u(on the (articles follo.ing0 The result is an a((arent increase in the resistance of the tu7e0 The a7o-e $efect of the (latinu) electro$e8 $es(ite of0 its effecti-eness8 )ust8 in )y o(inion8 lea$ to its a7an$on)ent0 ,t has 7een suggeste$ that the +oentgen rays )ay 7e $ue si)(ly to a (ro(agation of electro9static stressJ 7ut8 on this assu)(tion8 it is $ifficult to concei-e ho. rays coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ in instances .hen the glass .all is at a high te)(erature an$ consequently con$ucting8 or .hen the i)(act (late or inclosure is of )etal an$ connecte$ to the groun$0 >to2es has recently consi$ere$ the (ossi7ility that the i)(act of the catho$ic strea) on one si$e of a (artition )ight gi-e rise to a )olecular )otion on the other si$e .ithout necessarily there 7eing a transit through the (artition0 Accor$ing to this -ie.J .hich , ha-e li2e.ise consi$ere$ so)e ti)e ago8 it .oul$ a((ear that the )aterial strea)s )ight start on the outer si$e of the .all of the tu7e8 in .hich case only the air .oul$ 7e res(onsi7le for the effects8 an$ the futility of a s(ectral analysis test .oul$ 7e in a certain )easure accounte$ for0 3ut is it not )ore (ro7a7le to assu)e an actual (assage an$ shattering of )atter as all e-i$ences (oint in this $irectionF Assu)ing that8 as <rofessor >to2es no. thin2s it (ro7a7le8 the $istur7ance is non9(erio$ic an$ still ca(a7le of (ro$ucing effects characteristic of trans-erse -i7rations of e'tre)ely high frequency8 it see)s to )e a serious question .hether8 the ol$ 1e.tonian -ie.s on light shoul$ not 7e reconsi$ere$ rather than the conclusion $ra.n that the no-el )anifestations o7ser-e$ 7y +oentgen are $ue to trans-erse -i7rations8 .hen there is no e'(eri)ental e-i$ence to this effect8 nor e-en a satisfactory e'(lanation foun$ ho. the catho$ic i)(act )ight gi-e rise to .a-es of a higher frequency than those of light0 3eing8 as , a)8 fir)ly con-ince$ of the e'istence of )aterial strea)s8 , loo2 u(on the unsuccess of the atte)(ts of $e)onstrating an actual transit of )atter as 7eing $ue to either the )inuteness of the a)ount or else to the state of the )atter8 7ut rather8 to the for)er cause8 as all (eculiarities of the strea)s (oint in this $irection0 ,n )y o(inion8 no e'(eri)enter nee$ 7e $eterre$ fro) carrying on an in-estigation of the +oentgen rays for fear of (oisonous or generally $eleterious action8 for it see)s reasona7le to conclu$e that it .oul$ ta2e centuries to accu)ulate enough of such )atter as to interfere seriously .ith the (rocess of life of a (erson0 3ut , loo2 confi$ently to the $e)onstration of actions of a (urely qualitati-e nature0 For instance8 $es(ite of the $anger of such an assertion 7y encourage)ent .hich )ight 7e gi-en to quac2s , .oul$ say that , e'(ect .ith the ut)ost confi$ence the $e)onstration of a ger)ici$al action0 ,n a$$ition to the (hysiological effects8 to .hich , ha-e early $ra.n attention8 , ha-e )ore recently o7ser-e$ .ith (o.erful tu7es that a sensation of (ain is (ro$uce$ in the forehea$ a7o-e the eyes Hust as soon as the current is turne$ on0 This sensation is -ery si)ilar to that one frequently e'(eriences .hen ste((ing fro) a $ar2 roo) into the glare of 7right sunlight8 or .hen .al2ing for so)e ti)e o-er fiel$s of fresh9fallen sno.0 As to the hurtful actions on the s2in8 .hich ha-e 7een -ariously re(orte$8 , note that they are )isinter(rete$0 These effects ha-e 7een 2no.n to )e for so)e ti)e8 7ut , ha-e 7een una7le8 on account of (ressing )atters8 to $.ell on the su7Hect0 They are not $ue to the +oentgen rays8 7ut )erely to the oBone generate$ in contact .ith the s2in0 1itrous aci$ )ay also 7e res(onsi7le8 to a s)all e'tent0 The oBone8 .hen a7un$antly (ro$uce$8 attac2s the s2in an$ )any organic su7stances )ost energetically8 the action 7eing no $ou7t heightene$ 7y the heat an$ )oisture of the s2in0 After e'(osing the han$8 for instance8 for so)e ti)e8 the s2in loses its elasticity8 .hich causes a tension an$ (ain8 an$ su7sequently an infla))ation an$ 7listering0 This occurs )ostly only at short range8 7ut )ay 7e (ro$uce$ 7y a single ter)inal 7ul78 or generally 7y a -ery highly e'hauste$ 7ul78 in .hich the ter)inals act in$e(en$ently8 at greater $istance0 ;.ing to this8 , ha-e al.ays ta2en the (recaution8 .hen getting i)(ressions .ith the rays8 to guar$ the (erson 7y a screen )a$e of alu)iniu) .ires .hich is connecte$ to the groun$8 (refera7ly through a con$enser0 The ra$ical )eans8 ho.e-er8 of (re-enting such actions is to )a2e i)(ossi7le the access of the air to the s2in .hile e'(osing8 as8 for instance8 7y i))ersing in oil0 As this .oul$ 7e incon-enient in )ost cases8 a )etallic screen shoul$ 7e resorte$ to0 The action of the oBone on so)e
su7stances8 .hen (lace$ near the 7ul7 in such a .ay that the gas is generate$ on their surfaces8 is so (o.erful that the su7stances are (ractically $estroye$ in a fe. )inutes0 &hen a .ire hea-ily insulate$ .ith ru77er is connecte$ to the ter)inal of a high9frequency coil8 so)eti)es an e'(osure of 7arely 8 a )inute is sufficient to co)(letely .rec2 the ru77er insulation0 There are certain co))ercial insulating co)(oun$s .hich are e-en )ore quic2ly $estroye$8 7ut .hich , .ill not enu)erate0 7ecause of a (ossi7le $isa$-antage to the )anufacturers0 Gutta9(ercha8 7ees.a' an$ (araffin stan$ the attac2 -ery .ell8 an$ such .ires shoul$ 7e use$ .ith high9frequency coils0 This (o.erful action of the oBone .as o7ser-e$ 7y )e first a7out t.o years ago8 .hen (erfor)ing an e'(eri)ent .hich .as sho.n to )any (ersons in )y la7oratory0 The e'(eri)ent consiste$ of charging a (erson8 stan$ing on an insulate$ stan$8 .ith a (otential a((ro'i)ating one an$ one9half )illion -olts8 .hich .as alternate$ se-eral hun$re$ thousan$ ti)es a secon$0 Cn$er such con$itions lu)inous strea)s 7rea2 out on all (arts of the 7o$y8 es(ecially a7un$antly on the feet8 han$s8 hair8 nose an$ ears0 , su7Hecte$ )yself a nu)7er of ti)es to this e'(eri)ent8 .hich see)e$ to offer no other $anger e'ce(t the (ossi7le ru(ture of a 7loo$ -essel8 if the s2in .as -ery $ry an$ non9con$ucting8 , then note$ on )yself an$ others after effects rese)7ling )uch those attri7ute$ to the +oentgen rays0 &ith currents (ro$uce$ 7y (erfecte$ electrical oscillators8 such as .ere $escri7e$ in the "lectrical +e-ie.8 >e(te)7er 358 189%8 the (ro$uction of the oBone is so a7un$ant that it is sufficient to )erely turn on the current for a fe. secon$s an$ oBoniBe strongly the at)os(here of a large hall0 These currents are also ca(a7le of 7ringing a7out che)ical co)7inations8 of .hich the chief is that of the nitrogen .ith the o'ygen of the at)os(here8 an$ an i))ense (ossi7ility8 .hich , ha-e 7een follo.ing u( for a long ti)e8 is o(ene$ u(J la)ely8 the co)7ination of the nitrogen of the at)os(here on an in$ustrial scale 7y (ractically no other )eans than )echanical (o.er0 ,f )erely fertiliBers of the soil .oul$ 7e )anufacture$ in this )anner8 the 7enefits to hu)anity $eri-e$ therefro) .oul$ 7e incalcula7le0 Fro) the a7o-e na)e$ action of the oBone8 it follo.s that the e'(eri)enter shoul$ use the in$icate$ (recaution8 for .hile oBone in s)all quantities is a )ost 7eneficial $isinfectant8 .hen generate$ in large quantities it is not free of $anger0 ,t is an un(leasant $uty to say on this occasion a fe. .or$s on the su7Hect of ")a2ing the 7lin$ see" 7y )eans of the +oentgen rays0 This sensational to(ic has 7een gi-en a .i$e circulation in the Hournals0 ,s it not cruel to raise such ho(es .hen there is so little groun$ for itF For8 first of all8 the rays are not $e)onstrate$ to 7e trans-erse -i7rations0 ,f they .ere8 .e .oul$ ha-e to fin$ )eans for refracting the) to )a2e (ossi7le the (roHection of a sufficiently s)all i)age u(on the retina0 As it is8 only a sha$o. of a -ery s)all o7Hect can 7e (roHecte$0 &hat (ossi7le goo$ can result fro) the a((lication of these rays to such (ur(osesF The sha(e of the s)all o7Hect )ight e-entually 7e recogniBe$ 7y i)(ressing the retina8 7ut the sense of touch is )ore than sufficient to con-ey such i)(ressions0 #u)inous sensations are .ell 2no.n to 7e e'cite$ in t.o .aysJ na)ely8 7y )echanical shoc2 an$ electrical trans)ission0 3oth of these8 , thin28 are (resent in the +oentgen strea)s8 an$ hence such an effect on the o(tic ner-e )ight 7e e'(ecte$0 , )ay say8 ho.e-er8 that , can not confir) so)e of the e'(eri)ents re(orte$0 For instance8 .hen a han$ is (ut 7efore the close$ eyes it is easy to $istinguish the sha$o.8 )uch the sa)e as 7efore the light of a can$leJ 7ut .hen the tu7e is close$8 an$ all light fro) the sa)e e'clu$e$8 , fail to get such an i)(ression0 The latter is8 therefore8 chiefly $ue to or$inary light8 or else )y tu7es act $ifferently fro) those e'(eri)ente$ .ith 7y others0 ,t )ay 7e (ro(er to recall here that in or$inary 7right sunlight8 es(ecially in the southern cli)ates8 it is easy to $istinguish the sha$o. of o7Hects8 an$ e-en their rough outlines8 .ith the eyes shut0 <rocee$ing on the assu)(tion that .e ha-e in reality to $eal .ith )aterial strea)s8 it is i)(ortant to inquire .hich are the 7est con$itions to 7e )aintaine$ .hen ta2ing i)(ressions .ith the sensiti-e screen or (late0 First8 the e'(eri)enter .ill easily o7ser-e that there are t.o causes .hichJ .ith a gi-en 7ul7 an$ coil8 ten$ to increase the intensity of the i)(ressions0 ;ne of these )ay 7e sai$ to lie in the 7ul78 the other in the coil0 The latter8 7eing )ost generally )a$e of )any turns of fine .ire8 is -ery sensiti-e to changes in the ca(acity of 7o$ies attache$ to its ter)inals0 The ca(acity of these 7o$ies8 therefore8 in such a coil largely $eter)ines the $ifference of (otential0 At a certain $egree of e'haustion this ca(acity assu)es such a -alue that the (ressure rises to a )a'i)u)8 this ten$ing to gi-e the highest -elocity to the catho$ic strea)8 an$8 consequently8 to gi-e rise to the )ost intense rays0 3ut at that $egree of e'haustion it )ay ha((en8 an$ usually $oes ha((en8 that the catho$ic strea)s are not )ost a7un$ant0 To (ro$uce the 7est result it is necessary that 7oth of these causes shoul$ 7e )a$e to coo(erate 7y a careful (ro(ortioning of the $i)ensions of the 7ul78 .hich8 in (ractice8 is -ery $ifficult8 inas)uch as the e'(eri)enter has to a-ail hi)self of co))ercial 7ul7s .hich )ay or )ay not 7e 7est suita7le for his coil0 This si)(le consi$eration sho.s the great a$-antage of the use of a coil .hich contains no fine .ire an$ is ca(a7le of gi-ing a hea-y current through the secon$ary fat in e'cess of .hat e-en the largest 7ul7 requires0 Assu)ing the (hysician has learne$ ho. to )ani(ulate his a((aratus to 7est a$-antage8 he .ill ne't notice that8 to secure the clearest $efinition8 he .ill ha-e to )aintain a certain (ressure on the ter)inals of the tu7e8 $e(en$ent chiefly on the $istance an$ $egree of o(acity of the o7Hect in-estigate$0 ,t goes .ithout 0saying that the $efinition is the 7etter the s)aller the s(ot fro) .hich the rays are e)anating8 7ut this is true only .hen i)(ressions are ta2en at -ery s)all $istances0 &hen the $istances are large8 it is a $isa$-antage to use a too s)all ra$iating surface8 as then the $ensity is $i)inishe$ to such a $egree that the action is too .ea20 =iscar$ing
this consi$eration8 it is clear that8 if the rays are intense8 the )ore o(aque (ortions of the 7o$y are li2e.ise (enetrate$ an$ )uch $etail is lost8 .hereas8 .hen the rays are less intense8 the i)(ression )ight 7e altogether too .ea2 to 7ring out sufficient $etail0 To illustrate in a (o(ular )anner the 7est .ay to (rocee$8 , shall a-ail )yself of a si)(le illustration0 >u((ose that there .oul$ 7e e)7e$$e$ 7et.een t.o (anels of cloth a0 foreign o7Hect8 such as a coin8 an$ it is $esire$ to locate it0 &e )ay acco)(lish this 7y (lacing 7ehin$ the cloth a car$7oar$8 for instance8 an$ then firing fro) a certain $istance a loa$ of fine shot through the cloth in8 the region .here the coin is su((ose$ to 7e locate$0 The shot .ill (enetrate the cloth on all (oints e'ce(t on the (lace .here the coin is locate$J an$ on the car$7oar$ 7ehin$8 this (lace .ill 7e (lainly in$icate$ 7y the a7sence of the )ar2s0 "'actly in this .ay .e (rocee$ in a((lying the +oentgen rays to the location of such a 7o$y0 +oentgen ga-e us a gun to fire K a .on$erful gun8 in$ee$8 (roHecting )issiles of a thousan$fol$ greater (enetrati-e (o.er than that of a cannon 7all8 an$ carrying the) (ro7a7ly to $istances of )any )iles8 .ith -elocities not (ro$uci7le in any other .ay .e 2no. of0 These )issiles are so s)all that .e )ay fire the) through our tissues for $ays8 .ee2s8 )onths an$ years8 a((arently8 .ithout any hurtful consequence0 ,nstea$ of the car$7oar$ to in$icate the (ath of the )issiles8 he ga-e us .hat is (ro(erly calle$ 8a +oentgen scree$8 .hich 7eco)es lu)inous on all (laces .here it is hit 7y the )issiles0 &here the latter are (re-ente$ fro) hitting the screen 7y the inter-ention of the o(aque 7o$y8 the screen $oes not glo. an$ .e o7ser-e the 'sha$o. of the o7Hect0 ,t is si)(le enough to (roHect the sha$o. of an o7Hect in this .ay 7ut .hen it is require$ to sho. the finer $etail of the structure of 0the o7Hect8 the $ifficulty 7egins0 ,t .ill at once a((ear that8 to (ro$uce such a result to 7est a$-antage8 t.o con$itions .ill ha-e to 7e )ore or less realiBe$0 Firstly8 the screen shoul$ 7e co)(ose$ of such )aterial that it is ca(a7le of 7eco)ing lu)inous 7y the faintest i)(actJ an$8 secon$ly8 the )issiles shoul$ all 7e of unifor) siBe8 an$ shoul$ )o-e .ith unifor) -elocity0 1either of these t.o con$itions has so far 7een realiBe$ in (ractice8 for all the 7o$ies .e 2no. require a -iolent i)(act to 7eco)e lu)inous8 an$ no .ay has 7een foun$ as yet to (ro$uce a unifor)ity in -elocity an$ )agnitu$e of the su((ose$ (roHectiles0 3ut a little thought lea$s i))e$iately to the conclusion that there .ill 7e a certain -elocity of the )issiles .hich .ill gi-e8 un$er all con$itions0 the 7est $efinition0 This -elocity is easily ascertaine$ 7y trial0 "-i$ently the $efinition .ill 7e 7est .hen the 7ullets .hich (ass through the $ensest (arts of the 7o$y stri2e the screen so fee7ly as to not )a2e it light u(8 .hereas8 those (assing through (ortions of slightly s)aller $ensity hit it sufficiently 'strong as to )a2e it light u( fee7ly0 The )ore sensiti-e the screen to i)(act8 that is8 the .ea2er an i)(act is require$ to )a2e the screen light u(8 the )ore $etail .ill 7e re-eale$0 ,t therefore follo.s that8 in the a((lication of the +oentgen rays8 not the 7o$y .hich fluoresces strongest8 7ut the one .hich is )ost sensiti-e8 is 7est suite$ for finer .or20 The a7o-e consi$erations ha-e le$ )e to a$o(t the follo.ing (roce$ure8 .hich8 in (ractice8 has (ro-e$ -ery successful0 The +oentgen screen is first a((lie$ to the 7o$y to 7e in-estigate$J the (ressure at the ter)inals of the tu7e 7eing -ery )uch re$uce$I The (ressure is then slo.ly an$ gra$ually raise$0 ,t .ill 7e (resently o7ser-e$ than at a certain (ressure8 the sha$o. of the o7Hect e'a)ine$ is clearest08 3ut 0as the -acuu) is increasing8 the (ressure generally rises8 an$ the i)age gets0 7lurre$ in s(ite of the screen getting )uch 7righter0 Eust as0 soon as the clearness is slightly $i)inishe$8 the e'(eri)enter shoul$ for a fe. )o)ents re-erse the current8 lo.ering a little the -acuu) in this )anner0 The current 7eing again gi-en the $irection it ha$ at firstJ na)ely8 that .hich causes a slo. an$ stea$y increase of the -acuu)8 the sha$o. gets again clear8 an$ 7y such easy )ani(ulation the 7est result )ay 7e secure$0 An a$$itional a$-antage8 ho.e-er8 is gaine$8 7ecause the frequent re-ersals (ro$uce a 7righter (hos(horescence of the screen0 &hen ta2ing a (hotogra(h8 the 7ul7 shoul$ 7e .atche$ through the screen an$ the s.itches )ani(ulate$ in the a7o-e )anner0 To gi-e a (ractical e'a)(le of the effecti-eness of this (roce$ureJ , nee$ only )ention one of the instances .hich ha-e co)e to )y8 notice0 A fe. )onths ago , in-estigate$ the case of /r Cornelius /ac28 of &aterto.n8 /assI /r0 /ac28 .hile (erfor)ing his $uties )any years ago8 .as struc2 7y a 7ullet .hich lo$ge$ so)e.here in the chest an$ coul$ not 7e locate$0 , a((ly the screen -ainly a nu)7er of ti)es for although the strea)s (enetrate$ the 7o$y .ith such ease as to )a2e the screen 7ehin$ a((ear 7luish .hite8 an$ re-eal all the 7ones of the 7o$y8 , coul$ not o7ser-e the )issile0 , then resorte$ to the a7o-e in$icate$ )eans8 an$ i))e$iately80 an$ easily the e'act location of the (roHectile8 7et.een the shoul$er 7la$e an$ oneI of the ri7s8 .as ascertaine$ an$ the 7ullet successfully e'tracte$0
18-6-1"-"9: Mr& Tesla on T,ermo *le(tri(ity 4y Nikola Tesla

4uffalo En)uirer ,n a letter to the e$itor of the 3uffalo "nquirer8 /r0 1i2ola Tesla re(lies as follo.s in regar$ to an inquiry on the su7Hect of the future of electricityI "The trans)ission of (o.er has intereste$ )e not only as a technical (ro7le)8 7ut far )ore in its 7earing u(on the .elfare of )an2in$0 ,n this sense , ha-e e'(resse$ )yself in a lecture8 $eli-ere$ so)e ti)e ago0 ">ince electrical trans)ission of energy is a (rocess )uch )ore econo)ical than any other .e 2no. of8 it necessarily )ust (lay an i)(ortant (art in the future8 no )atter ho. the (ri)ary energy is $eri-e$ fro) the sun0 ;f all the .ays the utiliBation of a .aterfall see)s to 7e the si)(lest an$ least .asteful0 "-en if .e coul$8 7y co)7ining car7on in a 7attery8 con-ert the .or2 of the che)ical co)7ination into electrical energy .ith -ery high econo)y8 such )o$e of o7taining (o.er .oul$8 in )y o(inion8 7e no )ore than a )ere )a2eshift8 7oun$ to 7e re(lace$ sooner or later 7y a )ore (erfect )etho$8 .hich i)(lies no consu)(tion of any )aterial .hate-er0"
18-6-0"-16: Ni.ola Tesla - 0e Frites A1out 0is *+$eriments in *le(tri(al 0ealing 4y Nikola Tesla
Detroit 9ree 3ress >o)e .ee2s ago this Hournal (u7lishe$ an interesting article concerning electrical oscillations as o7ser-e$ 7y the e)inent scientist8 1i(c ola Tesla0 >o )uch interest .as sho.n in the su7Hect that /r0 Tesla .as a((eale$ to $irectly an$ in res(onse to that a((eal he sen$s to The =etroit Free <ress this o(en letterI 1os0 6% O 68 "0 Houston >treet 1e. Dor28 Fe7ruary 158 189% =uring the (ast fe. .ee2s , ha-e recei-e$ so )any letters concerning the sa)e su7Hect that it .as entirely 7eyon$ )y (o.er to ans.er all of the) in$i-i$ually0 ,n -ie. of this , ho(e that , shall 7e e'cuse$ for the $elay8 .hich , )ust regret8 in ac2no.le$ging the recei(t8 an$ also for a$$ressing this general co))unication in ans.er to all inquiries0 The )any (ressing $e)an$s .hich ha-e 7een )a$e u(on )e in consequence of e'aggerate$ state)ents of the Hournals ha-e (ainfully i)(resse$ )e .ith the fact that there are a great )any sufferers8 an$ further)ore that nothing fin$s a )ore (o.erful echo than a (ro)ise hel$ out to i)(ro-e the con$ition of the unfortunate ones0 The )e)7ers of the )e$ical fraternity are naturally )ore $ee(ly intereste$ in the tas2 of relie-ing the suffering fro) their (ain8 an$8 as )ight 7e e'(ecte$8 a great )any co))unications ha-e 7een a$$resse$ to )e 7y (hysicians0 To these chiefly this 7rief state)ent of the actual facts is a$$resse$0 >o)e Hournals ha-e confoun$e$ the (hysiological effects of electrical oscillations .ith those of )echanical -i7rations8 this 7eing (ro7a7ly $ue to the circu)stance that a fe. years ago , 7rought to the attention of the scientific )en so)e no-el )etho$s an$ a((aratus for the (ro$uction of electrical oscillations .hich8 , learn8 are no. largely use$ in so)e )o$ification or other in electro9thera(eutic treat)ent an$ other.ise0 To $is(el this erroneous i$ea , .ish to state that the effects of (urely )echanical -i7rations .hich , ha-e )ore recently o7ser-e$8 ha-e nothing to $o .ith the for)er0 /echanical -i7rations ha-e often 7een e)(loye$ locally .ith (ronounce$ results in the treat)ent of $iseases8 7ut it see)s that the effects , refer to ha-e either not 7een note$ at all8 or if so8 only to a s)all $egree8 e-i$ently 7ecause of the insufficiency of the )eans .hich ha-e e-entually 7een e)(loye$ in the in-estigations0 &hile e'(eri)enting .ith a no-el contri-ance8 constituting in its si)(lest for) a -i7rating )echanical syste)8 in .hich fro) the nature of the construction the a((lie$ force is al.ays in resonance .ith the natural (erio$8 , frequently e'(ose$ )y 7o$y to continue$ )echanical -i7rations0 As the elastic force can 7e )a$e as large as $esire$8 an$ the a((lie$ force use$ 7e -ery s)all8 great .eights8 half a $oBen (ersons8 for instance8 )ay 7e -i7rate$ .ith great ra(i$ity 7y a co)(arati-ely s)all a((aratus0 , o7ser-e$ that such intense )echanical -i7rations (ro$uce re)ar2a7le (hysiological effects0 They affect (o.erfully the con$ition of the sto)ach8 un$ou7te$ly (ro)oting the (rocess of $igestion an$ relie-ing the feeling of $istress8 often e'(erience$ in consequence of the i)(erfect function of the organs concerne$ in the (rocess0 They ha-e a strong influence u(on the li-er8 causing it to $ischarge freely8 si)ilarly to an a((lication of a cathartic0 They also see) to affect the glan$ular syste)8 nota7ly in the li)7sJ also the 2i$neys an$ 7la$$er8 an$ )ore or less influence the .hole 7o$y0 &hen a((lie$ for a longer (erio$ they (ro$uce a feeling of i))ense fatigue8 so that a (rofoun$ slee( is in$uce$0 The e'cessi-e tiring of the 7o$y is generally acco)(anie$ 7y ner-ous rela'ation8 7ut9there see)s to 7e 7esi$es a s(ecific action on the ner-es0 These o7ser-ations8 though inco)(lete8 are8 in )y o.n li)ite$ Hu$ge)ent8 ne-ertheless (ositi-e an$ un)ista2a7le8 an$ in -ie. of this an$ of the i)(ortance of further in-estigation of the su7Hect 7y co)(etent )en , (re(are$ a7out a year ago a )achine .ith suita7le a$Hust)ents for -arying the frequency an$ a)(litu$e of the -i7rations8 inten$ing to gi-e it to so)e )e$ical faculty for in-estigation0 This )achine8 together .ith other a((aratus8 .as unfortunately $estroye$ 7y fire a year ago8 7ut .ill 7e reconstructe$ as soon as (ossi7le0 ,n )a2ing the a7o-e state)ents , .ish to $isconnect )yself .ith the e'traor$inary o(inions e'(resse$ in so)e Hournals .hich , ha-e ne-er authoriBe$ an$ .hich8 though they )ay ha-e 7een )a$e .ith goo$ intent8 cannot fail to 7e hurtful 7y gi-ing rise to -isionary e'(ectations0 Dours -ery truly8 10 Tesla
18-6-09-11: On #oentgen rays G1H 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" ;ne can not hel( loo2ing at that little 7ul7 of Croo2es .ith a feeling a2in to a.e8 .hen he consi$ers all that it has $one for scientific (rogress K first8 the )agnificent results o7taine$ 7y its originatorJ ne't8 the 7rilliant .or2 of #enar$8 an$ finally the .on$erful achie-e)ents of +oentgen0 <ossi7ly it )ay still contain a grateful As)o$eus8 .ho .ill 7e lot out of his narro. (rison cell 7y a luc2y stu$ent0 At ti)es it has see)e$ to )e as though , )yself hear$ a .his(ering -oice8 an$ , ha-e searche$ eagerly a)ong )y $usty 7ul7s an$ 7ottles0 , fear )y i)agination has $ecei-e$ )e8 7ut there they are still8 )y $usty 7ul7s8 an$ , a) still listening ho(efully0 After re(eating <rofessor +oentgen's 7eautiful e'(eri)ents8 , ha-e $e-ote$ )y energies to the in-estigation of the nature of the ra$iations an$ to the (erfecting of the )eans for their (ro$uction0 The follo.ing is a 7rief state)ent .hich8 , ho(e8 .ill 7e useful8 of the )etho$s e)(loye$ an$ of the )ost nota7le results arri-e$ at in these t.o $irections0 ,n or$er to (ro$uce the )ost intense effects .e ha-e first to consi$er that8 .hate-er their nature8 they $e(en$ necessarily on the intensity of the catho$e strea)s0 These again 7eing $e(en$ent on the )agnitu$e of the (otential8 it follo.s that the highest attaina7le electrical (ressure is $esira7le0 To o7tain high (otentials .e )ay a-ail oursel-es of an or$inary in$uction coil8 or of a static )achine8 or of a $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil0 , ha-e the i)(ression that )ost of the results in "uro(e ha-e 7een arri-e$ at through the e)(loy)ent of a static )achine or +uh)2orff coil0 3ut since these a((liances can (ro$uce only a co)(arati-ely s)all (otential8 .e are naturally thro.n on the use of the $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil as the )ost effecti-e a((aratus0 &ith this there is (ractically no li)it to the s(ar2 length8 an$ the only require)ent is that the e'(eri)enter shoul$ (ossess a certain 2no.le$ge an$ s2ill in the a$Hust)ents of the circuits8 (articularly as to resonance8 as , ha-e (ointe$ out in )y earlier .ritings on this su7Hect0 After constructing a $isru(ti-e coil suita7le for any 2in$ of current su((ly8 $irect or alternating the e'(eri)enter co)es to the consi$eration as to .hat 2in$ of 7ul7 to e)(loy0 Clearly8 if .e (ut t.o electro$es in a 7ul78 or use one insi$e an$ another outsi$e electro$e8 .e li)it the (otential8 for the (resence not only of the ano$e 7ut of any con$ucting o7Hect has the effect of re$ucing the (ractica7le (otential on the catho$e0 Thus8 to secure the result ai)e$ at8 one is $ri-en to the acce(tance of a single electro$e 7ul7J the other ter)inal 7eing as far re)ote as (ossi7le0 ;7-iously8 an insi$e electro$e shoul$ 7e e)(loye$ to get the highest -elocity of the catho$e strea)s8 for the 7ul7s .ithout insi$e ter)inals are )uch less efficient for this s(ecial o7Hect in consequence of the loss through the glass0 A (o(ular error see)s to e'ist in regar$ to the concentration of the rays 7y conca-e electro$es0 This8 if anything8 is a $isa$-antage0 There are certain s(ecific arrange)ents of the $isru(ti-e coil an$ circuits8 con$ensers an$ static screens for the 7ul78 on .hich , ha-e gi-en full (articulars on (re-ious occasions0 Ha-ing selecte$ the in$uction a((aratus an$ ty(e of 7ul78 tie ne't i)(ortant consi$eration is the -acuu)0 ;n this su7Hect , a) a7le to )a2e 2no.n a fact .ith .hich , ha-e long 7een acquainte$8 an$ of .hich , ha-e ta2en a$-antage in the (ro$uction of -acuu) Hac2ets an$ all sorts of incan$escent 7ul7s8 an$ .hich , su7sequently foun$ to 7e of the ut)ost i)(ortance8 not to say essential8 for the (ro$uction of intense +oentgen sha$o.s0 , refer to a )etho$ of rarefaction 7y electrical )eans to any $egree $esira7le far 7eyon$ that o7taina7le 7y )echanical a((liances0 Though this result can 7e reache$ 7y the use of a static )achine as8 .ell as of an or$inary in$uction coil gi-ing a sufficiently high (otential8 , ha-e foun$ that 7y far the )ost suita7le a((aratus8 an$ one .hich secures the quic2est action8 is a $isru(ti-e coilI ,t is 7est to (rocee$ in this .ayI The 7ul7 is first e'hauste$ 7y )eans of an or$inary -acuu) (u)( to a rather high $egree8 though )y e'(eriences ha-e sho.n that this is not a7solutely necessary8 as , ha-e also foun$ it (ossi7le to rarefy8 7eginning fro) lo. (ressure0 After 7eing ta2en $o.n fro) the (u)(8 the 7ul7 is attache$ to the ter)inal of the $isru(ti-e coil8 (refera7ly of high frequency of -i7ration8 an$ usually the follo.ing (heno)ena are note$0 First8 there is a )il2y light s(rea$ing through the 7ul78 or (ossi7ly for a )o)ent the glass 7eco)es (hos(horescent8 if the 7ul7 has 7een e'hauste$ to a high $egree0 At any rate8 the (hos(horescence generally su7si$es quic2ly an$ the .hite light settles aroun$ the electro$e8 .hereu(on a $ar2 s(ace for)s at so)e $istance fro) the latter0 >hortly after.ar$ the light assu)es a re$$ish colour an$ the ter)inal gro.s -ery hot0 This heating8 ho.e-er8 is o7ser-e$ only .ith (o.erful a((aratus0 ,t is .ell to .atch the 7ul7 carefully an$ regulate the (otential at this stage8 as the electro$e )ight 7e quic2ly consu)e$0
After so)e ti)e the re$$ish light su7si$es8 the strea)s 7eco)ing again .hite8 .hereu(on they get .ea2er an$ .ea2er8 .a-ering aroun$ the electro$e until they finally $isa((earI /ean.hile8 the (hos(horescence of the glass gro.s )ore an$ )ore intense8 an$ the s(ot .here the strea) stri2es the .all 7eco)es -ery hot8 .hile the (hos(horescence aroun$ the electro$e ceases an$ the latter cools $o.n to such an e'tent that the glass near it )ay 7e actually ice9col$ to the touch0 The gas in the 7ul7 has then reache$ the require$ $egree of rarefaction0 The (rocess )ay 7e hastene$ 7y re(eate$ heating ari$ cooling an$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of a s)all electro$e0 ,t shoul$ 7e a$$e$ that 7ul7s .ith e'ternal electro$es8)ay 7e treate$ in the sa)e .ay0 ,t )ay 7e also of interest to state that un$er certain con$itions8 .hich , a) in-estigating )ore closely8 the (ressure of the gas in a -essel )ay 7e aug)ente$ 7y electrical )eans0 , 7elie-e that the $isintegration of the electro$e8 .hich in-aria7ly ta2es (lace8 is connecte$ .ith a nota7le $i)inution of the te)(erature0 Fro) the (oint on8 .hen the electro$e gets cool8 the 7ul7 is in a -ery goo$ con$ition for (ro$ucing the +oentgen sha$o.s0 &hene-er the electro$e is equally8 if not hotter than the glass8 it is a sure in$ication that the -acuu) is not high enough8 or else that the electro$e is too s)all0 For -ery effecti-e .or2ing8 the insi$e surface of the .all8 .here the catho$e strea) stri2es8 shoul$ a((ear as if the glass .ere in a flui$ state0 As a cooling )e$iu) , ha-e foun$ 7est to e)(loy Hets of col$ air0 3y this )eans it is (ossi7le to o(erate successfully a 7ul7 .ith a -ery thin .all8 .hile the (assage of the rays is not )aterially i)(e$e$0 , )ay state here that the e'(eri)enter nee$ not 7e $eterre$ fro) using a glass 7ul78 as , 7elie-e the o(acity of glass as .ell as the trans(arency of alu)iniu) are so)e.hat e'aggerate$8 inas)uch as , ha-e foun$ that a -ery thin alu)iniu) sheet thro.s a )ar2e$ sha$o.8 .hile8 on the other han$8 , ha-e o7taine$ i)(ressions through a thic2 glass (late0 The a7o-e )etho$ is -alua7le not only as a )eans of o7taining the high -acua $esire$8 7ut it is still )ore i)(ortant8 7ecause the (heno)ena o7ser-e$ thro. a light on the results o7taine$ 7y #enar$ an$ +oentgen0 Though the (heno)enon of rarefaction un$er a7o-e con$itions a$)its of $ifferent inter(retations8 the chief interest renters on one of the)8 to .hich , a$here K that is8 on the actual e'(ulsion of the (articles through the .alls of the 7ul70 , ha-e lately o7ser-e$ that the latter co))ences to act (ro(erly u(on the sensiti-e (late only fro) the (oint .hen the e'haustion 7egins to 7e noticea7le8 an$ the effects (ro$uce$ are the strongest .hen the (rocess of e'haustion is )ost ra(i$8 e-en though the (hos(horescence )ight not a((ear (articularly 7right0 "-i$ently8 then8 the t.o effects are closely connecte$8 an$ , a) getting )ore an$ )ore con-ince$ that .e ha-e to $eal .ith a strea) of )aterial (articles8 .hich stri2e the sensiti-e (late .ith great -elocities0 Ta2ing as a 7asis the esti)ate of #or$ :el-in on the s(ee$ of (roHecte$ '(articles in a Croo2es' 7ul78 .e arri-e easily 7y the e)(loy)ent of -ery high (otentials to s(ee$s of as )uch as a hun$re$ 2ilo)etres a secon$0 1o.8 again8 the ol$ question arisesI Are the (articles fro) the electro$e8 or fro) the charge$ surface generally8 inclu$ing the case of an e'ternal electro$e8 (roHecte$ through the glass or alu)iniu) .alls8 or $o they )erely hit the inner surface an$ cause (articles fro) the outsi$e of the .all to fly off8 acting in a (urely )echanical .ay8 as .hen a ro. of i-ory 7alls is struc2F >o far8 )ost of the (heno)ena in$icate that they are (roHecte$ through the .all of the 7ul78 of .hate-er )aterial it )ay 7e8 an$ , a) see2ing for still )ore conclusi-e e-i$ence in this $irection0 ,t )ay not 7e 2no.n that e-en an or$inary strea)er8 7rea2ing out su$$enly an$ un$er great (ressure fro) the ter)inal of a $isru(ti-e coil8 (asses through a thic2 glass (late as though the latter .ere not (resent0 Cnquestiona7ly8 .ith such coils (ressures are (ractica7le .hich .ill8 (roHect the (articles in straight lines e-en un$er at)os(heric (ressure0 , ha-e o7taine$ $istinct i)(ressions in free air8 not 7y strea)ers8 as so)e e'(eri)enters ha-e $one8 using static )achines or in$uction coils8 7ut 7y actual (roHection8 the for)ation of strea)ers 7eing a7solutely (re-ente$ 7y careful static screening0 A (eculiar thing a7out the +oentgen rays is that fro) lo. frequency to the highest o7taina7le there see)s to 7e no $ifference in the quality of the effects (ro$uce$8 e'ce(t that they are )ore intense .hen the frequency is higher8 .hich is -ery li2ely $ue to the fact that in such case the )a'i)u) (ressures on the catho$e are li2e.ise higher0 This is only (ossi7le on the assu)(tion that the effects on the sensiti-e (late are $ue to (roHecte$ (articles8 or else to -i7rations far 7eyon$ any frequency .hich .e are a7le to o7tain 7y )eans of con$enser $ischarges0 A (o.erfully e'cite$ 7ul7 is en-elo(e$ in a clou$ of -iolet light8 e'ten$ing for )ore than a foot aroun$ it8 7ut outsi$e of this -isi7le (heno)enon there is no (ositi-e e-i$ence of the e'istence of .a-es si)ilar to those of light0 ;n the other han$8 the fact that the o(acity 7ears so)e (ro(ortion to the $ensity of the su7stance s(ea2s strongly for )aterial strea)s8 an$ the sa)e )ay 7e sai$ of the effect $isco-ere$ 7y <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son0 ,t is to 7e ho(e$ that all $ou7ts .ill shortly 7e $is(elle$0 A -alua7le e-i$ence of the nature of the ra$iations an$ (rogress in the $irection of o7taining strong i)(ressions
on the (late )ight 7e arri-e$ at 7y (erfecting (lates es(ecially sensiti-e to )echanical shoc2 or i)(act0 There are che)icals suita7le for this8 an$ the $e-elo()ent in this $irection )ay lea$ to the a7an$on)ent of the (resent (late0 Further)ore8 if .e ha-e to $eal .ith strea) of )aterial (articles8 it see)s not i)(ossi7le to (roHect u(on the (late a suita7le su7stance to insure the 7est che)ical action0 &ith a((aratus as , ha-e $escri7e$8 re)ar2a7le i)(ressions on the (late are (ro$uce$0 An i$ea of the intensity of the effects )ay 7e gaine$ .hen , )ention that it is easy to o7tain sha$o.s .ith co)(arati-ely short e'(osures at $istances of )any feet8 .hile at s)all $istances an$ .ith thin o7Hects8 e'(osures of a fe. secon$s are (ractica7le0 The anne'e$ (rint is a sha$o. of a co((er .ire (roHecte$ at a $istance of 11 feet through a .oo$en co-er o-er the sensiti-e (late0 This .as the first sha$o. ta2en .ith )y i)(ro-e$ a((aratus in )y la7oratory0 A si)ilar i)(ression .as o7taine$ through the 7o$y of the e'(eri)enter8 a (late of glassJ nearly three9si'teenths of an inch thic28 a thic2ness of .oo$ of fully t.o inches an$ through a $istance of a7out four feet0 , )ay re)ar28 ho.e-er8 that .hen these i)(ressions .ere ta2en8 )y a((aratus .as .or2ing un$er e'tre)ely unfa-oura7le con$itions8 .hich a$)itte$ of so great i)(ro-e)ents that , a) ho(eful to )agnify the effects )any ti)es0 The 7ony structure of 7ir$s8 ra77its an$ the li2e is sho.n .ithin the least $etail8 an$ e-en the hollo. of the 7ones is clearly -isi7le0 ,n a (late of a ra77it un$er e'(osure of an hour8 not only e-ery $etail of the s2eleton is -isi7le8 7ut li2e.ise a clear outline of the a7$o)inal ca-ity an$ the location of the lungs8 the fur an$ )any other features0 <rints of e-en large 7ir$s sho. the feathers quite $istinctly0 Clear sha$o.s of the 7ones of hu)an li)7s are o7taine$ 7y e'(osures ranging fro) a quarter of an hour to an hour8 an$ so)e (lates ha-e sho.n such an a)ount of $etail that it is al)ost i)(ossi7le to 7elie-e that .e ha-e to $eal .ith sha$o.s only0 For instance8 a (icture of a foot .ith a shoe on it .as ta2en8 an$ e-ery fol$ of the leather8 trousers8 stoc2ing8 etc08 is -isi7le8 .hile the flesh an$ 7ones stan$ out shar(ly0 Through the 7o$y of the e'(eri)enter the sha$o.s of s)all 7uttons an$ li2e o7Hects are quic2ly o7taine$8 .hile .ith an e'(osure of fro) one to one an$ a half hour the ri7s8 shoul$er97ones an$ the 7ones of the u((er ar) a((ear $early8 as is sho.n in the anne'e$ (rint0 ,t is no. $e)onstrate$ 7eyon$ any $ou7t that s)all )etallic o7Hects or 7ony or chal2y $e(osits can 7e infalli7ly $etecte$ in any (art of the 7o$y0 An outline of the s2ull is easily o7taine$ .ith an e'(osure of !5 to 65 )inutes0 ,n one instance an e'(osure of 65 )inutes ga-e $early not only the outline8 7ut the ca-ity of the eye8 the chin an$ chee2 an$ nasal 7ones8 the lo.er Ha. an$ connections to the u((er one8 the -erte7ral colu)n an$ connections to the s2ull8 the flesh an$ e-en the hair0 3y e'(osing the hea$ to a (o.erful ra$iation strange effects ha-e 7een note$0 For instance8 , fin$ that there is a ten$ency to slee( an$ the ti)e see)s to (ass a.ay quic2ly0 There is a general soothing effect8 an$ , ha-e felt a sensation of .ar)th in the u((er (art of the hea$0 An assistant in$e(en$ently confir)e$ the ten$ency to slee( an$ a quic2 la(se of ti)e0 >houl$ these re)ar2a7le effects 7e -erifie$ 7y )en .ith 2eener sense of o7ser-ation8 , shall still )ore fir)ly 7elie-e in the e'istence of )aterial strea)s (enetrating the s2ull0 Thus it )ay 7e (ossi7le 7y these strange a((liances to (roHect a suita7le che)ical into any (art of the 7o$y0 +oentgen a$-ance$ )o$estly his results8 .arning against too )uch ho(e0 Fortunately his a((rehensions .ere groun$less8 for8 although .e ha-e to all a((earance to $eal .ith )ere sha$o. (roHections8 the (ossi7ilities of the a((lication of his $isco-ery are -ast0 , a) ha((y to ha-e contri7ute$ to the $e-elo()ent of the great art he has create$0
18-6-09-1/: Tesla2s 'atest #esults - 0e Now 5rodu(es #adiogra$,s at a %istan(e of More T,an 7orty 7eet 4y Nikola Tesla
Electrical !evie" To The "$itor of "lectrical +e-ie.I <er)it )e to say that , .as slightly $isa((ointe$ to note in your issue of /ar0 11 the (ro)inence you ha-e $ee)e$ to accor$ to )y youth an$ talent8 .hile the ri7s an$ other (articulars of Fig0 18 .hich8 .ith reference to the (rint acco)(anying )y co))unication8 , $escri7e$ as clearly -isi7le8 .ere 2e(t )o$estly in the 7ac2groun$0 , also regrette$ to o7ser-e an error in one of the ca(tions8 the )ore so8 as , )ust ascri7e it to )y o.n te't0 , na)ely state$ on (age 1348 thir$ colu)n8 se-enth lineI "A si)ilar i)(ression .as o7taine$ through the 7o$y of the e'(eri)enter8 etc08 through a $istance of four feet0" The i)(ression here referre$ to .as a si)ilar one to that sho.n in Fig0 !8 .hereas the sha$o. in Fig0 1 .as ta2en through a $istance of 188 inches0 , state this )erely for the sa2e of correctness of )y co))unication8 7ut8 as far as the general truth of the fact of ta2ing such a sha$o. at the $istance gi-en is concerne$8 your ca(tion )ight as .ell stan$8 for , a) (ro$ucing strong sha$o.s at $istances of 65 feet0 , re(eat8 65 feet an$ e-en )ore0 1or is this all0 >o strong are the actions on the fil) that (ro-isions )ust 7e )a$e to guar$ the (lates in )y (hotogra(hic $e(art)ent8 locate$ on the floor a7o-e8 a $istance of fully %5 feet8 fro) 7eing s(oile$ 7y long e'(osure to the stray rays0 Though $uring )y in-estigations , ha-e (erfor)e$ )any e'(eri)ents .hich see)e$ e'traor$inary8 , a) $ee(ly astonishe$ o7ser-ing these une'(ecte$ )anifestations8 an$ still )ore so8 as e-en no. , see 7efore )e the (ossi7ility8 not to say certitu$e8 of aug)enting the effects .ith )y a((aratus at least tenfol$Y &hat )ay .e then e'(ectF &e ha-e to $eal here8 e-i$ently8 .ith a ra$iation of astonishing (o.er8 an$ the inquiry into its nature 7eco)es )ore an$ )ore interesting an$ i)(ortant0 Here is an unloo2e$9for result of an action .hich8 though .on$erful in itself8 see)e$ fee7le an$ entirely inca(a7le of such e'(ansion8 an$ affor$s a goo$ e'a)(le of the fruitfulness of original $isco-ery0 These effects u(on the sensiti-e (late at so great a $istance , attri7ute to the e)(loy)ent of a 7ul7 .ith a single ter)inal8 .hich (er)its the use of (ractically any $esire$ (otential an$ the attain)ent of e'traor$inary s(ee$s of the (roHecte$ (articles0 &ith such a 7ul7 it is also e-i$ent that the action u(on a fluorescent screen is (ro(ortionately greater than .hen the usual 2in$ of tu7e is e)(loye$8 an$ , ha-e alrea$y o7ser-e$ enough to feel sure that great $e-elo()ents are to 7e loo2e$ for in this $irection0 , consi$er +oentgen's $isco-ery8 of ena7ling us to see8 7y the use of a fluorescent screen8 through an o(aque su7stance8 e-en a )ore 7eautiful one than the recor$ing u(on the (late0 >ince )y (re-ious co))unication to you , ha-e )a$e consi$era7le (rogress8 an$ can (resently announce one )ore result of i)(ortance0 , ha-e lately o7taine$ sha$o.s 7y reflecte$ rays only8 thus $e)onstrating 7eyon$ $ou7t that the +oentgen rays (ossess this (ro(erty0 ;ne of the e'(eri)ents )ay 7e cite$ here0 A thic2 co((er tu7e8 a7out a foot long8 .as ta2en an$ one of its en$s tightly close$ 7y the (latehol$er containing a sensiti-e (late8 (rotecte$ 7y a fi7re co-er as usual0 1ear the o(en en$ of the co((er tu7e .as (lace$ a thic2 (late of glass at an angle of 64 $egrees to the a'is of the tu7e0 A single9ter)inal 7ul7 .as then sus(en$e$ a7o-e the glass (late at a $istance of a7out eight inches8 so that the 7un$le of rays fell u(on the latter at an angle of 64 $egrees8 an$ the su((ose$ly reflecte$ rays (asse$ along the a'is of the co((er tu7e0 An e'(osure of 64 )inutes ga-e a clear an$ shar( sha$o. of a )etallic o7Hect0 This sha$o. .as (ro$uce$ 7y the reflecte$ rays8 as the $irect action .as a7solutely e'clu$e$8 it ha-ing 7een $e)onstrate$ that e-en un$er the se-erest tests .ith )uch stronger actions no i)(ression .hate-er coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ u(on the fil) through a thic2ness of co((er equal to that of the tu7e0 Conclu$ing fro) the intensity of the action 7y co)(arison .ith an equi-alent effect $ue to the $irect rays8 , fin$ that a((ro'i)ately t.o (er cent of the latter .ere .ere reflecte$ fro) the glass (late in this e'(eri)ent0 , ho(e to 7e a7le to re(ort shortly an$ )ore fully on this an$ other su7Hects0 ,n )y atte)(ts to contri7ute )y hu)7le share to the 2no.le$ge of the +oentgen (heno)ena8 , a) fin$ing )ore an$ )ore e-i$ence in su((ort of the theory of )o-ing )aterial (articles0 ,t is not )y intention8 ho.e-er8 to a$-ance at (resent any -ie. as to the 7earing of such a fact u(on the (resent theory of light8 7ut , )erely see2 to esta7lish the fact of the e'istence of such )aterial strea)s in so far as these isolate$ effects are concerne$0 , ha-e alrea$y a great )any in$ications of a 7o)7ar$)ent occurring outsi$e of the 7ul78 an$ , a) arranging so)e crucial tests .hich8 , ho(e8 .ill 7e successful0 The calculate$ -elocities fully account for actions at $istances of as )uch as 155 feet fro) the 7ul78 an$ that the (roHection through the glass ta2es (lace see)s e-i$ent fro) the (rocess of e'haustion8 .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ in )y (re-ious co))unication0 An e'(eri)ent .hich is illustrati-e in this res(ect8 an$ .hich , inten$e$ to )ention8 is the follo.ingJ ,f .e attach a fairly e'hauste$ 7ul7 containing an electro$e to the ter)inal of a $isru(ti-e coil8 .e o7ser-e s)all strea)ers 7rea2ing through the si$e of the glass0 Csually such a strea)er .ill 7rea2 through the seal an$ crac2 the 7ul78 .hereu(on the -acuu) is i)(aire$J 7ut8 if the seal is (lace$ a7o-e the ter)inal8 or if so)e other (ro-ision is )a$e to (re-ent the strea)er fro) (assing through the glass at that (oint8 it often
occurs that the strea) 7rea2s out through the si$e of the 7ul78 (ro$ucing a fine hole0 1o.8 the e'traor$inary thing is that8 in s(ite of the connection to the outer at)os(here8 the air can not rush into the 7ul7 as long as the hole 'is -ery s)all0 The glass at the (lace .here the ru(ture has occurre$ )ay gro. -ery hot 9 to such a $egree as to softenJ 7ut it .ill not colla(se8 7ut rather 7ulge out8 sho.ing that a (ressure fro) the insi$e greater than that of the at)os(here e'ists0 ;n frequent occasions , ha-e o7ser-e$ that the glass 7ulges out an$ the hole8 through .hich the strea)er rushes out8 7eco)es so large as to 7e (erfectly $iscerni7le to the eye0 As the )atter is e'(elle$ fro) the 7ul7 the rarefaction increases an$ the strea)er 7eco)es less an$ less intense8 .hereu(on the glass closes again8 her)etically sealing the o(ening0 The (rocess of rarefaction8 ne-ertheless8 continues8 strea)ers 7eing still -isi7le on the heate$ (lace until the highest $egree of e'haustion is reache$8 .hereu(on they )ay $isa((ear0 Here8 then8 .e ha-e a (ositi-e e-i$ence that )atter is 7eing e'(elle$ through the .alls of the glass0 &hen .or2ing .ith highly straine$ 7ul7s , frequently e'(erience a su$$en8 an$ so)eti)es e-en (ainful8 shoc2 in the eye0 >uch shoc2s )ay occur so often that the eye gets infla)e$8 an$ one can not 7e consi$ere$ o-er9cautious if he a7stains fro) .atching the 7ul7 too closely0 , see in these shoc2s a further e-i$ence of larger (articles 7eing thro.n off fro) the 7ul70 1i2ola Tesla0 1e. Dor28 /arch 160
18-6-09-18: On #oentgen rays G"H I 'atest #esults 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" To the Edition of Electrical !evie" <er)it )e to say that , .as slightly $isa((ointe$ to note in your issue of /arch 11 the (ro)inence you ha-e $ee)e$ to accor$ to )y youth an$ talent8 .hile the ri7s an$ other (articulars of Fig0 18 .hich8 .ith reference to the (rint acco)(anying )y co))unication8 , $escri7e$ as clearly -isi7le8 .ere 2e(t )o$estly in the 7ac2groun$I , also regrette$ to o7ser-e an error in one of the ca(tions8 the )ore soJ as , )ust ascri7e it to )y o.n te't0 , na)ely state$ on (age 1348 thir$ colu)n8 se-enth lineI "A si)ilar i)(ression .as o7taine$ through the 7o$y of the e'(eri)enter8 etc08 through a $istance of four feet0" The i)(ression here referre$ to .as a si)ilar one to that sho.n in Fig0 !8 .hereas the sha$o. in Fig0 1 .as ta2en through a $istance of 18 inches0 , state this )erely for the sa2e of correctness of )y co))unication8 7ut8 as far as the general truth of the fact of ta2ing such a sha$o. at the $istance gi-en is concerne$8 your ca(tion )ight as .ell stan$8 for , a) (ro$ucing strong sha$o.s at $istances of <= feet0 , re(eat8 65 feet an$ e-en )ore0 1or is this all0 >o strong are the actions on the fil) that (ro-ision )ust 7e )a$e to guar$ the (lates in )y (hotogra(hic $e(art)ent8 locate$ on the floor a7o-e8 a $istance of fully %5 feet8 fro) 7eing s(oile$ 7y long e'(osure to the stray rays0 Though $uring )y in-estigations , ha-e (erfor)e$ )any e'(eri)ents .hich see)e$ e'traor$inary8 , a) $ee(ly astonishe$ o7ser-ing these une'(ecte$ )anifestations8 an$ still )ore so8 as e-en no. , see 7efore )e the (ossi7ility8 not to say certitu$e8 of aug)enting the effects .ith )y a((aratus at least tenfol$Y &hat )ay .e then e'(ectF &e ha-e to $eal here8 e-i$ently8 .ith a ra$iation of astonishing (o.er8 an$ the inquiry into its nature 7eco)es )ore an$ )ore interesting an$ i)(ortant0 Here is an unloo2e$9for result of an action .hich8 though .on$erful in itself8 see)e$ fee7le an$ entirely inca(a7le of such e'(ansion8 an$ affor$s a goo$ e'a)(le of the fruitfulness of original $isco-ery0 These effects u(on the sensiti-e (late at so great a $istance , attri7ute to the e)(loy)ent of a 7ul7 .ith a single ter)inal8 .hich (er)its the use of (ractically any $esire$ (otential an$ the attain)ent of e'traor$inary s(ee$s of the (roHecte$ (articles0 &ith such a 7ul7 it is also e-i$ent that the action u(on a fluorescent screen is (ro(ortionately greater than .hen the usual 2in$ of tu7e is e)(loye$8 an$ , ha-e alrea$y o7ser-e$ enough to feel sure that great $e-elo()ents are to 7e loo2e$ for in this $irection0 , consi$er +oentgen's $isco-eryJ of ena7ling us to see8 7y the use of a fluorescent screen8 through an o(aque su7stance8 e-en a )ore 7eautiful one than the recor$ing u(on the (late0 >ince )y (re-ious co))unication to you , ha-e )a$e consi$era7le (rogress8 an$ can (resently announce one )ore result of i)(ortance0 , ha-e lately o7taine$ sha$o.s by reflected rays only8 thus $e)onstrating 7eyon$ $ou7t that the +oentgen rays (ossess this (ro(erty0 ;ne of the e'(eri)ents )ay 7e cite$ here0 A thic2 co((er tu7e8 a7out a foot long8 .as ta2en an$ one of its en$s tightly close$ 7y the (late9hol$er containing a sensiti-e (late8 (rotecte$ 7y a fi7er co-er as usual0 1ear the o(en en$ of the co((er tu7e .as (lace$ a thic2 (late of glass at an angle of 64 $egrees to the a'is of the tu7e0 A single9ter)inal 7ul7 .as then sus(en$e$ a7o-e the glass (late at a $istance of a7out eight inches8 so that the 7un$le of rays fell u(on the latter at in angle of 64 $egrees8 an$ the su((ose$ly reflecte$ rays (asse$ along the a'is of the co((er tu7e0 An e'(osure of 64 )inutes ga-e a $ear an$ shar( sha$o. of a )etallic o7Hect0 This sha$o. .as (ro$uce$ 7y the reflecte$ rays8 as the $irect action .as a7solutely e'clu$e$8 it ha-ing 7een $e)onstrate$ that e-en un$er the se-erest tests .ith )uch stronger actions no i)(ression .hate-er coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ u(on the fil) through a thic2ness of co((er equal to that of the tu7e0 Conclu$ing fro) the intensity of the action 7y co)(arison .ith an equi-alent effect $ue to the $irect rays8 , fin$ that a((ro'i)ately t.o (er cent of the latter .ere reflecte$ fro) the glass (late in this e'(eri)ent0 , ho(e to 7e a7le to re(ort shortly an$ )ore fully on this an$ other su7Hects0 ,n )y atte)(ts to contri7ute )y hu)7le share to the 2no.le$ge of the +oentgen (heno)ena8 , a) fin$ing )ore an$ )ore e-i$ence in su((ort of the theory of )o-ing )aterial (articles0 ,t is not )y intention8 ho.e-er8 to a$-ance at (resent any -ie. as to the 7earing of such a fact u(on the (resent theory of light8 7ut , )erely see2 to esta7lish the fact of the e'istence of such )aterial strea)s in so far as these isolate$ effects are concerne$0 , ha-e alrea$y a great )any in$ications of a 7o)7ar$)ent occurring outsi$e of the 7ul78 an$ , a) arranging so)e crucial tests .hich8 , ho(e8 .ill 7e successful0 The calculate$ -elocities fully account for actions at $istances of as )uch as 155 feet fro) the 7ul78 an$ that the (roHection through the glass ta2es (lace see)s e-i$ent fro) the (rocess of e'haustion8 .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ in )y (re-ious co))unication0 An e'(eri)ent .hich is illustrati-e in this res(ect8 an$ .hich , inten$e$ to )ention8 is the follo.ingI ,f .e attach a fairly e'hauste$ 7ul7 containing an electro$e to the ter)inal of a $isru(ti-e coil8 .e o7ser-e s)all strea)ers 7rea2ing through the si$es of the glass0 Csually such a strea)er .ill 7rea2 through the seal an$ crac2 the 7ul78 .hereu(on the -acuu) is
i)(aire$J 7ut8 if the seal is (lace$ a7o-e the ter)inal8 or if so)e other (ro-ision is )a$e to (re-ent the strea)er fro) (assing through the glass at that (oint8 it often occurs that the strea) 7rea2s out through the si$e of the 7ul78 (ro$ucing a fine hole0 1o.8 the e'traor$inary thing is that8 in s(ite of the connection to the outer at)os(here8 the air can not rush into the 7ul7 as long as the hole is -ery s)all0 The glass at the (lace .here the ru(ture has occurre$ )ay gro. -ery hot K to such a $egree as to softenJ 7ut it .ill not colla(se8 7ut rather 7ulge out8 sho.ing that a (ressure fro) the insi$e greater than that of the at)os(here e'ists0 ;n frequent occasions , ha-e o7ser-e$ that the glass 7ulges out an$ the hole8 through .hich the strea)er rushes out8 7eco)es so large0 as to 7e (erfectly $iscerni7le to the eye0 As the )atter is e'(elle$ fro) the 7ul7 the rarefaction increases an$ the strea)er 7eco)es less an$ less intense8 .hereu(on the glass $oses again8 her)etically sealing the o(ening0 The (rocess of rarefaction8 ne-ertheless8 continues8 strea)ers 7eing still -isi7le on the heate$ (lace until the highest $egree of e'haustion is reache$8 .hereu(on they )ay $isa((ear0 Here8 then8 .e ha-e a (ositi-e e-i$ence that )atter is 7eing e'(elle$ through the .alls of the glass0 &hen .or2ing .ith highly straine$ 7ul7s , frequently e'(erience a su$$en8 an$ so)eti)es e-en (ainful8 shoc2 in the eye0 >uch shoc2s )ay occur so often that the eye gets infla)e$8 an$ one can not 7e consi$ere$ o-ercautious if he a7stains fro) .atching the 7ul7 too closely0 , see in these shoc2s a further e-i$ence of larger (articles 7eing thro.n off fro) the 7ul70
18-<-01-"<: On *le(tri(ity 4y Nikola Tesla

>The Address 'n the 'ccasion of the 2ommemoration of the Introduction of Niagara 9alls 3o"er In 4uffalo At the Ellicot 2lub+ 8anuary 1?+ 101.@ Electrical !evie"
I ha-e scarcely ha$ courage enough to a$$ress an au$ience on a fe. una-oi$a7le occasions8 an$ the
e'(erience of this e-ening8 e-en as $isconnecte$ fro) the cause of our )eeting8 is quite no-el to )e0 Although in those fe. instances8 of .hich , ha-e retaine$ agreea7le )e)ory8 )y .or$s ha-e )et .ith a generous rece(tion8 , ne-er $ecei-e$ )yself8 an$ 2ne. quite .ell that )y success .as not $ue to any e'cellency in the rhetorical or $e)onstrati-e art0 1e-ertheless8 )y sense of $uty to res(on$ to the request .ith .hich , .as honoure$ a fe. $ays ago .as strong enough to o-erco)e )y -ery gra-e a((rehensions in regar$ to )y a7ility of $oing Hustice to the to(ic assigne$ to )e0 ,t is true8 at ti)esKe-en no.8 as , s(ea2K)y )in$ feels full of the su7Hect8 7ut , 2no. that8 as soon as , shall atte)(t e'(ression8 the fugiti-e conce(tions .ill -anish8 an$ , shall e'(erience certain .ell 2no.n sensations of a7an$on)ent8 chill an$ silence0 , can see alrea$y your $isa((ointe$ countenances an$ can rea$ in the) the (ainful regret of the )ista2e in your choice0 These re)ar2s8 gentle)en8 are not )a$e .ith selfish $esire of .inning your 2in$ness an$ in$ulgence on )y shortco)ings8 7ut .ith the honest intention of offering you an a(ology for your $isa((oint)ent0 1or are they )a$eKas you )ight 7e $is(ose$ to thin2Kin that (layful s(irit .hich8 to the enHoy)ent of the listeners is often $is(laye$ 7y 7elate$ s(ea2ers0 ;n the contrary8 , a) $ee(ly earnest in )y .ish that , .ere ca(a7le of ha-ing the fire of eloquence 2in$le$ in )e8 that , )ight $.ell in a$equate ter)s on this fascinating science of electricity8 on the )ar-ellous $e-elo()ent .hich electrical annals ha-e recor$e$ an$ .hich8 as one of the s(ea2ers Hustly re)ar2e$8 sta)( this age as the "lectrical Age8 an$ (articularly on the great e-ent .e are co))e)orating this $ay0 Cnfortunately8 this )y $esire )ust re)ain unfulfille$8 7ut , a) ho(eful that in )y for)less an$ inco)(lete state)ents8 a)ong the fe. i$eas an$ facts , shall )ention there )ay 7e so)ething of interest an$ usefulness8 so)ething 7efitting this unique occasion0 Gentle)en8 there are a nu)7er of features clearly $iscerni7le in8 an$ characteristic of8 hu)an intellectual (rogress in )ore recent ti)esKfeatures .hich affor$ great co)fort to the )in$s of all those .ho ha-e really at heart the a$-ance)ent an$ .elfare of )an2in$0 First of all the inquiry8 7y the ai$ of the )icrosco(e an$ electrical instru)ents of (recision8 into the nature of our organs an$ senses8 an$ (articularly of those through .hich .e co))une $irectly .ith the outsi$e .orl$ an$ through .hich 2no.le$ge is con-eye$ to our )in$s8 has re-eale$ their e'act construction an$ )o$e of action8 .hich is in confor)ity .ith si)(le an$ .ell esta7lishe$ (hysical (rinci(les an$ la.s0 Hence the o7ser-ations .e )a2e an$ the facts .e ascertain 7y their hel( are real facts an$ o7ser-ations8 an$ our 2no.le$ge is true 2no.le$ge0 To illustrateI ;ur 2no.le$ge of for)8 for instance8 is $e(en$ent u(on the (ositi-e fact that light (ro(agates in straight lines8 an$8 o.ing to this8 the i)age for)e$ 7y a lens is e'actly si)ilar to the o7Hect seen0 ,n$ee$8 )y thoughts in such fiel$s an$ $irections ha-e le$ )e to the conclusion that )ost all hu)an 2no.le$ge is 7ase$ on this si)(le truth8 since (ractically e-ery i$ea or conce(tionKan$ therefore all 2no.le$geK (resu((oses -isual i)(ressions0 3ut if light .oul$ not (ro(agate in accor$ance .ith the la. )entione$8 7ut in confor)ity .ith any other la. .hich .e )ight (resently concei-e8 .here7y not only the i)age )ight not 7ear any li2eness to the o7Hect seen8 7ut e-en the i)ages of the sa)e o7Hect at $ifferent ti)es or $istances )ight not rese)7le each other8 then our 2no.le$ge of for) .oul$ 7e -ery $efecti-e8 for then .e )ight see8 for e'a)(le8 a three9cornere$ figure as a si' or t.el-e9cornere$ one0 &ith the clear un$erstan$ing of the )echanis) an$ )o$e of action of our organs8 .e re)o-e all $ou7ts as to the reality an$ truth of the i)(ressions recei-e$ fro) the outsi$e8 an$ thus .e 7ar outKfore-er8 .e )ay ho(eKthat unhealthy s(eculation an$ s2e(ticis) into .hich for)erly e-en strong )in$s .ere a(t to fall0 #et )e tell you of another co)forting feature0 The (rogress in a )easure$ ti)e is no.a$ays )ore ra(i$ an$ greater than it e-er .as 7efore0 This is quite in accor$ance .ith the fun$a)ental la. of )otion8 .hich co))an$s acceleration an$ increase of )o)entu) or accu)ulation of energy un$er the action of a continuously acting force an$ ten$ency8 an$ is the )ore true as e-ery a$-ance .ea2ens the ele)ents ten$ing to (ro$uce friction an$ retar$ation0 For8 after all8 .hat is (rogress8 orK)ore correctlyK$e-elo()ent8 or e-olution8 if not a )o-e)ent8 infinitely co)(le' an$ often unscrutinisa7le8 it is true8 7ut ne-ertheless e'actly $eter)ine$ in quantity as .ell as in quality of )otion 7y the (hysical con$itions an$ la.s go-erningF This feature of )ore recent $e-elo()ent is 7est sho.n in the ra(i$ )erging together of the -arious arts an$ sciences 7y the
o7literation of the har$ an$ fast lines of se(aration8 of 7or$ers8 so)e of .hich only a fe. years ago see)e$ unsur(assa7le8 an$ .hich8 li2e -erita7le Chinese .alls8 surroun$e$ e-ery $e(art)ent of inquiry an$ 7arre$ (rogress0 A sense of connecte$ness of the -arious a((arently .i$ely $ifferent forces an$ (heno)ena .e o7ser-e is ta2ing (ossession of our )in$s8 a sense of $ee(er un$erstan$ing of nature as a .hole8 .hich8 though not yet quite clear an$ $efine$8 is 2een enough to ins(ire us .ith the confi$ence of -ast realiBations in the near future0 3ut these features chiefly interest the scientific )an8 the thin2er an$ reasoner0 There is another feature .hich affor$s us still )ore satisfaction an$ enHoy)ent8 an$ .hich is of still )ore uni-ersal interest8 chiefly 7ecause of its 7earing u(on the .elfare of )an2in$0 Gentle)en8 there is an influence .hich is getting strong an$ stronger $ay 7y $ay8 .hich sho.s itself )ore an$ )ore in all $e(art)ents of hu)an acti-ity8 an$ influence )ost fruitful an$ 7eneficialKthe influence of the artist0 ,t .as a ha((y $ay for the )ass of hu)anity .hen the artist felt the $esire of 7eco)ing a (hysician8 an electrician8 an engineer or )echanician orK.hatnotKa )athe)atician or a financierJ for it .as he .ho .rought all these .on$ers an$ gran$eur .e are .itnessing0 ,t .as he .ho a7olishe$ that s)all8 (e$antic8 narro.9groo-e$ school teaching .hich )a$e of an as(iring stu$ent a galley9sla-e8 an$ he .ho allo.e$ free$o) in the choice of su7Hect of stu$y accor$ing to one's (leasure an$ inclination8 an$ so facilitate$ $e-elo()ent0 >o)e8 .ho $elight in the e'ercise of the (o.ers of criticis)8 call this an asy))etrical $e-elo()ent8 a $egeneration or $e(arture fro) the nor)al8 or e-en a $egra$ation of the race0 3ut they are )ista2en0 This is a .elco)e state of things8 a 7lessing8 a .ise su7$i-ision of la7ours8 the esta7lish)ent of con$itions )ost fa-oura7le to (rogress0 #et one concentrate all his energies in one single great effort8 let hi) (ercei-e a single truth8 e-en though he 7e consu)e$ 7y the sacre$ fire8 then )illions of less gifte$ )en can easily follo.0 Therefore it is not as )uch quantity as quality of .or2 .hich $eter)ines the )agnitu$e of the (rogress0 ,t .as the artist8 too8 .ho a.a2ene$ that 7roa$ (hilanthro(ic s(irit .hich8 e-en in ol$ ages8 shone in the teachings of no7le refor)ers an$ (hiloso(hers8 that s(irit .hich )a2es )en in all $e(art)ents an$ (ositions .or2 not as )uch for any )aterial 7enefit or co)(ensationKthough reason )ay co))an$ this alsoK7ut chiefly for the sa2e of success8 for the (leasure there is in achie-ing it an$ for the goo$ they )ight 7e a7le to $o there7y to their fello.9)en0 Through his influence ty(es of )en are no. (ressing for.ar$8 i)(elle$ 7y a $ee( lo-e for their stu$y8 )en .ho are $oing .on$ers in their res(ecti-e 7ranches8 .hose chief ai) an$ enHoy)ent is the acquisition an$ s(rea$ of 2no.le$ge8 )en .ho loo2 far a7o-e earthly things8 .hose 7anner is "'celsiorY Gentle)en8 let us honour the artistJ let us than2 hi)8 let us $rin2 his healthY 1o.8 in all these enHoya7le an$ ele-ating features .hich characteriBe )o$ern intellectual $e-elo()ent8 electricity8 the e'(ansion of the science of electricity8 has 7een a )ost (otent factor0 "lectrical science has re-eale$ to us the true nature of light8 has (ro-i$e$ us .ith innu)era7le a((liances an$ instru)ents of (recision8 an$ has there7y -astly a$$e$ to the e'actness of our 2no.le$ge0 "lectrical science has $isclose$ to us the )ore inti)ate relation e'isting 7et.een .i$ely $ifferent forces an$ (heno)ena an$ has thus le$ us to a )ore co)(lete co)(rehension of 1ature an$ its )any )anifestations to our senses0 "lectrical science8 too8 7y its fascination8 7y its (ro)ises of i))ense realiBations8 of .on$erful (ossi7ilities chiefly in hu)anitarian res(ects8 has attracte$ the attention an$ enliste$ the energies of the artistJ for .here is there a fiel$ in .hich his Go$9gi-en (o.ers .oul$ 7e of a greater 7enefit to his fello.9)en than this une'(lore$8 al)ost -irgin8 region8 .here8 li2e in a silent forest8 a thousan$ -oices res(on$ to e-ery callF &ith these co)forting features8 .ith these cheering (ros(ects8 .e nee$ not loo2 .ith any feeling of incertitu$e or a((rehension into the future0 There are (essi)istic )en8 .ho8 .ith an'ious faces8 continuously .his(er in your ear that the nations are secretly ar)ingKar)ing to the teethJ that they are going to (ounce u(on each other at a gi-en signal an$ $estroy the)sel-esJ that they are all trying to out$o that -ictorious8 great8 .on$erful Ger)an ar)y8 against .hich there is no resistance8 for e-ery Ger)an has the $isci(line in his -ery 7loo$Ke-ery Ger)an is a sol$ier8 3ut these )en are in error0 #oo2 only at our recent e'(erience .ith the 3ritish in that GeneBuela $ifficulty0 T.o other nations )ight ha-e crashe$ together8 7ut not the Anglo9>a'onsJ they are too far ahea$0 The )en .ho tell you this are ignoring forces .hich are continually at .or28 silently 7ut resistlesslyKforces .hich say <eaceY There is the genuine artist8 .ho ins(ires us .ith higher an$ no7ler senti)ents8 an$ )a2es us a7hor strife an$ carnage0 There is the engineer8 .ho 7ri$ges gulfs an$ chas)s8 an$ facilitates contact an$ equaliBation of the heterogeneous )asses of hu)anity0 There is the )echanic8 .ho co)es .ith his 7eautiful ti)e an$ energy9 sa-ing a((liances8 .ho (erfects his flying )achine8 not to $ro( a 7ag of $yna)ite on a city or -essel8 7ut to facilitate trans(ort an$ tra-el0 There8 again8 is the che)ist8 .ho o(ens ne. resources an$ )a2es e'istence )ore (leasant an$ secureJ an$ there is the electrician8 .ho sen$s his )essages of (eace to all (arts of the glo7e0 The
ti)e .ill not 7e long in co)ing .hen those )en .ho are turning their ingenuity to in-enting quic29firing guns8 tor(e$oes an$ other i)(le)ents of $estructionKall the .hile assuring you that it is for the lo-e an$ goo$ of hu)anityK.ill fin$ no ta2ers for their o$ious tools8 an$ .ill realiBe that8 ha$ they use$ their in-enti-e talent in other $irectionsJ they )ight ha-e rea(e$ a far 7etter re.ar$ than the sestertia recei-e$0 An$ then8 an$ none too soon the cry .ill 7e echoe$ e-ery.here0 3rethren8 sto( these high9han$e$ )etho$s of the strong8 these re)nants of 7ar7aris) so ini)ical to (rogressY Gi-e that -aliant .arrior o((ortunities for $is(laying a )ore co))en$a7le courage than that he sho.s .hen8 into'icate$ .ith -ictory8 he rushes to the $estruction of his fello.9)en0 #et hi) toil $ay an$ night .ith a s)all chance of achie-ing an$ yet 7e unflinchingJ let hi) challenge the $angers of e'(loring the heights of the air an$ the $e(ths of the seaJ let hi) 7ra-e the $rea$ of the (lague8 the heat of the tro(ic $esert an$ the ice of the (olar region0 Turn your energies to .ar$ing off the co))on ene)ies an$ $anger8 the (erils that are all aroun$ you8 that threaten you in the air you 7reathe8 in the .ater you $rin28 in the foo$ you consu)e0 ,t is not strange8 is it not sha)e8 that .e8 7eings in the highest state of $e-elo()ent in this our .orl$8 7eings .ith such i))ense (o.ers of thought an$ action8 .e8 the )asters of the glo7e8 shoul$ 7e a7solutely at the )ercy of our unseen foes8 that .e shoul$ not 2no. .hether a s.allo. of foo$ or $rin2 7rings Hoy an$ life or (ain an$ $estruction to usY ,n this )ost )o$ern an$ sensi7le .arfare8 in .hich the 7acteriologist lea$s8 the ser-ices electricity .ill ren$er .ill (ro-e in-alua7le0 The econo)ical (ro$uction of high9 frequency currents8 .hich is no. an acco)(lishe$ fact8 ena7les us to generate easily an$ in large quantities oBone for the $isinfection of the .ater an$ the air8 .hile certain no-el ra$iations recently $isco-ere$ gi-e ho(e of fin$ing effecti-e re)e$ies against ills of )icro7ic origin8 .hich ha-e heretofore .ithstoo$ all efforts of the (hysician0 3ut let )e turn to a )ore (leasant the)e0 , ha-e referre$ to the )erging together of the -arious sciences or $e(art)ents of research8 an$ to a certain (erce(tion of inti)ate connection 7et.een the )anifol$ an$ a((arently $ifferent forces an$ (heno)ena0 Alrea$y .e 2no.8 chiefly through the efforts of a 7ol$ (ioneer8 that light8 ra$iant heat8 electrical an$ )agnetic actions are closely relate$8 not to say i$entical0 The che)ist (rofesses that the effects of co)7ination an$ se(aration of 7o$ies he o7ser-es are $ue to electrical forces8 an$ the (hysician an$ (hysiologist .ill tell you that e-en life's (rogress is electrical0 Thus electrical science has gaine$ a uni-ersal )eaning8 an$ .ith right this age can clai) the na)e "Age of "lectricity0" , .ish )uch to tell you on this occasionK, )ay say , actually 7urn for $esire of telling youK.hat electricity really is8 7ut , ha-e -ery strong reasons8 .hich )y co9.or2ers .ill 7est a((reciate8 to follo. a (rece$ent esta7lishe$ 7y a great an$ -enera7le (hiloso(her8 an$ , shall not $.ell on this (urely scientific as(ect of electricity0 There is another reason for the clai) .hich , ha-e 7efore state$ .hich is e-en )ore (otent than the for)er8 an$ that is the i))ense $e-elo()ent in all electrical 7ranches in )ore recent years an$ its influence u(on other $e(art)ents of science an$ in$ustry0 To illustrate this influence , only nee$ to refer to the stea) or gas engine0 For )ore than half a century the stea) engine has ser-e$ the innu)era7le .ants of )an0 The .or2 it .as calle$ to (erfor) .as of such -ariety an$ the con$itions in each case .ere so $ifferent that8 of necessity8 a great )any ty(es of engines ha-e resulte$0 ,n the -ast )aHority of cases the (ro7le) (ut 7efore the engineer .as not as it shoul$ ha-e 7een8 the 7roa$ one of con-erting the greatest (ossi7le a)ount of heat energy into )echanical (o.er8 7ut it .as rather the s(ecific (ro7le) of o7taining the )echanical (o.er in such for) as to 7e 7est suita7le for general use0 As the reci(rocating )otion of the (iston .as not con-enient for (ractical (ur(oses8 e'ce(t in -ery fe. instances8 the (iston .as connecte$ to a cran28 an$ thus rotating )otions .as o7taine$8 .hich .as )ore suita7le an$ (refera7le8 though it in-ol-e$ nu)erous $isa$-antages inci$ent to the cru$e an$ .asteful )eans e)(loye$0 3ut until quite recently there .ere at the $is(osal of the engineer8 for the transfor)ation an$ trans)ission of the )otion of the (iston8 no 7etter )eans than rigi$ )echanical connections0 The (ast fe. years ha-e 7rought forci7ly to the attention of the 7uil$er the electric )otor8 .ith its i$eal features0 Here .as a )o$e of trans)itting )echanical )otion si)(ler 7y far8 an$ also )uch )ore econo)ical0 Ha$ this )o$e 7een (erfecte$ earlier8 there can 7e no $ou7t that8 of the )any $ifferent ty(es of engine8 the )aHority .oul$ not e'ist8 for Hust as soon as an engine .as cou(le$ .ith an electric generator a ty(e .as (ro$uce$ ca(a7le of al)ost uni-ersal use0 Fro) this )o)ent on there .as no necessity to en$ea-our to (erfect engines of s(ecial $esigns ca(a7le of $oing s(ecial 2in$s of .or20 The engineer's tas2 7eca)e no. to concentrate all his efforts u(on one ty(e8 to (erfect one 2in$ of engineKthe 7estJ the uni-ersal8 the engine of the i))e$iate futureJ na)ely8 the one .hich is 7est suita7le for the generation of electricity0 The first efforts in this $irection ga-e a strong i)(etus to the $e-elo()ent of the reci(rocating high s(ee$ engine8 an$ also to the tur7ine8 .hich latter .as a ty(e of engine of -ery li)ite$ (ractical usefulness8 7ut 7eca)e8 to a certain e'tent8 -alua7le in connection .ith the electric generator an$ )otor0 >till8 e-en the for)er engine8 though i)(ro-e$ in )any (articulars8 is not ra$ically change$8 an$ e-en no. has the sa)e o7Hectiona7le features an$ li)itations0 To $o a.ay .ith these as )uch as (ossi7le8 a ne. ty(e of engine is 7eing (erfecte$ in .hich )ore fa-oura7le con$itions for econo)y are )aintaine$8 .hich e'(an$s the .or2ing flui$ .ith ut)ost ra(i$ity an$ loses little heat on the .alls8 an engine
stri((e$ of all usual regulating )echanis)K(ac2ings8 oilers an$ other a((en$agesKan$ for)ing (art of an electric generatorJ an$ in this ty(e8 , )ay say8 , ha-e i)(licit faith0 The gas or e'(losi-e engine has 7een li2e.ise (rofoun$ly affecte$ 7y the co))ercial intro$uction of electric light an$ (o.er8 (articularly in quite recent years0 The engineer is turning his energies )ore an$ )ore in this $irection8 7eing attracte$ 7y the (ros(ect of o7taining a higher ther)o$yna)ic efficiency0 /uch larger engines are no. 7eing 7uilt8 the construction is constantly i)(ro-e$8 an$ a no-el ty(e of engine8 7est suita7le for the generation of electricity8 is 7eing ra(i$ly e-ol-e$0 There are )any other lines of )anufacture an$ in$ustry in .hich the influence of electrical $e-elo()ent has 7een e-en )ore (o.erfully felt0 >o8 for instance8 the )anufacture of a great -ariety of articles of )etal8 an$ es(ecially of che)ical (ro$ucts0 The .el$ing of )etals 7y electricity8 though in-ol-ing a .asteful (rocess8 has8 ne-ertheless8 7een acce(te$ as a legiti)ate art8 .hile the )anufacture of )etal sheet8 sea)less tu7es an$ the li2e affor$s (ro)ise of )uch i)(ro-e)ent0 &e are co)ing gra$ually8 7ut surely8 to the fusion of 7o$ies an$ re$uction of all 2in$s of oresKe-en of iron oresK7y the use of electricity8 an$ in each of these $e(art)ents great realiBations are (ro7a7le0 Again8 the econo)ical con-ersion of or$inary currents of su((ly into high9 frequency currents o(ens u( ne. (ossi7ilities8 such as the co)7ination of the at)os(heric nitrogen an$ the (ro$uction of its co)(oun$sJ for instance8 a))onia an$ nitric aci$8 an$ their salts8 7y no-el (rocesses0 The high9frequency currents also 7ring us to the realiBation of a )ore econo)ical syste) of lightingJ na)ely 7y )eans of (hos(horescent 7ul7s or tu7es8 an$ ena7le us to (ro$uce .ith these a((liances light of (ractically any can$le9(o.er0 Follo.ing other $e-elo()ents in (urely electrical lines8 .e ha-e all reHoice$ in o7ser-ing the ra(i$ stri$es )a$e8 .hich8 in quite recent years8 ha-e 7een 7eyon$ our )ost sanguine e'(ectations0 To enu)erate the )any a$-ances recor$e$ is a su7Hect for the re-ie.er8 7ut , can not (ass .ithout )entioning the 7eautiful $isco-eries of #enart an$ +oentgen8 (articularly the latter8 .hich ha-e foun$ such a (o.erful res(onse throughout the scientific .orl$ that they ha-e )a$e us forget8 for a ti)e8 the great achie-e)ent of #in$e in Ger)any8 .ho has effecte$ the liquefaction of air on an in$ustrial scale 7y a (rocess of continuous coolingI the $isco-ery of argon 7y #or$ +ayleigh an$ <rofessor +a)say8 an$ the s(len$i$ (ioneer .or2 of <rofessor =e.ar in the fiel$ of lo. te)(erature research0 The fact that the Cnite$ >tates ha-e contri7ute$ a -ery li7eral share to this (ro$igious (rogress )ust affor$ to all of us great satisfaction0 &hile honouring the .or2ers in other countries an$ all those .ho8 7y (rofession or inclination8 are $e-oting the)sel-es to strictly scientific (ursuits8 .e ha-e (articular reasons to )ention .ith gratitu$e the na)es of those .ho ha-e so )uch contri7ute$ to this )ar-ellous $e-elo()ent of electrical in$ustry in this country0 3ell8 .ho8 7y his a$)ira7le in-ention ena7ling us to trans)it s(eech to great $istances8 has (rofoun$ly affecte$ our co))ercial an$ social relations8 an$ e-en our -ery )o$e of lifeJ "$ison8 .ho8 ha$ he not $one anything else 7eyon$ his early .or2 in incan$escent lighting8 .oul$ ha-e (ro-e$ hi)self one of the greatest 7enefactors of the ageJ &estinghouse8 the foun$er of the co))ercial alternating syste)J 3rush8 the great (ioneer of arc lightingJ Tho)son8 .ho ga-e us the first (ractical .el$ing )achine8 an$ .ho8 .ith 2een sense8 contri7ute$ -ery )aterially to the $e-elo()ent of a nu)7er of scientific an$ in$ustrial 7ranchesJ &eston8 .ho once le$ the .orl$ in $yna)o $esign8 an$ no. lea$s in the construction of electric instru)entsJ >(rague8 .ho8 .ith rare energy8 )astere$ the (ro7le) an$ insure$ the success of (ractical electrical railroa$ingJ Acheson8 Hall8 &illson an$ others8 .ho are creating ne. an$ re-olutioniBing in$ustries here un$er our -ery eyes at 1iagara0 1or is the .or2 of these gifte$ )en nearly finishe$ at this hour0 /uch )ore is still to co)e8 for) fortunately8 )ost of the) are still full of enthusias) an$ -igour0 All of these )en an$ )any )ore are untiringly at .or2 in-estigating ne. regions an$ o(ening u( unsus(ecte$ an$ (ro)ising fiel$s0 &ee2ly8 if not $aily8 .e learn through the Hournals of a ne. a$-ance into so)e une'(lore$ region8 .here at e-ery ste( success 7ec2ons frien$ly8 an$ lea$s the toiler on to har$ an$ har$er tas2s0 3ut a)ong all these )any $e(art)ents of research8 these )any 7ranches of in$ustry8 ne. an$ ol$8 .hich are 7eing ra(i$ly e'(an$e$8 there is one $o)inating all others in i)(ortanceKone .hich is of the greatest significance for the co)fort an$ .elfare8 not to say for the e'istence8 of )an2in$8 an$ that is the electrical trans)ission of (o.er0 An$ in this )ost i)(ortant of all fiel$s8 gentle)en8 long after.ar$s8 .hen ti)e .ill ha-e (lace$ the e-ents in their (ro(er (ers(ecti-e8 an$ assigne$ )en to their $eser-e$ (laces8 the great e-ent .e are co))e)orating to$ay .ill stan$ out as $esignating a ne. an$ glorious e(och in the history of hu)anityKan e(och gran$er than that )ar2e$ 7y the a$-ent of the stea) engine0 &e ha-e )any a )onu)ent of (ast agesI .e ha-e the (alaces an$ (yra)i$s8 the te)(les of the Gree2 an$ the cathe$rals of Christen$o)0 ,n the) is e'e)(lifie$ the (o.er of )en8 the greatness of nations8 the lo-e of art an$ religious $e-otion0 3ut that )onu)ent at 1iagara has so)ething of its o.n8 )ore in accor$ .ith our (resent thoughts an$ ten$encies0 ,t is a )onu)ent .orthy of our scientific age8 a true )onu)ent of enlighten)ent an$ of (eace0 ,t signifies the su7Hugation of natural forces to the ser-ice of )an8 the $iscontinuance of 7ar7arous )etho$s8 the relie-ing of )illions fro) .ant an$ suffering0 1o )atter .hat .e atte)(t to $o8 no )atter to .hat fiel$s .e turn our efforts8
.e are $e(en$ent on (o.er0 ;ur econo)ists )ay (ro(ose )ore econo)ical syste)s of a$)inistration an$ utiliBation of resources8 our legislators )ay )a2e .iser la.s an$ treaties8 it )atters littleJ that 2in$ of hel( can 7e only te)(orary0 ,f .e .ant to re$uce (o-erty an$ )isery8 if .e .ant to gi-e to e-ery $eser-ing in$i-i$ual .hat is nee$e$ for a safe e'istence of an intelligent 7eing8 .e .ant to (ro-i$e )ore )achinery8 )ore (o.er0 <o.er is our )ainstay8 the (ri)ary source of our )any9si$e$ energies0 &ith sufficient (o.er at our $is(osal .e can satisfy )ost of our .ants an$ offer a guaranty for safe an$ co)forta7le e'istence to all8 e'ce(t (erha(s to those .ho are the greatest cri)inals of allKthe -oluntarily i$le0 The $e-elo()ent an$ .ealth of a city8 the success of a nation8 the (rogress of the .hole hu)an race8 is regulate$ 7y the (o.er a-aila7le0 Thin2 of the -ictorious )arch of the 3ritish8 the li2e of .hich history has ne-er recor$e$0 A(art fro) the qualities of the race8 .hich ha-e 7een of great )o)ent8 they o.n the conquest of the .orl$ toKcoal0 For .ith coal they (ro$uce their ironJ coal furnishes the) light an$ heatJ coal $ri-es the .heels of their i))ense )anufacturing esta7lish)ents8 an$ coal (ro(els their conquering fleets0 3ut the stores are 7eing )ore an$ )ore e'hauste$J the la7our is getting $earer an$ $earer8 an$ the $e)an$ is continuously increasing0 ,t )ust 7e clear to e-ery one that soon so)e ne. source of (o.er su((ly )ust 7e o(ene$ u(8 or that at least the (resent )etho$s )ust 7e )aterially i)(ro-e$0 A great $eal is e'(ecte$ fro) a )ore econo)ical utiliBation of the store$ energy of the car7on in a 7atteryJ 7ut .hile the attain)ent of such a result .oul$ 7e haile$ as a great achie-e)entJ it .oul$ not 7e as )uch of an a$-ance to.ar$s the ulti)ate an$ (er)anent )etho$ of o7taining (o.er as so)e engineers see) to 7elie-e0 3y reasons 7oth of econo)y an$ con-enience .e are $ri-en to the general a$o(tion of a syste) of energy su((ly fro) central stations8 an$ for such (ur(oses the 7eauties of the )echanical generation of electricity can not 7e e'aggerate$0 The a$-antages of this uni-ersally acce(te$ )etho$ are certainly so great that the (ro7a7ility of re(lacing the engine $yna)os 7y 7atteries is8 in )y o(inion8 a re)ote one8 the )ore so as the high9(ressure stea) engine an$ gas engine gi-e (ro)ise of a consi$era7ly )ore econo)ical ther)o$yna)ic con-ersion0 "-en if .e ha$ this $ay such an econo)ical coal 7attery8 its intro$uction in central stations .oul$ 7y no )eans 7e assure$8 as its use .oul$ entail )any incon-eniences an$ $ra.7ac2s0 Gery li2ely the car7on coul$ not 7e 7urne$ in its natural for) as in a 7oiler8 7ut .oul$ ha-e to 7e s(ecially (re(are$ to secure unifor)ity in the current generation0 There .oul$ 7e a great )any cells nee$e$ to )a2e u( the electro9)oti-e force usually require$0 The (rocess of cleaning an$ rene.al8 the han$ling of nasty flui$s an$ gases an$ the great s(ace necessary for so )any 7atteries .oul$ )a2e it $ifficult8 if not co))ercially un(rofita7le8 to o(erate such a (lant in a city or $ensely (o(ulate$ $istrict0 Again if the station 7e erecte$ in the outs2irts8 the con-ersion 7y rotating transfor)ers or other.ise .oul$ 7e a serious an$ una-oi$a7le $ra.7ac20 Further)ore8 the regulating a((liances an$ other accessories .hich .oul$ ha-e to 7e (ro-i$e$ .oul$ (ro7a7ly )a2e the (lant fully as )uch8 if not )ore8 co)(licate$ than the (resent0 &e )ight8 of course8 (lace the 7atteries at or near the coal )ine8 an$ fro) there trans)it the energy to $istant (oints in the for) of high9tension alternating currents o7taine$ fro) rotating transfor)ers8 7ut e-en in this )ost fa-oura7le case the (rocess .oul$ 7e a 7ar7arous one8 certainly )ore so than the (resent8 as it .oul$ still in-ol-e the consu)(tion of )aterial8 .hile at the sa)e ti)e it .oul$ restrict the engineer an$ )echanic in the e'ercise of their 7eautiful art0 As to the energy su((ly in s)all isolate$ (laces as $.ellings8 , ha-e (lace$ )y confi$ence in the $e-elo()ent of a light storage 7attery8 in-ol-ing the use of che)icals )anufacture$ 7y chea( .ater (o.er8 such as so)e car7i$e or o'ygen9hy$rogen cell0 3ut .e shall not satisfy oursel-es si)(ly .ith i)(ro-ing stea) an$ e'(losi-e engines or in-enting ne. 7atteriesJ .e ha-e so)ething )uch 7etter to .or2 for8 a greater tas2 to fulfil0 &e ha-e to e-ol-e )eans for o7taining energy fro) stores .hich are fore-er ine'hausti7le8 to (erfect )etho$s .hich $o not i)(ly consu)(tion an$ .aste of any )aterial .hate-er0 C(on this great (ossi7ility8 .hich , ha-e long ago recogniBe$8 u(on this great (ro7le)8 the (ractical solution of .hich )eans so )uch for hu)anity8 , ha-e )yself concentrate$ )y efforts since a nu)7er of years8 an$ a fe. ha((y i$eas .hich ca)e to )e ha-e ins(ire$ )e to atte)(t the )ost $ifficult8 an$ gi-en )e strength an$ courage in a$-ersity0 1early si' years ago )y confi$ence ha$ 7eco)e strong enough to (ro)(t )e to an e'(ression of ho(e in the ulti)ate solution of this all $o)inating (ro7le)0 , ha-e )a$e (rogress since8 an$ ha-e (asse$ the stage of )ere con-iction such as is $eri-e$ fro) a $iligent stu$y of 2no.n facts8 conclusions an$ calculations0 , no. feel sure that the realiBation of that i$ea is not far off0 3ut (recisely for this reason , feel i)(elle$ to (oint out here an i)(ortant fact8 .hich , ho(e .ill 7e re)e)7ere$0 Ha-ing e'a)ine$ for a long ti)e the (ossi7ilities of the $e-elo()ent , refer to8 na)ely8 that of the o(eration of engines on any (oint of the earth 7y the energy of the )e$iu)8 , fin$ that e-en un$er the theoretically 7est con$itions such a )etho$ of o7taining (o.er can not equal in econo)y8 si)(licity an$ )any other features the (resent )etho$8 in-ol-ing a con-ersion fo the )echanical energy of running .ater into electrical energy an$ the trans)ission of the latter in the for) of currents of -ery high tension to great $istances0 <ro-i$e$8 therefore8 that .e can a-ail oursel-es of currents of sufficiently high tension8 a .aterfall affor$s us the )ost a$-antageous )eans of getting (o.er fro) the sun sufficient for all our .ants8 an$ this recognition has i)(resse$ )e strongly
.ith the future i)(ortance of the .ater (o.er8 not so )uch 7ecause of its co))ercial -alue8 though it )ay 7e -ery great8 7ut chiefly 7ecause of its 7earing u(on our safety an$ .elfare0 , a) gla$ to say that also in this latter $irection )y efforts ha-e not 7een unsuccessful8 for , ha-e $e-ise$ )eans .hich .ill allo. us the use in (o.er trans)ission of electro)oti-e forces )uch higher than those (ractica7le .ith or$inary a((aratus0 ,n fact8 (rogress in this fiel$ has gi-en )e fresh ho(e that , shall see the fulfil)ent of one of )y fon$est $rea)sJ na)ely8 the trans)ission of (o.er fro) station to station .ithout the e)(loy)ent of any connecting .ire0 >till8 .hate-er )etho$ of trans)ission 7e ulti)ately a$o(te$8 nearness to the source of (o.er .ill re)ain an i)(ortant a$-antage0 Gentle)en8 so)e of the i$eas , ha-e e'(resse$ )ay a((ear to )any of you har$ly realiBa7leJ ne-ertheless8 they are the result of long9continue$ thought an$ .or20 Dou .oul$ Hu$ge the) )ore Hustly if you .oul$ ha-e $e-ote$ your life to the)8 as , ha-e $one0 &ith i$eas it is li2e .ith $iBBy heights you cli)7I At first they cause you $isco)fort an$ you are an'ious to get $o.n8 $istrustful of your o.n (o.ersJ 7ut soon the re)oteness of the tur)oil of life an$ the ins(iring influence of the altitu$e cal) your 7loo$J your ste( gets fir) an$ sure an$ you 7egin to loo2Kfor $iBBier heights0 , ha-e atte)(te$ to s(ea2 to you on ""lectricity8" its $e-elo()ent an$ influence8 7ut , fear that , ha-e $one it )uch li2e a 7oy .ho tries to $ra. a li2eness .ith a fe. straight lines0 3ut , ha-e en$ea-oure$ to 7ring out one feature8 to s(ea2 to you in one strain .hich , felt sure .oul$ fin$ res(onse in the hearts of all of you8 the only one .orthy of this occasionKthe hu)anitarian0 ,n the great enter(rise at 1iagara .e see not only a 7ol$ engineering an$ co))ercial feat8 7ut far )ore8 a giant stri$e in the right $irection as in$icate$ 7oth 7y e'act science an$ (hilanthro(y0 ,ts success is a signal for the utiliBation of .ater (o.ers all o-er the .orl$8 an$ its influence u(on in$ustrial $e-elo()ent is incalcula7le0 &e )ust all reHoice in the great achie-e)ent an$ congratulate the intre(i$ (ioneers .ho ha-e Hoine$ their efforts an$ )eans to 7ring it a7out0 ,t is a (leasure to learn of the frien$ly attitu$e of the citiBens of 3uffalo an$ of the encourage)ent gi-en to the enter(rise 7y the Cana$ian authorities0 &e shall ho(e that other cities8 li2e +ochester on this si$e an$ Ha)ilton an$ Toronto in Cana$a8 .ill soon follo. 3uffalo's lea$0 This fortunate city herself is to 7e congratulate$0 &ith resources no. unequalle$8 .ith co))ercial facilities an$ a$-antages such as fe. cities in the .orl$ (ossess8 an$ .ith the enthusias) an$ (rogressi-e s(irit of its citiBens8 it is sure to 7eco)e one of the greatest in$ustrial centres of the glo7e0
18-<-09-09: T,e Age of *le(tri(ity by Nikola Tesla

2assiers /aga;ine , %ondon The commemoration of the recent introduction into the city of 4uffalo of electric *o"er from Niagara 9alls "as made the occasion of a ban)uet+ held at the Ellicott 2lub+ at 4uffalo on 8anuary 1?+ 101.+ the hosts being the Niagara 9alls 3o"er and 2onduit 2om*any+ and the distinguished guests the men+ *rinci*ally+ to "hose business and engineering talents the "orld o"es the remarkable Niagara undertaking so recently brought to successful com*letion. 3robably none among these has been more honoured than /r. Nikola Tesla+ "hose electrical researches and *ractical accom*lishments have been the talk of the "orld+ and "hose *oly*hase alternating current system "as the one eventually ado*ted in the "ork at Niagara 9alls. After the ban)uet+ in res*onding to the toast+ AElectricity+A /r. Tesla s*oke at length of the various sciences+ "ith s*ecial reference+ naturally to electricity+ and from his remarks the a**ended extracts have been made+ *icturing in a gra*hic and striking manner the de*endence u*on *o"er of the develo*ment and "ealth of cities+ the success of nations+ the *rogress of the "hole human race+ in fact+ as he himself *ut it. 9 TH" "=,T;+0 For )ore than half a century the stea) engine has ser-e$ the innu)era7le .ants of )an0 The .or2 it .as calle$ to (erfor) .as of such -ariety8 an$ the con$itions in each case .ere so $ifferent thatJ of necessity8 a great )any ty(es of engines resulte$0 ,n the -ast )aHority of cases the (ro7le) (ut 7efore the engineer .as not8 as it shoul$ ha-e 7een8 the 7roa$ one of con-erting the greatest (ossi7le a)ount of heat energy into )echanical (o.er8 7ut it .as rather the s(ecific (ro7le) of o7taining the )echanical (o.er in such for) as to 7e 7est suita7le for general use0 As the reci(rocating )otion of the (iston .as not con-enient for (ractical (ur(oses8 e'ce(t in -ery fe. instances8 the (iston .as connecte$ to a cran28 an$ thus rotating )otion .as o7taine$8 .hich .as )ore suita7le an$ (refera7le8 though it in-ol-e$ nu)erous $isa$-antages inci$ent to the cru$e an$ .asteful )eans e)(loye$0 3ut until quite recently there .ere at the $is(osal of the engineer8 for the transfor)ation an$ trans)ission of the )otion of the (iston8 no 7etter )eans than rigi$ )echanical connections0 The (ast fe. years ha-e 7rought forci7ly to the attention of the 7uil$er the electric )otor8 .ith its i$eal features0 Here .as a )o$e of trans)itting )echanical )otion8 si)(ler 7y far8 an$ also )uch )ore econo)ical0 Ha$ this )o$e 7een (erfecte$ earlier8 there can 7e no $ou7t that the )aHority of the )any ty(es of engines .oul$ not e'ist8 for Hust as soon as an engine .as cou(le$ .ith an electric generator a ty(e .as (ro$uce$ ca(a7le of al)ost uni-ersal use0 Fro) this )o)ent on there .as no necessity to en$ea-our to (erfect engines of s(ecial $esigns ca(a7le of $oing s(ecial 2in$s of .or20 The engineer's tas2 7eca)e no. to concentrate all his efforts u(on one ty(e8 to (erfect one 2in$ of engine 9 the 7est8 the uni-ersal8 the engine of the i))e$iate futureJ na)ely8 the one .hich is 7est suita7le for the generation of electricity0 The first efforts in this $irection ga-e a strong i)(etus to the $e-elo()ent of the reci(rocating high9s(ee$ engine8 an$ also to the tur7ine8 .hich latter .as a ty(e of engine of -ery li)ite$ (ractical usefulness8 7ut 7eca)e8 to a certain e'tent8 -alua7le in connection .ith the electric generator an$ )otor0 >till8 e-en the for)er engine8 though i)(ro-e$ in )any (articulars8 is not ra$ically change$8 an$ e-en no. has the sa)e o7Hectiona7le features an$ li)itations0 To $o a.ay .ith these as )uch as (ossi7le8 a ne. ty(e of engine is 7eing (erfecte$ in .hich )ore fa-oura7le con$itions for econo)y are )aintaine$8 .hich e'(an$s the .or2ing flui$ .ith ut)ost ra(i$ity an$ loses little heat on the .alls of the engine stri((e$ of all usual regulating )echanis) 9 (ac2ings8 oilers an$ other a((en$ages 9 an$ for)ing (art of an electric generatorJ an$ in this ty(e8 , )ay say8 , ha-e i)(licit faith0 The gas or e'(losi-e engine has 7een li2e.ise (rofoun$ly affecte$ 7y the co))ercial intro$uction of electric light an$ (o.er8 (articularly in quite recent years0 The engineer is turning his energies )ore an$ )ore in this $irection8 7eing attracte$ 7y the (ros(ect of o7taining a higher ther)o$yna)ic efficiency0 /uch larger engines are no. 7eing 7uilt8 the construction is constantly i)(ro-e$8 an$ a no-el ty(e of engine8 7est suita7le for the generation of electricity8 is 7eing ra(i$ly e-ol-e$0 There are )any other lines of )anufacture an$ in$ustry in .hich the influence of electrical $e-elo()ent has 7een e-en )ore (o.erfully felt8 9 for instance8 the )anufacture of a great -ariety of articles of )etal8 an$ es(ecially of che)ical (ro$ucts0 The .el$ing of )etals 7y electricity8 though in-ol-ing a .asteful (rocess8 has8 ne-ertheless8 7een acce(te$ as a legiti)ate art8 .hile the )anufacture of )etal sheet8 sea)less tu7es an$ the li2e affor$s (ro)ise of )uch i)(ro-e)ent0 &e are co)ing gra$ually8 7ut surely8 to the fusion of 7o$ies an$ re$uction of all 2in$s of ores 9 e-en of iron ores 9 7y the use of electricity8 an$ in each of these $e(art)ents great realisations are (ro7a7le0 Again8 the
econo)ical con-ersion of or$inary currents of su((ly into high9frequency currents o(ens u( ne. (ossi7ilities8 such as the co)7ination of the at)os(heric nitrogen an$ the (ro$uction of its co)(oun$sJ for instance8 a))onia an$ nitric aci$8 an$ their salts8 7y no-el (rocesses0 To enu)erate the )any a$-ances recor$e$ is a su7Hect for the re-ie.er8 7ut , cannot (ass .ithout )entioning the 7eautiful $isco-eries of #enar$ an$ +oentgen8 (articularly the latter8 .hich ha-e foun$ such a (o.erful res(onse throughout the scientific .orl$ that they ha-e )a$e us forget8 for a ti)e8 the great achie-e)ent of #in$e in Ger)any8 .ho has effecte$ the liquefaction of air on an in$ustrial scale 7y a (rocess of continuous coolingJ the $isco-ery of argon 7y #or$ +aleigh an$ <rofessor +a)say8 an$ the s(len$i$ (ioneer .or2 of <rofessor =e.ar in the fiel$ of lo. te)(erature research0 The fact that the Cnite$ >tates ha-e contri7ute$ a -ery li7eral share to this (ro$igious (rogress )ust affor$ to all of us great satisfaction0 &hile honouring the .or2ers in other countries an$ all those .ho8 7y (rofession or inclination8 are $e-oting the)sel-es to strictly scientific (ursuits8 A)ericans ha-e (articular reasons to )ention .ith gratitu$e the na)es of those .ho so )uch contri7ute$ to this )ar-ellous $e-elo()ent of electrical in$ustry in the Cnite$ >tates0 3ell8 .ho8 7y his a$)ira7le in-ention ena7ling us to trans)it s(eech to great $istances8 has (rofoun$ly affecte$ our co))ercial an$ social relations8 an$ e-en our -ery )o$e of lifeJ "$ison8 .ho8 ha$ he not $one anything else 7eyon$ his early .or2 in incan$escent lighting8 .oul$ ha-e (ro-e$ hi)self one of the greatest 7enefactors of the ageJ &estinghouse8 the foun$er of the co))ercial alternating syste)J 3rush8 the great (ioneer of arc lightingJ Tho)son8 .ho ga-e us the first (ractical .el$ing )achine8 an$ .ho8 .ith 2een sense8 contri7ute$ -ery )aterially to the $e-elo()ent of a nu)7er of scientific an$ in$ustrial 7ranchesJ &eston8 .ho once le$ the .orl$ in $yna)o $esign8 an$ no. lea$s in the construction of electric instru)entsJ >(rague8 .ho8 .ith rare energy8 )astere$ the (ro7le) an$ insure$ the success of (ractical electrical railroa$ingJ Acheson8 Hall8 &illson an$ others8 .ho are creating ne. an$ re-olutionising in$ustries here un$er our -ery eyes at 1iagara0 1or is the .or2 of these gifte$ )en nearly finishe$ at this hour0 /uch )ore is still to co)e8 for fortunately8 )ost of the) are still full of enthusias) an$ -igour0 All of these )en an$ )any )ore are untiringly at .or2 in-estigating ne. regions an$ o(ening u( unsus(ecte$ an$ (ro)ising fiel$s0 &ee2ly8 if not $aily8 .e learn through the Hournals of a ne. a$-ance into so)e une'(lore$ region8 .here at e-ery ste( success 7ec2ons frien$ly8 an$ lea$s the toiler on to har$ an$ har$er tas2s0 3ut a)ong all these )any $e(art)ents of research8 these )any 7ranches of in$ustry8 ne. an$ ol$8 .hich are 7eing ra(i$ly e'(an$e$8 there is one $o)inating all others in i)(ortance 9 one .hich is of the greatest significance for the co)fort an$ .elfare8 not to say for the e'istence8 of )an2in$8 an$ that is the electrical trans)ission of (o.er0 An$ in this )ost i)(ortant of all fiel$s long after.ar$s8 .hen ti)e .ill ha-e (lace$ the e-ents in their (ro(er (ers(ecti-e8 an$ assigne$ )en to their $eser-e$ (laces8 the great e-ent .e are co))e)orating to9$ay .ill stan$ out as $esignating a ne. an$ glorious e(och in the history of hu)anity 9 an e(och gran$er than that )ar2e$ 7y the a$-ent of the stea) engine0 &e ha-e )any a )onu)ent of (ast agesJ .e ha-e the (alaces an$ (yra)i$sJ the te)(les of the Gree2 an$ the cathe$rals of Christen$o)0 ,n the) is e'e)(lifie$ the (o.er of )en8 the greatness of nations8 the lo-e of art an$ religious $e-otion0 3ut that )onu)ent at 1iagara has so)ething of its o.n8 )ore in accor$ .ith our (resent thoughts an$ ten$encies0 ,t is a )onu)ent .orthy of our scientific age8 a true )onu)ent of enlighten)ent an$ of (eace0 ,t signifies the su7Hugation of natural forces to the ser-ice of )an8 the $iscontinuance of 7ar7arous )etho$s8 the relie-ing of )illions fro) .ant an$ suffering0 1o )atter .hat .e atte)(t to $o8 no )atter to .hat fiel$s .e turn our efforts8 .e are $e(en$ent on (o.er0 ;ur econo)ists )ay (ro(ose )ore econo)ical syste)s of a$)inistration an$ utilisation of resources8 our legislators )ay )a2e .iser la.s an$ treaties8 it )atters littleJ that 2in$ of hel( can 7e only te)(orary0 ,f .e .ant to re$uce (o-erty an$ )isery8 if .e .ant to gi-e to e-ery $eser-ing in$i-i$ual .hat is nee$e$ for a safe e'istence of an intelligent 7eing8 .e .ant to (ro-i$e )ore )achinery8 )ore (o.er0 <o.er is our )ainstay8 the (ri)ary source of our )any9si$e$ energies0 &ith sufficient (o.er at our $is(osal .e can satisfy )ost of our .ants an$ offer a guaranty for safe an$ co)forta7le e'istence to all8 e'ce(t (erha(s to those .ho are the greatest cri)inals of all 9 the -oluntarily i$le0 The $e-elo()ent an$ .ealth of a city8 the success of a nation8 the (rogress of the .hole hu)an race8 is regulate$ 7y the (o.er a-aila7le0 Thin2 of the -ictorious )arch of the 3ritishI A(art fro) the qualities of the race8 .hich ha-e 7een of great )o)ent8 they o.e the conquest of the .orl$ to 9 coal0 For .ith coal they (ro$uce their ironJ coal furnishes the) light an$ heatJ coal $ri-es the .heels of their i))ense )anufacturing esta7lish)ents8 an$ coal (ro(els their conquering fleets0 3ut the stores are 7eing )ore an$ )ore e'hauste$8 an$ la7our is getting $earer an$ $earer8 an$ the $e)an$ is continuously increasing0 ,t )ust 7e clear to e-ery one that soon so)e ne. source of (o.er su((ly )ust 7e o(ene$ u(8 or that at least the (resent )etho$s )ust 7e )aterially i)(ro-e$0 A great $eal is e'(ecte$ fro) a )ore econo)ical utilisation of the store$ energy of the car7on in a 7atteryJ 7ut .hile the attain)ent of such a result .oul$ 7e haile$ as a great achie-e)ent8 it .oul$ not 7e as )uch of an a$-ance to.ar$s the ulti)ate an$ (er)anent )etho$ of o7taining (o.er as so)e engineers see) to 7elie-e0 3y reason 7oth of econo)y an$ con-enience .e are $ri-en to the
general a$o(tion of a syste) of energy su((ly fro) central stations8 an$ for such (ur(oses the 7eauties of the )echanical generation of electricity cannot 7e e'aggerate$0 The a$-antages of this uni-ersally acce(te$ )etho$ are certainly so great that the (ro7a7ility of re(lacing the engine $yna)os 7y 7atteries is8 in )y o(inion8 a re)ote one8 the )ore so as the high9(ressure stea) engine an$ gas engine gi-e (ro)ise of a consi$era7ly )ore econo)ical ther)o$yna)ic con-ersion0 "-en if .e ha$ this $ay such an econo)ical coal 7attery8 its intro$uction in central stations .oul$ 7y no )eans 7e assure$8 as its use .oul$ entail )any incon-eniences an$ $ra.7ac2s0 Gery li2ely the car7on coul$ not 7e 7urne$ in its natural for) as in a 7oiler8 7ut .oul$ ha-e to 7e s(ecially (re(are$ to secure unifor)ity in the current generation0 A great )any cells .oul$ 7e nee$e$ to )a2e u( the electro)oti-e force usually require$0 The (rocess of cleaning an$ rene.al8 the han$ling of nasty flui$s an$ gases an$ the great s(ace necessary for so )any 7atteries .oul$ )a2e it $ifficult8 if not co))ercially un(rofita7le8 to o(erate such a (lant in a city or $ensely (o(ulate$ $istrict0 Again8 if the station 7e erecte$ in the outs2irts8 the con-ersion 7y rotating transfor)ers or other.ise .oul$ 7e a serious an$ una-oi$a7le $ra.7ac20 Further)ore8 the regulating a((liances an$ other accessories .hich .oul$ ha-e to 7e (ro-i$e$ .oul$ (ro7a7ly )a2e the (lant fully as )uch8 if not )ore8 co)(licate$ than the (resent0 &e )ight8 of course8 (lace the 7atteries at or near the coal )ine8 an$ fro) there trans)it the energy to $istant (oints in the for) of high9tension alternating currents o7taine$ fro) rotating transfor)ers8 7ut e-en in this )ost fa-oura7le case the (rocess .oul$ 7e a 7ar7arous one8 certainly )ore so than the (resent8 as it .oul$ still in-ol-e the consu)(tion of )aterial8 .hile8 at the sa)e ti)e8 it .oul$ restrict the engineer an$ )echanic in the e'ercise of their 7eautiful art0 As to the energy su((ly in s)all isolate$ (laces8 as $.ellings8 , ha-e (lace$ )y confi$ence in the $e-elo()ent of a light storage 7attery8 in-ol-ing the use of che)icals8 )anufacture$ 7y chea( .ater (o.er8 such as so)e car7i$e of o'ygen9hy$rogen cell0 3ut .e shall not satisfy oursel-es si)(ly .ith i)(ro-ing stea) an$ e'(losi-e engines or in-enting ne. 7atteriesJ .e ha-e so)ething )uch 7etter to .or2 for8 a greater tas2 to fulfil0 &e ha-e to e-ol-e )eans for o7taining energy fro) stores .hich are fore-er ine'hausti7le8 to (erfect )etho$s .hich $o not i)(ly consu)(tion an$ .aste of any )aterial .hate-er0 C(on this great (ossi7ility8 u(on this great (ro7le)8 the (ractical solution of .hich )eans so )uch for hu)anity8 , ha-e )yself concentrate$ )y efforts for a nu)7er of years8 an$ a fe. ha((y i$eas .hich ca)e to )e ha-e ins(ire$ )e to atte)(t the )ost $ifficult8 an$ gi-en )e strength an$ courage in a$-ersity0 1early si' years ago )y confi$ence ha$ 7eco)e strong enough to (ro)(t )e to an e'(ression of ho(e in the ulti)ate solution of this all9$o)inating (ro7le)0 , ha-e )a$e (rogress since8 an$ ha-e (asse$ the stage of )ere con-iction such as is $eri-e$ fro) a $iligent stu$y of 2no.n facts8 conclusions an$ calculations0 , no. feel sure that the realisation of that i$ea is not far off0 3ut (recisely for this reason , feel i)(elle$ to (oint out here an i)(ortant fact8 .hich , ho(e .ill 7e re)e)7ere$0 Ha-ing e'a)ine$ for a long ti)e the (ossi7ilities of the $e-elo()ent , refer to8 na)ely8 that of the o(eration of engines on any (oint of the earth 7y the energy of the )e$iu)8 , fin$ that e-en un$er the theoretically 7est con$itions such a )etho$ of o7taining (o.er cannot equal in econo)y8 si)(licity an$ )any other features the (resent )etho$8 in-ol-ing a con-ersion of the )echanical energy of running .ater into electrical energy an$ the trans)ission of the latter in the for) of currents of -ery high tension to great $istances0 <ro-i$e$8 therefore8 that .e can a-ail oursel-es of currents of sufficiently high tension8 a .aterfall affor$s us the )ost a$-antageous )eans of getting (o.er fro) the sun sufficient for all our .ants8 an$ this recognition has i)(resse$ )e strongly .ith the future i)(ortance of the .ater (o.er8 not so )uch 7ecause of its co))ercial -alue8 though it )ay 7e -ery great8 7ut chiefly 7ecause of its 7earing u(on our safety an$ .elfare0 , a) gla$ to say that also in this latter $irection )y efforts ha-e not 7een unsuccessful8 for , ha-e $e-ise$ )eans .hich .ill allo. us the use in (o.er trans)ission of electro9)oti-e forces )uch higher than those (ractica7le .ith or$inary a((aratus0 ,n fact8 (rogress in this fiel$ has gi-en )e fresh ho(e that , shall see the fulfil)ent of one of )y fon$est $rea)sJ na)ely8 the trans)ission of (o.er fro) station to station .ithout the e)(loy)ent of any connecting .ire0 >till8 .hate-er )etho$ of trans)ission 7e ulti)ately a$o(te$8 nearness to the source of (o.er .ill re)ain an i)(ortant a$-antage0 >o)e of the i$eas , ha-e e'(resse$ )ay a((ear to )any har$ly realisa7leJ ne-ertheless8 they are the result of long continue$ thought an$ .or20 &ith i$eas it is as .ith $iBBy heights0 At first they cause you $isco)fort an$ you are an'ious to get $o.n8 $istrustful of your o.n (o.ersJ 7ut soon the re)oteness of the tur)oil of life an$ the ins(iring influence of the altitu$e cal) your 7loo$J your ste( gets fir) an$ sure an$ you 7egin to loo2 9 for $iBBier heights0 ,n the great enter(rise at 1iagara .e see not only a 7ol$ engineering an$ co))ercial feat8 7ut far )ore8 a giant stri$e in the right $irection as in$icate$ 7oth 7y e'act science an$ (hilanthro(y0 ,ts success is a signal for the utilisation of .ater (o.ers all o-er the .orl$8 an$ its influence u(on in$ustrial $e-elo()ent is incalcula7le0 &e )ust all reHoice in the great achie-e)ent an$ congratulate the intre(i$ (ioneers .ho ha-e Hoine$ their efforts an$ )eans of 7ring it a7out0 ,t is a (leasure to learn of the frien$ly attitu$e of the citiBens of 3uffalo an$ of the
encourage)ent gi-en to the enter(rise 7y the Cana$ian authorities0 &e shall ho(e that other cities8 li2e +ochester on this si$e an$ Ha)ilton an$ Toronto in Cana$a8 .ill soon follo. 3uffalo's lea$0 This fortunate city herself is to 7e congratulate$0 &ith resources no. unequalle$8 .ith co))ercial facilities an$ a$-antages such as fe. cities in the .orl$ (ossess8 an$ .ith the enthusias) an$ (rogressi-e s(irit of its citiBens8 it is sure to 7eco)e one of the greatest in$ustrial centres of the glo7e0
18-<-05-0": Ni(ola Tesla O1Je(ts by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork 8ournal Thinks (e &hould !eceive 2redit for (is '"n Inventions. To the Editor of The Ne" -ork Times$ , ha-e 7een )uch sur(rise$ to rea$ in the TH" T,/"> of >un$ay8 A(ril !18 that A$)iral H0 10 /anney8 C0>0108 attri7utes a .ell92no.n in-ention of )ine8 a (rocess for the (ro$uction of continuous electrical oscillations 7y )eans of the electric arc an$ con$enser8 to Galentine <oulsen8 the =anish engineer0 This i)(ro-e)ent has 7een e)7o$ies 7y )e in nu)erous for)s of a((aratus i$entifie$ .ith )y na)e8 an$ , ha-e $escri7e$ it )inutely in (atents an$ scientific articles0 To quote 7ut one of )any references8 , )ay )ention )y e'(eri)ental lecture on "#ight an$ ;ther High9Frequency <heno)ena8" (u7lishe$ un$er the aus(ices of the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ the 1ational "lectric #ight Association8 for .hich 7oth of these societies ha-e $istinguishe$ )e0 , share .ith A$)iral /anney in the gratification that .e are in the lea$8 an$ (articularly that .ireless )essages ha-e 7een trans)itte$ fro) <ensacola to <oint #orne0 ,nas)uch8 ho.e-er8 as this feat coul$ not ha-e 7een acco)(lishe$ e'ce(t 7y the use of so)e of )y o.n $e-ices8 it .oul$ 7e ha-e 7een a graceful act on his (art to 7ring this feat to the attention of the .ireless conference0 /y theory has al.ays 7een that )ilitary )en are su(erior to ci-ilians in courtesy0 , ha-e not 7een $iscourage$ 7y the refusal of our Go-ern)ent to a$o(t )y .ireless syste) si' years ago8 .hen , offere$ it8 nor 7y the un(leasant (ros(ect of )y (assing through the e'(eriences $escri7e$ 7y /ar2 T.ain in his story of the 7eef contract8 7ut , see no reason .hy , shoul$ 7e $e(ri-e$ of a .ell9earne$ honour an$ satisfaction0 TH" T,/"> has hurt )e grie-ouslyJ not 7y accusing )e of co))ercialis)8 nor 7y its un2in$ e$itorial co))ents on those letters , .rote8 in con$e)nation of )y syste) of (o.er trans)ission in the >u7.ay0 ,t is another inHury8 (erha(s unintentional8 .hich , ha-e felt )ost 2eenly0 The e$itor of TH" T,/"> )ay not ha-e 2no.n that , a) a stu$ent of a((lie$ )athe)atics .hen he (er)itte$ a fello.9stu$ent of )ine to insinuate in TH" T,/"> of /arch !8 that , a-ail )yself of intentions of others0 , cannot (er)it such i$eas to gain groun$ in this co))unity8 an$8 Hust to illu)inate the situation8 , shall quote fro) the lea$ing electrical (a(er8 The #on$on "lectrician8 referring to so)e .ireless (lants of 3raun an$ /arconiI "The s(ar2 occurs 7et.een 7alls in the (ri)ary circuit of a Tesla coil0 The air .ire is in series with a Tesla transformer The generating (lant is -irtually a <ol$hu in )iniature0 "-i$ently 3raun8 li2e /arconi8 has 7een con-erte$ to the high9(otential )etho$s intro$uce$ 7y Tesla0" 1ee$less to a$$ that this su7stitution of the ol$8 ineffecti-e HertBian a((liances for )y o.n has not 7een authoriBe$ 7y )e0 /y fello.9stu$ent can rest assure$ that , a) scru(ulously res(ecting the rights of others0 ,f , .ere not (ro)(te$ to $o so 7y a sense of fairness an$ (ri$e , .oul$ 7e 7y the (o.er , ha-e of in-enting anything , (lease0 10 T">#A0 1e. Dor28 A(ril 358 195*
18-<-05-05: On t,e 0urtful A(tions of 'enard and #oentgen tu1es by Nikola Tesla
Electrical !evie" The ra(i$ly e'ten$ing use of the #enar$ an$ +oentgen tu7es or Croo2es 7ul7s as i)(le)ents of the (hysician8 or as instru)ents of research in la7oratories8 )a2es it $esira7le8 (articularly in -ie. of the (ossi7ility of certain hurtful actions on the hu)an tissues8 to in-estigate the nature of these influences8 to ascertain the con$itions un$er .hich they are lia7le to occur an$ K .hat is )ost i)(ortant for the (ractitioner K to ren$er all inHury i)(ossi7le 7y the o7ser-ance of certain rules an$ the e)(loy)ent of unfailing re)e$ies0 As , ha-e state$ in a (re-ious co))unication (see "lectrical +e-ie. of =ece)7er !8 189% no e'(eri)enter nee$ 7e $eterre$ fro) using freely the +oentgen rays for fear of a (oisonous or $eleterious action8 an$ it is entirely .rong to gi-e roo) to e'(ressions of a 2in$ such as )ay ten$ to i)(e$e the (rogress an$ create a (reHu$ice against an alrea$y highly 7eneficial an$ still )ore (ro)ising $isco-eryJ 7ut it can not 7e $enie$ that it is equally unco))en$a7le to ignore $angers no. .hen .e 2no. that8 un$er certain circu)stances8 they actually e'ist0 , consi$er it the )ore necessary to 7e a.are of these $angers8 as , foresee the co)ing into general use of no-el a((aratus8 ca(a7le of $e-elo(ing rays of inco)(ara7ly greater (o.er0 ,n scientific la7oratories the instru)ents are usually in the han$s of (ersons s2ille$ in their )ani(ulation an$ ca(a7le of a((ro'i)ately esti)ating the )agnitu$e of the effects8 an$ the o)ission of necessary (recautions is8 in the (resent state of our 2no.le$ge8 not so )uch to 7e a((rehen$e$J 7ut the (hysicians8 .ho are 2eenly a((reciating the i))ense 7enefits $eri-e$ fro) the (ro(er a((lication of the ne. (rinci(le8 an$ the nu)erous a)ateurs .ho are fascinate$ 7y the 7eauty of the no-el )anifestations8 .ho are all (assionately 7ent u(on e'(eri)entation in the ne.ly o(ene$ u( fiel$s8 7ut )any of .ho) are naturally not ar)e$ .ith the s(ecial 2no.le$ge of the electrician K all of these are )uch in nee$ of relia7le infor)ation fro) e'(erts8 an$ for these chiefly the follo.ing lines are .ritten0 Ho.e-er8 in -ie. of the still inco)(lete 2no.le$ge of these rays+ , .ish the state)ents .hich follo. to 7e consi$ere$ as $e-oi$ of authoritati-eness8 other than that .hich is 7ase$ on the conscientiousness of )y stu$y an$ the faith in the (recision of )y senses an$ o7ser-ations0 "-er since <rofessor +oentgen's $isco-ery .as )a$e 2no.n , ha-e carrie$ on in-estigations in the $irections in$icate$ 7y hi)8 an$ .ith (erfecte$ a((aratus8 (ro$ucing rays of )uch greater intensity than it .as (ossi7le to o7tain .ith the usual a((liances0 Co))only8 )y 7ul7s .ere ca(a7le of sho.ing the sha$o. of a han$ on a (hos(horescent screen at $istances of 65 or 45 feet8 or e-en )ore8 an$ to the actions of these 7ul7s )yself an$ se-eral of )y assistants .ere e'(ose$ for hours at a ti)e8 an$ although the e'(osures too2 (lace e-ery $ay8 not the faintest hurtful action .as note$ K as long as certain (recautions .ere ta2en0 ;n the contrary8 7e8 it a coinci$ence8 or an effect of the rays8 or the result of so)e secon$ary cause (resent in the o(eration of the 7ul7s K as8 for e'a)(le8 the generation of oBone K )y o.n health8 an$ that of t.o (ersons .ho .ere $aily un$er the influence of the rays8 )ore or less8 has )aterially i)(ro-e$8 an$8 .hate-er 7e the reason8 it is a fact that a trou7leso)e cough .ith .hich W .as constantly afflicte$ has entirely $isa((eare$8 a si)ilar i)(ro-e)ent 7eing o7ser-e$ on another (erson0 ,n getting the (hotogra(hic i)(ressions or stu$ying the rays .ith a (hos(horescent screen8 , e)(loye$ a (late of thin alu)iniu) sheet or a gauBe of alu)iniu) .ires8 .hich .as inter(ose$ 7et.een the 7ul7 an$ the (erson8 an$ connecte$ to the groun$ $irectly or through a con$enser0 , a$o(te$ this (recaution 7ecause it .as 2no.n to )e8 a long ti)e 7efore8 that a certain irritation of the s2in is cause$ 7y -ery strong strea)ers8 .hich8 )ostly at s)all $istance8 are for)e$ on the 7o$y of a (erson through 0 the electrostatic influence of a ter)inal of alternating high (otential0 , foun$ that the occurrence of these strea)ers an$ their hurtful consequence .as co)(letely (re-ente$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of a con$ucting o7Hect8 as a sheet of .ire gauBe (lace$ an$ connecte$ as $escri7e$0 ,t .as o7ser-e$8 ho.e-er8 that the inHurious effects )entione$ $i$ not see) to $i)inish gra$ually .ith the $istance fro) the ter)inal8 7ut cease$ a7ru(tly8 an$ , coul$ gi-e no 0 other e'(lanation for the irritation of the s2in .hich .oul$ 7e as (lausi7le as that .hich , ha-e e'(resse$J na)ely8 that the effect .as $ue to oBone8 .hich .as a7un$antly (ro$uce$0 The latter (eculiarity )entione$ .as also in agree)ent .ith this -ie.8 since the generation of oBone ceases a7ru(tly at a $efinite $istance fro) the ter)inal8 )a2ing it e-i$ent that a certain intensity of action is a7solutely require$8 as in a (rocess of electrolytic $eco)(osition0 ,n carrying further )y in-estigations8 , gra$ually )o$ifie$ the a((aratus in se-eral .ays8 an$ i))e$iately , ha$ o((ortunities to o7ser-e hurtful influences follo.ing the e'(osures0 ,nquiring no. .hat changes , ha$ intro$uce$8 , foun$ that , ha$ )a$e three $e(artures fro) the (lan originally follo.e$J First8 the alu)iniu) screen .as not use$J secon$8 a 7ul7 .as e)(loye$ .hich8 instea$ of alu)iniu)8 containe$ (latinu)8 either as electro$e or i)(act (lateJ an$ thir$8 the $istances at .hich the e'(osures too2 (lace .ere s)aller than usual0 ,t $i$ not require a long ti)e to ascertain that the inter(ose$ alu)iniu) sheet .as a -ery effecti-e re)e$y
against inHury8 for a han$ coul$ 7e e'(ose$ for a long ti)e 7ehin$ it .ithout the s2in 7eing re$$ene$8 .hich other.ise in-aria7ly an$ -ery quic2ly occurre$0 This fact i)(resse$ )e .ith the con-iction that8 .hate-er the nature of the hurtful influences8 it .as in a large )easure $e(en$ent either on an electrostatic action8 or electrification8 or secon$ary effects resulting therefro)8 such as are atten$ant to the for)ation of strea)ers0 This -ie. affor$e$ an e'(lanation .hy an o7ser-er coul$ .atch a 7ul7 for any length of ti)e8 as long as he .as hol$ing the han$ in front of the 7o$y8 as in e'a)ining .ith a fluorescent screen8 .ith (erfect i))unity to all (arts of hiO 7o$y8 .ith the e'ce(tion of the han$0 ,t li2e.ise e'(laine$ .hy 7urns .ere (ro$uce$ in so)e instances on the o((osite si$e of the 7o$y8 a$Hacent to the (hotogra(hic (late8 .hereas (ortions on the $irectly e'(ose$ (art of the 7o$y8 .hich .ere )uch nearer to the 7ul78 an$ consequently su7Hecte$ to 7y far stronger rays8 re)aine$ unaffecte$0 ,t also )a$e it easy to un$erstan$ .hy the (atient e'(erience$ a (ric2ling sensation on the e'(ose$ (art of the 7o$y .hene-er an inHurious action too2 (lace0 Finally8 this -ie. agree$ .ith the nu)erous o7ser-ations that the hurtful actions occurre$ .hen air .as (resent8 clothing8 ho.e-er thic28 affor$ing no (rotection8 .hile they (ractically cease$ .hen a layer of a flui$8 quite easily (enetrate$ 7y the rays8 7ut e'clu$ing all contact of the air .ith the s2in8 .as use$ as a (re-enti-e0 Follo.ing8 no.8 the secon$ line of in-estigation8 I co)(are$ 7ul7s containing alu)iniu) only .ith those in .hich (latinu) .as use$ 7esi$es8 or$inarily as i)(act 7o$y8 an$ soon there .ere enough e-i$ences on han$ to $is(el all $ou7t as to the latter )etal 7eing 7y far the )ore inHurious0 ,n su((ort of this state)ent8 one of the e'(eriences )ay 7e cite$ .hich8 at the sa)e ti)e8 )ay illustrate the necessity K of ta2ing (ro(er (recautions .hen o(erating 7ul7s of -ery high (o.er0 ,n or$er to carry out co)(arati-e tests8 t.o tu7es .ere constructe$ of an i)(ro-e$ #enar$ (attern8 in siBe an$ )ost' other res(ects' ali2e0 3oth containe$0 a conca-e catho$e or reflector of nearly t.o inches in $ia)eter8 an$ 7oth .ere (ro-i$e$ .ith an alu)iniu) ca( or .in$o.0 ,n one of the tu7es the catho$ic focus .as )a$e to coinci$e .ith the centre of the ca(8 in the other the catho$ic strea) .as concentrate$ u(on a (latinu) .ire su((orte$ on a glass ste) a'ially .ith the tu7e a little in front of the .in$o.8 an$ in each case the )etal of the latter .as thinne$ $o.n in the central (ortion to such an e'tent as to 7e 7arely a7le to .ithstan$ the in.ar$ air (ressure0 ,n stu$ying the action of the tu7es8 I e'(ose$ one han$ to that containing alu)iniu) only8 an$' the other to the tu7e .ith the (latinu) .ire0 ;n turning on the for)er tu7e8 , .as sur(rise$ to o7ser-e that the alu)iniu) .in$o. e)itte$ a clear note8 corres(on$ing to the rhyth)ical i)(act of the catho$ic strea)0 <lacing the han$ quite near the .in$o.8 , felt $istinctly that so)ething .ar) .as stri2ing it0 The sensation .as un)ista2a7le8 an$8 quite a(art0 fro) the .ar)th felt8 $iffere$ -ery )uch fro) that (ric2ling feeling (ro$uce$ 7y strea)ers or )inute s(ar2s0 1e't , e'a)ine$ the tu7e .ith the (latinu) .ire0 1o soun$ .as e)itte$ 7y the alu)iniu) .in$o.8 all the energy of the i)(act 7eing see)ingly s(ent on the (latinu) .ire8 .hich 7eca)e incan$escent8 or else the )atter co)(osing the catho$ic strea) .as so far $isintegrate$ that the thin )etal sheet offere$ no )aterial o7struction to its (assage0 ,f 7ig lu)(s are hurle$ against a .ire netting .ith large )eshes8 there is consi$era7le (ressure e'erte$ against the nettingJ if8 on the contrary K for illustration K the lu)(s are -ery s)all as co)(are$ .ith the )eshes8 the (ressure )ight not 7e )anifest0 3ut8 although the .in$o. $i$ not -i7rate8 , felt8 ne-ertheless8 again8 an$ $istinctly8 that so)ething .as i)(inging against the han$8 an$ the 0sensation of .ar)th .as stronger than in the (re-ious case0 ,n the action on the screen there .as a((arently no $ifference 7et.een the t.o tu7es8 7oth ren$ering it -ery 7right8 an$ the $efinition of the sha$o.s .as the sa)e8 as far as it .as (ossi7le to Hu$ge0 , ha$ loo2e$ through the screen at the secon$ tu7e a fe. ti)es8 only .hen so)ething $etracte$ )y attention8 an$ it .as not until a7out !5 )inutes later8 .hen , o7ser-e$ that the han$ e'(ose$ to it .as )uch re$$ene$ an$ s.ollen0 Thin2ing that it .as $ue to so)e acci$ental inHury8 , turne$ again to the e'a)ination of the (latinu) tu7eJ thrusting the sa)e han$ close to the .in$o.8 an$ no. , felt instantly a sensation of (ain8 .hich 7eca)e )ore (ronounce$ .hen the han$ .as (lace$ re(eate$ly near the alu)iniu) .in$o.0 A (eculiar feature .as that the (ain a((eare$ to 7e seate$8 not at the surface8 7ut $ee( in the tissues of the han$8 or rather in the 7ones0 Although the aggregate e'(osure .as certainly not )ore than half a )inute8 , ha$ to suffer se-ere (ain for a fe. $ays after.ar$8 an$ so)e ti)e later , o7ser-e$ that all the hair "as $estroye$ an$ that the nails on the inHure$ han$ ha$ gro.n ane.0 The 7ul7 containing no (latinu) .as no. e'(eri)ente$ .ith8 )ore care 7eing ta2en8 7ut soon its co)(arati-e har)lessness .as )anifest8 for8 .hile it re$$ene$ the s2inJ the inHury .as not nearly as se-ere as .ith the other tu7e0 The -alua7le e'(eriences thus gaine$ .ereI The e-i$ence of so)ething hot stri2ing the e'(ose$ )e)7erJ the (ain instantly feltJ the inHury (ro$uce$ immediately after the e'(osure8 an$ the increase$ -iolence $ue8 in all (ro7a7ility8 to the (resence of the (latinu)0 >o)e ti)e after.ar$ , o7ser-e$ other re)ar2a7le actions at -ery s)all $istances fro) (o.erful #enar$ tu7es0 For instance8 the han$ 7eing hel$ near the .in$o. only for a fe. secon$s8 the s2in see)s to 7eco)e tight8 or else the )uscles are stiffene$8 for so)e resistance is e'(erience$ in closing the fist8 7ut u(on o(ening an$ $osing it re(eate$ly the sensation $isa((ears8 a((arently no ill effect re)aining0 , ha-e8 further)ore8 o7ser-e$ a $eci$e$ influence on the nasal $ischarge organs si)ilar to the effects of a col$ Hust contracte$0 3ut the )ost interesting o7ser-ation in this res(ect is the follo.ingI &hen such a (o.erful 7ul7 is .atche$ for so)e ti)e8 the hea$ of the o7ser-er 7eing 7rought -ery close8 he soon after that e'(eriences a sensation so (eculiar
that no one .ill fail to notice it .hen once his attention is calle$ to it8 it 7eing al)ost as (ositi-e as touch0 ,f one i)agines hi)self loo2ing at so)ething li2e a cartri$ge8 for instance8 in close an$ $angerous (ro'i)ity8 an$ Hust a7out to e'(lo$e8 he .ill get a goo$ i$ea of the sensation (ro$uce$8 only8 in the case of the cartri$ge8 one can not ren$er hi)self an account .here the feeling e'actly resi$es8 for it see)s to e'ten$ all o-er the 7o$y8 this in$icating that it co)es fro) a general a.areness of $anger resulting fro) (re-ious an$ )anifol$ e'(eriences8 an$ not fro) the antici(ation of an un(leasant i)(ression $irectly u(on one of the organs8 as the eye or the earJ 7ut8 in the case of the #enar$ 7ul78 one can at once8 an$ .ith (recision8 locate the sensationJ it is in the hea$0 1o.8 this o7ser-ation )ight not 7e of any -alue e'ce(t8 (erha(s8 in -ie. of the (eculiarity an$ acuteness of the feeling8 .ere it not that e'actly the sa)e sensation is 0(ro$uce$ .hen .or2ing for so)e ti)e .ith a noisy s(ar2 ga(8 or8 in general8 .hen e'(osing the ear to shar( noises or e'(losions0 >ince it see)s i)(ossi7le to i)agine ho. the latter coul$ cause such a sensation in any other .ay e'ce(t 7y $irectly i)(ressing the organs of hearing8 , conclu$e8 that a +oentgen or #enar$ tu7e8 .or2ing in (erfect silence as it )ay8 ne-ertheless (ro$uces -iolent e'(losions or re(orts an$ concussions8 .hichJ though they are inau$i7le8 ta2e so)e )aterial effect u(on the 7ony structure of the hea$0 Their inau$i7ility )ay 7e sufficiently e'(laine$ 7y the .ell foun$e$ assu)(tion that not the air8 7ut so)e finer )e$iu)8 is concerne$ in their (ro(agation0 3ut it .as in follo.ing u( the thir$ line of inquiry into the nature of these hurtful actions8 na)ely8 in stu$ying the influence of $istance8 that the )ost i)(ortant fact .as unearthe$0 To illustrate it (o(ularly8 , .ill say that the +oentgen tu7e acts e'actly li2e a source of intense heat0 ,f one (laces the han$ near to a re$9hot sto-e8 he )ay 7e instantly inHure$0 ,f he 2ee(s the han$ at a0 certain s)all $istance8 he )ay 7e a7le to .ithstan$ the rays for a fe. )inutes or )ore8 an$ )ay still 7e inHure$ 7y (rolonge$ e'(osureJ 7ut if he rece$es only a little farther8 .here the heat is slightly less8 he )ay .ithstan$ the heat in co)fort an$ any length of ti)e .ithout recei-ing any inHury8 the ra$iations at that $istance 7eing too .ea2 to seriously interfere .ith the life (rocess of the s2in0 This is a7solutely the .ay such a 7ul7 acts0 3eyon$ a certain $istance no hurtful effect .hate-er is (ro$uce$ on the s2in8 no )atter ho" long the e'(osure0 The character of the 7urns is also such as )ight 7e e'(ecte$ fro) a source of high heat0 , ha-e )aintaine$8 in all $eference to the o(inions of others8 that those .ho ha-e li2ene$ the effects on the s2in ari$ tissues to sun7urns ha-e )isinter(rete$ the)0 There is no si)ilarity in this res(ect8 e'ce(t in so far 'as the re$$ening an$ (eeling of the s2in is concerne$J .hich )ay result fro) innu)era7le causes0 The 7urns8 .hen slight8 rather rese)7le those (eo(le often recei-e .hen .or2ing 0close to a strong fire0 3ut .hen the inHury is se-ere8 it is in all a((earances li2e that recei-e$ fro) contact .ith fire or fro) a re$9hot iron0 There )ay 7e no (erio$ of incu7ation at all8 as is e-i$ent fro) the foregoing8 re)ar2sJ the rays ta2ing effect i))e$iately8 not to say instantly0 ,n a se-ere case the s2in gets $ee(ly coloure$ an$ 7lac2ene$ in (laces8 an$ uglyJ ill9fore7o$ing 7listers for)J thic2 layers co)e off8 e'(osing the ra. flesh8 .hichJ for a ti)eJ $ischarges freely8 3urning (ain8 fe-erishness an$ such sy)(to)s are of course 7ut natural acco)(ani)ents0 ;ne single inHury of this 2in$8 in the a7$o)inal region8 to a $ear an$ Bealous assistant K the only acci$ent that e-er ha((ene$ to any one 7ut )yself in all )y la7oratory e'(erience K , ha$ the )isfortune to .itness0 ,t occurre$ 7efore all these an$ other e'(eriences .ere gaine$J follo.ing $irectly an e'(osure of fi-e0 )inutes at0 the fairly safe $istance of 11 inches to a -ery highly9charge$ (latinu) tu7e8 the (rotecting alu)iniu) screen ha-ing 7een unfortunately 0o)itte$8 an$ it .as such as to fill )e .ith the gra-est a((rehensions0 Fortunately8 frequent .ar) 7aths8 free a((lication of Gaseline8 cleaning an$ general 7o$ily care soon re(aire$ the ra-ages of the $estructi-e agent8 an$ , 7reathe$ again freely0 Ha$ , 2no.n )ore than , $i$ of these inHurious actions8 such unfortunate e'(osure .oul$ not ha-e 7een )a$eJ ha$ , 2no.n less than , $i$8 it )ight ha-e 7een )a$e at a s)aller $istance8 an$ a serious8 (erha(s irre)e$ia7le8 inHury )ight ha-e resulte$0 , a) using the first o((ortunity to co)(ly .ith the 7itter $uty of recor$ing the acci$ent0 , ho(e that others .ill $o li2e.ise8 so that the )ost co)(lete 2no.le$ge of these $angerous0 actions )ay soon 7e acquire$0 /y a((rehensions le$ )e to consi$er8 .ith 2eener interest than , .oul$ ha-e felt other.ise8 .hat the (ro7a7ilities .ere in such a case of the internal tissues 7eing seriously inHure$0 , ca)e to the -ery co)forting conclusion that8 no )atter .hat the rays are ulti)ately recogniBe$ to 7e8 (ractically all their $estructi-e energy )ust s(en$ itself on the surface of the 7o$y8 the internal tissues 7eing8 in all (ro7a7ility8 safe8 unless the 7ul7 .oul$ 7e (lace$ in -ery close (ro'i)ity to the s2in8 or else8 that rays of far greater intensity than no. (ro$uci7le .ere generate$0 There are )any reasons .hy this shoul$ 7e so8 so)e of .hich .ill a((ear $ear fro) )y foregoing state)ents referring to the nature of the hurtful agencies8 7ut , )ay 7e a7le to cite ne. facts in su((ort of this -ie.0 A significant feature of the case re(orte$ )ay 7e )entione$0 ,t .as o7ser-e$ that on three (laces8 .hich .ere co-ere$ 7y thic2 7one 7uttons8 the s2in .as entirely unaffecte$8 .hile it .as entirely $estroye$ un$er each of the s)all holes in the 7uttons0 1o.8 it .as i)(ossi7le for the rays8 as in-estigation sho.e$8 to reach these (oints of the s2in in straight lines $ra.n fro) the 7ul78 an$ this .oul$ see) to in$icate that not all the inHury .as $ue to the rays or ra$iations un$er consi$eration8 .hich un)ista2a7ly (ro(agate in straight lines8 7ut that8 at least in (art8 conco)itant causes .ere res(onsi7le0 A further e'(eri)ental $e)onstration of this fact )ay 7e o7taine$ in the follo.ing )annerI The e'(eri)enter )ay e'cite a 7ul7 to a suita7le an$ rather s)all $egree8 so as to illu)inate the fluorescent screen to a certain intensity at a $istance of8 say8 se-en inches0 He )ay e'(ose his
han$ at that $istance8 an$ the s2in .ill 7e re$$ene$ after a certain $uration of e'(osure0 He )ay no. force the 7ul7 u( to a )uch higher (o.er8 until8 at a $istance of 16 inches8 the screen is illu)inate$ e-en stronger than it .as 7efore at half that $istanceI The rays are no. e-i$ently stronger at the greater $istance8 an$ yet he )ay e'(ose the han$ a -ery long ti)e8 an$ it is safe to assert that he .ill not 7e inHure$0 ;f course8 it is (ossi7le to 7ring forth argu)ents .hich )ight $e(ri-e the a7o-e $e)onstration of force0 >o8 it )ight0 7e state$8 that the actions on the screen or (hotogra(hic (late $o not gi-e us an i$ea as to the $ensity an$ other quantitati-e features of the rays8 these actions 7eing entirely of a qualitati-e character0 >u((ose the rays are for)e$ 7y strea)s of )aterial (articles8 as , 7elie-e8 it is thin2a7le that it )ight 7e of no (articular consequence8 in so far as the -isi7le i)(ression on the screen or fil) is concerne$8 .hether a trillion of (articles (er square )illi)etre stri2e the sensiti-e layer or only a )illion8 for e'a)(leJ 7ut .ith the actions on the s2in it is $ifferentJ these )ust surely an$ -ery )aterially $e(en$ on the quantity of the strea)s0 As soon as the 7efore9)entione$ fact .as recogniBe$8 na)ely8 that 7eyon$ a certain $istance e-en the )ost (o.erful tu7es are inca(a7le of (ro$ucing inHurious actionJ no )atter ho. long the e'(osure )ay last8 it 7eca)e i)(ortant to ascertain the safe $istance0 Going o-er all )y (re-ious e'(eriences8 , foun$ that8 -ery frequently8 , ha-e ha$ tu7es .hich at a $istance of 1! feet8 0for illustration8 ga-e a strong i)(ression of the chest of a (erson .ith an e'(osure of a fe. )inutes8 an$ )any ti)es (ersons ha-e 7een su7Hecte$ to the rays fro) these tu7es at a $istance of fro) 18 to !6 inches8 the ti)e of e'(osure -arying fro) 15 to 64 )inutes8 an$ ne-er the faintest trace of an inHurious action .as o7ser-e$0 &ith such tu7es , ha-e e-en )a$e long e'(osures at $istances of 16 inches8 al.ays8 of course8 through a thin sheet or .ire gauBe of alu)iniu) connecte$ to the groun$8 an$8 in each case8 o7ser-ing the (recaution that the )etal .oul$ not gi-e any s(ar2 .hen the (erson .as touching it .ith the han$8 as it )ight so)eti)es 7e .hen the electrical -i7ration is of e'tre)ely high frequency8 in8 .hich .e a groun$ connection8 through a con$enser of (ro(er ca(acity8 shoul$ 7e resorte$ to0 ,n all these instances 7ul7s containing only alu)iniu) .ere use$J an$ , therefore still lac2 sufficient $ata to for) an enact i$ea of .hat $istance .oul$ ha-e 7een safe .ith a (latinu) tu7e0 Froth the case (re-iously cite$8 .e see that a gra-e inHury8 resulte$ at a $istance of 11 inches8 7ut , 7elie-e that8 ha$ the (rotecting screen 7een use$8 the inHury8 if any8 .oul$ ha-e97een -ery slight0 Ta2ing all )y e'(eriences together8 , a) con-ince$ that no serious inHury can result if the $istance is greater than 1% inches an$ the i)(ression is ta2en in the )anner , ha-e $escri7e$0 Ha-ing 7een successful in a nu)7er of lines of inquiry (ertaining to this ne. $e(art)ent of science8 , a) a7le at (resent to for) a 7roa$er -ie. of the actions of the 7ul7s8 .hichJ , ho(e8 .ill soon assu)e a quite $efinite sha(e0 For the (resent8 the follo.ing 7rief state)ent )ay 7e sufficient0 Accor$ing to the e-i$ences , a) o7taining8 the 7ul78 .hen in action8 is e)itting a strea) of s)all )aterial (articles0 There are so)e e'(eri)ents .hich see) to in$icate that these (articles start fro) the outer .all of the 7ul7J there are others .hich see) to (ro-e that there is an actual (enetration of the .all8 an$8 in the case of a thin alu)iniu) .in$o.8 , ha-e no. not the least $ou7t that so)e of the finely $isintegrate$ catho$ic )atter is actually force$ through0 These strea)s )ay si)(ly 7e (roHecte$ to a great $istance8 the -elocity gra$ually $i)inishing .ithout the for)ation of any .a-es8 or they )ay gi-e rise to concussions an$ longitu$inal .a-es0 This8 for the (resent consi$eration8 is entirely i))aterial8 7ut8 assu)ing the e'istence of such strea)s of (articles8 an$ $isregar$ing such actions as )ight 7e $ue to the (ro(erties8 che)ical or (hysical8 of the (roHecte$ )atter8 .e ha-e to consi$er the follo.ing s(ecific actionsI 9irst. There is the ther)al effect0 The te)(erature of the electro$e or i)(act 7o$y $oes not in any .ay gi-e us an i$ea of the $egree of heat of the (articles8 7ut8 if .e consi$er the (ro7a7le -elocities only8 they corres(on$ to te)(eratures .hich )ay 7e as high as 1558555 $egrees centigra$e0 ,t )ay 7e sufficient that the (articles are si)(ly at a high te)(erature to (ro$uce an inHurious action8 an$8 in fact8 )any e-i$ences (oint in this $irection0 3ut against this is the e'(eri)ental fact that .e can not $e)onstrate such a transference of heat8 an$ no satisfactory e'(lanation is foun$ yet8 although8 in carrying )y in-estigations in this $irection8 , ha-e arri-e$ at so)e results0 &econd+ there is the (urely electrical effect0 &e ha-e a7solute e'(eri)ental e-i$ence that the (articles or rays8 to e'(ress )yself generally8 con-ey an i))ense a)ount of electricity8 an$ , ha-e e-en foun$ a .ay of ho. to esti)ate an$ )easure that a)ount0 1o. it is li2e.ise (ossi7le that the )ere fact of these (articles 7eing highly electrifie$ is sufficient to cause the $estruction of the tissue0 Certainly8 on contact .ith the s2in8 the electrical charges .ill 7e gi-en off8 an$ )ay gi-e rise to strong an$ $estructi-e local currents in )inute (aths of the tissue0 "'(eri)ental results are in accor$ .ith this -ie.8 an$8 in (ushing )y inquiry in this $irection8 , ha-e 7een still )ore successful than in the first0 Det8 .hile as , ha-e suggeste$ 7efore8 this -ie. e'(lains 7est the action on a sensiti-e layer8 e'(eri)ent sho.s that8 .hen the su((ose$ (articles tra-erse a groun$e$ (late8 they are not $e(ri-e$ entirely of their electrification8 .hich is not satisfactorily e'(laine$0 The third effect to 7e consi$ere$ is the electro9che)ical0 The charge$ (articles gi-e rise to an a7un$ant generation of oBone an$ other gases8 an$ these .e 2no.8 7y e'(eri)ent8 $estroy e-en such a thing as ru77er8 an$ are8 therefore8 the )ost li2ely agent in the $estruction of the s2in8 an$ the e-i$ences are strongest in this $irection8 since a s)all layer of a flui$8 (re-enting the contact of gaseous )atter .ith the s2in8 see)s to sto( all
action0 The 1st effect to 7e consi$ere$ is the (urely )echanical0 ,t is thin2a7le that )aterial (articles8 )o-ing .ith great s(ee$8 )ay8 )erely 7y a )echanical i)(act an$ una-oi$a7le heating at such s(ee$s8 7e sufficient to $eteriorate the tissues8 an$ in such a case $ee(er layers )ight also 7e inHure$8 .hereas it is -ery (ro7a7le that no such0 thing .oul$ occur if any8 of the for)er e'(lanations .oul$ 7e foun$ to hol$0 >u))ing u( )y e'(eri)ental e'(eriences0 an$ the conclusions $eri-e$ fro) the)8 it .oul$ see) a$-isa7le80 first8 to a7an$on8 the use of 7ul7s containing (latinu)J secon$8 to su7stitute for the) a (ro(erly constructe$ #enar$ tu7e8 containing (ure alu)iniu) only8 a tu7e of this 2in$ ha-ing8 7esi$es8 the a$-antage that it can 7e constructe$ .ith great )echanical (recision8 an$ therefore is ca(a7le of (ro$ucing 0)uch shar(er i)(ressionsJ thir$8 to use a (rotecting screen of alu)iniu) sheet8 as suggeste$8 or8 instea$ of this8 a .et cloth or a layer of a flui$J fourth8 to )a2e the e'(osures at $istances of8 at least8 16 inches8 an$ (refera7ly e'(ose longer at a larger $istance0
18-<-08-11: On t,e Sour(e of #oentgen #ays and t,e 5ra(ti(al Constru(tion and Safe O$eration of 'enard Tu1es by Nikola Tesla
Electrical !evie" , ha-e for so)e ti)e felt that a fe. in$ications in regar$ to the (ractical construction of #enar$ tu7es of i)(ro-e$ $esigns8 a great nu)7er of .hich , ha-e recently e'hi7ite$ 7efore the 1e. Dor2 Aca$e)y of >ciences (A(ril %8 189* 8 .oul$ 7e useful an$ ti)ely8 (articularly as 7y their (ro(er construction an$ use )uch of the $anger atten$ing the e'(eri)entation .ith the rays )ay 7e a-oi$e$0 The si)(le (recautions .hich , ha-e suggeste$ in )y (re-ious co))unications are see)ingly $isregar$e$8 an$ cases of inHury to (atients are 7eing al)ost $aily re(orte$8 an$ in -ie. of this only8 .ere it for no other reason8 the follo.ing lines8 referring to this su7Hect8 .oul$ ha-e 7een .ritten 7efore ha$ not again (ressing an$ una-oi$a7le $uties (re-ente$ )e fro) $oing so0 A short an$8 , )ay say8 )ost un.elco)e interru(tion of the .or2 .hich has 7een clai)ing )y attention )a2es this no. (ossi7le0 Ho.e-er8 as these o((ortunities are scarce8 , .ill utiliBe the (resent to $.ell in a fe. .or$s on so)e other )atters in connection .ith this su7Hect8 an$ (articularly on a result of i)(ortance .hich , ha-e reache$ so)e ti)e ago 7y the ai$ of such a #enar$ tu7e8 an$ .hich8 if , a) correctly infor)e$8 , can0 only in (art consi$er as )y o.n8 since it see)s that (ractically it has 7een e'(resse$ in other .or$s 7y <rofessor +oentgen in a recent co))unication to the Aca$e)y of >ciences of 3erlin0 The result allu$e$ to has reference to the )uch $is(ute$ question of the source of the +oentgen rays0 As .ill 7e re)e)7ere$8 in the first announce)ent of his $isco-ery8 +oentgen .as of the o(inion that the rays .hich affecte$ the sensiti-e layer e)anate$ fro) the fluorescent s(ot on the glass .all of the 7ul7J other scientific )en ne't )a$e the catho$e res(onsi7leJ still others the ano$e8 .hile so)e thought that the rays .ere e)itte$ solely fro) fluorescent (o.$ers of surfaces8 an$ s(eculations8 )ostly unfoun$e$8 increase$ to such an e'tent that8 $es(airingly8 one 8 .oul$ e'clai) .ith the (oetI "; gluc2lich .er noch hoffen 2ann8 Aus $iese) /eer $es ,rrtu)s aufButauchenY" /y o.n e'(eri)ents le$ )e to recogniBe that8 regar$less of the location8 the chief source of8 these rays .as the (lace of the first i)(act of 0the (roHecte$ strea) of (articles .ithin the 7ul70 This .as )erely a 7roa$ state)ent8 of .hich that of <rofessor +oentgen .as a s(ecial case8 as in his first e'(eri)ents the fluorescent s(ot on the glass .all .as8 inci$entally8 the (lace of the first i)(act of the catho$ic strea)0 ,n-estigations carrie$ on u( to the (resent $ay ha-e only confir)e$ the correctness of the a7o-e o(inion8 an$ the (lace of the first collision of the strea) of (articles K 7e it an ano$e or in$e(en$ent i)(act 7o$y8 the glass .all or an alu)iniu) .in$o. K is still foun$ to 7eI the (rinci(al source of the rays0 3ut8 as .ill 7e seen (resently8 it is not the only source0
Fig0 10 K ,llustrating an "'(eri)ent +e-ealing the +eal >ource of the +oentgen +ays0 >ince recor$ing the a7o-e fact )y efforts .ere $irecte$ to fin$ing ans.ers to the follo.ing questionsI First8 is it necessary that the i)(act 7o$y shoul$ 7e .ithin the tu7eF >econ$8 is it require$ that the o7stacle in the (ath of the catho$ic strea) shoul$ 7e a soli$ or liqui$F An$8 thir$8 to .hat e'tent is the -elocity of the strea) necessary for the generation of an$ influence u(on the character of the rays e)itte$F ,n or$er to ascertain .hether a 7o$y locate$ outsi$e of the tu7e an$ in the (ath or in the $irection of the
strea) of (articles .as ca(a7le of (ro$ucing the sa)e (eculiar (heno)ena as an o7Hect locate$ insi$eJ it a((eare$ necessary to first sho. that there is an actual (enetration of the (articles through the .all8 or other.ise that' the actions of the su((ose$ strea)sJ of .hate-er nature they )ight8 7e8 .ere sufficiently (ronounce$ in the outer region close to the .all of the 7ul7 as to (ro$uce so)e of the effects .hich are (eculiar to a catho$ic strea)0 ,t .as not $ifficult to o7tain .ith a (ro(erly (re(are$ #enar$ tu7e8 ha-ing an e'cee$ingly thin .in$o.8 )any an$ at first sur(rising e-i$ences of this character0 >o)e of these ha-e alrea$y8 7een (ointe$ outJ an$ it is thought sufficient to cite here one )ore .hich , ha-e since o7ser-e$0 ,n the hollo. alu)iniu) ca( A of a tu7e as sho.n in $iagra) Fig0 18 .hich .ill 7e $escri7e$ in $etail8 , (lace$ a half9$ollar sil-er (iece8 su((orting it at a s)all $istance fro) an$ (arallel to the .in$o. or 7otto) of the ca( 7y stri(s of )ica in such a' )anner 0 that it .as not touching the )etal of the tu7e8 an air s(ace 7eing left all aroun$ itI C(on e'citing the 7ul7 for a7out 35 to 64 secon$s 7y the secon$ary $ischarge of a (o.erful coil of a no-el ty(e no. .ell 2no.n8 it .as foun$ that the sil-er (iece .as ren$ere$ so hot as to actually scorch the han$J yet the alu)iniu) .in$o.8 .hich offere$ a -ery insignificant o7stacle to the catho$ic strea)8 .as only )o$erately .ar)e$0 Thus it .as sho.n that the sil-er alloy8 o.ing to its $ensity an$ thic2ness8 too2 u( )ost of the energy of the i)(act8 7eing acte$ u(on 7y the (articles al)ost i$entically as if it ha$ 7een insi$e of the 7ul78 an$8 .hat is )ore8 in$ications .ere o7taine$8 7y o7ser-ing the sha$o.s8 that it 7eha-e$ li2e a secon$ source of the rays8 inas)uch as the outlines of the sha$o.s8 instea$ of 7eing shar( an$ clear as .hen the half9$ollar (iece .as re)o-e$8 .ere $i))e$0 ,t .as i))aterial for the chief o7Hect of the inquiry to $eci$e 7y )ore e'act )etho$s .hether the catho$ic (articles actually (enetrate$ the .in$o.8 or .hether a ne. an$ se(arate strea) .as (roHecte$ fro) the outer si$e of the .in$o.0 ,n )y )in$ there e'ists not the least $ou7t that the for)er .as the case8 as in this res(ect , ha-e 7een a7le to o7tain nu)erous a$$itional (roofs8 u(on .hich , )ay $.ell in the near future0 , ne't en$ea-oure$ to ascertain .hether it .as necessary that the o7stacle outsi$e .as8 as in this case8 a soli$ 7o$y8 or a liqui$8 or 7roa$ly8 a 7o$y of )easura7le $i)ensions8 an$ it .as in in-estigating in this $irection that , ca)e u(on the i)(ortant result to .hich , referre$ in the intro$uctory state)ents of this co))unication0 , na)ely o7ser-e$ rather acci$entally8 although , .as follo.ing u( a syste)atic inquiry8 .hat is illustrate$ in 0$iagra) Fig0 10 The $iagra) sho.s a #enar$ tu7e of i)(ro-e$ $esign8 consisting of a tu7e T of thic2 glass ta(ering to.ar$s the o(en en$8 or nec2 n8 into .hich is fitte$ an alu)iniu) ca( A8 an$ a s(herical catho$e e8 su((orte$ on a glass ste) s8 an$ (latinu) .ire . seale$ in the o((osite en$ of the tu7e as usual0 The alu)iniu) ca( A8 as .ill 7e o7ser-e$8 is not in actual contact0 .ith the groun$9glass .all8 7eing hel$ at a s)all $istance fro) the latter 7y a narro. an$ continuous ring of tinfoil r0 The outer s(ace 7et.een the glass an$ the ca( A is fille$ .ith ce)ent c8 in a )anner .hich , shall later $escri7e0 F is a +oentgen screen such as is or$inarily use$ in )a2ing the o7ser-ations0 1o.8 in loo2ing u(on the screen in the $irection fro) F to T8 the $ar2 lines in$icate$ on the lo.er (art of the $iagra) .ere seen on the illu)inate$ 7ac2groun$0 The cur-e$ line e an$ the straight line & .ere8 of course8 at once recogniBe$ as the outlines of the catho$e a an$ the 7otto) of the ca( A res(ecti-ely8 although8 in consequence of a confusing o(tical illusion8 they a((eare$ )ush closer together than they actually .ere0 For instance8 if the $istance 7et.een a an$ o .as fi-e inches8 these lines .oul$ a((ear on the screen a7out t.o inches a(art8 as nearly as , coul$ Hu$ge 7y the eye0 This illusion )ay 7e easily e'(laine$ an$ is quite uni)(ortant8 e'ce(t that it )ight 7e of so)e )o)ent to (hysicians to 2ee( this fact in )in$ .hen )a2ing e'a)inations .ith the screen as8 o.ing to the a7o-e effect8 .hich is so)eti)es e'aggerate$ to a $egree har$ to 7elie-e8 a co)(letely erroneous i$ea of the $istance of the -arious (arts of the o7Hect un$er e'a)ination )ight 7e gaine$8 to the $etri)ent of the surgical o(eration0 3ut .hile the lines a an$ & .ere easily accounte$ for8 the cur-e$ lines t8 g8 a .ere at first (uBBling0 >oon8 ho.e-er8 it .as ascertaine$ that the faint line a .as the sha$o. of the e$ge of the alu)iniu) ca(8 the )uch $ar2er line g that of the ri) of the glass tu7e T8 an$ t the sha$o. of the tinfoil ring r0 These sha$o.s on the screen F clearly sho.e$ that the agency .hich affecte$ the fluorescent )aterial .as (rocee$ing fro) the s(ace outsi$e of the 7ul7 to.ar$s the alu)iniu) ca(8 an$ chiefly fro) the region through .hich the (ri)ary $istur7ances or strea)s e)itte$ fro) the tu7e through the .in$o. .ere (assing8 .hich o7ser-ation coul$ not 7e e'(laine$ in a )ore (lausi7le )anner than 7y assu)ing that the air an$ $ust (articles outsi$e8 in the (ath of the (roHecte$ strea)s8 affor$e$ an o7stacle to their (assage an$ ga-e rise to i)(acts an$ collisions s(rea$ing through the air in all $irections8 thus (ro$ucing continuously ne. sources of the rays0 ,t is this fact .hichJ in his recent co))unication 7efore )entione$8 +oentgen has 7rought out0 >o8 at least8 , ha-e inter(rete$ his re(orte$ state)ent that the rays e)anate fro) the irra$iate$ air0 ,t no. re)ains to 7e sho.n .hether the air8 fro) .hich carefully all foreign (articles are re)o-e$8 is ca(a7le of 7eha-ing as an i)(act 7o$y an$ source of the rays8 in or$er to $eci$e .hether the generation of the latter is $e(en$ent on the (resence in the air of i)(act (articles of )easura7le $i)ensions0 , ha-e reasons to thin2 so0 &ith the 2no.le$ge of this fact .e are no. a7le to for) a )ore general i$ea of the (rocess of generation of the ra$iations .hich ha-e 7een $isco-ere$ 7y #enar$ an$ +oentgen0 ,t )ay 7e co)(rise$ in the state)ent that the strea)s of )inute )aterial (articles (roHecte$ fro) an electro$e .ith great -elocity in encountering o7stacles .here-er they )ay 7e8 .ithin the 7ul78 in the air or other )e$iu) or in the sensiti-e layers the)sel-es8 gi-e rise
to rays or ra$iations (ossessing )any of the (ro(erties of those 2no.n as light0 ,f this (hysical (rocess of generation of these rays is un$ou7te$ly $e)onstrate$ as true8 it .ill ha-e )ost i)(ortant consequences8 as it .ill in$uce (hysicists to again critically e'a)ine )any (heno)ena .hich are (resently attri7ute$ to trans-erse ether .a-es8 .hich )ay lea$ to a ra$ical )o$ification of e'isting -ie.s an$ theories in regar$ to these (heno)ena8 if not as to their essence so8 at least8 as to the )o$e of their (ro$uction0 /y effort to arri-e at an ans.er to the thir$ of the a7o-e questions le$ )e to the esta7lish)ent8 7y actual (hotogra(hs8 of the $ose relationshi( .hich e'ists 7et.een the #enar$ an$ +oentgen rays0 The (hotogra(hs 7earing on this (oint .ere e'hi7ite$ of a )eeting of the 1e. Dor2 Aca$e)y of >ciences K 7efore referre$ to K A(ril %8 189*8 7ut8 unfortunately8 o.ing to the shortness of )y a$$ress8 ari$ concentration of thought on other )atters8 , o)itte$ .hat .as )ost i)(ortantJ na)ely8 to $escri7e the )anner in .hich these8 (hotogra(hs .ere o7taine$8 an o-ersight .hich , .as a7le to only (artially re(air the $ay follo.ing0 , $i$8 ho.e-er8 on that occasion illustrate an$ $escri7e e'(eri)ents in .hich .as sho.n the $eflecti7ility of the +oentgen rays 7y a )agnet8 .hich esta7lishes a still closer relationshi(8 if not i$entity8 of the rays na)e$ after these t.o $isco-erers0 3ut the $escri(tion of these e'(eri)ents in $etail8 as .ell as of other in-estigations an$ results in har)ony .ith an$ restricte$ to the su7Hect , 7rought 7efore that scientific 7o$y8 .ill a((ear in a longer co))unication .hich , a) slo.ly (re(aring0 To 7ring out clearly the significance of the (hotogra(hs in question8 , .oul$ recall that8 in so)e of )y (re-ious contri7utions to scientific societies8 , ha-e en$ea-oure$ to $is(el a (o(ular o(inion 7efore e'isting that the (heno)ena 2no.n as those of Croo2es .ere $e(en$ent on an$ in$icati-e of high -acua0 &ith this o7Hect in -ie.8 , sho.e$ that (hos(horescence an$ )ost of the (heno)ena in Croo2es 7ul7s .ere (ro$uci7le at greater (ressures of the gases in the 7ul7s 7y the use of )uch higher or )ore su$$en electro9)oti-e i)(ulses0 Ha-ing this .ell $e)onstrate$ fact 7efore )e8 , (re(are$ a tu7e in the )anner $escri7e$ 7y #enar$ in his first classical co))unication on this su7Hect0 The tu7e .as e'hauste$ to a )o$erate $egree8 either 7y chance or of necessity8 an$ it .as foun$ that8 .hen o(erate$ 7y an or$inary high9tension coil of a lo. rate of change in the current8 no rays of any of the t.o 2in$s coul$ 7e $etecte$8 e-en .hen the tu7e .as so highly straine$ 0as to 7eco)e -ery hot in a fe. )o)ents0 1o.8 , e'(ecte$ that8 if the su$$enness of the i)(ulses through the 7ul7 .ere sufficiently increase$8 rays .oul$ 7e e)itte$0 To test this , e)(loye$ a coil of a ty(e .hich , ha-e re(eate$ly $escri7e$8 in .hich the (ri)ary is o(erate$ 7y the $ischarges of a con$enser0 &ith such an instru)ent any $esire$ su$$enness of the i)(ulses )ay 7e secure$8 there 7eing (ractically no li)it in this res(ect8 as the energy accu)ulate$ in the con$enser is the )ost -iolently e'(losi-e agent .e 2no.8 an$ any (otential or electrical (ressure is o7taina7leI ,n$ee$8 , foun$ that in increasing the su$$enness of the electro9)oti-e8 i)(ulses through the tu7e K .ithout8 ho.e-er8 increasing8 7ut rather $i)inishing the total energy con-eye$ to it K (hos(horescence .as o7ser-e$ an$ rays 7egan to a((ear8 first the fee7ler #enar$ rays an$ later8 7y (ushing the su$$enness far enough8 +oentgen rays of great intensity8 .hich ena7le$ )e to o7tain (hotogra(hs sho.ing the finest te'ture of the 7ones0 >till8 the sa)e tu7e8 .hen again o(erate$ .ith the or$inary coil of a lo. rate of change in the (ri)ary current8 e)itte$ (ractically no rays8 e-en .hen8 as 7efore state$8 )uch )ore energy8 as Hu$ge$ fro) the heating8 .as (asse$ through it0 This e'(erience8 together .ith the fact that , ha-e succee$e$ in (ro$ucing0 7y the use of i))ense electrical (ressures8 o7taina7le .ith certain a((aratus $esigne$ for this e'(ress (ur(ose8 so)e i)(ressions in free air8 ha-e le$ )e to the conclusion that in lightning $ischarges #enar$ an$ +oentgen rays )ust 7e generate$ at or$inary8 at)os(heric (ressure0 At this Huncture , realiBe8 7y a (erusal of the (rece$ing lines8 that )y scientific interest has $o)inate$ the (ractical8 an$ that the follo.ing re)ar2s )ust 7e $e-ote$ to the (ri)ary o7Hect of this co))unication K that is8 to gi-ing so)e $ata for the construction to those engage$ in the )anufacture of the tu7es an$8 (erha(s8 a fe. useful hints to (ractising (hysicians .ho are $e(en$ent on such infor)ation0 The foregoing .as8 ne-ertheless8 not lost for this o7Hect8 inas)uch as it has sho.n ho. )uch the result o7taine$ $e(en$s on the (ro(er construction of the instru)ents8 for8 .ith or$inary i)(le)ents8 )ost of the a7o-e o7ser-ations coul$ not ha-e 7een )a$e0
Fig0 !0 K ,)(ro-e$ #enar$ Tu7e0 , ha-e alrea$y $escri7e$ the for) of tu7e illustrate$ in Fig0 18 an$ in Fig0 ! another still further i)(ro-e$ $esign is sho.n0 ,n this case the alu)iniu) ca( A8 instea$ of ha-ing a straight 7otto) as 7efore8 is sha(e$
s(herically8 the renter of the s(here coinci$ing .ith that of the electro$e e8 .hich itself8 as in Fig0 18 has it's focus in the centre of the .in$o. of ca( A8 as in$icate$ 7y the $otte$ lines0 The alu)iniu) ca( A has a tinfoil ring r8 as that in Fig0 18 or else the )etal of the ca( is s(un out on that (lace 0so as to affor$ a 7earing of s)all surface 7et.een the )etal an$ the glass0 This is an i)(ortant (ractical $etail as8 7y )a2ing the 7earing surface s)all8 the (ressure (er unit of area is increase$ an$ a )ore (erfect Hoint )a$e0 The ring r shoul$ 7e first s(un out an$ then groun$ to fit the nec2 of the 7ul70 ,f a tinfoil ring is use$ instea$8 it )ay 7e cut out of one of the or$inary tinfoil ca(s o7taina7le in the )ar2et8 care 7eing ta2en that the ring is -ery s)ooth0
Fig0 30 K ,llustrating Arrange)ent .ith ,)(ro-e$ =ou7le9Focus Tu7e for +e$ucing the ,nHurious Actions0 ,n Fig0 3 , ha-e sho.n a )o$ifie$ $esign of tu7e .hich8 as the t.o ty(es 7efore $escri7e$8 .as co)(rise$ in the collection , e'hi7ite$0 This8 as .ill 7e o7ser-e$8 is a $ou7le9focus tu7e8 .ith i)(act (lates of iri$iu) alloy an$ an alu)iniu) ca( A o((osite the sa)e0 The tu7e is not sho.n 7ecause of any originality in $esign8 7ut si)(ly to illustrate a (ractical feature0 ,t .ill 7e note$ that the alu)iniu) ca(s in the tu7es $escri7e$ are fitte$ insi$e of the nec2s an$ not outsi$e8 as is frequently $one0 #ong e'(erience has $e)onstrate$ that it is (ractically i)(ossi7le to )aintain a high -acuu) in a tu7e .ith an outsi$e ca(0 The only .ay , ha-e 7een a7le to $o this in a fair )easure is 7y cooling the ca( 7y a Het of air8 for instance8 an$ o7ser-ing the follo.ing (recautionsI The air Het is first turne$ on slightly an$ u(on this the tu7e is e'cite$0 The current through the latter8 an$ also the air (ressure8 are then gra$ually increase$ an$ 7rought to the nor)al .or2ing con$ition0 C(on co)(leting the e'(eri)ent the air (ressure an$ current through the tu7e are 7oth gra$ually re$uce$ an$ 7oth so )ani(ulate$ that no great $ifferences in te)(erature result 7et.een the glass an$ alu)iniu) ca(0 ,f those (recautions are not o7ser-e$ the -acuu) .ill 7e i))e$iately i)(aire$ in consequence of the une-en e'(ansion of the glass an$ )etal0 &ith tu7es8 as these (resently $escri7e$8 it is quite unnecessary to o7ser-e this (recaution if (ro(er care is ta2en in their (re(aration0 ,n inserting the ca( the latter is coole$ $o.n as lo. as it is $ee)e$ a$-isa7le .ithout en$angering the glass8 an$ it is then8 gently (ushe$ in the nec2 of the tu7e8 ta2ing care that it sets straight0 The t.o )ost i)(ortant o(erations in the )anufacture of such a tu7e are8 ho.e-er8 the thinning $o.n of the alu)iniu) .in$o. an$ the sealing in of the ca(0 The )etal of the latter )ay 7e one thirty9secon$ or e-en one9 si'teenth of an inch thic28 an$ in such case the central (ortion )ay 7e thinne$ $o.n 7y a countersin2 tool a7out one9fourth of an inch in $ia)eter as far as it is (ossi7le .ithout tearing the sheet0 The further thinning $o.n )ay then 7e $one 7y han$ .ith a scra(ing toolJ an$8 finally8 the )etal shoul$ 7e gently 7eaten $o.n so as to surely close the (ores .hich )ight (er)it a slo. lea20 ,nstea$ of (rocee$ing in this .ay , ha-e e)(loye$ a ca( .ith a hole in the centre8 .hich , ha-e close$ .ith a sheet of (ure alu)iniu) a fe. thousan$ths of an inch thic28 ri-ete$ to the ca( 7y )eans of a .asher of thic2 )etal8 7ut the results .ere not quite as satisfactory0 ,n sealing the ca( , ha-e a$o(te$ the follo.ing (roce$ureI The tu7e is fastene$ on the (u)( in the (ro(er (osition an$ e'hauste$ until a (er)anent con$ition is reache$0 The $egree of e'haustion is a )easure of (erfection of the Hoint0 The lea2 is usually consi$era7le8 7ut this is not so serious a $efect as )ight 7e thought0 Heat is no. gra$ually a((lie$ to the tu7e 7y )eans of a gas sto-e until a te)(erature u( to a7out the 7oiling (oint of sealing .a' is reache$0 The s(ace 7et.een the ca( an$ the glass is then fille$ .ith sealing .a' of goo$ qualityJ an$8 .hen the latter 7egins to 7oil8 the te)(erature is re$uce$ to allo. its settling in the ca-ity0 The heat is then again8 increase$8 an$ this (rocess of heating an$ cooling is re(eate$ se-eral ti)es until the entire ca-ity8
u(on re$uction of the te)(erature8 is foun$ to 7e fille$ unifor)ly .ith the .a'8 all 7u77les ha-ing $isa((eare$0 A little )ore .a' is then (ut on the to( an$ the e'haustion carrie$ on for an hour or so8 accor$ing to the ca(acity of the (u)(8 7y a((lication of )o$erate heat )uch 7elo. the )elting (oint of the .a'0 A tu7e (re(are$ in this )anner .ill )aintain the -acuu) -ery .ell8 an$ .ill last0 in$efinitely0 ,f not use$ for a fe. )onths8 it )ay gra$ually lose the high -acuu)8 7ut it can 7e quic2ly .or2e$ u(0 Ho.e-er8 if after long use it 7eco)es necessary to clean the tu7e8 this is easily $one 7y gently .ar)ing it an$ ta2ing off the ca(I The cleaning )ay 7e $one first .ith aci$8 then .ith highly $ilute$ al2ali8 ne't .ith $istille$ .ater8 an$ finally .ith (ure rectifie$ alcohol0 These tu7es8 .hen (ro(erly (re(are$8 gi-e i)(ressions )uch shar(er an$ re-eal )uch )ore $etail0 than those of or$inary )a2e0 ,t is i)(ortant for the clearness of the i)(ressions that the electro$e shoul$ 7e (ro(erly sha(e$8 an$ that the focus shoul$ 7e e'actly in the centre of the ca( or slightly insi$e0 ,n fitting in the ca(8 the $istance fro) the electro$e shoul$ 7e )easure$ as e'actly as (ossi7le0 ,t shoul$ also 7e re)ar2e$ that the thinner the .in$o.8 the shar(er are the i)(ressions8 7ut it is not a$-isa7le to )a2e it too thin8 as it is a(t to )elt in a (oint on turning on the current0
Fig0 60 K ,llustrating Arrange)ent .ith a #enar$ Tu7e for >afe &or2ing at Close +ange The a7o-e a$-antages are not the only ones .hich these tu7es offer0 They are also 7etter a$a(te$ for (ur(oses of e'a)ination 7y surgeons8 (articularly if use$ in the (eculiar )anner illustrate$ in $iagra)s Fig0 3 an$ Fig0 68 .hich are self9e'(lanatory0 ,t .ill 7e seen that in each of these the ca( is connecte$ to the groun$0 This $eci$e$ly $i)inishes the inHurious action an$ ena7les also to ta2e i)(ressions .ith -ery short e'(osures of a fe. secon$s only at $ose range8 inas)uch as8 $uring the o(eration of the 7ul78 one can easily touch the ca( .ithout any incon-enience8 o.ing to the groun$ connection0 The arrange)ent sho.n in Fig0 6 is (articularly a$-antageous .ith a for) of single ter)inal8 .hich coil , ha-e $escri7e$ on other occasions an$ .hich is $iagra))atically illustrate$8 < 7eing the (ri)ary an$ > the secon$ary0 ,n this instance the high9(otential ter)inal is0 connecte$ to the electro$e8 .hile the ca( is groun$e$0 The tu7e )ay 7e (lace$ in the (osition in$icate$ in the $ra.ing8 un$er the o(erating ta7le an$ quite close or e-en in contact .ith the 7o$y of the (atient8 if the i)(ression requires only a fe. secon$s as8 for instance8 in e'a)ining (arts of the )e)7ers0 , ha-e ta2en )any i)(ressions .ith such tu7es an$ ha-e o7ser-e$ no inHurious action8 7ut , .oul$ a$-ise not to e'(ose for longer than t.o or three )inutes at -ery short $istances0 ,n this res(ect the e'(eri)enter shoul$ 7ear in )in$ .hat , ha-e state$ in (re-ious co))unications0 At all e-ents it is certain that8 in (rocee$ing in the )anner $escri7e$8 a$$itional safety is o7taine$ an$ the (rocess of ta2ing i)(ressions )uch quic2ene$0 To cool the ca(8 a Het of air )ay 7e use$8 as 7efore state$8 or else a s)all quantity of .ater )ay 7e 8(oure$ in the ca( each ti)e .hen an i)(ression is ta2en0 The .ater only slightly i)(airs the action of the tu7e8 .hile it )aintains the .in$o. at a safe te)(erature0 , )ay a$$ that the tu7es are i)(ro-e$ 7y (ro-i$ing 7ac2 of the electro$e a )etallic coating C8 sho.n in Fig0 3 an$ Fig0 60
18-8-01-05: Tesla2s 'atest AdEan(es in 6a(uum-Tu1e 'ig,ting I A$$li(ation of Tu1es of 0ig, :lluminating 5ower to 5,otogra$,y and Ot,er 5ur$oses by Nikola Tesla
Electrical !evie" To the "$itor of "lectrical +e-ie.I A fe. years ago , 7egan a series of e'(eri)ents .ith a -ie. of ascertaining the a((lica7ility of the light e)itte$ 7y (hos(horescent -acuu) tu7es to or$inary (hotogra(hy0 The results soon sho.e$ that8 e-en .ith a tu7e gi-ing no )ore light than the equi-alent of one half of a can$le8 o7Hects coul$ 7e easily (hotogra(he$ .ith e'(osures of a fe. )inutes8 an$ the ti)e coul$ 7e re$uce$ at .ill 7y (ushing the tu7e to a high can$le(o.er0 <hotogra(hs of (ersons .ere li2e.ise o7taine$ at that ti)e an$8 if , a) not )ista2en8 these .ere the first li2enesses (ro$uce$ .ith this 2in$ of illu)ination0 Ho.e-er8 a nu)7er of facts8 not (ertaining to the su7Hect (resently consi$ere$8 .ere o7ser-e$ in the course of the e'(eri)ents .hich8 ha$ they 7een i))e$iately (u7lishe$8 )ight ha-e )aterially hastene$ i)(ortant scientific $e-elo()ents .hich ha-e ta2en (lace since0 To $.ell on these an$ other e'(eri)ental results o7taine$ at that ti)e8 )ore e'tensi-ely at the first o((ortunity8 is one of )y goo$ resolutions for the co)ing year0 A cala)ity unfortunately8 interru(te$ )y la7ours for a short (erio$8 7ut as soon as , .as a7le , too2 u( again the threa$ of the in-estigation8 .hich .as not only interesting in connection .ith the (rinci(al o7Hect in -ie.8 7ut .as also useful in )any other res(ects0 >o8 for instance8 in )a2ing o7ser-ations as to the efficiency or any (eculiarity of the -acuu) tu7es8 the (hotogra(hic (late .as foun$ to 7e an e'cellent )eans of co)(arison8 note 7eing ta2en of the $istance an$ ti)e of e'(osure8 character of the (hos(horescent 7o$y8 $egree of rarefaction an$ other such (articulars of the )o)ent0
<hotogra(he$ 7y the light of a single -acuu) tu7e at a $istance of four feetJ e'(osure t.o secon$s0
A rather curious feature in the (hotogra(hs o7taine$ .ith tu7es of )o$erate illu)inating (o.er8 as a fe. can$les8 .as that the lights an$ sha$o.s ca)e out re)ar2a7ly strong8 as .hen -ery short e'(osures are )a$e 7y flash9light8 7ut the outlines .ere not shar( an$ (ractically no $etail .as -isi7le0 3y (ro$ucing tu7es of )uch greater can$le(o.er8 a nota7le i)(ro-e)ent in this res(ect .as effecte$8 an$ this a$-ance (ro)(te$ )e to further efforts in this $irection8 .hich finally resulte$ in the (ro$uction of a tu7e of an illu)inating (o.er of equal to that of hun$re$s8 an$ e-en thousan$s8 of or$inary -acuu) tu7es0 &hat is )ore8 , 7elie-e that , a) far fro) ha-ing attaine$ the li)it in the a)ount of light (ro$uci7le8 an$ 7elie-e that this )etho$ of illu)ination .ill 7e e-entually e)(loye$ for lighthouse (ur(oses0 This (ro7a7ly .ill 7e consi$ere$ the o$$est an$ )ost unloo2e$9for $e-elo()ent of the -acuu) tu7e0
<hotogra(h of the e'(eri)enter's han$ )a$e 7y the light of a single i)(ro-e$ -acuu) tu7e of 18555 can$les0 "'(osure t.o secon$sJ $istance fro) the tu7e four feet0
>i)ultaneously .ith this (rogress a corres(on$ing i)(ro-e)ent .as )a$e in the efficiency of the light (ro$uce$0 A fe. .or$s on this (oint )ight not 7e a)iss8 consi$ering that a (o(ular an$ erroneous o(inion still e'ists in regar$ to the (o.er consu)e$ 7y -acuu) tu7es lighte$ 7y or$inary )eans0 >o $ee(ly roote$ is this o(inion .hich8 , .ill fran2ly confess8 , )yself share$ for a long ti)e8 that8 shortly after )y o.n first efforts8 >ir =a-i$ >olo)ons an$ /essrs0 <i2e O Harris un$ertoo2 to intro$uce in "nglan$ such tu7es on a large scale in co)(etition .ith the incan$escent syste) of lighting0 The enter(rise8 .hich .as co))ente$ on in the technical (erio$icals8 .as co))en$a7le enough8 7ut it .as not $ifficult to foretell its fateJ for although the high9frequency currents o7taine$ fro) the alternator yiel$e$ 7etter econo)ical results than interru(te$ currents8 an$ although they .ere o7taine$ in a con-enient an$ fairly econo)ical )anner8 still the efficiency of the .hole syste) .as necessarily too s)all for co)(etition .ith incan$escent la)(s0 The reason for the great (o.er consu)(tion8 .hich )ay often 7e as )uch as 15 ti)es that ta2ing (lace in incan$escent la)(s for an equi-alent a)ount of light8 are not far to see20 A -acuu) tu7e8 (articularly if it 7e -ery large8 offers an i))ense ra$iating surface8 an$ is ca(a7le of gi-ing off a great a)ount of energy .ithout rising (erce(ti7ly in te)(erature0 &hat still increases the $issi(ation of energy is the high te)(erature of the rarefie$ gas0 Generally it is su((ose$ that the (articles are not 7rought to a high te)(erature8 7ut a calculation fro) the a)ount of )atter containe$ in the tu7e8 lea$s to results .hich .oul$ see) to in$icate that8 of all the )eans at $is(osal for 7ringing a s)all a)ount of )atter to a high te)(erature8 the -acuu) tu7e is the )ost effecti-e0 This o7ser-ation )ay lea$ to -alua7le uses of such tu7es in astrono)ical researches8 an$ a line of e'(eri)ent to this en$ .as suggeste$ to )e recently 7y =r0 Geo0 "0 Hale8 of the Der2es ;7ser-atory0 As co)(are$ .ith these $isa$-antages the incan$escent la)(8 cru$e an$ inefficient as it un$ou7te$ly is8 (ossesses -astly su(erior features0 These $ifficulties ha-e 7een recogniBe$ 7y )e early8 an$ )y efforts $uring the (ast fe. years ha-e 7een $irecte$ to.ar$s o-erco)ing these $efects an$ ha-e finally resulte$ in )aterial a$-ances8 so that , fin$ it (ossi7le to o7tain fro) a tu7e of a -olu)e not )uch greater than that of a 7ul7 of an incan$escent la)(8 a7out the sa)e a)ount of light (ro$uce$ 7y the latter8 .ithout the tu7e 7eco)ing o-erheate$8 .hich is sure to ta2e (lace un$er or$inary con$itions0 3oth of these i)(ro-e)ents8 the increase of can$le9(o.er as .ell as $egree of efficiency8 ha-e 7een achie-e$ 7y gra$ual (erfection of the )eans of (ro$ucing econo)ically har)onical electrical -i7rations of e'tre)e ra(i$ity0 The fun$a)ental (rinci(le in-ol-e$ is no. .ell 2no.n8 an$ it only re)ains to $escri7e the features of the syste) in $etail8 a $uty .ith .hich , e'(ect to 7e a7le to co)(ly soon8 this 7eing another one of )y goo$ resolutions0
<hotogra(h )a$e 7y the light of a single -acuu) tu7e8 at a $istance of fi-e feet e'(osure8 fi-e secon$s0
The (ur(ose of the (resent co))unication is chiefly to gi-e an i$ea in ho. far the o7Hect here ai)e$ at .as o7taine$0 The (hotogra(hs sho.n .ere ta2en 7y a tu7e ha-ing a ra$iating surface of a7out t.o hun$re$ square inches0 The frequency of the oscillations8 .hich .ere o7taine$ fro) an "$ison $irect9current su((ly circuit8 , esti)ate$ to 7e a7out t.o )illion a secon$0 The illu)inating (o.er of the tu7e a((ro'i)ate$ a7out one thousan$ can$les8 an$ the e'(osures range$ fro) t.o to fi-e secon$s8 the $istance of the o7Hect 7eing four to fi-e feet fro) the tu7e0 ,t )ight 7e as2e$ .hy8 .ith so high an illu)inating (o.er8 the e'(osures shoul$ not 7e instantaneous0 , .oul$ not un$erta2e to satisfactorily ans.er this question8 .hich .as (ut to )e recently 7y a scientific )an8 .hose -isit to )y la7oratory , still -i-i$ly recollect0 #i2enesses can8 of course8 7e o7taine$ .ith instantaneous e'(osures8 7ut it has 7een foun$ (refera7le to e'(ose longer an$ at a greater $istance fro) the tu7e0 The results so far o7taine$ .oul$ )a2e it a((ear that this 2in$ of light .ill 7e of great -alue in (hotogra(hy8 not only 7ecause the artist .ill 7e a7le to e'actly a$Hust the con$itions in e-ery e'(eri)ent so as to secure the 7est result8 .hich is i)(ossi7le .ith or$inary light0 He .ill thus 7e )a$e entirely in$e(en$ent of $aylight8 an$ .ill 7e a7le to carry on his .or2 at any hour8 night or $ay0 ,t )ight also 7e of -alue to the (ainter8 though its use for such (ur(oses , still consi$er (ro7le)atical0 , antici(ate that )uch $etail .ill naturally 7e lost in the re(ro$uctions through the half9tone (rocess an$ (ress .or28 ho.e-er goo$8 7ut , ho(e that enough .ill 7e sho.n to $e)onstrate the a$-antageous features of this light in (hotogra(hy an$ its (ractical usefulness in this art0 ,n conclusion8 , .ish to than2 /r0 +0 #0 1e.)an for 2in$ly consenting to the use of his (hotogra(h0 1i2ola Tesla 1e. Dor28 Ean0 30
18-8-0"-06: Tesla On Animal Training 1y *le(tri(ity by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork 8ournal Nicola Tesla #rites of the Interesting 3ossibilities of This Ne" and &uccessful Device of Animal Trainers in Euro*e. To the "$itor of the EournalI ,t see)s to )e that there are interesting (ossi7ilities in the training of ani)als 7y electricity0 ;f course80 it's rather out of )y (ro-ince8 7ut the i$ea of the electrical su7Hugator a((ears feasi7le .hen one 2no.s the (o.er of electricity an$ the instincti-e fear that 7rutes ha-e of the un2no.n0 An$ the electrical )etho$ see)s )ore hu)ane than those , 7elie-e are in use 9 the .hi(8 re$ hot irons8 an$ $rugs8 .hich are li2ely to $o (er)anent inHury8 .hile the (hysical effects of an electric shoc2 are soon gone8 only the )oral ones re)aining0 The su7Hugator referre$ to .ill $o the .or28 7ut , thin2 an a((aratus coul$ 7e $esigne$ that .oul$ 7e less $angerous to the )an0 , $o not $esire to 7e un$erstoo$ as gi-ing the )atter $ee( thought8 7ut 7elie-e that if instea$ of the ar)oure$ 7ac29(a$8 the trainer use$ a .an$8 .ith t.o (rongs at one en$8 7etter results .oul$ follo.0 This .an$ .oul$ 7e connecte$ .ith the su((ly ca7les an$ coul$ 7e a((lie$ to any (art of the ani)al's 7o$y at .ill0 ,ts o(eration .oul$ 7e (recisely the sa)e as the su7Hugator here illustrate$8 the t.o (rongs su((lying the (ositi-e an$ negati-e (oles of contact foun$ in the flattene$ .ires0 &ith this .an$ an ani)al coul$ 7e si)(ly shoc2e$8 stunne$ or 2ille$8 as require$0 To cure ani)als of Hu)(ing at )en in cages8 a screen of stout 7ut fle'i7le .ire coul$ 7e stretche$ 7et.een the trainer an$ his su7Hect8 the .ires to 7e alternately (ositi-e an$ negati-e8 an$ connecte$ through the regulator .ith the $yna)o0 After a cou(le of s(rings .hich .oul$ hurl hi) half insensi7le 7ac2 into his corner8 the taste for une'(ecte$ Hu)(s .oul$ lea-e the 7rute0 ?The follo"ing article a**eared "ith the above.,Ed @ <rague8 Ean0 !!0 >cience has co)e to ai$ the lion ta)er in su7$uing the .il$ 7east0 The re$ hot iron .ill8 in future8 7e cast asi$e as unnecessary an$ out of $ate0 #i-e .ires8 surcharge$ .ith electricity that 7affle the lion's fiercest assaults8 an$ 7urn an$ )ai) hi) 7a$ly ha-e ta2en the (lace of the lash an$ scorching iron0 A lion ta)er of Austria8 #ouis :oe))enich8 has 7een the first to call in the assistance of the lightning to su7$ue .il$ 7easts0 :oe))enich has in-ente$ .hat he calls the electrical su7Hugator0 This is a shiel$ of electric .ires that fasten on the 7ac2 of the lion ta)er an$ are connecte$ .ith a $yna)o 7y a .ire coil of sufficient length to allo. :oe))enich to )o-e aroun$ the cage0 ,n his han$ he .ill carry a charge$ )etal 7all on an insulate$ han$le8 to 7e use$ as the re$ hot iron .as in for)er $ays0 The $yna)o is o(erate$ 7y an assistant outsi$e of the cage0 >houl$ a lion sho. a $is(osition to lea( on :oe))enich8 he in-ites attac2 7y $eli7erately turning his 7ac2 to the lion an$ a((arently encouraging the onslaught0 &hen the 7east s(rings his (a.s co)e in contact .ith the electric shiel$8 an$ he recei-es a shoc2 of 18455 -olts fro) the $yna)o0 The o(erator can8 if necessary8 increase the -oltage so as to shoc2 the ani)al to $eath0 Thus far the $e-ice has .or2e$ li2e )agic0 ;ne $ose of lightning is sufficient for the a-erage lion0 &hi(s an$ e-en hot irons they ha-e $are$8 7ut no ani)al has yet trou7le$ :oe))enich after recei-ing into its 7o$y 18455 -olts fro) the electric su7Hugator0 &hene-er :oe))enich enters the cage after an encounter .ith a lion that has run against the electrical su7Hugator8 he .ill co.er a.ay into a corner of the cage8 an$ ne-er nee$ any further (unish)ent0
18-8-11-19: My Su1marine %estroyer by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork 8ournal Dester$ay 1i2ola Tesla ga-e to the >un$ay Eournal e'clusi-ely the ne.s of his latest in-ention 9 a su7)arine tor(e$o 7oat0 He has (erfecte$ his $e-ice after o7ser-ing the $efects of the tor(e$o 7oats in the recent .ar8 an$ noting the fatalities of su7)arine 7oats in-ente$ u( to $ate0 His su7)arine 7oat .ill carry no li-es to ris28 7ut can 7e $irecte$ at a $istance of )iles fro) on shore or fro) the $ec2 of a .ar shi(0 The (o.er to $o this .ill 7e the electric -i7rations of the air use$ in .ireless telegra(hy0 3y this )eans a .hole flotilla of su7)arine $estroyers can 7e turne$ against a hostile fleet8 an$ (erha(s $estroy it8 .ithout the ene)y 2no.ing ho. they .ere attac2e$0 This see)s al)ost incre$i7le until the great )agician of electricity e'(lains his .on$erful in-ention8 (oint 7y (oint8 in the follo.ing state)ent0 ", a) no. (re(are$ to announce through the Eournal )y in-ention of a su7)arine tor(e$o 7oat that , a) confi$ent .ill 7e the greatest .ea(on of the na-y fro) this ti)e on0 "The al)ost utter uselessness of the (resent 2in$ of tor(e$o 7oat has 7een conclusi-ely $e)onstrate$ in the recent .ar0 1either the courage an$ s2ill of the A)ericans nor the $es(erate e'tre)ities of the >(aniar$s .ere a7le to 7ring the tor(e$o 7oats into successful action0 These frail craft8 of .hich so )uch .as e'(ecte$8 si)(ly )a$e an easy target for lan$ 7atteries an$ ra(i$9fire guns of o((osing .ar shi(s0 "The su7)arine 7oats8 on the other han$8 .hich ha-e u( to this ti)e 7een 7uilt to carry tor(e$oes ha-e (ro-e$ $eath tra(s for )en an$ .ere consequently ineffecti-e0 The su7)arine 7oat8 or8 )ore (ro(erly s(ea2ing8 the su7)arine $estroyer8 .hich , ha-e in-ente$ is as co)(act as the tor(e$o itself0 ,n fact8 it is si)(ly an enlarge$ tor(e$o shell8 thirty9si' an$ a half feet long8 loa$e$ .ith other tor(e$oes to $ischarge0 #i2e a tor(e$o8 also8 it has its o.n (ro(elling $e-ice0 3ut here the li2eness sto(s0 The or$inary tor(e$o8 once launche$8 (lunges hea$ 'on 7lin$ly an$ no 2no.n (o.er can turn it one .ay or another0 ,t hits or )isses8 accor$ing to the trueness .ith .hich it is ai)e$ at its launching0 "3ut )y su7)arine 7oat8 loa$e$ .ith its tor(e$oes8 can start out fro) a (rotecte$ 7ay or 7e $ro((e$ o-er a shi('s si$e8 )a2e its $e-ious .ay 7elo. the surface8 through $angerous channels of )ine 7e$s8 into (rotecte$ har7ours an$ attac2 a fleet at anchor8 or go out to sea an$ circle a7out8 .atching for its (rey8 then $art u(on it at a fa-oura7le )o)ent8 rush u( to .ithin a hun$re$ feet if nee$ 7e8 $ischarge its $ea$ly .ea(on an$ return to the han$ that sent it0 Det through all these .on$erful e-olutions it .ill 7e un$er the a7solute an$ instant control of a $istant hu)an han$ on a far9off hea$lan$8 or on a .ar shi( .hose hull is 7elo. the horiBon an$ in-isi7le to the ene)y0 ", a) a.are that this soun$s al)ost incre$i7le an$ , ha-e refraine$ fro) )a2ing this in-ention (u7lic till , ha$ .or2e$ out e-ery (ractical $etail of it0 ,n )y la7oratory , no. ha-e such a )o$el8 an$ )y (lans an$ $escri(tion at the <atent ;ffice at &ashington sho. the full s(ecifications of it0 "As to the )echanis) .hich is to 7e store$ in this su7)arine shellI The first an$ )ost essential thing is a )otor8 .ith storage 7attery to $ri-e the (ro(eller0 Then there are s)aller )otors an$ 7atteries to o(erate the steering gear8 on the sa)e (rinci(le that an or$inary -essel is no. steere$ 7y stea) or electricity0 3esi$es these there are still other storage 7atteries an$ )otors to fee$ electric signal lights0 3ut in or$er that the .eight of the )achinery shall not 7e too great to $estroy the 7uoyancy or )a2e the 7oat go too $ee( in the .ater co)(resse$ air )otors .ill also 7e use$ to (erfor) certain functions8 such as to fill an$ e)(ty the .ater tan2s .hich raise the 7oat to the surface or sin2 it to any require$ $e(th0 <neu)atic air or )otors .ill also fire the tor(e$oes an$ (u)( out the .ater that )ay lea2 in at any ti)e0 "This su7)arine $estroyer .ill 7e equi((e$ .ith si' 169foot &hitehea$ tor(e$oes0 These .ill 7e arrange$ -ertically in t.o ro.s in the 7o.0 As one tor(e$o falls into (osition an$ is $ischarge$ 7y (neu)atic force8 another tor(e$o8 7y the force of gra-ity8 falls into the (osition of the first one8 the others a7o-e 7eing hel$ u( 7y auto)atic ar)s0 They can 7e fire$ as ra(i$ly as a self9coc2ing re-ol-er is e)(tie$ or at inter-als of )inutes or hours0 The $ischarge ta2es (lace through a single tu7e8 (roHecting straight ahea$ in the 7o.0 The s)all a)ount of .ater .hich lea2s through each ti)e is caught 7y $rain (i(es an$ a co)(resse$ air (u)( instantly e'(els it0 As each tor(e$o is e'(elle$ a 7uoyancy regulator .ill o(en the sea coc2s an$ let enough .ater in the 7allast tan2s to )a2e the 7uoyancy unifor) an$ 2ee( the 7oat at the sa)e $istance 7eneath the surface0 "This su7)arine $estroyer .ill carry a charge of tor(e$oes greater than that of the largest $estroyers no. in use0
Those -essels of fi-e hun$re$ tons each .hich cost the Go-ern)ent ^45585558 carry 7ut three or four tor(e$oes8 .hile this si)(le su7)arine $estroyer8 .hich can 7e 7uilt for 6688555 to ^458555 or less8 .ill carry si' tor(e$oes0 ,t .ill ha-e8 also8 the incalcula7le a$-antage of 7eing a7solutely in-isi7le to an ene)y8 an$ ha-e no hu)an li-es to ris2 or stea) 7oilers to 7lo. u( an$ $estroy itself0 "All that is necessary to )a2e this su7)arine 7oat su7Hect to (erfect control at any $istance is to (ro(erly .ire it8 Hust li2e a )o$ern house is .ire$ so that a 7utton here rings a 7ell8 a le-er there turns on the lights8 a hi$$en .ire so)e.here else sets off a 7urglar alar) an$ a ther)al $e-ice gi-e a fire alar)0 "The only $ifference in the case of the su7)arine 7oat is in the $elicacy of the instru)ents e)(loye$0 To the (ro(elling $e-ice8 the steering gear8 the signal a((aratus an$ the )echanis) for firing the tor(e$oes are attache$ little instru)ents .hich are attune$ to a certain electro9)agnetic synchronis)0 "Then there is a si)ilar set of synchronistic instru)ents all connecte$ to the little s.itch7oar$8 an$ (lace$ either on shore or on an or$inary .ar shi(0 3y )o-ing the le-er on the s.itch7oar$ , can gi-e the (ro(er i)(ulse to the su7)arine 7oat to go ahea$8 to re-erse8 thro. the hel) to (ort or star7oar$8 rise8 sin28 $ischarge her tor(e$oes or return0 ",t )ight 7e thought that so)e great (o.er .oul$ 7e necessary to 7e (roHecte$ across )iles of $istance an$ o(erate on the far9off 7oat0 The (o.er is all store$ in the su7)arine 7oat itself 9 in its storage 7atteries an$ co)(resse$ air0 All that is nee$e$ to affect the synchronistic instru)ents is a set of high alternating currents8 .hich can 7e (ro$uce$ 7y )y oscillator attache$ to any or$inary $yna)o situate$ on shore or on a .ar shi(0 "Ho. such an a((arently co)(licate$ )echanis) can 7e o(erate$ an$ controlle$ at a $istance of )iles is no )ystery0 ,t is as si)(le as the )essenger call to 7e foun$ in al)ost any office0 This is a little )etal 7o' .ith a le-er on the outsi$e0 3y )o-ing the cran2 to a certain (oint it gi-es -i7rating soun$s an$ s(rings 7ac2 8 into (osition8 an$ its )o)entary 7uBBing calls a )essenger0 3ut )o-e this sa)e cran2 a thir$ further aroun$ the $ial an$ it 7uBBes still longer8 an$ (retty soon a (olice)an a((ears8 su))one$ 7y its )ysterious call0 Again8 )o-e the cran2 this ti)e to the farthest li)it of the circle an$ scarcely has its )ore (rolonge$ hu) of recoil soun$e$ .hen the city fire a((aratus $ashes u( to your (lace at its call0 "1o.8 )y $e-ice for controlling the )otion of a $istant su7)arine 7oat is e'actly si)ilar0 ;nly , nee$ no connecting .ires 7et.een )y s.itch7oar$ an$ the $istant su7)arine 7oat8 for , )a2e use of the no. .ell92no.n (rinci(le of .ireless telegra(hy0 As , )o-e this little le-er to (oints .hich , ha-e )ar2e$ on a circular $ial , cause a $ifferent nu)7er of -i7rations each ti)e0 ,n this case t.o .a-es go forth at each half turn of the le-er an$ affect $ifferent (arts of the $istant $estroyer's )achinery0 "Ho. such su7)arine $estroyers shoul$ actually 7e use$ in .ar , lea-e for na-al tacticians to $eter)ine0 3ut it see)s to )e that they coul$ 7est 7e o(erate$ 7y ta2ing a nu)7er on 7oar$ a large fast au'iliary cruiser li2e the >t0 #ouis or >t0 <aul8 launch the)8 se-eral at a ti)e8 li2e life 7oats8 an$ $irect their )o-e)ents fro) a s.itch 7oar$ (lace$ in the for.ar$ fighting to(0 ",n or$er that the $irector of the su7)arine $estroyer )ay 2no. its e'act (osition at e-ery )o-e)ent8 t.o )asts8 at 7o. an$ stern8 .ill (roHect u( Hust a7o-e the .ater8 too )inute to 7e seen or hit 7y an ene)y's guns 7y $ay8 an$ 7y night they .ill carry hoo$e$ lights0 "The loo2out (lace$ in the fighting to( coul$ $etect a hostile shi( off on the horiBon .hile the au'iliary cruiser's 7ig hull is still in-isi7le to the ene)y0 >tarting these little $estroyers out un$er $irection of a )an .ith a telesco(e8 they coul$ attac2 an$ $estroy a .hole ar)a$a 9 $estroy it utterly 9 in an hour8 an$ the ene)y ne-er ha-e a sight of their antagonists or 2no. .hat (o.er $estroye$ the)0 A 7ig au'iliary cruiser8 use$ to carry these su7)arine $estroyers8 coul$ also carry a cargo of tor(e$oes sufficient to con$uct a long ca)(aign an$ go half .ay aroun$ the .orl$0 ">he coul$ carry the gun cotton an$ other e'(losi-es nee$e$ to loa$ the tor(e$oes in safe )agaBines 7elo. the .ater line8 an$ $o a.ay .ith )uch of the $anger of trans(orting loa$e$ tor(e$oes0 &hen necessary for use the .ar hea$s coul$ 7e loa$e$8 fitte$ to the tor(e$oes8 an$ the su7)arine $estroyers fully equi((e$0 "A high8 (roHecting hea$lan$ o-erloo2ing a har7our an$ the sea .oul$ also 7e a goo$ (oint on .hich to esta7lish a station an$ ha-e the $estroyers lai$ u( at $oc2s 7elo. rea$y to start0 "That is the .hole story of )y latest in-ention0 ,t is si)(le enough8 you say0 ;f course it is8 7ecause , ha-e .or2e$ all )y life to )a2e each one of the $etails so si)(le that it .ill .or2 as easily as the electric tic2er in a stoc2 7ro2er's office0
18-8-11-1<: 0ig, 7re8uen(y Os(illators for *le(tro-T,era$euti( and Ot,er 5ur$oses by Nikola Tesla
The Electrical Engineer.
,o)e theoretical (ossi7ilities offere$ 7y currents of -ery high frequency an$ o7ser-ations .hich , casually )a$e
.hile (ursuing e'(eri)ents .ith alternating currents8 as .ell as the sti)ulating influence of the .or2 of HertB an$ of -ie.s 7ol$ly (ut forth 7y ;li-er #o$ge8 $eter)ine$ )e so)e ti)e $uring 1889 to enter a syste)atic in-estigation of high frequency (heno)ena8 an$ the results soon reache$ .ere such as to Hustify further efforts to.ar$s (ro-i$ing the la7oratory .ith efficient )eans for carrying on the research in this (articular fiel$8 .hich has (ro-e$ itself so fruitful since0 As a consequence alternators of s(ecial $esign .ere constructe$ an$ -arious arrange)ents for con-erting or$inary into high frequency currents (erfecte$8 7oth of .hich .ere $uly $escri7e$ an$ are no.99, assu)e99fa)iliar0 ;ne of the early o7ser-e$ an$ re)ar2a7le features of the high frequency currents8 an$ one .hich .as chiefly of interest to the (hysician8 .as their a((arent har)lessness .hich )a$e it (ossi7le to (ass relati-ely great a)ounts of electrical energy through the 7o$y of a (erson .ithout causing (ain or serious $isco)fort0 This (eculiarity .hich8 together .ith other )ostly unloo2e$9for (ro(erties of these currents , ha$ the honour to 7ring to the attention of scientific )en first in an article in a technical Hournal in Fe7ruary8 18918 an$ in su7sequent contri7utions to scientific societies8 )a$e it at once e-i$ent that these currents .oul$ len$ the)sel-es (articularly to electro9thera(eutic uses0 &ith regar$ to the electrical actions in general8 an$ 7y analogy8 it .as reasona7le to infer that the (hysiological effects8 ho.e-er co)(le'8 )ight 7e resol-e$ in three classes0 First the statical8 that is8 such as are chiefly $e(en$ent on the )agnitu$e of electrical (otentialJ secon$8 the $yna)ical8 that is8 those (rinci(ally $e(en$ent on the quality of electrical )o-e)ent or currents strength through the 7o$y8 an$ thir$8 effects of a $istinct nature $ue to electrical .a-es or oscillations8 that is8 i)(ulses in .hich the electrical energy is alternately (assing in )ore or less ra(i$ succession through the static an$ $yna)ic for)s0 /ost generally in (ractice these $ifferent actions are coe'istent8 7ut 7y a suita7le selection of a((aratus an$ o7ser-ance of con$itions the e'(eri)enter )ay )a2e one or other of these effects (re$o)inate0 Thus he )ay (ass through the 7o$y8 or any (art of the sa)e8 currents of co)(arati-ely large -olu)e un$er a s)all electrical (ressure8 or he )ay su7Hect the 7o$y to a high electrical (ressure .hile the current is negligi7ly s)all8 or he )ay (ut the (atient un$er the influence of electrical .a-es trans)itte$8 if $esire$8 at consi$era7le $istance through s(ace0 &hile it re)aine$ for the (hysician to in-estigate the s(ecific actions on the organis) an$ in$icate (ro(er )etho$s of treat)ent8 the -arious .ays of a((lying these currents to the 7o$y of a (atient suggeste$ the)sel-es rea$ily to the electrician0 As one cannot 7e too clear in $escri7ing a su7Hect8 a $iagra))atic illustration of the se-eral )o$es of connecting the circuits .hich , .ill enu)erate8 though o7-ious for the )aHority8 is $ee)e$ of a$-antage0 The first an$ si)(lest )etho$ of a((lying the currents .as to connect the 7o$y of the (atient to t.o (oints of the generator8 7e it a $yna)o or in$uction coil0 Fig0 1 is inten$e$ to illustrate this case0 The alternator G )ay 7e one gi-ing fro) fi-e to ten thousan$ co)(lete -i7rations (er secon$8 this nu)7er 7eing still .ithin the li)it of (ractica7ility0 The electro)oti-e force99as )easure$ 7y a hot .ire instru)ent99)ay 7e fro) fifty to one hun$re$ -olts0 To ena7le strong currents to 7e (asse$ through the tissues8 the ter)inals T T8 .hich ser-e to esta7lish contact .ith the (atient's 7o$y shoul$8 of course8 7e of large area8 an$ co-ere$ .ith cloth saturate$ .ith a solution of electrolyte har)less to the s2in8 or else the contacts are )a$e 7y i))ersion0 The regulation of the currents is 7est effecte$ 7y )eans of an insulating trough A (ro-i$e$ .ith t.o )etal ter)inals T' T' of consi$era7le surface8 one of .hich8 at least8 shoul$ 7e )o-a7le0 The trough is fille$ .ith .ater8 an$ an8 electrolytic solution is a$$e$ to the sa)e8 until a $egree of con$ucti-ity is o7taine$ suita7le for the e'(eri)ents0 &hen it is $esire$ to use s)all currents of high tension8 a secon$ary coil is resorte$ to8 as illustrate$ in Fig0 !0 , ha-e foun$ it fro) the outset con-enient to )a2e a $e(arture fro) the or$inary .ays of .in$ing the coils .ith a consi$era7le nu)7er of s)all turns0 For )any reasons the (hysician .ill fin$ it 7etter to (ro-i$e a large hoo( H of not less than8 say three feet in $ia)eter an$ (refera7ly )ore8 an$ to .in$ u(on it a fe. turns of stout ca7le <0 The secon$ary coil > is easily (re(are$ 7y ta2ing t.o .oo$en hoo(s h h an$ Hoining the) .ith stiff car$7oar$0 ;ne single layer of or$inary )agnet .ire8 an$ not too thin at that8 .ill 7e generally sufficient8 the nu)7er of turns necessary for the (articular use for .hich the coil is inten$e$ 7eing easily ascertaine$ 7y a fe. trials0 T.o (lates
of large surface8 for)ing an a$Husta7le con$enser8 )ay 7e use$ for the (ur(ose of synchroniBing the secon$ary .ith the (ri)ary circuit8 7ut this is generally not necessary0 ,n this )anner a chea( coil is o7taine$8 an$ one .hich cannot 7e easily inHure$0 A$$itional a$-antages8 ho.e-er8 .ill 7e foun$ in the (erfect regulation .hich is effecte$ )erely 7y altering the $istance 7et.een the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary8 for .hich a$Hust)ent (ro-ision shoul$ 7e )a$e8 an$8 further)ore8 in the occurrence of har)onics .hich are )ore (ronounce$ in such large coils of thic2 .ire8 situate$ at so)e $istance fro) the (ri)ary0
The (rece$ing arrange)ents )ay also 7e use$ .ith alternating or interru(te$ currents of lo. frequency8 7ut certain (eculiar (ro(erties of high frequency currents )a2e it (ossi7le to a((ly the latter in .ays entirely i)(ractica7le .ith the for)er0 ;ne of the (ro)inent characteristics of high frequency or8 to 7e )ore general8 of ra(i$ly -arying currents8 is that they (ass .ith $ifficulty through stout con$uctors of high self9in$uction0 >o great is the o7struction .hich self9 in$uction offers to their (assage that it .as foun$ (ractica7le8 as sho.n in the early e'(eri)ents to .hich reference has 7een )a$e8 to )aintain $ifferences of (otential of )any thousan$s of -olts 7et.een t.o (oints9 not )ore than a fe. inches a(art9of a thic2 co((er 7ar of ina((recia7le resistance0 This o7ser-ation naturally suggeste$ the $is(osition illustrate$ in Fig0 30 The source of high frequency i)(ulses is in this instance a fa)iliar ty(e of transfor)er .hich )ay 7e su((lie$ fro) a generator G of or$inary $irect or alternating currents0 The transfor)er co)(rises a (ri)ary <8 a secon$ary >8 t.o con$ensers C C .hich are Hoine$ in series8 a loo( or coil of -ery thic2 .ire # an$ a circuit interru(ting $e-ice at 7rea2 70 The currents are $eri-e$ fro) the loo( # 7y t.o contacts c c'8 one or 7oth of .hich are ca(a7le of $is(lace)ent along the .ire #0 3y -arying the $istance 7et.een these contacts8 any $ifference of (otential8 fro) a fe. -olts to )any thousan$s8 is rea$ily o7taine$ on the ter)inals or han$les T T0 This )o$e of using the currents is entirely safe an$ (articularly con-enient8 7ut it requires a -ery unifor) .or2ing of the 7rea2 7 e)(loye$ for charging an$ $ischarging the con$enser0 Another equally re)ar2a7le feature of high frequency i)(ulses .as foun$ in the facility .ith .hich they are trans)itte$ through con$ensers8 )o$erate electro)oti-e forces an$ -ery s)all ca(acities 7eing require$ to ena7le currents of consi$era7le -olu)e to (ass0 This o7ser-ation )a$e it (ractica7le to resort to a (lan such as in$icate$ in Fig0 60 Here the connections are si)ilar to those sho.n in the (rece$ing case8 e'ce(t that the con$ensers C C are Hoine$ in (arallel0 This lo.ers the frequency of the currents8 7ut has the a$-antage of allo.ing the .or2ing .ith a )uch s)aller $ifference of (otential on the ter)inals of the secon$ary >0 >ince the later is the chief ite) of e'(ense of such a((aratus an$ since its (rice ra(i$ly increases .ith the nu)7er of turns require$8 the e'(eri)enter .ill fin$ it generally chea(er to )a2e a sacrifice in the frequency8 .hich8 ho.e-er8 .ill 7e high enough for )ost (ur(oses0 Ho.e-er8 he only nee$s to re$uce (ro(ortionately the nu)7er of turns or the length of (ri)ary ( to o7tain the sa)e frequency as 7efore8 7ut the econo)y of transfor)ation .ill 7e so)e.hat re$uce$ in so $oing an$ the 7rea2 h .ill require )ore attention0 The secon$ary >8 of the high frequency coil has t.o )etal (lates t t of consi$era7le surface connecte$ to its ter)inals8 an$ the current for use is $eri-e$ fro) t.o si)ilar (lates t' t' in (ro'i)ity to the for)er0 3oth the tension an$ -olu)e of the currents ta2en fro) ter)inals T T
)ay 7e easily regulate$ an$ in a continuous )anner 7y si)(ly -arying the $istance 7et.een the t.o (air of (lates t t an$ t' t' res(ecti-ely0
A facility is also affor$e$ in this $is(osition for raising or lo.ering the (otential of one of the ter)inals T8 irres(ecti-e of the changes (ro$uce$ on the other ter)inal8 this )a2ing it (ossi7le to cause a stronger action on one or other (art of the (atient's 7o$y0 The (hysician )ay fin$ it for so)e or other reason con-enient to )o$ify the arrange)ents in Figs0 !8 3 an$ 6 7y connecting one ter)inal of the high frequency source to the groun$0 The effects .ill 7e in )ost res(ects the sa)e8 7ut certain (eculiarities .ill 7e note$ in each case0 &hen a groun$ connection is )a$e it )ay 7e of so)e consequence .hich of the ter)inals of the secon$ary is connecte$ to the groun$8 as in high frequency $ischarges the i)(ulses of one $irection are generally (re(on$erating0 A)ong the -arious note.orthy features of these currents there is one .hich len$s itself es(ecially to )any -alua7le uses0 ,t is the facility .hich they affor$ for con-eying large a)ounts of electrical energy to a 7o$y entirely insulate$ in s(ace0 The (ractica7ility of this )etho$ of energy trans)ission8 .hich is alrea$y recei-ing useful a((lications an$ (ro)ises to 7eco)e of great i)(ortance in the near future8 has hel(e$ to $is(el the ol$ notion assu)ing the necessity of a return circuit for the con-eyance of electrical energy in any consi$era7le a)ount0 &ith no-el a((liances .e are ena7le$ to (ass through a .ire8 entirely insulate$ on one en$8 currents strong enough to fuse it8 or to con-ey through the .ire any a)ount of energy to an insulate$ 7o$y0 This )o$e of a((lying high frequency currents in )e$ical treat)ent a((ears to )e to offer the greatest (ossi7ilities at the han$s of the (hysician0 The effects (ro$uce$ in this )anner (ossess features entirely $istinct fro) those o7ser-e$ .hen the currents are a((lie$ in any of the 7efore )entione$ or si)ilar .ays0 The circuit connections as usually )a$e are illustrate$ sche)atically in Fig0 48 .hich8 .ith reference to the $iagra)s 7efore sho.n8 is self9e'(lanatory0 The con$ensers C C8 connecte$ in series8 are (refera7ly charge$ 7y a ste(9u( transfor)er8 7ut a0 high frequency alternator8 static )achine8 or a $irect current generator8 if it 7e of sufficiently high tension to ena7le the use of s)all con$ensers8 )ay 7e use$ .ith )ore or less success0 The (ri)ary (8 through .hich the high frequency $ischarges of the con$ensers are (asse$8 consists of -ery fe. turns of ca7le of as lo. resistance as (ossi7le8 an$ the secon$ary s8 (refera7ly at so)e $istance fro) the (ri)ary to facilitate free oscillation8 has one of its en$s99that is the one .hich is nearer to the (ri)ary99connecte$ to the groun$8 .hile the other en$ lea$s to an insulate$ ter)inal T8 .ith .hich the 7o$y of the (atient is connecte$0 ,t is of i)(ortance in this case to esta7lish synchronis) 7et.een the oscillations in the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary circuits ( an$ s res(ecti-ely0 This .ill 7e as a rule 7est effecte$ 7y -arying the self9in$uction of the circuit inclu$ing the (ri)ary loo( or coil (8 for .hich (ur(ose an a$Husta7le self9in$uction e is (ro-i$e$J 7ut in cases .hen the electro)oti-e force of the generator is e'ce(tionally high8 as .hen a static )achine is use$ an$ a con$enser consisting of )erely t.o (lates offers sufficient ca(acity8 it .ill 7e si)(ler to attain the sa)e o7Hect 7y -arying the $istance of the (lates0
The (ri)ary an$ secon$ary oscillations 7eing in close synchronis)8 the (oints of highest (otential .ill 7e on a (art of ter)inal T8 an$ the consu)(tion of energy .ill occur chiefly there0 The attach)ent of the (atient's 7o$y to the ter)inal .ill in )ost cases -ery )aterially affect the (erio$ of oscillation in the secon$ary8 )a2ing it longer8 an$ a rea$Hust)ent of the (ri)ary circuit .ill ha-e to 7e )a$e in each case to suit the ca(acity of the 7o$y connecte$ .ith ter)inal T0 >ynchronis) shoul$ al.ays 7e (reser-e$8 an$ the intensity of the action -arie$ 7y )o-ing the secon$ary coil to or fro) the (ri)ary8 as )ay 7e $esire$0 , 2no. of no )etho$ .hich .oul$ )a2e it (ossi7le to su7Hect the hu)an 7o$y to such e'cessi-e electrical (ressures as are (ractica7le .ith this8 or of one .hich .oul$ ena7le the con-eying to an$ gi-ing off fro) the 7o$y .ithout serious inHury a)ounts of electrical energy a((ro'i)ating e-en in a re)ote $egree those .hich are entirely (ractica7le .hen this )anner of a((lying the energy is resorte$ to0 This is e-i$ently $ue to the fact that the action is chiefly su(erficial8 the largest (ossi7le section 7eing offere$ to the transfer of the current8 or8 to say )ore correctly8 of the energy0 &ith a -ery ra(i$ly an$ s)oothly .or2ing 7rea2 , .oul$ not thin2 it i)(ossi7le to con-ey to the 7o$y of a (erson an$ to gi-e off into the s(ace energy at the rate of se-eral horse (o.er .ith i)(unity8 .hile a s)all (art of this a)ount a((lie$ in other .ays coul$ not fail to (ro$uce inHury0 &hen a (erson is su7Hecte$ to the action of such a coil8 the (ro(er a$Hust)ents 7eing carefully o7ser-e$8 lu)inous strea)s are seen in the $ar2 issuing fro) all (arts of the 7o$y0 These strea)s are short an$ of $elicate te'ture .hen the nu)7er of 7rea2s is -ery great an$ the action of the $e-ice 7 (Fig0 4 free of any irregularities8 7ut .hen the nu)7er of 7rea2s is s)all or the action of the $e-ice i)(erfect8 long an$ noisy strea)s a((ear .hich cause so)e $isco)fort0 The (hysiological effects (ro$uce$ .ith a((aratus of this 2in$ )ay 7e gra$uate$ fro) a har$ly (erce(ti7le action .hen the secon$ary is at a great $istance fro) the (ri)ary8 to a )ost -iolent one .hen 7oth coils are (lace$ at a s)all $istance0 ,n the latter case only a fe. secon$s are sufficient to cause a feeling of .ar)th all o-er the 7o$y8 an$ soon after the (erson (ers(ires freely0 , ha-e re(eate$ly8 in $e)onstrations to frien$s8 e'(ose$ )yself longer to the action of the oscillations8 an$ each ti)e8 after the la(se of an hour or so8 an i))ense fatigue8 of .hich it is $ifficult to gi-e an i$ea8 .oul$ ta2e hol$ of )e0 ,t .as greater than , e'(erience$ on so)e occasions after the )ost straining an$ (rolonge$ 7o$ily e'ertion0 , coul$ scarcely )a2e a ste( an$ coul$ 2ee( the eyes o(en only .ith the greatest $ifficulty0 , sle(t soun$ly after.ar$s8 an$ the after9effect .as certainly 7eneficial8 7ut the )e$icine .as )anifestly too strong to 7e use$ frequently0 ;ne shoul$ 7e cautious in (erfor)ing such e'(eri)ents for )ore than one reason0 At or near the surface of the s2in8 .here the )ost intense action ta2es (lace8 -arious che)ical (ro$ucts are for)e$8 the chief 7eing oBone an$ nitrogen co)(oun$s0 The for)er is itself -ery $estructi-e8 this feature 7eing illustrate$ 7y the fact that the ru77er insulation of a .ire is $estroye$ so quic2ly as to )a2e the use of such insulation entirely i)(ractica7le0 The co)(oun$s of nitrogen8 .hen )oisture is (resent8 consists largely of nitric aci$ .hich )ight8 7y e'cessi-e a((lication8 (ro-e hurtful to the s2in0 >o far8 , ha-e not note$ inHuries .hich coul$ 7e trace$ $irectly to this cause8 though on se-eral occasions 7urns .ere (ro$uce$ in all res(ects si)ilar to those .hich .ere later o7ser-e$ an$ attri7ute$ to the +ontgen rays0 This -ie. is see)ingly 7eing a7an$one$8 ha-ing not 7een su7stantiate$ 7y e'(eri)ental facts8 an$ so also is the notion that these rays are trans-erse -i7rations0 3ut .hile in-estigation is 7eing turne$ in .hat a((ears to 7e the right $irection8 scientific )en are still at sea0 This state of things i)(e$es the (rogress of the (hysicist in these ne. regions an$ )a2es the alrea$y har$ tas2 of the (hysician still )ore $ifficult an$ uncertain0 ;ne or t.o o7ser-ations )a$e .hile (ursuing e'(eri)ents .ith the a((aratus $escri7e$ )ight 7e foun$ as $eser-ing )ention here0 As before stated, when the oscillations in the primary and secondary circuits are in synchronism, the points of highest potential are on some portion of the terminal T The synchronism being perfect and the length of the secondary coil Dust equal to oneBquarter of the wave length, these points will be e"actly on the free end of terminal T, that is, the one situated farthest from the end of the wire attached to the terminal If this be so and if now the period of the oscillations in the primary be shortened, the points of highest potential will recede towards the secondary coil, since the waveBlength is reduced and since the attachment of one end of the secondary coil to the ground determines the position of the nodal points, that is, the points of least potential Thus, by varying the period of vibration of the primary circuit in any manner, the points of highest potential may be shifted accordingly along the terminal T, which has been shown, designedly, long to illustrate this feature The sa)e (heno)enon is8 of course8 (ro$uce$ if the 7o$y of a (atient constitutes the ter)inal8 an$ an assistant )ay 7y the )otion of a han$le cause the (oints of highest (otential to shift along the 7o$y .ith any s(ee$ he )ay $esire0 &hen the action of the coil is -igourous8 the region of highest (otential is easily an$ un(leasantly locate$ 7y the $isco)fort or (ain e'(erience$8 an$ it is )ost curious to feel ho. the (ain .an$ers u( an$ $o.n8 or e-entually across the 7o$y8 fro) han$ to han$8 if the connection to the coil is accor$ingly )a$e99in o7e$ience to the )o-e)ent of the han$le controlling the oscillations0 Though , ha-e not o7ser-e$ any s(ecific action in e'(eri)ents of this 2in$8 , ha-e al.ays felt that this effect )ight 7e ca(a7le of -alua7le use in electro9thera(y0
Another o7ser-ation .hich (ro)ises to lea$ to )uch )ore useful results is the follo.ingI As 7efore re)ar2e$8 7y a$o(ting the )etho$ $escri7e$8 the 7o$y of a (erson )ay 7e su7Hecte$ .ithout $anger to electrical (ressures -astly in e'cess of any (ro$uci7le 7y or$inary a((aratus8 for they )ay a)ount to se-eral )illion -olts8 as has 7een sho.n in actual (ractice0 1o.8 .hen a con$ucting 7o$y is electrifie$ to so high a $egree8 s)all (articles8 .hich )ay 7e a$hering fir)ly to its surface8 are torn off .ith -iolence an$ thro.n to $istances .hich can 7e only conHecture$0 , fin$ that not only fir)ly a$hering )atter8 as (aint8 for instance8 is thro.n off8 7ut e-en the (articles of the toughest )etals are torn off0 >uch actions ha-e 7een thought to 7e restricte$ to a -acuous enclosure8 7ut .ith a (o.erful coil they occur also in the or$inary at)os(here0 The facts )entione$ .oul$ )a2e it reasona7le to e'(ect that this e'traor$inary effect .hich8 in other .ays8 , ha-e alrea$y usefully a((lie$8 .ill li2e.ise (ro-e to 7e of -alue in electro9thera(y0 The continuous i)(ro-e)ent of the instru)ents an$ the stu$y of the (heno)enon )ay shortly lea$ to the esta7lish)ent of a no-el )o$e of hygienic treat)ent .hich .oul$ (er)it an instantaneous cleaning of the s2in of a (erson8 si)(ly 7y connecting the sa)e to8 or (ossi7ly8 7y )erely (lacing the (erson in the -icinity of a source of intense electrical oscillations8 this ha-ing the effect of thro.ing off8 in a t.in2le of the eye8 $ust or (articles of any e'traneous )atter a$hering to the 7o$y0 >uch a result 7rought a7out in a (ractica7le )anner .oul$8 .ithout $ou7t8 7e of incalcula7le -alue in hygiene an$ .oul$ 7e an efficient an$ ti)e9sa-ing su7stitute for a .ater 7ath8 an$ (articularly a((reciate$ 7y those .hose content)ent consists in un$erta2ing )ore than they can acco)(lish0 High frequency i)(ulses (ro$uce (o.erful in$ucti-e actions an$ in -irtue of this feature they len$ the)sel-es in other .ays to the uses of the electro9thera(ist0 These in$ucti-e effects are either electrostatic or electro$yna)ic0 The for)er $i)inish )uch )ore ra(i$ly .ith the $istance99.ith the square of the sa)e99the latter are re$uce$ si)(ly in (ro(ortion to the $istance0 ;n the other han$8 the for)er gro. .ith the square of intensity of the source8 .hile the latter increase in a si)(le (ro(ortion .ith the intensity0 3oth of these effects )ay 7e utiliBe$ for esta7lishing a fiel$ of strong action e'ten$ing through consi$era7le s(ace8 as through a large hall8 an$ such an arrange)ent )ight 7e suita7le for use in hos(itals or institutions of this 2in$8 .here it is $esira7le to treat a nu)7er of (atients at the sa)e ti)e0 !ig > illustrates the manner, as I have shown it originally, in which such a field of electrostatic action is established ,n this $iagra) G is a generator of currents of -ery high frequency8 C a con$enser for counteracting the self9in$uction of the circuit .hich inclu$es the (ri)ary < of an in$uction coil8 the secon$ary > of .hich has t.o (lates t t of large surface connecte$ to its ter)inals0 &ell 2no.n a$Hust)ents 7eing o7ser-e$8 a -ery strong action occurs chiefly in the s(ace 7et.een the (lates8 an$ the 7o$y of a (erson is su7Hecte$ to ra(i$ -ariations of (otential an$ surgings of current8 .hich (ro$uce8 e-en at a great $istance8 )ar2e$ (hysiological effects0 In my first e"periments I used two metal plates as shown, but later I found it preferable to replace them by two large hollow spheres of brass covered with wa" of a thickness of about two inches The cables leading to the terminals of the secondary coil were similarly covered, so that any of them could be approached without danger of the insulation breaking down ,n this )anner the un(leasant shoc2s8 to .hich the e'(eri)enter .as e'(ose$ .hen using the (lates8 .ere (re-ente$0 ,n Fig0 * a (lan for si)ilarly utiliBing the $yna)ic in$ucti-e effects of high frequency currents is illustrate$0 As the frequencies o7taina7le fro) an alternator are not as high as is $esire$8 con-ersion 7y )eans of con$ensers is resorte$ to0 The $iagra) .ill 7e un$erstoo$ at a glance fro) the foregoing $escri(tion0 ,t only nee$ 7e state$ that the (ri)ary (8 through .hich the con$ensers are )a$e to $ischarge8 is for)e$ 7y a thic2 stran$e$ ca7le of lo. self9in$uction an$ resistance8 an$ (asses all aroun$ the hall0 Any nu)7er of secon$ary coils s s s8 each consisting generally of a single layer of rather thic2 .ire8 )ay 7e (ro-i$e$0 , ha-e foun$ it (ractica7le to use as )any as one hun$re$8 each 7eing a$Huste$ for a $efinite (erio$ an$ res(on$ing to a (articular -i7ration (asse$ through the (ri)ary0 >uch a (lant , ha-e ha$ in use in )y la7oratory since 189!8 an$ )any ti)es it has contri7ute$ to the (leasure of )y -isitors an$ also (ro-e$ itself of (ractical utility0 ;n a latter occasion , ha$ the (leasure of entertaining so)e of the )e)7ers .ith e'(eri)ents of this 2in$8 an$ this o((ortunity , cannot let (ass .ithout e'(ressing )y than2s for the interest .hich .as a.a2ene$ in )e 7y their -isit8 as .ell as for the generous ac2no.le$g)ent of the courtesy 7y the Association0 >ince that ti)e )y a((aratus has 7een -ery )aterially i)(ro-e$8 an$ no. , a) a7le to create a fiel$ of such intense in$uction in the la7oratory that a coil three feet in $ia)eter8 7y careful a$Hust)ent8 .ill $eli-er energy at the rate of one9quarter of a horse (o.er8 no )atter .here it is (lace$ .ithin the area enclose$ 7y the (ri)ary loo(s0 #ong s(ar2s8 strea)ers an$ all other (heno)ena o7taina7le .ith in$uction coils are easily (ro$uci7le any.here .ithin the s(ace8 an$ such coils8 though not8 connecte$ to anything8 )ay 7e utiliBe$ e'actly as or$inary coils8 an$ .hat is still )ore re)ar2a7le8 they are )ore effecti-e0 For the (ast fe. years , ha-e often 7een urge$ to sho. e'(eri)ents in (u7lic8 7ut8 though , .as $esirous to co)(ly .ith such requests8 (ressing .or2 has so far )a$e it 'i)(ossi7le0 These a$-ances ha-e 7een the result of slo. 7ut stea$y i)(ro-e)ent in the $etails of the a((aratus .hich , ho(e to 7e
a7le to $escri7e connecte$ly in the near future0 Ho.e-er re)ar2a7le the electro$yna)ic in$ucti-e effects8 .hich , ha-e )entione$8 )ay a((ear8 they )ay 7e still consi$era7ly intensifie$ 7y concentrating the action u(on a -ery s)all s(ace0 ,t is e-i$ent that since8 as 7efore state$8 electro)oti-e forces of )any thousan$ -olts are )aintaine$ 7et.een t.o (oints of a con$ucting 7ar or loo( only a fe. inches long8 electro)oti-e forces of a((ro'i)ately the sa)e )agnitu$e .ill 7e set u( in con$uctors situate$ near 7y0 ,n$ee$8 , foun$ that it .as (ractica7le in this )anner to (ass a $ischarge through a highly e'hauste$ 7ul78 although the electro)oti-e force require$ a)ounte$ to as )uch as ten or t.enty thousan$ -olts8 an$ for a long ti)e , follo.e$ u( e'(eri)ents in this $irection .ith the o7Hect of (ro$ucing light in a no-el an$ )ore econo)ical .ay0 3ut the tests left no $ou7t that there .as great energy consu)(tion atten$ant to this )o$e of illu)ination8 at least .ith the a((aratus , ha$ then at co))an$8 an$8 fin$ing another )etho$ .hich (ro)ise$ a higher econo)y of transfor)ation8 )y efforts turne$ in this ne. $irection0 >hortly after.ar$s (so)e ti)e in Eune8 1891 <rof0 E0 E0 Tho)son $escri7e$ e'(eri)ents .hich .ere e-i$ently the outco)e of long in-estigation8 an$ in .hich he su((lie$ )uch no-el an$ interesting infor)ation8 an$ this )a$e )e return .ith rene.e$ Beal to )y o.n e'(eri)ents0 >oon )y efforts .ere centre$ u(on (ro$ucing in a s)all s(ace the )ost intense in$ucti-e action8 an$ 7y gra$ual i)(ro-e)ent in the a((aratus , o7taine$ results of a sur(rising character0 For instance8 .hen the en$ of a hea-y 7ar of iron .as thrust .ithin a loo( (o.erfully energiBe$8 a fe. )o)ents .ere sufficient to raise the 7ar to a high te)(erature0 "-en hea-y lu)(s of other )etals .ere heate$ as ra(i$ly as though they .ere (lace$ in a furnace0 &hen a continuous 7an$ for)e$ of a sheet of tin .as thrust into the loo(8 the )etal .as fuse$ instantly8 the action 7eing co)(ara7le to an e'(losion8 an$ no .on$er8 for the frictional losses accu)ulate$ in it at the rate of (ossi7ly ten horse (o.er0 /asses of (oorly con$ucting )aterial 7eha-e$ si)ilarly8 an$ .hen a highly e'hauste$ 7ul7 .as (ushe$ into the loo(8 the glass .as heate$ in a fe. secon$s nearly to the (oint of )elting0 &hen , first o7ser-e$ these astonishing actions8 , .as intereste$ to stu$y their effects u(on li-ing tissues0 As )ay 7e assu)e$8 , (rocee$e$ .ith all the necessary caution8 an$ .ell , )ight8 for , ha$ the e-i$ence that in a turn of only a fe. inches in $ia)eter an electro)oti-e force of )ore than ten thousan$ -olts .as (ro$uce$8 an$ such high (ressure .oul$ 7e )ore than sufficient to generate $estructi-e currents in the tissue0 This a((eare$ all the )ore certain as 7o$ies of co)(arati-ely (oor con$ucti-ity .ere ra(i$ly heate$ an$ e-en (artially $estroye$0 ;ne )ay i)agine )y astonish)ent .hen , foun$ that , coul$ thrust )y han$ or any other (art of the 7o$y .ithin the loo( an$ hol$ it there .ith i)(unity0 /ore than on one occasion8 i)(elle$ 7y a $esire to )a2e so)e no-el an$ useful o7ser-ation8 , ha-e .illingly or unconsciously (erfor)e$ an e'(eri)ent connecte$ .ith so)e ris28 this 7eing scarcely a-oi$a7le in la7oratory e'(erience8 7ut , ha-e al.ays 7elie-e$8 an$ $o so no.8 that , ha-e ne-er un$erta2en anything in .hich8 accor$ing to )y o.n esti)ation8 the chances of 7eing inHure$ .ere so great as .hen , (lace$ )y hea$ .ithin the s(ace in .hich such terri7ly $estructi-e forces .ere at .or20 Det , ha-e $one so8 an$ re(eate$ly8 an$ ha-e felt nothing0 3ut , a) fir)ly con-ince$ that there is great $anger atten$ing such an e'(eri)ent8 an$ so)e one going Hust a ste( farther than , ha-e gone )ay 7e instantly $estroye$0 For8 con$itions )ay e'ist si)ilar to those o7ser-a7le .ith a -acuu) 7ul70 ,t )ay 7e (lace$ in the fiel$ of the loo(8 ho.e-er intensely energiBe$8 an$ so long as no (ath for the current is for)e$8 it .ill re)ain cool an$ consu)e (ractically no energy0 3ut the )o)ent the first fee7le current (asses8 )ost of the energy of the oscillations rushes to the (lace of consu)(tion0 ,f 7y any action .hate-er8 a con$ucting (ath .ere for)e$ .ithin the li-ing tissue or 7ones of the hea$8 it .oul$ result in the instant $estruction of these an$ $eath of the foolhar$y e'(eri)enter0 >uch a )etho$ of 2illing8 if it .ere ren$ere$ (ractica7le8 .oul$ 7e a7solutely (ainless0 1o.8 .hy is it that in a s(ace in .hich such -iolent tur)oil is going on li-ing tissue re)ains uninHure$F ;ne )ight say the currents cannot (ass 7ecause of the great self9in$uction offere$ 7y the large con$ucting )ass0 3ut this it cannot 7e8 7ecause a )ass of )etal offers a still higher self9in$uction an$ is heate$ Hust the sa)e0 ;ne )ight argue the tissues offer too great a resistance0 3ut this again cannot 7e the reason8 for all e-i$ence sho.s that the tissues con$uct .ell enough8 an$ 7esi$es8 7o$ies of a((ro'i)ately the sa)e resistance are raise$ to a high te)(erature0 ;ne )ight attri7ute the a((arent har)lessness of the oscillations to the high s(ecific heat of the tissue8 7ut e-en a rough quantitati-e esti)ate fro) e'(eri)ents .ith other 7o$ies sho.s that this -ie. is untena7le0 The only (lausi7le e'(lanation , ha-e so far foun$ is that the tissues are con$ensers0 This only can account for the a7sence of inHurious action0 3ut it is re)ar2a7le that8 as soon as a heterogeneous circuit is constitute$8 as 7y ta2ing in the han$s a 7ar of )etal an$ for)ing a close$ loo( in this )anner8 the (assage of the currents through the ar)s is felt8 an$ other (hysiological effects are $istinctly note$0 The strongest action is8 of course8 secure$ .hen the e'citing loo( )a2es only one turn8 unless the connections ta2e u( a consi$era7le (ortion of the total length of the circuit8 in .hich case the e'(eri)enter shoul$ settle u(on the least nu)7er of turns 7y carefully esti)ating .hat he loses 7y increasing the nu)7er of turns8 an$ .hat he gains 7y utiliBing thus a greater (ro(ortion of the total length of the circuit0 ,t shoul$ 7e 7orne in )in$ that8 .hen the e'citing coil has a consi$era7le nu)7er of turns an$ is of so)e length8 the effects of electrostatic in$uction )ay (re(on$erate8 as there )ay e'ist a -ery
great $ifference of (otential99a hun$re$ thousan$ -olts or )ore997et.een the first an$ last turn0 Ho.e-er8 these latter effects are al.ays (resent e-en .hen a single turn is e)(loye$0 &hen a (erson is (lace$ .ithin such a loo(8 any (ieces of )etal8 though of s)all 7ul28 are (erce(ti7ly .ar)e$0 &ithout $ou7t they .oul$ 7e also heate$99(articularly if they .ere of iron99.hen e)7e$$e$ in li-ing tissue8 an$ this suggests the (ossi7ility of surgical treat)ent 7y this )etho$0 ,t )ight 7e (ossi7le to steriliBe .oun$s8 or to locate8 or e-en to e'tract )etallic o7Hects8 or to (erfor) other o(erations of this 2in$ .ithin the s(here of the surgeon's $uties in this no-el )anner0 /ost of the results enu)erate$8 an$ )any others still )ore re)ar2a7le8 are )a$e (ossi7le only 7y utiliBing the $ischarges of a con$enser0 ,t is (ro7a7le that 7ut a -ery fe.99e-en a)ong those .ho are .or2ing in these i$entical fiel$s99fully a((reciate .hat a .on$erful instru)ent such a con$enser is in reality0 #et )e con-ey an i$ea to this effect0 ;ne )ay ta2e a con$enser8 s)all enough to go in one's -est (oc2et8 an$ 7y s2ilfully using it he )ay create an electrical (ressure -astly in e'cess99a hun$re$ ti)es greater if necessary99than any (ro$uci7le 7y the largest static )achine e-er constructe$0 ;r8 he )ay ta2e the sa)e con$enser an$8 using it in a $ifferent .ay8 he )ay o7tain fro) it currents against .hich those of the )ost (o.erful .el$ing )achine are utterly insignificant0 Those .ho are i)7ue$ .ith (o(ular notions as to the (ressures of static )achines an$ currents o7taina7le .ith a co))ercial transfor)er8 .ill 7e astonishe$ at this state)ent99yet the truth of it is easy to see0 >uch results are o7taina7le8 an$ easily8 7ecause the con$enser can $ischarge the store$ energy in an inconcei-a7ly short ti)e0 1othing li2e this (ro(erty is 2no.n in (hysical science0 A co)(resse$ s(ring8 or a storage 7attery8 or any other for) of $e-ice ca(a7le of storing energy8 cannot $o thisJ if they coul$8 things un$rea)e$ of at (resent )ight 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y their )eans0 The nearest a((roach to a charge$ con$enser is a high e'(losi-e8 as $yna)ite0 3ut e-en the )ost -iolent e'(losion of such a co)(oun$ 7ears no co)(arison .ith the $ischarge or e'(losion of a con$enser0 For8 .hile the (ressures .hich are (ro$uce$ in the $etonation of a che)ical co)(oun$ are )easure$ in tens of tons (er square inch8 those .hich )ay 7e cause$ 7y con$enser $ischarges )ay a)ount to thousan$s of tons (er square inch8 an$ if a che)ical coul$ 7e )a$e .hich .oul$ e'(lo$e as quic2ly as a con$enser can 7e $ischarge$ un$er con$itions .hich are realiBa7le99an ounce of it .oul$ quite certainly 7e sufficient to ren$er useless the largest 7attleshi(0 That i)(ortant realiBations .oul$ follo. fro) the use of an instru)ent (ossessing such i$eal (ro(erties , ha-e 7een con-ince$ since long ago8 7ut , also recogniBe$ early that great $ifficulties .oul$ ha-e to 7e o-erco)e 7efore it coul$ re(lace less (erfect i)(le)ents no. use$ in the arts for the )anifol$ transfor)ations of electrical energy0 These $ifficulties .ere )any0 The con$ensers the)sel-es8 as usually )anufacture$8 .ere inefficient8 the con$uctors .asteful8 the 7est insulation ina$equate8 an$ the con$itions for the )ost efficient con-ersion .ere har$ to a$Hust an$ to )aintain0 ;ne $ifficulty8 ho.e-er8 .hich .as )ore serious than the others8 an$ to .hich , calle$ attention .hen , first $escri7e$ this syste) of energy transfor)ation8 .as foun$ in the $e-ices necessarily use$ for controlling the charges an$ $ischarges of the con$enser0 They .ere .anting in efficiency an$ relia7ility an$ threatene$ to (ro-e a $eci$e$ $ra.7ac28 greatly restricting the use of the syste) an$ $e(ri-ing it of )any -alua7le features0 For a nu)7er of years , ha-e trie$ to )aster this $ifficulty0 =uring this ti)e a great nu)7er of such $e-ices .ere e'(eri)ente$ u(on0 /any of the) (ro)ise$ .ell at first8 only to (ro-e ina$equate in the en$0 +eluctantly8 , ca)e 7ac2 u(on an i$ea on .hich , ha$ .or2e$ long 7efore0 ,t .as to re(lace the or$inary 7rushes an$ co))utator seg)ents 7y flui$ contacts0 , ha$ encountere$ $ifficulties then8 7ut the inter-ening years in the la7oratory .ere not s(ent in -ain8 an$ , )a$e hea$.ay0 First it .as necessary to (ro-i$e for a circulation of the flui$8 7ut forcing it through 7y a (u)( (ro-e$ itself i)(ractical0 Then the ha((y i$ea (resente$ itself to )a2e the (u)(ing $e-ice an integral (art of the circuit interru(ter8 inclosing 7oth in a rece(tacle to (re-ent o'i$ation0 1e't so)e si)(le .ays of )aintaining the circulation8 as 7y rotating a 7o$y of )ercury8 (resente$ the)sel-es0 Then , learne$ ho. to re$uce the .ear an$ losses .hich still e'iste$0 , fear that these state)ents8 in$icating ho. )uch effort .as s(ent in these see)ingly insignificant $etails .ill not con-ey a high i$ea of )y a7ility8 7ut , confess that )y (atience .as ta'e$ to the ut)ost0 Finally8 though8 , ha$ the satisfaction of (ro$ucing $e-ices .hich are si)(le an$ relia7le in their o(eration8 .hich require (ractically no attention an$ .hich are ca(a7le of effecting a transfor)ation of consi$era7le a)ounts of energy .ith fair econo)y0 ,t is not the 7est that can 7e $one8 7y any )eans8 7ut it is satisfactory8 an$ , feel that the har$est tas2 is $one0 The (hysician .ill no. 7e a7le to o7tain an instru)ent suita7le to fulfil )any require)ents0 He .ill 7e a7le to use it in electro9thera(eutic treat)ent in )ost of the .ays enu)erate$0 He .ill ha-e the facility of (ro-i$ing hi)self .ith coils such as he )ay $esire to ha-e for any (articular (ur(ose8 .hich .ill gi-e hi) any current or any (ressure he )ay .ish to o7tain0 >uch coils .ill consist of 7ut a fe. turns of .ire8 an$ the e'(ense of (re(aring the) .ill 7e quite insignificant0 The instru)ent .ill also ena7le hi) to generate +ontgen rays of )uch greater (o.er than o7taina7le .ith or$inary a((aratus0 A tu7e )ust still 7e furnishe$ 7y the )anufacturers .hich .ill not $eteriorate an$ .hich .ill allo. to concentrate larger a)ounts of energy u(on the electro$es0 &hen this is $one8
nothing .ill stan$ in the .ay of an e'tensi-e an$ efficient a((lication of this 7eautiful $isco-ery .hich )ust ulti)ately (ro-e itself of the highest -alue8 not only at the han$s of the surgeon8 7ut also of the electro9thera(ist an$8 .hat is )ost i)(ortant8 of the 7acteriologist0
To gi-e a general i$ea of an instru)ent in .hich )any of the latter i)(ro-e)ents are e)7o$ie$8 , .oul$ refer to Fig0 98 .hich illustrates the chief (arts of the sa)e in si$e ele-ation an$ (artially in -ertical cross9section0 The arrange)ent of the (arts is the sa)e as in the for) of' instru)ent e'hi7ite$ on for)er occasions8 only the e'citing coil .ith the -i7rating interru(ter is re(lace$ 7y one of the i)(ro-e$ circuit 7rea2ers to .hich reference has 7een )a$e0 This $e-ice co)(rises a casting A .ith a (rotru$ing slee-e 38 .hich in a 7ushing su((orts a freely rotata7le shaft a0 The latter carries an ar)ature .ithin a stationary fiel$ )agnet / an$ on the to(8 a hollo. iron (ulley =8 .hich contains the 7rea2 (ro(er0 &ithin the shaft a8 an$ concentrically .ith the sa)e8 is (lace$ a s)aller shaft 78 li2e.ise freely )o-a7le on 7all97earings an$ su((orting a .eight "0 This .eight 7eing on one si$e an$ the shafts a an$ 7 incline$ to the -ertical8 the .eight re)ains stationary as the (ulley is rotate$0 Fastene$ to the .eight " is a $e-ice + in the for) of a scoo( .ith -ery thin .alls8 narro. on the en$ nearer to the (ulley an$ .i$er on the other en$0 A s)all quantity of )ercury 7eing (lace$ in the (ulley an$ the latter rotate$ against the narro. en$ of the scoo(8 a (ortion of the flui$ is ta2en u( an$ thro.n in a thin an$ .i$e strea) to.ar$s the centre of the (ulley0 The to( of the latter is her)etically close$ 7y an iron .asher8 as sho.n0 this .asher su((orting on a steel ro$ # a $is2 F of the sa)e )etal (ro-i$e$ .ith a nu)7er of thin contact 7la$es :0 The ro$ # is insulate$ 7y .ashers fro) the (ulley an$ for the con-enience of filling in the )ercury a s)all scre. o is (ro-i$e$0 The 7olt # for)ing one ter)inal of the circuit 7rea2er is connecte$ 7y a co((er stri( to the (ri)ary (0 The other en$ of the (ri)ary coil lea$s to one of the ter)inals of the con$enser C8 containe$ in a co)(art)ent of a 7o' A8 another co)(art)ent of the sa)e 7eing reser-e$ for s.itch > an$ ter)inals of the instru)ent0 The other ter)inal of the con$enser is connecte$ to the casting A an$ through it to (ulley =0 &hen the (ulley is rotate$8 the contact 7la$es : are 7rought ra(i$ly in an$ out of contact .ith the strea) of )ercury8 thus closing an$ o(ening the circuit in quic2 succession0 &ith such a $e-ice it is easy to o7tain ten thousan$ )a2es an$ 7rea2s (er secon$ an$ e-en )ore0 The secon$ary s is )a$e of t.o se(arate coils an$ so arrange$ that it can 7e sli((e$ out8 an$ a )etal stri( in its )i$$le connects it to the (ri)ary coil0 This is $one to (re-ent the secon$ary fro) 7rea2ing $o.n .hen one of the ter)inals is o-erloa$e$8 as it often ha((ens in .or2ing +ontgen 7ul7s0 This for) of coil .ill .ithstan$ a -ery )uch greater $ifference of (otential than coils as or$inarily constructe$0 The )otor has 7oth fiel$ an$ ar)ature 7uilt of (lates8 so that it can 7e use$ on alternating as .ell as $irect current su((ly circuits8 an$ the shafts are as nearly as (ossi7le -ertical8 so as to require the least care in oiling0 Thus8 the only thing .hich really requires so)e attention is the co))utator of the )otor8 7ut .here alternating currents are al.ays a-aila7le8 this source of (ossi7le trou7le is easily $one a.ay .ith0
The circuit connections of the instru)ent ha-e 7een alrea$y sho.n an$ the )o$e of o(eration e'(laine$ in (erio$icals0 The usual )anner of connecting is illustrate$ in Fig0 88 in .hich A0 A8 are the ter)inals of the su((ly circuit8 #8 a self9in$uction coil for raising the (ressure8 .hich is connecte$ in series .ith con$enser C an$ (ri)ary < <0 The re)aining letters $esignate the (arts corres(on$ingly )ar2e$ in Fig0 9 an$ .ill 7e un$erstoo$ .ith' reference to the latter0
18-8-11-"1: 5lans to %is$ense wit, Artillery of t,e 5resent Ty$e by Nikola Tesla
The &un+ Ne" -ork 0 0 0 +eferring to )y latest in-ention ?the telauto)aton@8 , .ish to 7ring out a (oint .hich has 7een o-erloo2e$0 , arri-e$8 as has 7een state$8 at the i$ea through entirely a7stract s(eculations on the hu)an organis)8 .hich , concei-e$ to 7e a self9(ro(elling )achine8 the )otions of .hich are go-erne$ 7y i)(ressions recei-e$ through the eye0 "n$ea-ouring to construct a )echanical )o$el rese)7ling in its essential8 )aterial features the hu)an 7o$y8 , .as le$ to co)7ine a controlling $e-ice8 or organ sensiti-e to certain .a-es8 .ith a 7o$y (ro-i$e$ .ith (ro(elling an$ $irecting )echanis)8 an$ the rest naturally follo.e$0 ;riginally the i$ea intereste$ )e only fro) the scientific (oint of -ie.8 7ut soon , sa. that , ha$ )a$e a $e(arture .hich sooner or later )ust (ro$uce a (rofoun$ change in things an$ con$itions (resently e'isting0 , ho(e this change .ill 7e for the goo$ only8 for8 if it .ere other.ise8 , .ish that , ha$ ne-er )a$e the in-ention0 The future )ay or )ay not 7ear out )y (resent con-ictions8 7ut , can not refrain fro) saying that it is $ifficult for )e to see at (resent ho.8 .ith such a (rinci(le 7rought to great (erfection8 as it un$ou7te$ly .ill 7e in the course of ti)e8 guns can )aintain the)sel-es as .ea(ons0 &e shall 7e a7le8 7y a-ailing oursel-es of this a$-ance8 to sen$ a (roHectile at )uch greater $istance8 it .ill not 7e li)ite$ in any .ay 7y .eight or a)ount of e'(losi-e charge8 .e shall 7e a7le to su7)erge it at co))an$8 to arrest it in its flight8 an$ call it 7ac28 an$ sen$ it out again an$ e'(lo$e it at .ill8 an$8 )ore than this8 it .ill ne-er )a2e a )iss8 since all chance in this regar$8 if hitting the o7Hect of attac2 .ere at all require$8 is eli)inate$0 3ut the chief feature of such a .ea(on is still to 7e tol$J na)ely8 it )ay 7e )a$e to res(on$ only to a certain note or tune8 it )ay 7e en$o.e$ .ith selecti-e (o.er0 =irectly such an ar) is (ro$uce$8 it 7eco)es al)ost i)(ossi7le to )eet it .ith a corres(on$ing $e-elo()ent0 ,t is this feature8 (erha(s )ore than in its (o.er of $estruction8 that its ten$ency to arrest the $e-elo()ent of ar)s an$ to sto( .arfare .ill resi$e0 &ith rene.e$ than2s8 , re)ain8 Gery truly yours8 10 Tesla0
18-8-11-"/: 'etter to *ditor by Nikola Tesla

Electrical Engineer , N. -.
1e. Dor28 1o-0 188 1898 6% O 68 "ast Houston >t0 "$itor of The "lectrical "ngineer8 1!5 #i7erty >t08 1e. Dor2 CityI >ir 9 3y (u7lishing in your colu)ns of 1o-0 1* )y recent contri7ution to the "lectro9Thera(eutic >ociety you ha-e finally succee$e$ 9 after )any -ain atte)(ts )a$e $uring a nu)7er of years 9 in causing )e a serious inHury0 ,t has cost )e great (ains to .rite that (a(er8 an$ , ha-e e'(ecte$ to see it a((ear a)ong other $ignifie$ contri7utions of its 2in$8 an$ , confess8 the .oun$ is $ee(0 3ut you .ill ha-e no o((ortunity for inflicting a si)ilar one8 as , (ro(ose to ta2e 7etter care of )y (a(ers in the future0 ,n .hat )anner you ha-e secure$ this one in a$-ance of other electrical (erio$icals .ho ha$ an equal right to the sa)e8 rests .ith the secretary of the society to e'(lain0 Dour e$itorial co))ent .oul$ not concern )e in the least8 .ere it not )y $uty to ta2e note of it0 ;n )ore than one occasion you ha-e offen$e$ )e8 7ut in )y qualities 7oth as Christian an$ (hiloso(her , ha-e al.ays forgi-en you an$ only (itie$ you for your errors0 This ti)e8 though8 your offence is gra-er than the (re-ious ones8 for you ha-e $are$ to cast a sha$o. on )y honour0 1o $ou7t you )ust ha-e in your (ossession8 fro) the illustrious )en .ho) you quote8 tangi7le (roofs in su((ort of your state)ent reflecting on )y honesty0 3eing a 7earer of great honours fro) a nu)7er of A)erican uni-ersities8 it is )y $uty8 in -ie. of the slur thus cast u(on the)8 to e'act fro) you that in your ne't issue you (ro$uce these8 together .ith this letter8 .hich in Hustice to )yself8 , a) for.ar$ing to other electrical Hournals0 ,n the a7sence of such (roofs8 , require that8 together .ith the (rece$ing8 you (u7lish instea$ a co)(lete an$ hu)7le a(ology for your insulting re)ar2 .hich reflects on )e as .ell as on those .ho honour )e0 ;n this con$ition , .ill again forgi-e youJ 7ut , .oul$ a$-ise you to li)it yourself in your future attac2s to state)ents for .hich you are not lia7le to 7e (unishe$ 7y la.0 10 T">#A
18-8-11-90: Tesla %es(ri1es ,is *fforts in 6arious 7ields of For. 4y Nikola Tesla
Electrical !evie" , Ne" -ork , Nov+ :=+ 1010 The &un+ Ne" -ork+ November ?1+ 1010 T; TH" "=,T;+ ;F TH" >C1K>irI Ha$ it not 7een for other urgent $uties8 , .oul$ 7efore this ha-e ac2no.le$ge$ your highly a((reciati-e e$itorial of 1o-e)7er 130 >uch earnest co))ents an$ the frequent e-i$ences of the highest a((reciation of )y la7ours 7y )en .ho are the recogniBe$ lea$ers of this $ay in scientific s(eculation8 $isco-ery an$ in-ention are a (o.erful sti)ulus8 an$ , a) than2ful for the)0 There is nothing that gi-es )e so )uch strength an$ courage as the feeling that those .ho are co)(etent to Hu$ge ha-e faith in )e0 <er)it )e on this occasion to )a2e a fe. state)ents .hich .ill $efine )y (osition in the -arious fiel$s of in-estigation you ha-e touche$ u(on0 , can not 7ut gratefully ac2no.le$ge )y in$e7te$ness to earlier .or2ers8 as =r0 HertB an$ =r0 #o$ge8 in )y efforts to (ro$uce a (ractical an$ econo)ical lighting syste) on the lines .hich , first $isclose$ in a lecture at Colu)7ia College in 18910 There e'ists a (o(ular error in regar$ to this light8 inas)uch as it is 7elie-e$ that it can 7e o7taine$ .ithout generation of heat0 The enthusias) of =r0 #o$ge is (ro7a7ly res(onsi7le for this error8 .hich , ha-e (ointe$ out early 7y sho.ing the i)(ossi7ility of reaching a high -i7ration .ithout going through the lo.er or fun$a)ental tones0 ;n (urely theoretical groun$s such a result is thin29 a7le8 7ut it .oul$ i)(ly a $e-ice for starting the -i7rations of unattaina7le qualities8 inas)uch as it .oul$ ha-e to 7e entirely $e-oi$ of inertia an$ other (ro(erties of )atter0 Though , ha-e conce(tions in this regar$8 , $is)iss for the (resent this (ro(osition as 7eing i)(ossi7le0 &e can not (ro$uce light .ithout heat8 7ut .e can surely (ro$uce a )ore efficient light than that o7taine$ in the incan$escent la)(8 .hich8 though a 7eautiful in-ention8 is sa$ly lac2ing in the feature of efficiency0 As the first ste( to.ar$ this realiBation8 , ha-e foun$ it necessary to in-ent so)e )etho$ for transfor)ing econo)ically the or$inary currents as furnishe$ fro) the lighting circuits into electrical -i7rations of great ra(i$ity0 This .as a $ifficult (ro7le)8 an$ it .as only recently that , .as a7le to announce its (ractical an$ thoroughly satisfactory solution0 3ut this .as not the only require)ent in a syste) of this 2in$0 ,t .as necessary also to increase the intensity of the light8 .hich at first .as -ery fee7le0 ,n this $irection8 too8 , )et .ith co)(lete success8 so that at (resent , a) (ro$ucing a thoroughly ser-ice9 a7le an$ econo)ical light of any $esire$ intensity0 , $o not )ean to say that this syste) .ill re-olutioniBe those in use at (resent8 .hich ha-e resulte$ fro) the co9o(eration of )any a7le )en0 , a) only sure that it .ill ha-e its fiel$s of usefulness0 As to the i$ea of ren$ering the energy of the sun a-aila7le for in$ustrial (ur(oses8 it fascinate$ )e early 7ut , )ust a$)it it .as only long after , $isco-ere$ the rotating )agnetic fiel$ that it too2 a fir) hol$ u(on )y )in$0 ,n assailing the (ro7le) , foun$ t.o (ossi7le .ays of sol-ing it0 "ither (o.er .as to 7e $e-elo(e$ on the s(ot 7y con-erting the energy of the sun's ra$iations or the energy of -ast reser-oirs .as to 7e trans)itte$ econo)ically to any $istance0 Though there .ere other (ossi7le sources of econo)ical (o.er8 only the t.o solutions )entione$ offer the i$eal feature of (o.er 7eing o7taine$ .ithout any consu)(tion of )aterial0 After long thought , finally arri-e$ at t.o solutions8 7ut on the first of these8 na)ely8 that referring to the $e-elo()ent of (o.er in any locality fro) the sun's ra$iations8 , can not $.ell at (resent0 The syste) of (o.er trans)ission .ithout .ires8 in the for) in .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ it recently8 originate$ in this )anner0 >tarting fro) t.o facts that the earth .as a con$uctor insulate$ in s(ace8 an$ that a 7o$y can not 7e charge$ .ithout causing an equi-alent $is(lace)ent of electricity in the earth8 , un$ertoo2 to construct a )achine suite$ for creating as large a $is(lace)ent as (ossi7le of the earth's electricity0 This )achine .as si)(ly to charge an$ $ischarge in ra(i$ succession a 7o$y insulate$ in s(ace8 thus altering (erio$ically the a)ount of electricity in the earth8 an$ consequently the (ressure all o-er its surface0 ,t .as nothing 7ut .hat in )echanics is a (u)(8 forcing .ater fro) a large reser-oir into a s)all one an$ 7ac2 again0 <ri)arily , conte)(late$ only the sen$ing of )essages to great $istances in this )anner8 an$ , $escri7e$ the sche)e in $etail8 (ointing out on that occasion the i)(ortance of ascertaining certain electrical con$itions of the earth0 The attracti-e feature of this (lan .as that the intensity of the signals shoul$ $i)inish -ery little .ith the $istance8 an$8 in fact8 shoul$ not $i)inish at all8 if it .ere not for certain losses occurring8 chiefly in the at)os(here0 As all )y (re-ious i$eas8 this one8 too8 recei-e$ the treat)ent of /arsyas8 7ut it for)s8 ne-ertheless8 the 7asis of .hat is no. 2no.n as _.ireless telegra(hy0` This state)ent .ill 7ear rigorous e'a)ination8 7ut it is not )a$e .ith the intent of $etracting fro) the )erit of others0 ;n the contrary8 it is .ith great (leasure that , ac2no.le$ge the early .or2 of =r0 #o$ge8 the 7rilliant e'(eri)ents of /arconi8 an$ of a later
e'(eri)enter in this line8 =r0 >la7y8 of 3erlin0 1o.8 this i$ea , e'ten$e$ to a syste) of (o.er trans)ission8 an$ , su7)itte$ it to Hel)holtB on the occasion of his -isit to this country0 He unhesitatingly sai$ that (o.er coul$ certainly 7e trans)itte$ in this )anner8 7ut he $ou7te$ that , coul$ e-er (ro$uce an a((aratus ca(a7le of creating the high (ressures of a nu)7er of )illion -olts8 .hich .ere require$ to attac2 the (ro7le) .ith any chance of success8 an$ that , coul$ o-erco)e the $ifficulties of insulation0 ,)(ossi7le as this (ro7le) see)e$ at first8 , .as fortunate to )aster it in a co)(arati-ely short ti)e8 an$ it .as in (erfecting this a((aratus that , ca)e to a turning (oint in the $e-elo()ent of this i$ea0 ,8 na)ely8 at once o7ser-e$ that the air8 .hich is a (erfect insulator for currents (ro$uce$ 7y or$inary a((aratus8 .as easily tra-erse$ 7y currents furnishe$ 7y )y i)(ro-e$ )achine8 gi-ing a tension of so)ething li2e !84558555 -olts0 A further in-estigation in this $irection le$ to another -alua7le factJ na)ely8 that the con$ucti-ity of the air for these currents increase$ -ery ra(i$ly .ith its $egree of rarefaction8 an$ at once the trans)ission of energy through the u((er strata of air8 .hich8 .ithout such results as , ha-e o7taine$8 .oul$ 7e nothing )ore than a $rea)8 7eca)e easily realiBa7le0 This a((ears all the )ore certain8 as , foun$ it quite (ractica7le to trans)it8 un$er con$itions such as e'ist in heights .ell e'(lore$8 electrical energy in large a)ounts0 , ha-e thus o-erco)e all the chief o7stacles .hich originally stoo$ in the .ay8 an$ the success of )y syste) no. rests )erely on engineering s2ill0 +eferring to )y latest in-ention8 , .ish to 7ring out a (oint .hich has 7een o-erloo2e$0 , arri-e$8 as has 7een state$8 at the i$ea through entirely a7stract s(eculations on the hu)an organis)8 .hich , concei-e$ to 7e a self9 (ro(elling )achine8 the )otions of .hich are go-erne$ 7y i)(ressions recei-e$ through the eye0 en$ea-ouring to construct a )echanical )o$el rese)7ling in its essential8 )aterial features the hu)an 7o$y8 , .as le$ to co)7ine a controlling $e-ice8 or organ sensiti-e to certain .a-es8 .ith a 7o$y (ro-i$e$ .ith (ro(elling an$ $irecting )echanis)8 an$ the rest naturally follo.e$0 ;riginally the i$ea intereste$ )e only fro) the scientific (oint of -ie.8 7ut soon , sa. that , ha$ )a$e a $e(arture .hich sooner or later )ust (ro$uce a (rofoun$ change in things an$ con$itions (resently e'isting0 , ho(e this change .ill 7e for the goo$ only8 for8 if it .ere other.ise8 , .ish that , ha$ ne-er )a$e the in-ention0 The future )ay or )ay not 7ear out )y (resent con-ictions8 7ut , can not refrain fro) saying that it is $ifficult for )e to see at (resent ho.8 .ith such a (rinci(le 7rought to great (erfection8 as it un$ou7te$ly .ill 7e in the course of ti)e8 guns can )aintain the)sel-es as .ea(ons0 &e shall 7e a7le8 7y a-ailing oursel-es of this a$-ance8 to sen$ a (roHectile at )uch greater $istance8 it .ill not 7e li)ite$ in any .ay 7y .eight or a)ount of e'(losi-e charge8 .e shall 7e a7le to su7)erge it at co))an$8 to arrest it in its flight8 an$ call it 7ac28 an$ to sen$ it out again an$ e'(lo$e it at .ill8 an$8 )ore than this8 it .ill ne-er )a2e a )iss8 since all chance in this regar$8 if hitting the o7Hect of attac2 .ere at all require$8 is eli)inate$0 3ut the chief feature of such a .ea(on is still to 7e tol$J na)ely8 it )ay 7e )a$e to res(on$ only to a certain note or tune8 it )ay 7e en$o.e$ .ith selecti-e (o.er0 =irectly such an ar) is (ro$uce$8 it 7eco)es al)ost i)(ossi7le to )eet it .ith a corres(on$ing $e-elo()ent0 ,t is this feature8 (erha(s8 )ore than in its (o.er of $estruction8 that its ten$ency to arrest the $e-elo()ent of ar)s an$ to sto( .arfare .ill resi$e0 &ith rene.e$ than2s8 , re)ain8 Gery truly8 yours8 10 T">#A0 1e. Dor28 1o-e)7er 190
18---09-15: On Current :nterru$ters 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" To sti)ulate the ar$our of the Bealous e'(eri)enters8 .ho 7elie-e in the re-olutionary character of this $isco-ery8 it )ight 7e .ell to suggest one or t.o such si)(le $e-ices for interru(ting the current0 For instance8 a -ery (ri)iti-e contri-ance of this 2in$ co)(rises a (o2er 9 yes8 an or$inary (o2er8 connecte$ 7y )eans of a fle'i7le ca7le to one of the )ains of the generator8 an$ a 7athtu7 fille$ .ith con$ucting flui$ .hich is connecte$ in any suita7le )anner8 through the (ri)ary of an in$uction coil8 to the other (ole of the generator0 &hen the e'(eri)enter $esires to ta2e a +oentgen (icture8 he 7rings the en$ of the (o2er to .hite heat8 an$8 thrusting the sa)e into the 7athtu78 he .ill at once .itness an astonishing (heno)enonJ the seething an$ 7oiling liqui$ )a2ing an$ 7rea2ing the current in ra(i$ succession8 an$ the (o.erful rays generate$ .ill at once con-ince hi) of the great (ractical -alue of this $isco-ery0 , )ight further suggest that the (o2er )ay 7e con-eniently heate$ 7y )eans of a .el$ing )achine0 Another $e-ice8 entirely auto)atic8 an$ (ro7a7ly suita7le for use in su7ur7an $istricts8 co)(rises t.o insulate$ )etal (lates8 su((orte$ in any con-enient )anner8 in close (ro'i)ity to each other0 These (lates are connecte$ through the (ri)ary of an in$uction coil .ith the ter)inals of a generator8 an$ are 7ri$ge$ 7y t.o )o-a7le contacts Hoine$ 7y a fle'i7le ca7le0 The t.o contacts are 7oth attache$ to the legs of a goo$9siBe$ chic2en stan$ing astri$e on the (lates0 Heat 7eing a((lie$ to the latter8 )uscular contractions are (ro$uce$ in the legs of the chic2en8 .hich thus )a2es an$ 7rea2s the current through the in$uction coil0 Any nu)7er8 of such chic2ens )ay 7e (ro-i$e$ an$ the contacts connecte$ in series or )ulti(le arc8 as )ay 7e $esire$8 thus8 increasing the frequency of the i)(ulses0 ,n this )anner fierce s(ar2s8 suita7le for )ost (ur(oses8 )ay 7e o7taine$8 an$ -acuu) tu7es )ay 7e o(erate$8 an$ these contri-ances .ill 7e foun$ a nota7le i)(ro-e)ent on certain circuit9 7rea2ers of ol$8 .ith .hich t.o enter(rising e$itors un$ertoo2 so)e years ago to re-olutioniBe the syste)s of electric lighting0 The enter(rising e$itors8 are .iser no.0 They are to 7e congratulate$8 an$ their rea$ers8 scientific societies an$ the (rofession8 all ought to 7e congratulate$8 an$ 9 "all is .ell that en$s .ell0" The o7ser-ant e'(eri)enter .ill not fail to note that the fierce s(ar2s frighten the chic2ens8 .hich are thus (ut into )ore -iolent s(as)s an$ )uscular contractions8 this again increasing the fierceness of the s(ar2s8 .hich8 in return8 causes a greater fright of the chic2ens an$ increase$ s(ee$ of interru(tionsJ it is8 in fact8 as :i(ling saysI ",nter$e(en$ence a7solute8 foreseen8 or$aine$8 $ecree$8 To .or28 ye'll note8 as any tilt an' e-ery rate o's(ee$0" 3ut to return8 in all earnestness8 to the "electrolytic interru(ter" $escri7e$8 this is a $e-ice .ith .hich , a) (erfectly fa)iliar8 ha-ing carrie$ on e'tensi-e e'(eri)ents .ith the sa)e t.o or three years ago0 ,t .as one of )any $e-ices .hich , in-ente$ in )y efforts to (ro$uce an econo)ical contri-ance of this 2in$0 The na)e is really not a((ro(riate8 inas)uch as any flui$8 either con$ucting or )a$e so in any )anner8 as 7y 7eing ren$ere$ aci$ or al2aline8 or 7y 7eing heate$8 )ay 7e use$0 , ha-e e-en foun$ it (ossi7le8 un$er certain con$itions8 to o(erate .ith )ercury0 The $e-ice is e'tre)ely si)(le8 7ut the great .aste of energy atten$ant u(on its o(eration an$ certain other $efects )a2e it entirely unsuita7le for any -alua7le8 (ractical (ur(ose8 an$ as far as those instances are concerne$8 in .hich a s)all a)ount of energy is nee$e$8 )uch 7etter results are o7taine$ 7y a (ro(erly $esigne$ )echanical circuit97rea2er0 The e'(eri)enters are -ery li2ely $ecei-e$ 7y fin$ing that an in$uction coil gi-es longer s(ar2s .hen this $e-ice is inserte$ in (lace of the or$inary 7rea28 7ut this is $ue )erely to the fact that the 7rea2 is not (ro(erly $esigne$0 ;f the total energy su((lie$ fro) the )ains8 scarcely one9fourth is o7taina7le of that a)ount8 .hich a .ell constructe$ )echanical 7rea2 furnishes in the secon$ary8 an$ although , ha-e $esigne$ )any i)(ro-e$ for)s8 , ha-e foun$ it i)(ossi7le to increase )aterially the econo)y0 T.o i)(ro-e)ents8 ho.e-er8 .hich , foun$ at that ti)e necessary to intro$uce8 , )ay )ention for the 7enefit of 'those .ho are using the $e-ice0 As .ill 7e rea$ily note$8 the s)all ter)inal is surroun$e$ 7y a gaseous 7u77le8 in .hich the )a2es an$ 7rea2s are for)e$8 'Igenerally in an irregular )anner8 7y the liqui$ 7eing $ri-en to.ar$s the ter)inal at so)e (oint0 The force .hich $ri-es the liqui$ is e-i$ently the (ressure of the flui$ colu)n8 an$ 7y increasing the flui$ (ressure in any )anner the liqui$ is force$ .ith greater s(ee$ to.ar$s the ter)inal an$ thus the frequency is increase$0 Another necessary i)(ro-e)ent .as to )a2e a (ro-ision for (re-enting the aci$ or al2ali fro) 7eing carrie$ off into the at)os(here8 .hich al.ays ha((ens )ore or less8 e-en if the liqui$ colu)n 7e of so)e height0 =uring )y early e'(eri)ents .ith the $e-ice8 , 7eca)e so intereste$ in it that , neglecte$ this (recaution8 an$ , note$ that the aci$ ha$ attac2e$ all the a((aratus in )y la7oratory0 The e'(eri)enter .ill con-eniently carry out 7oth of these i)(ro-e)ents 7y ta2ing a long glass tu7e of8 say8 si'
to eight feet in length8 an$ arranging the interru(ting $e-ice close to the 7otto) of the tu7e8 .ith an outlet for e-entually re(lacing theV liqui$0 The high colu)n .ill (re-ent the fu)es fro) -itiating the at)os(here of the roo)8 an$ the increase$ (ressure .ill a$$ )aterially to the effecti-eness of the (erfor)ance0 ,f the liqui$ colu)n 7e80 say8 nine ti)es as high8 the force $ri-ing the flui$ to.ar$s the contact is nine ti)es as great8 an$ this force is ca(a7le8 un$er the sa)e con$itions8 of $ri-ing the flui$ three ti)es as fast8 hence the frequency is increase$ in that ratio an$8 0in fact8 in a so)e.hat greater ratio8 as the gaseous 7u77le8 7eing co)(resse$8 is ren$ere$ s)aller8 an$ therefore the liqui$ is )a$e to tra-el through a s)aller $istance0 The electro$e8 of course8 shoul$ 7e -ery s)all Ito insure the regularity of o(eration8 an$ it is not necessary to use (latinu)0 The (ressure )ay8 ho.e-er8 7e increase$ in other .ays8 an$ , ha-e o7taine$ so)e results of interest8 in e'(eri)ents of this 2in$0 As 7efore state$8 the $e-ice is -ery .asteful8 an$8 .hile it8 )ay 7e use$ in so)e instances8 , consi$er it of little or no (ractical -alue0 ,t .ill (lease )e to 7e con-ince$ of the contraryJ 7ut , $o not thin2 that , a) erring0 /y chief reasons for this state)ent are that there are )any other .ays in .hich 7y far 7etter results are o7taina7le .ith are equally si)(le8 if not )ore so0 , )ay )ention one here8 7ase$ on a $ifferent (rinci(le .hich is inco)(ara7ly )ore effecti-e8 )ore efficient an$ also si)(ler on the .hole0 ,t co)(rises a fine strea) of con$ucting flui$ .hich is )a$e to issue8 .ith any $esire$ s(ee$8 fro) an orifice connecte$ .ith one (ole of a generator8 through the (ri)ary of the in$uction coil8 against the other ter)inal of the generator (lace$ at a s)all $istance0 This $e-ice gi-es $ischarges of a re)ar2a7le su$$enness8 an$ the frequency )ay 7e 7rought .ithin reasona7le li)its8 al)ost to anything $esire$0 , ha-e use$ this $e-ice for a long ti)e in connection .ith or$inary coils an$ in a for) of )y o.n coil .ith results greatly su(erior in e-ery res(ect to those o7taina7le .ith the for) of $e-ice $iscusse$0
18---09-"-: Some *+$eriments in TeslaKs 'a1oratory wit, Currents of 0ig, 5otential and 0ig, 7re8uen(y 4y Nikola Tesla
Electrical !evie" To the "$itor of "lectrical +e-ie.I >ince the unfortunate acci$ent of four years ago8 .hich cri((le$ an$ $elaye$ )y la7ours in a nu)7er of lines so seriously8 , ha-e ha$ 7ut little ti)e to $e-ote to the fulfil)ent of a $uty .hich8 ne't to that of turning his 7est efforts to $iligent inquiry in the fiel$s he has chosen8 is the )ost i)(ortant to a scientific )anJ na)ely8 that of gi-ing an e'act recor$ of the results o7taine$0 , realiBe .ith sorro. e-ery $ay that8 $es(ite of all (ains ta2en to this en$8 , a) gaining 7ut -ery slo.ly on the )aterial accu)ulate$0 ,$eas co)e through a ha((y ins(iration8 a((arently .ithout )uch e'ertion8 7ut it is the .or2ing out of the )any harassing $etails an$ (utting into a (resenta7le for) .hich consu)es ti)e an$ energy0 ,t .as i)(ossi7le to a7an$on research in ne. $irections8 in .hich , ha-e felt )yself irresisti7ly $ra.n8 an$ it .as equally i)(ossi7le to $o full Hustice to the .or2 (artially co)(lete$8 an$ , can only ho(e to gra$ually retrie-e )y losses 7y the only e'(e$ient a-aila7le8 .hich is to re$ou7le the Beal0 ,t is not the 7est (lan to follo.8 , confess8 an$ is in ra$ical o((osition to the 2in$ly a$-ice gi-en to )e to the effect that , inten$e$ to li-e !55 years 7y slee(ing )ost of the ti)eY ,t )ay also sho. that it is not this )o$e of life .hich is res(onsi7le for the $elay in the co))ercial intro$uction of )y syste) of -acuu) tu7e lighting8 as has 7een asserte$ 7y so)e (eo(le .ho ha-e foun$ a singular satisfaction in $.elling e'tensi-ely in their colu)ns on )y (ro(ose$ glass house on #ong ,slan$8 .hich .as to co-er acres of groun$8 an$ .hich .as to 7e 7uilt for the (ur(ose of catching the sunNs raysJ on )y clai)s of the $isco-eries of +oentgenJ on )y in-ention ena7ling )e to )o-e an$ e'(lo$e tor(e$o 7oats 7y .ill (o.er8 an$ on )y efforts to annihilate the entire 3ritish na-y0 ,t is to 7e ho(e$ that the li)it of (atience of the rea$ers has 7een finally reache$0
Fig0 10 K #ighting a $isconnecte$ -acuu) 7ul7 of 18455 can$le (o.er 7y high9frequency currents K <hotogra(h ta2en 7y the light of the 7ul7 itself8 e'(osure a7out t.o secon$s0
Fig0 !0 K Ta7le of $iagra)s illustrating the e-olution of a high9tension transfor)er ena7ling the (ro$uction of electro9)oti-e forces of )any )illions of -olts0
At that ti)e8 still (ainfully re)e)7ere$8 )y energies .ere ta2en u( (rinci(ally 7y so)e )echanical (ro7le)s of great i)(ortance8 an$ the fe. o7ser-ations in electricity .hich , .as fortunate to )a2e ca)e li2e e-er so )any refreshing 7erries foun$ on the roa$ 7y a .eary .an$erer0 The Hourney is not finishe$ yet8 an$ the .an$erer is .ell9nigh e'hauste$0 He longs for )ore s.eet 7erries8 an$ an'iously as2s8 _=i$ any one (ass this roa$ 7eforeF` ,t .as chiefly in three $irections that electrical in-estigation .as attracti-e an$ (ro)isingI There .ere the e'cessi-e electrical (ressures of )illions of -olts8 .hich o(ene$ u( .on$erful (ossi7ilities if (ro$uci7le in (ractical .aysJ there .ere currents of )any hun$re$s of thousan$s of a)(eres8 .hich a((eale$ to the i)agination 7y their astonishing effects8 an$8 )ost interesting an$ in-iting of all8 there .ere the (o.erful electrical -i7rations .ith their )ysterious actions at a $istance0 &hat 7etter .or2 coul$ one $o than in-enting )etho$s an$ $e-ising )eans for ena7ling scientific )en to (ush in-estigation far out into these (ractically un2no.n regionsF This .or2 .as $ifficult an$ te$ious an$ in-ol-e$ a certain a)ount of )aterial sacrifice8 7ut (ro)ise$ a higher re.ar$ if successfully acco)(lishe$ K the gratitu$e of those )any .ho e'ercise their gifts in $ifferent $irections an$ are
Fig0 30 K <hotogra(h sho.ing a (art of the la7oratory8 .ith a $isconnecte$ resonating coil su((orte$ on an insulating stan$8 an$ illu)inate$ 7y the strea)ers (ro$uce$8 other coils re)aining unaffecte$ K The (ressure $e-elo(e$ in the resonating coil is o-er half a )illion -olts0
co)(elle$ to rely on the e'(ert for (ro-i$ing the) .ith i)(le)ents suita7le for their s(ecial (ur(ose0 &ho can esti)ate ho. )uch science has 7een a$-ance$ 7y the 7eautiful instru)ents of )easure .hich #or$ :el-in has gi-en usF Cnfortunately8 in )any of the ne. fiel$s such instru)ents are yet to 7e in-ente$0 >till )ore unfortunately8 infor)ations see)s to 7e )ore nee$ful than instru)ents8 if one is to Hu$ge fro) state)ents frequently )a$e in technical (erio$icals on a -ariety of su7Hects0 An e'(eri)enter8 for instance8 )easures the current through a )a2e9an$97rea2 $e-ice8 an$8 fin$ing it s)all8 he infers that the con-ersion is econo)ical0 Another suggests to $eter)ine the efficiency of con-ersion through such a $e-ice 7y the calori)etric )etho$0 1o.8 as a )atter of fact8 if there .as such a contri-ance8 a7solutely (erfect in its action8 .hich .oul$ 7eha-e as , ha-e e'(laine$ on another occasion8 an$ change the resistance of a ga( fro) Bero to infinity .ithout any loss in the ga( itself8 .hich se(arates the ter)inals8 it still )ight ha((en that 99 (er cent of the energy su((lie$ to the circuit .oul$ 7e .aste$ in ra$iations8 useless for the (ur(ose conte)(late$0 The calori)etric )etho$ .oul$ in this8 or generally in any other instance8 in .hich the $istur7ances (ro$uce$ are -ery su$$en8 entirely fail in gi-ing an a((ro'i)ation as to the energy $issi(ate$ in the circuit8 for the si)(le reason that the friction encountere$ 7y a .a-e in its (assage through a )e$iu)8 .hich $eter)ines the a)ount of heat generate$8 is no )easure .hate-er of the energy of the .a-e0 Thus8 certain .ell un$erstoo$ cases e'ce(te$8 the only )etho$ at (resent a-aila7le in such esti)ates is to ta2e account of the energy consu)e$ 7y the source of su((ly0 This re)ar2 alone .ill sho. that the econo)ical con-ersion of currents 7y )a2e an$ 7rea2 $e-ices is a )uch )ore $ifficult (ro7le) than it a((ears to those .ho ha-e stu$ie$ it su(erficially0 1ot only )ust the $e-ices use$ in the transfor)ation (ossess certain characteristics8 7ut the entire circuit )ust 7e (ro(erly $esigne$0 ;ne can not hel( a$)iring the confi$ence an$ self9(ossession of e'(eri)enters8 .ho (ut forth carelessly such -ie.s an$ .ho8 .ith 7ut a fe. $aysN8 not to say hoursN8 e'(erience .ith a $e-ice8 a((arently un)in$ful of the res(onsi7ility of such a ste(8 an$ a$-ance their i)(erfect results an$ o(inions hastily for)e$0 The s(ar2s )ay 7e long an$ 7rilliant8 the $is(lay interesting to .itness8 an$ the au$ience )ay 7e $elighte$8 7ut one )ust $ou7t the -alue of such $e)onstrations0 There is so little no-elty in the)8 that one )ight easily (erfor) a (ractical Ho2e on the lecturer 7y $escri7ing in a$-ance all his $ra.ings8 a((aratus8 e'(eri)ents an$ theories8 this (lacing hi) in an a.ful (re$ica)ent0 Though such a course .oul$ 7e naturally i)(olite8 it )ight 7e foun$ Hustifie$ an$ e'cuse$ 7y the circu)stances8 for (re)ature e'(ressions of o(inion an$ $e)onstrations of this 2in$ are res(onsi7le for )uch e-il8 one of these 7eing the erroneous i$ea .hich they create in scientific circles as to the i)(ortance of an a$-ance )a$e0 ,t grie-es one to o7ser-e$ that8 for e'a)(le8 such great .or2 as that of <rofessor =e.ar8 .hich he turns out .ith cloc2 regularity8 is scarcely co))ente$ u(on in the technical colu)ns8 .hereas a .orthless tra( for interru(ting currents8 .hich usually consu)es nine9tenths of the energy8 an$ is8 7esi$es8 useless for other reasons8 an$ Hust suita7le for the a)use)ent of s)all 7oys8 .ho are 7eginning their electrical e'(erience .ith #eclanche 7atteries an$ ^1045 in$uction coils8 is haile$ as an i)(ortant scientific $isco-ery0 An agreea7le contrast is affor$e$ 7y those .ho (atiently in-estigate8 contente$ to lose the cre$it for a$-ances )a$e rather than to (resent the) to the .orl$ in an i)(erfect state8 .ho for) their o(inions conscientiously8 after a long an$ careful stu$y8 an$ ha-e little to correct after.ar$s0 The i)(ortance of the tas2 of (ro-i$ing (ro(er i)(le)ents for research in these fiel$s once recogniBe$8 it 7eca)e the question in .hat line the efforts to this en$ .oul$ 7e li2ely to 7e )ost (rofita7le0 A little thought sho.e$ that it .as in in-estigating high electrical (ressures8 for these .ere nee$e$ in )ost instances0 /ore than a (assing thought .as gi-en to static electricity8 .ith the e'(eri)ents of Fran2lin as starting (oint0 Garious for)s of generators of static electricity .ere e'(eri)ente$ u(on8 an$ so)e ne. ones $esigne$8 to .hich , ho(e to re-ert so)e ti)e8 as they (resent so)e features of interest0 The )ost -alua7le outco)e of these e'(eri)ents .as a )etho$ of con-ersion .hich , ha-e $escri7e$8 an$ .hich ena7les the o(eration of any 2in$ of $e-ices of lo. tension fro) such a high9(ressure source .ith (erfect ease an$ safety8 no )atter ho. high the tension0 >oon8 ho.e-er8 it .as recogniBe$ that .ith the a7o-e o7Hect in -ie. generators of stea$y (ressure .ere entirely i)(ractical8 quite a(art fro) their inci$ental li)itations0
Fig0 60 K <hotogra(h sho.ing an incan$escent la)( lighte$ 7y a synchroniBe$ circuit co)(ose$ of a .ire loo( an$ con$enser8 an$
energiBe$ 7y .a-es trans)itte$ fro) a $istance0
,t .as e'actly as if one atte)(te$ to $ri-e (iles into the groun$ 7y the a((lication of continuous (ressure0 This .oul$ require cu)7erso)e an$ (o.erful )achinery8 an$ .oul$ 7e -ery incon-enient0 An inco)(ara7ly 7etter .ay of $e-elo(ing high (ressure is 7y $eli-ering -iolent 7lo.s as .ith a ha))er0 ,n such a case the )otion of the ha))er 7eing su$$enly arreste$ (ressure is $e-elo(e$ on the (oint of i)(act8 .hich is all the greater the s)aller the $is(lace)ent cause$8 an$ if there .ere )aterial a7solutely rigi$8 inco)(ressi7le an$ inelastic8 an infinite (ressure )ight thus 7e $e-elo(e$ 7y a s)all 7lo.0 Hence one is forci7ly $ri-en to the use of a transfor)er or in$uction coil as )eans for (ro$ucing great electrical (ressures0 The first $ifficulty encountere$ .as that of insulation8 an$ it )ight 7e interesting an$ useful to sho.8 chiefly to those .ho are less fa)iliar .ith this s(ecial su7Hect8 ho. 7y gra$ual i)(ro-e)ent8 fro) the or$inary in$uctoriu) ca(a7le of furnishing currents of -ery )o$erate electro9)oti-e force8 an a((aratus .as finally e-ol-e$ in .hich there is (ractically no li)it as to the (ressure o7taina7le0 >electing first the close$ core transfor)er8 one easily recogniBes that it is unsuita7le for the attain)ent of the o7Hect in -ie. for o7-ious reasons0 1e-ertheless8 7y a$o(ting the (lan illustrate$ in the first $iagra) of Fig0 !8 , succee$e$ in o7taining nearly !558555 -olts8 an$ , thin2 that )ore than t.ice this tension is (ractica7le 7y )eans of such an arrange)ent8 .hich in-ol-es the use of in$e(en$ent an$ entirely insulate$ sources of su((lying the (ri)aries8 as .ill 7e un$erstoo$ fro) an ins(ection of the $iagra) .ithout further e'(lanation0 The e-i$ent li)itations of the close$9core ty(e in the .ay of insulation8 rate of change an$ frequency of the current i)(ulses8 le$ to the a$o(tion of an o(en9core ty(e8 as a )atter of course8 an$ the -arious $iagra)s of the figure referre$ to illustrate the )o$ifications as they .ere gra$ually )a$e in the )anner of insulating an$ .in$ing of the coils0 ,n $iagra) ! the ol$8 (ri)iti-e )etho$ of insulation is in$icate$0 ,n $iagra) 3 the succee$ing layers are insulate$ 7y )aterial increasing in thic2ness gra$ually fro) one en$ to the other8 7eing thic2est on the (lace of greatest $ifference of (otential0 The thic2ness is easily calculate$ 7eforehan$8 an$ is such that all the insulation is as nearly as (ossi7le unifor)ly straine$0 As it .as i)(ractica7le to (ile u( )any layers in the )anner illustrate$ in $iagra) 38 naturally the )o$ification illustrate$ in $iagra) 6 .as )a$e8 .hich le$ to a further i)(ro-e)entJ in$icate$ in $iagra) 40
Fig0 40 K <hotogra(h sho.ing an incan$escent la)( lighte$ 7y )eans of .a-es trans)itte$ through s(ace to a coil .ithout a con$enser0
,t .as recogniBe$8 ho.e-er8 that there .as no a$-antage in .in$ing )any coils8 an$ that all that .as nee$e$ .ere t.o secon$ary coils Hoine$ in the )i$$le8 as illustrate$ in $iagra) %8 the secon$aries 7eing8 of course8 .oun$ as sho.n in $iagra) 30 1e't8 in or$er to increase the out(ut of the coil an$ gain other a$-antages8 the relati-e custo)ary (osition of the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary .in$ings .as re-erse$ an$ the coil as sho.n in $iagra) * (ro$uce$8 the t.o secon$ary coils 7eing Hoine$ on their outer8 instea$ of on their inner en$s8 as 7efore0 This construction .as consi$era7ly 7etter than that illustrate$ in $iagra) %8 as the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary coils .ere (lace$ in closer in$ucti-e relation0 3ut .hen .ith this coil the tension ha$ 7een (ushe$ far enough8 it .as foun$ that the iron core li)ite$ the s(ar2 length8 an$ then t.o insulate$ cores8 one in each coil8 .ere resorte$ to8 .hich .ere finally $iscar$e$8 an$ so the coil sho.n in $iagra) 8 resulte$8 .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ on se-eral occasions an$ .hich8 of all other constructions8 (er)its the o7tain)ent of the highest (ossi7le tension .ith a t.o9ter)inal coil in a gi-en s(ace0
Fig0 %0 K "'(eri)ent illustrating the action of a synchroniBe$ circuit energiBe$ 7y .a-es trans)itte$ fro) a $istant oscillator K The energy recei-e$ is transferre$ u(on another unres(onsi-e circuit8 lighting the incan$escent la)( attache$ to the sa)e0
3ut e-en in this (erfecte$ ty(e it .as not (ossi7le to go 7eyon$ a certain (otential $ifference8 an$ a further in-estigation le$ to a ne. ty(e8 .hich , ha-e calle$ a single ter)inal coil8 an$ .hich is illustrate$ in $iagra) 9 an$ is no. .ell 2no.n0 ,n this coil the a$Hust)ent is so )a$e that the secon$ary is nearly equal to the quarter of the .a-e length8 the highest (otential 7eing8 un$er these con$itions8 (ro$uce$ on the free ter)inal0 >u7sequently , e'ten$e$ such a$Hust)ent also to the coils in $iagra) 88 i)(ro-ing the sa)e )aterially0 =uring these efforts , fortunately $isco-ere$ the i)(ortant (art .hich air (laye$ in the 7rea2ing $o.n of the insulation8 an$ 7y a$o(ting (ro(er )etho$s for the e'clusion of gaseous )atter8 , .as a7le to increase the electro9)oti-e force to )ore than 15 ti)es the -alue .ithout 7rea2ing $o.n the secon$ary0 , ha-e $escri7e$ this )etho$ since8 .hich , a) using in the )anufacture of coils an$ con$ensers8 an$ .ithout .hich it .oul$ 7e entirely i)(ossi7le to reach any such results as , ha-e o7taine$0 The in$ustrial .orl$ has (rofite$ 7y the recognition of the action of the air8 for it has hel(e$ to e'ten$ (o.er trans)ission to greater $istances than heretofore (ractica7le0 ,t has also 7een useful in $eter)ining the li)its of the electro9)oti-e forces .ith or$inary a((aratus use$ in (o.er trans)ission8 7ut , see that no atte)(t is yet )a$e to o-erco)e the strea)ers 7y a suita7le construction of the ca7les8 as , ha-e in$icate$8 an$ thus )a2e higher electro9 )oti-e forces a-aila7le0 Further e'(eri)entation .ith the original single9ter)inal coil8 7efore referre$ to8 finally le$ ste( 7y ste( to the a$o(tion of a coil of large $i)ensions8 .hich8 in t.o ty(ical for)s8 is illustrate$ in $iagra)s 15 an$ 110 &ith such a coil , foun$ that there .as (ractically no li)it to the tension a-aila7le8 an$ it is 7y its )eans that , $isco-ere$ the )ost i)(ortant of all facts arri-e$ at in the course of )y in-estigation in these fiel$s0 ;ne of these .as that at)os(heric air8 though or$inarily a (erfect insulator8 con$ucte$ freely the currents of i))ense electro)oti-e force (ro$uci7le 7y such coils an$ suita7le accessories0 >o great is the con$ucti-ity of the air8 that the $ischarge issuing fro) a single ter)inal 7eha-es as if the at)os(here .ere rarefie$0 Another fact is that this con$ucti-ity increases -ery ra(i$ly .ith rarefaction of the at)os(here an$ aug)entation of the electrical (ressure8 to such an e'tent that at 7aro)etric (ressures .hich (er)it of no transit of or$inary currents8 those generate$ 7y such a coil (ass .ith great free$o) through the air as through a co((er .ire0 Follo.ing u( these (ro)ising re-elations , $e)onstrate$ conclusi-ely 7y e'(eri)ents that great a)ounts of electrical energy can 7e trans)itte$ to any $istance through u((er air strata .hich are easily accessi7le8 an$ since this truth has 7een recogniBe$ e-ery fi7er has 7een straine$ to realiBe such a trans)ission on a large scale0 These t.o o7ser-ations e'(lain clearly the silent $ischarges note$ frequently in $ense air strata8 7ut three or four )iles a7o-e the earthNs surface0
Fig0 *0 K "'(eri)ent sho.ing a coil energiBe$ 7y the .a-es of a $istant oscillator an$ a$Huste$ to the ca(acity of the 7o$y of the o(erator8 .ho (reser-es hi)self fro) inHury 7y )aintaining a (osition at the no$al (oint8 .here the intense -i7ration is little felt K The (ressure on the en$ of the coil to.ar$s the rea$er8 .hich is illu)inate$ 7y the (o.erful strea)ers8 is nearly half a )illion -olts0
;ne )ore equally i)(ortant fact , )ay )ention8 .hich .as si)ultaneously o7ser-e$0 The $ischarges of such a coil8 .hen of an electro9)oti-e force of a fe. )illions of -olts8 e'cite (o.erful affinities in the at)os(heric nitrogen8 causing it to co)7ine rea$ily .ith the o'ygen an$ other ele)ents8 (articularly in the (resence of aqueous -a(our0 >o energetic are these actions an$ so strangely $o such (o.erful $ischarges 7eha-e8 that , ha-e often e'(erience$ a fear that the at)os(here )ight 7e ignite$8 a terri7le (ossi7ility8 .hich >ir &illia) Croo2es8 .ith his (iercing intellect8 has alrea$y consi$ere$0 &ho 2no.s 7ut such a cala)ity is (ossi7leF An$ .ho can tell .ith certitu$e that (erio$ical cessations of organic life on the glo7e )ight not 7e cause$ 7y ignition of the air an$ $estruction of its life9sustaining qualities8 acci$entally or as a consequence of so)e accu)ulati-e changeF A lu)( of coal .ill lie for centuries unaffecte$ in contact .ith o'ygen8 7ut the co)7ustion once starte$8 the (rocess continues as long as there are ele)ents to co)7ine0 &hile i)(ro-ing the construction of the transfor)ers8 e-ery effort .as )a$e to (erfect the a((aratus for generating the currents0 The o7Hecti-e (oint fro) the outset .as to o7tain the greatest (ossi7le rate of -ariation0 High9frequency alternators .ere first use$8 7ut their li)itations .ere soon a((arent0 , then turne$ again an$ again to )a2e an$ 7rea2 $e-ices8 chiefly .ith the o7Hect of using the) in connection .ith a no-el for) of transfor)er8 .hich , ha-e (re-iously $escri7e$8 an$ .hich is no. .ell 2no.n an$ un$erstoo$0 ,n its original for)8 as , first sho.e$ it8 it is illustrate$ in $iagra) 1!8 .hich nee$ not 7e $.elt u(on8 7eyon$ saying that one of the characteristic features of such an instru)ent is the energiBing of the (ri)ary of the in$uction coil 7y the ra(i$ly succee$ing $ischarges of a con$enser0 ,n a )ore recent ty(e8 s(ecially a$a(te$ for or$inary su((ly circuits8 .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ an$ sho.n 7efore se-eral scientific societies8 the transfor)er co)(rises8 as in$icate$ in $iagra) 138 three coils8 there 7eing8 in a$$ition to the (ri)ary an$ secon$ary coils8 one .hich recei-es the currents fro) the su((ly circuit8 an$ is $esignate$ the charging coil0 <refera7ly the latter is not in in$ucti-e relation .ith the for)er0 ;n a nu)7er of occasions , ha-e $escri7e$ high9frequency a((aratus e)7o$ying this 7eautiful )etho$8 .hich has alrea$y 7een of great -alue to science in )y han$s as .ell as in those of others0
Fig0 80 K <hotogra(h of the e'(eri)enter stan$ing in the )i$$le of the la7oratory an$ lighting a -acuu) 7ul7 7y .a-es fro) a $istant oscillator K His 7o$y is8 in this case8 su7Hecte$ to great electrical (ressure0
3ut a $efect8 to .hich , calle$ attention early8 still confronte$ )e0 ,t lay in the )a2e an$ 7rea2 $e-ices .hich (erfor)e$ the function of charging an$ $ischarging the con$enser0 /any of such $e-ices8 7ase$ on a -ariety of (rinci(les8 for)e$ the su7Hect of e'(eri)ents carrie$ on .ith the ai) of $oing a.ay .ith this i)(erfection0 To cite one of these8 the current fro) the source of su((ly .as (asse$ through a )inute colu)n of con$ucting liqui$ )aintaine$ in a -ariety of .ays8 an$ in this si)(le )anner ra(i$ly succee$ing i)(ulses .ere o7taine$0 ,nci$entally8 so)e useful results .ere secure$ .ith these contri-ances8 as8 for e'a)(le8 the generation of currents of $iffering (hase an$ the (ro$uction of rotating fiel$s )o-ing .ith constant -elocityJ 7ut8 interesting as these si)(le $e-ices .ere8 they naturally (reclu$e$ the (ossi7ility of econo)ical con-ersion0 Their stu$y8 ho.e-er8 .as useful as a )eans of recogniBing the require)ents of such )a2e an$ 7rea2 a((aratus8 an$8 finally8 le$ to for)s 7ase$ on scientific an$ econo)ical (rinci(les0
Fig0 90 K The o(erator's 7o$y8 in this e'(eri)ent8 is charge$ to a high (otential 7y )eans of a coil res(onsi-e to the .a-es trans)itte$ to it fro) a $istant oscillator8 an$ a long glass tu7e .a-e$ in the han$ is lighte$ to great 7rilliance 7y the electrical charges con-eye$ to it through the 7o$y0
A nu)7er of these .ere recently $escri7e$ in technical (erio$icals an$8 as state$ on a for)er occasion8 they fulfil their $ifficult $uty sur(risingly .ell an$ )a2e it (ossi7le to o7tain currents of -ery high frequency fro) or$inary su((ly circuits .ith great econo)y0 These no-el contri-ances len$ the)sel-es .ell also to the uses of the or$inary in$uction coil8 an$ , ha-e e)(loye$ the) .ith equal success in a for) of <lanteNs rheostatic )achine an$ for )any other useful (ur(oses0 Thus8 after a continuous effort e'ten$ing through a nu)7er of years8 , ha-e the su(re)e satisfaction of ha-ing carrie$ this har$ an$ i)(ortant tas2 to a satisfactory en$0 The anne'e$ (hotogra(hs .ill ser-e to con-ey an i$ea of .hat can 7e $one .ith these (erfecte$ i)(le)ents0 +eferring to Fig0 18 illustrati-e of the high rate of change o7taine$ in the current8 a -acuu) 7ul7 of a7out 1! inches in $ia)eter is hel$ in front of a coil of four turns of s(ecially constructe$ hea-y ca7le8 through .hich a con$enser is $ischarging8 an$8 although at a $istance of se-eral inches fro) the coil8 the gas in the 7ul7 is 7rought to intense incan$escence8 the light e)itte$ 7eing fully equal to 18455 can$les0 >uch a (o.erfully energiBe$ coil8 .hen the frequency8 as in this instance8 is )easure$ in )illions (er secon$8 sho.s little re(ellent action8 7ut .hen the frequency of the i)(ulses is lo.8 close$ con$uctors8 as .ashers of con$ucting )aterial8 are thro.n off .ith a force of a )agnitu$e .hich can 7e only e'(laine$ on the assu)(tion that the currents ha-e )a'i)u) -alues of )any hun$re$ thousan$ a)(eres0 The re)aining (hotogra(hs .ill 7e un$erstoo$ fro) the titles8 .hich are )a$e e'(licit for this (ur(ose0 , ho(e to ha-e in the near future an o((ortunity for $escri7ing )ore of such e'(eri)ents8 an$ $.elling in $etail on the a((aratus use$0 For the (resent , a) co)(elle$8 for .ant of ti)e8 to )erely sate that the -i7rations use$ in )ost of the) .ere fro) 6558555 to 8558555 (er secon$0
Fig0 150 K ,n this e'(eri)ent the o(erator's 7o$y is charge$ to a great (ressure 7y a $irect connection .ith an oscillator K The (hotogra(h sho.s a sheet of tin of $eter)ine$ siBe8 hel$ in han$ K The o(erator is on the to( of a stationary electrical .a-e8 an$ the 7ar an$ sheet are 7oth illu)inate$ 7y the -iolently agitate$ air surroun$ing the) K ;ne of the -acuu) tu7es glo.s 7rightly8 7eing affecte$ 7y the -i7rations trans)itte$ to it fro) the o(erator's 7o$y0
Fig0 110 K <hotogra(h of an acti-e ter)inal of an i)(ro-e$ oscillator8 use$ in Tesla's e'(eri)ents for trans)itting electrical energy to great $istances .ithout .ires K &i$th of illu)inate$ s(ace is 18 feet K The (ressure on the ter)inal is a7out eight )illion -olts0
,n conclusion , .ish to a(ologiBe for the frequent a((earance of )y li2eness in these (hotogra(hs8 .hich is $istasteful to )e8 7ut .as una-oi$a7le0 /ost of the a$-ances in$icate$8 an$ a nu)7er of others8 ha-e resulte$ fro) the a((lication of the 7eautiful (rinci(le u(on .hich the o(eration of this a((aratus is 7ase$0 >cientific )en ha-e honoure$ )e 7y i$entifying it .ith )y na)e8 an$ , ha-e earnestly en$ea-oure$ to sho. )yself .orthier of this great $istinction 7y $e-oting to it )uch of )y energies0 1o $esire for )aterial a$-antages has ani)ate$ )e in all this .or28 though , ho(e8 for the sa2e of the continuance of )y la7ours8 that these .ill soon follo.8 naturally8 as a co)(ensation for -alua7le ser-ices ren$ere$ to science an$ in$ustry0 To the scientific e'(erts8 .ho are fa)iliar8 in theory an$ e'(eri)ent8 .ith electrical -i7rations8 the results here sho.n .ill8 , 7elie-e8 s(ea2 in eloquent language0 3ut those rea$ers to .ho) they are naturally less intelligi7le .ill as2I &hat are they goo$ for8 an$ .hat $o they or ha-e they $e)onstrate$F To the) it )ay 7e sai$ that they ha-e sho.n an$ (ro-e$ a)ong )any other thingsI That or$inary currents can 7e transfor)e$ .ith high econo)y into electrical -i7rations of any (itch8 .hich are nee$e$ in )any no-el artsJ they ha-e sho.n that electrical energy in great a)ounts can 7e efficiently an$ safely trans)itte$ .ithout the use of .ires to any (oint of the glo7e8 ho.e-er $istantJ they ha-e furnishe$ (roof that the )o-e)ents an$ o(eration of 7o$ies an$ )achinery carrie$ 7y the sa)e can 7e controlle$ fro) a great $istance .ithout any tangi7le connection .hate-er an$ .ith a7solute (recisionJ they ha-e (ro-e$ the (ractica7ility of a syste) of signalling .ithout .ires8 not .ith the i)(erfect a((liances as 7efore atte)(te$8 .hich can not 7e tune$ an$ are ren$ere$ useless 7y the (lay of a s)all in$uction coil8 7ut 7y )eans of a((aratus (ro$ucing (o.erful oscillations an$ circuits in e'act synchronis)8 .ith .hich it is i)(ossi7le to interfereJ they ha-e sho.n that at)os(heric nitrogen can 7e rea$ily co)7ine$ an$ -alua7le (ro$ucts )anufacture$8 )erely 7y the a((lication of chea( .ater (o.er8 an$ that light8 $iffusi-e li2e that of the sun8 can 7e (ro$uce$ .ith an econo)y greater than o7taina7le in the usual .ays an$ .ith la)(s that ne-er consu)e0 10 Tesla 1e. Dor28 /arch !%8 1899
1-00-06-00: T,e 5ro1lem of :n(reasing 0uman *nergy - Fit, S$e(ial #eferen(es to t,e 0arnessing of t,e Sun2s *nergy& 4y Nikola Tesla
2entury Illustrated /aga;ine T0* ONFA#% MO6*M*NT O7 MANAT0* *N*#B@ O7 T0* MO6*M*NTAT0* T0#** FA@S O7 :NC#*AS:NB 0=MAN *N*#B@&
(f all the en$less -ariety of (heno)ena .hich nature (resents to our senses8 there is none that fills our )in$s
.ith greater .on$er than that inconcei-a7ly co)(le' )o-e)ent .hich8 in its entirety8 .e $esignate as hu)an lifeJ ,ts )ysterious origin is -eile$ in the fore-er i)(enetra7le )ist of the (ast8 its character is ren$ere$ inco)(rehensi7le 7y its infinite intricacy8 an$ its $estination is hi$$en in the unfatho)a7le $e(ths of the future0 &hence $oes it co)eF &hat is itF &hither $oes it ten$F are the great questions .hich the sages of all ti)es ha-e en$ea-oure$ to ans.er0 /o$ern science saysI The sun is the (ast8 the earth is the (resent8 the )oon is the future0 Fro) an incan$escent )ass .e ha-e originate$8 an$ into a froBen )ass .e shall turn0 /erciless is the la. of nature8 an$ ra(i$ly an$ irresisti7ly .e are $ra.n to our $oo)0 #or$ :el-in8 in his (rofoun$ )e$itations8 allo.s us only a short s(an of life8 so)ething li2e si' )illion years8 after .hich ti)e the suns 7right light .ill ha-e cease$ to shine8 an$ its life gi-ing heat .ill ha-e e77e$ a.ay8 an$ our o.n earth .ill 7e a lu)( of ice8 hurrying on through the eternal night0 3ut $o not let us $es(air0 There .ill still 7e left u(on it a gli))ering s(ar2 of life8 an$ there .ill 7e a chance to 2in$le a ne. fire on so)e $istant star0 This .on$erful (ossi7ility see)s8 in$ee$8 to e'ist8 Hu$ging fro) <rofessor =e.ar's 7eautiful e'(eri)ents .ith liqui$ air8 .hich sho. that ger)s of organic life are not $estroye$ 7y col$8 no )atter ho. intenseJ consequently they )ay 7e trans)itte$ through the interstellar s(ace0 /ean.hile the cheering lights of science an$ art8 e-er increasing in intensity8 illu)inate our (ath8 an$ )ar-els they $isclose8 an$ the enHoy)ents they offer8 )a2e us )easura7ly forgetful of the gloo)y future0 Though .e )ay ne-er 7e a7le to co)(rehen$ hu)an life8 .e 2no. certainly that it is a )o-e)ent8 of .hate-er nature it 7e0 The e'istence of )o-e)ent una-oi$a7ly i)(lies a 7o$y .hich is 7eing )o-e$ an$ a force .hich is )o-ing it0 Hence8 .here-er there is life8 there is a )ass )o-e$ 7y a force0 All )ass (ossesses inertia8 all force ten$s to (ersist0 ;.ing to this uni-ersal (ro(erty an$ con$ition8 a 7o$y8 7e it at rest or in )otion8 ten$s to re)ain in the sa)e state8 an$ a force8 )anifesting itself any.here an$ through .hate-er cause8 (ro$uces an equi-alent o((osing force8 an$ as an a7solute necessity of this it follo.s that e-ery )o-e)ent in nature )ust 7e rhyth)ical0 #ong ago this si)(le truth .as clearly (ointe$ out 7y Her7ert >(encer8 .ho arri-e$ at it through a so)e.hat $ifferent (rocess of reasoning0 ,t is 7orne out in e-erything .e (ercei-eKin the )o-e)ent of a (lanet8 in the surging an$ e77ing of the ti$e8 in the re-er7erations of the air8 the s.inging of a (en$ulu)8 the oscillations of an electric current8 an$ in the infinitely -arie$ (heno)ena of organic life0 =oes not the .hole of hu)an life attest to itF 3irth8 gro.th8 ol$ age8 an$ $eath of an in$i-i$ual8 fa)ily8 race8 or nation8 .hat is it all 7ut a rhyth)F All life9 )anifestation8 then8 e-en in its )ost intricate for)8 as e'e)(lifie$ in )an8 ho.e-er in-ol-e$ an$ inscruta7le8 is only a )o-e)ent8 to .hich the sa)e general la.s of )o-e)ent .hich go-ern throughout the (hysical uni-erse )ust 7e a((lica7le0
F,G0 10 3C+1,1G TH" 1,T+;G"1 ;F TH" AT/;><H"+"0

1ote to Fig0 10KThis result is (ro$uce$ 7y the $ischarge of an electrical oscillator gi-ing t.el-e )illion -olts0 The electrical (ressure8 alternating one hun$re$ thousan$ ti)es (er secon$8 e'cites the nor)ally inert nitrogen8 causing it to co)7ine .ith the o'ygen0 The fla)e9li2e $ischarge sho.n in the (hotogra(h )easures si'ty9fi-e feet across0
&hen .e s(ea2 of )an8 .e ha-e a conce(tion of hu)anity as a .hole8 an$ 7efore a((lying scientific )etho$s to8 the in-estigation of his )o-e)ent .e )ust acce(t this as a (hysical fact0 3ut can anyone $ou7t to9$ay that all the )illions of in$i-i$uals an$ all the innu)era7le ty(es an$ characters constitute an entity8 a unitF Though free to thin2 an$ act8 .e are hel$ together8 li2e the stars in the fir)a)ent8 .ith ties inse(ara7le0 These ties cannot 7e seen8 7ut .e can feel the)0 , cut )yself in the finger8 an$ it (ains )eI this finger is a (art of )e0 , see a frien$ hurt8 an$ it hurts )e8 tooI )y frien$ an$ , are one0 An$ no. , see stric2en $o.n an ene)y8 a lu)( of )atter .hich8 of all the lu)(s of )atter in the uni-erse8 , care least for8 an$ it still grie-es )e0 =oes this not (ro-e that each of us is only (art of a .holeF For ages this i$ea has 7een (roclai)e$ in the consu))ately .ise teachings of religion8 (ro7a7ly not alone as a )eans of insuring (eace an$ har)ony a)ong )en8 7ut as a $ee(ly foun$e$ truth0 The 3u$$hist e'(resses it in one .ay8 the Christian in another8 7ut 7oth say the sa)eI &e are all one0 /eta(hysical (roofs are8 ho.e-er8 not the only ones .hich .e are a7le to 7ring forth in su((ort of this i$ea0 >cience8 too8 recogniBes this connecte$ness of se(arate in$i-i$uals8 though not quite in the sa)e sense as it a$)its that the suns8 (lanets8 an$ )oons of a constellation are one 7o$y8 an$ there can 7e no $ou7t that it .ill 7e e'(eri)entally confir)e$ in ti)es to co)e8 .hen our )eans an$ )etho$s for in-estigating (sychical an$ other states an$ (heno)ena shall ha-e 7een 7rought to great (erfection0 >till )oreI this one hu)an 7eing li-es on an$ on0 The in$i-i$ual is e(he)eral8 races an$ nations co)e an$ (ass a.ay8 7ut )an re)ains0 Therein lies the (rofoun$ $ifference 7et.een the in$i-i$ual an$ the .hole0 Therein8 too8 is to 7e foun$ the (artial e'(lanation of )any of those
)ar-ellous (heno)ena of here$ity .hich are the result of countless centuries of fee7le 7ut (ersistent influence0 Concei-e8 then8 )an as a )ass urge$ on 7y a force0 Though this )o-e)ent is not of a translatory character8 i)(lying change of (lace8 yet the general la.s of )echanical )o-e)ent are a((lica7le to it8 an$ the energy associate$ .ith this )ass can 7e )easure$8 in accor$ance .ith .ell92no.n (rinci(les8 7y half the (ro$uct of the )ass .ith the square of a certain -elocity0 >o8 for instance8 a cannon97all .hich is at rest (ossesses a certain a)ount of energy in the for) of heat8 .hich .e )easure in a si)ilar .ay0 &e i)agine the 7all to consist of innu)era7le )inute (articles8 calle$ ato)s or )olecules8 .hich -i7rate or .hirl aroun$ one another0 &e $eter)ine their )asses an$ -elocities8 an$ fro) the) the energy of each of these )inute syste)s8 an$ a$$ing the) all together8 .e get an i$ea of the total heat9energy containe$ in the 7all8 .hich is only see)ingly at rest0 ,n this (urely theoretical esti)ate this energy )ay then 7e calculate$ 7y )ulti(lying half of the total )assKthat is half of the su) of all the s)all )assesK.ith the square of a -elocity .hich is $eter)ine$ fro) the -elocities of the se(arate (articles0 ,n li2e )anner .e )ay concei-e of hu)an energy 7eing )easure$ 7y half the hu)an )ass )ulti(lie$ .ith the square of the -elocity .hich .e are not yet a7le to co)(ute0 3ut our $eficiency in this 2no.le$ge .ill not -itiate the truth of the $e$uctions , shall $ra.8 .hich rest on the fir) 7asis that the sa)e la.s of )ass an$ force go-ern throughout nature0 /an8 ho.e-er8 is not an or$inary )ass8 consisting of s(inning ato)s an$ )olecules8 an$ containing )erely heat9 energy0 He is a )ass (ossesse$ of certain higher qualities 7y reason of the creati-e (rinci(le of life .ith .hich he is en$o.e$0 His )ass8 as the .ater in an ocean .a-e8 is 7eing continuously e'change$8 ne. ta2ing the (lace of the ol$0 1ot only this8 7ut he gro.s (ro(agates8 an$ $ies8 thus altering his )ass in$e(en$ently8 7oth in 7ul2 an$ $ensity0 &hat is )ost .on$erful of all8 he is ca(a7le of increasing or $i)inishing his -elocity of )o-e)ent 7y the )ysterious (o.er he (ossesses 7y a((ro(riating )ore or less energy fro) other su7stance8 an$ turning it into )oti-e energy0 3ut in any gi-en )o)ent .e )ay ignore these slo. changes an$ assu)e that hu)an energy is )easure$ 7y half the (ro$uct of )an's )ass .ith the square of a certain hy(othetical -elocity0 Ho.e-er .e )ay co)(ute this -elocity8 an$ .hate-er .e )ay ta2e as the stan$ar$ of its )easure8 .e )ust8 in har)ony .ith this conce(tion8 co)e to the conclusion that the great (ro7le) of science is8 an$ al.ays .ill 7e8 to increase the energy thus $efine$0 /any years ago8 sti)ulate$ 7y the (erusal of that $ee(ly interesting .or28 =ra(er's "History of the ,ntellectual =e-elo()ent of "uro(e8" $e(icting so -i-i$ly hu)an )o-e)ent8 , recogniBe$ that to sol-e this eternal (ro7le) )ust e-er 7e the chief tas2 of the )an of science0 >o)e results of )y o.n efforts to this en$ , shall en$ea-our 7riefly to $escri7e here0
=,AG+A/ a0 TH" TH+"" &AD> ;F ,1C+"A>,1G HC/A1 "1"+GD0 #et8 then8 in $iagra) a8 / re(resent the )ass of )an0 This )ass is i)(elle$ in one $irection 7y a force f8 .hich is resiste$ 7y another (artly frictional an$ (artly negati-e force !8 acting in a $irection e'actly o((osite8 an$ retar$ing the )o-e)ent of the )ass0 >uch an antagonistic force is (resent in e-ery )o-e)ent an$ )ust 7e
ta2en into consi$eration0 The $ifference 7et.een these t.o forces is the effecti-e force .hich i)(arts a -elocity B to the )ass / in the $irection of the arro. on the line re(resenting the force f0 ,n accor$ance .ith the (rece$ing8 the hu)an energy .ill then 7e gi-en 7y the (ro$uct a /B! L a /B ' B8 in .hich / is the total )ass of )an in the or$inary inter(retation of the ter) ")ass8" an$ B is a certain hy(othetical -elocity8 .hich8 in the (resent state of science8 .e are una7le e'actly to $efine an$ $eter)ine0 To increase the hu)an energy is8 therefore8 equi-alent to increasing this (ro$uct8 an$ there are8 as .ill rea$ily 7e seen8 only three .ays (ossi7le to attain this result8 .hich are illustrate$ in the a7o-e $iagra)0 The first .ay sho.n in the to( figure8 is to increase the )ass (as in$icate$ 7y the $otte$ circle 8 lea-ing the t.o o((osing forces the sa)e0 The secon$ .ay is to re$uce the retar$ing force ! to a s)aller -alue r8 lea-ing the )ass an$ the i)(elling force the sa)e8 as $iagra))atically sho.n in the )i$$le figure0 The thir$ .ay8 .hich is illustrate$ in the last figure8 is to increase the i)(elling force f to a higher -alue F8 .hile the )ass an$ the retar$ing force + re)ain unaltere$0 "-i$ently fi'e$ li)its e'ist as regar$s increase of )ass an$ re$uction of retar$ing force8 7ut the i)(elling force can 7e increase$ in$efinitely0 "ach of these three (ossi7le solutions (resents a $ifferent as(ect of the )ain (ro7le) of increasing hu)an energy8 .hich is thus $i-i$e$ into three $istinct (ro7le)s8 to 7e successi-ely consi$ere$0
T0* 7:#ST 5#O;'*M: 0OF TO :NC#*AS* T0* 0=MAN MASSAT0* ;=#N:NB O7 ATMOS50*#:C N:T#OB*N& Gie.e$ generally8 there are o7-iously t.o .ays of increasing the )ass of )an2in$I first8 7y ai$ing an$ )aintaining those forces an$ con$itions .hich ten$ to increase itJ an$8 secon$8 7y o((osing an$ re$ucing those .hich ten$ to $i)inish it0 The )ass .ill 7e increase$ 7y careful attention to health8 7y su7stantial foo$8 7y )o$eration8 7y regularity of ha7its8 7y (ro)otion of )arriage8 7y conscientious attention to chil$ren8 an$8 generally state$8 7y the o7ser-ance of all the )any (rece(ts an$ la.s of religion an$ hygiene0 3ut in a$$ing ne. )ass to the ol$8 three cases again (resent the)sel-es0 "ither the )ass a$$e$ is of the sa)e -elocity as the ol$8 or it is of a s)aller or of a higher -elocity0 To gain an i$ea of the relati-e i)(ortance of these cases8 i)agine a train co)(ose$ of8 say8 one hun$re$ loco)oti-es running on a trac28 an$ su((ose that8 to increase the energy of the )o-ing )ass8 four )ore loco)oti-es are a$$e$ to the train0 ,f these four )o-e at the sa)e -elocity at .hich the train is going8 the total energy .ill 7e increase$ four (er cent0J if they are )o-ing at only one half of that -elocity8 the increase .ill a)ount to only one (er cent0J if they are )o-ing at t.ice that -elocity8 the increase of energy .ill 7e si'teen (er cent0 This si)(le illustration sho.s that it is of greatest i)(ortance to a$$ )ass of a higher -elocity0 >tate$ )ore to the (oint8 if8 for e'a)(le8 the chil$ren 7e of the sa)e $egree of enlighten)ent as the (arents8Kthat is8 )ass of the "sa)e -elocity8"Kthe energy .ill si)(ly increase (ro(ortionately to the nu)7er a$$e$0 ,f they are less intelligent or a$-ance$8 or )ass of "s)aller -elocity8" there .ill 7e a -ery slight gain in the energyJ 7ut if they are further a$-ance$8 or )ass of "higher -elocity8" then the ne. generation .ill a$$ -ery consi$era7ly to the su) total of hu)an energy0 any a$$ition of )ass of "s)aller -elocity8" 7eyon$ that in$is(ensa7le a)ount require$ 7y the la. e'(resse$ in the (ro-er78 "/ens sana in cor(ore sano8" shoul$ 7e strenuously o((ose$0 For instance8 the )ere $e-elo()ent of )uscle8 as ai)e$ at in so)e of our colleges8 , consi$er equi-alent to a$$ing )ass of "s)aller -elocity8" an$ , .oul$ not co))en$ it8 although )y -ie.s .ere $ifferent .hen , .as a stu$ent )yself0 /o$erate e'ercise8 insuring the right 7alance 7et.een )in$ an$ 7o$y8 an$ the highest efficiency of (erfor)ance8 is8 of course8 a (ri)e require)ent0 The a7o-e e'a)(le sho.s that the )ost i)(ortant result to 7e attaine$ is the e$ucation8 or the increase of the "-elocity8" of the )ass ne.ly a$$e$0 Con-ersely8 it scarcely nee$ 7e state$ that e-erything that is against the teachings of religion an$ the la.s of hygiene is ten$ing to $ecrease the )ass0 &his2y8 .ine8 tea coffee8 to7acco8 an$ other such sti)ulants are res(onsi7le for the shortening of the li-es of )any8 an$ ought to 7e use$ .ith )o$eration0 3ut , $o not thin2 that rigorous )easures of su((ression of ha7its follo.e$ through )any generations are co))en$a7le0 ,t is .iser to (reach )o$eration than a7stinence0 &e ha-e 7eco)e accusto)e$ to these sti)ulants8 an$ if such refor)s are to 7e effecte$8 they )ust 7e slo. an$ gra$ual0 Those .ho are $e-oting their energies to such en$s coul$ )a2e the)sel-es far )ore useful 7y turning their efforts in other $irections8 as8 for instance8 to.ar$ (ro-i$ing (ure .ater0 For e-ery (erson .ho (erishes fro) the effects of a sti)ulant8 at least a thousan$ $ie fro) the consequences of $rin2ing i)(ure .ater0 This (recious flui$8 .hich $aily infuses ne. life into us8 is li2e.ise the chief -ehicle through .hich $isease an$ $eath enter our 7o$ies0 The ger)s of $estruction it con-eys are ene)ies all the )ore terri7le as they (erfor) their fatal .or2 un(ercei-e$0 They seal our $oo) .hile .e li-e an$ enHoy0 The )aHority of (eo(le are so ignorant or careless in $rin2ing .ater8 an$ the consequences of this are so $isastrous8 that a (hilanthro(ist can scarcely use his efforts 7etter than 7y en$ea-ouring to enlighten those .ho are thus inHuring
the)sel-es0 3y syste)atic (urification an$ steriliBation of the $rin2ing .ater the hu)an )ass .oul$ 7e -ery consi$era7ly increase$0 ,t shoul$ 7e )a$e a rigi$ ruleK.hich )ight 7e enforce$ 7y la.Kto 7oil or to steriliBe other.ise the $rin2ing .ater in e-ery househol$ an$ (u7lic (lace0 The )ere filtering $oes not affor$ sufficient security against infection0 All ice for internal uses shoul$ 7e artificially (re(are$ fro) .ater thoroughly steriliBe$0 The i)(ortance of eli)inating ger)s of $isease fro) the city .ater is generally recogniBe$8 7ut little is 7eing $one to i)(ro-e the e'isting con$itions8 as no satisfactory )etho$ of steriliBing great quantities of .ater has yet 7een 7rought for.ar$0 3y i)(ro-e$ electrical a((liances .e are no. ena7le$ to (ro$uce oBone chea(ly an$ in large a)ounts8 an$ this i$eal $isinfectant see)s to offer a ha((y solution of the i)(ortant question0 Ga)7ling8 7usiness rush8 an$ e'cite)ent8 (articularly on the e'changes8 are causes of )uch )ass re$uction8 all the )ore so 7ecause the in$i-i$uals concerne$ re(resent units of higher -alue0 ,nca(acity of o7ser-ing the first sy)(to)s of an illness8 an$ careless neglect of the sa)e8 are i)(ortant factors of )ortality0 ,n noting carefully e-ery ne. sign of a((roaching $anger8 an$ )a2ing conscientiously e-ery (ossi7le effort to a-ert it8 .e are not only follo.ing .ise la.s of hygiene in the interest of our .ell97eing an$ the success of our la7ours8 7ut .e are also co)(lying .ith a higher )oral $uty0 "-eryone shoul$ consi$er his 7o$y as a (riceless gift fro) one .ho) he lo-es a7o-e all8 as a )ar-ellous .or2 of art8 of in$escri7a7le 7eauty an$ )astery 7eyon$ hu)an conce(tion8 an$ so $elicate an$ frail that a .or$8 a 7reath8 a loo28 nay8 a thought8 )ay inHure it0 Cncleanliness8 .hich 7ree$s $isease an$ $eath8 is not only a self $estructi-e 7ut highly i))oral ha7it0 ,n 2ee(ing our 7o$ies free fro) infection8 healthful8 an$ (ure8 .e are e'(ressing our re-erence for the high (rinci(le .ith .hich they are en$o.e$0 He .ho follo.s the (rece(ts of hygiene in this s(irit is (ro-ing hi)self8 so far8 truly religious0 #a'ity of )orals is a terri7le e-il8 .hich (oisons 7oth )in$ an$ 7o$y8 an$ .hich is res(onsi7le for a great re$uction of the hu)an )ass in so)e countries0 /any of the (resent custo)s an$ ten$encies are (ro$ucti-e of si)ilar hurtful results0 For e'a)(le8 the society life8 )o$ern e$ucation an$ (ursuits of .o)en8 ten$ing to $ra. the) a.ay fro) their househol$ $uties an$ )a2e )en out of the)8 )ust nee$s $etract fro) the ele-ating i$eal they re(resent8 $i)inish the artistic creati-e (o.er8 an$ cause sterility an$ a general .ea2ening of the race0 A thousan$ other e-ils )ight 7e )entione$8 7ut all (ut together8 in their 7earing u(on the (ro7le) un$er $iscussion8 they coul$ not equal a single one8 the .ant of foo$8 7rought on 7y (o-erty8 $estitution8 an$ fa)ine0 /illions of in$i-i$uals $ie yearly for .ant of foo$8 thus 2ee(ing $o.n the )ass0 "-en in our enlightene$ co))unities8 an$ not .ithstan$ing the )any charita7le efforts8 this is still8 in all (ro7a7ility8 the chief e-il0 , $o not )ean here a7solute .ant of foo$8 7ut .ant of healthful nutri)ent0 Ho. to (ro-i$e goo$ an$ (lentiful foo$ is8 therefore8 a )ost i)(ortant question of the $ay0 ;n the general (rinci(les the raising of cattle as a )eans of (ro-i$ing foo$ is o7Hectiona7le8 7ecause8 in the sense inter(rete$ a7o-e8 it )ust un$ou7te$ly ten$ to the a$$ition of )ass of a "s)aller -elocity0" ,t is certainly (refera7le to raise -egeta7les8 an$ , thin28 therefore8 that -egetarianis) is a co))en$a7le $e(arture fro) the esta7lishe$ 7ar7arous ha7it0 That .e can su7sist on (lant foo$ an$ (erfor) our .or2 e-en to a$-antage is not a theory8 7ut a .ell9$e)onstrate$ fact0 /any races li-ing al)ost e'clusi-ely on -egeta7les are of su(erior (hysique an$ strength0 There is no $ou7t that so)e (lant foo$8 such as oat)eal8 is )ore econo)ical than )eat8 an$ su(erior to it in regar$ to 7oth )echanical an$ )ental (erfor)ance0 >uch foo$8 )oreo-er8 ta'es our $igesti-e organs $eci$e$ly less8 an$8 in )a2ing us )ore contente$ an$ socia7le8 (ro$uces an a)ount of goo$ $ifficult to esti)ate0 ,n -ie. of these facts e-ery effort shoul$ 7e )a$e to sto( the .anton an$ cruel slaughter of ani)als8 .hich )ust 7e $estructi-e to our )orals0 To free oursel-es fro) ani)al instincts an$ a((etites8 .hich 2ee( us $o.n8 .e shoul$ 7egin at the -ery root fro) .hich .e s(ringI .e shoul$ effect a ra$ical refor) in the character of the foo$0 There see)s to 7e no (hiloso(hical necessity for foo$0 &e can concei-e of organiBe$ 7eings li-ing .ithout nourish)ent8 an$ $eri-ing all the energy they nee$ for the (erfor)ance of their life functions fro) the a)7ient )e$iu)0 ,n a crystal .e ha-e the clear e-i$ence of the e'istence of a for)ati-e life9(rinci(le8 an$ though .e cannot un$erstan$ the life of a crystal8 it is none the less a li-ing 7eing0 There )ay 7e8 7esi$es crystals8 other such in$i-i$ualiBe$8 )aterial syste)s of 7eings8 (erha(s of gaseous constitution8 or co)(ose$ of su7stance still )ore tenuous0 ,n -ie. of this (ossi7ility8Knay8 (ro7a7ility8 .e cannot a(o$ictically $eny the e'istence of organiBe$ 7eings on a (lanet )erely 7ecause the con$itions on the sa)e are unsuita7le for the e'istence of life as .e concei-e it0 &e cannot e-en8 .ith (ositi-e assurance8 assert that so)e of the) )ight not 7e (resent here8 in this our .orl$8 in the -ery )i$st of us8 for their constitution an$ life9)anifestation )ay 7e such that .e are una7le to (ercei-e the)0 The (ro$uction of artificial foo$ as a )eans for causing an increase of the hu)an )ass naturally suggests itself8
7ut a $irect atte)(t of this 2in$ to (ro-i$e nourish)ent $oes not a((ear to )e rational8 at least not for the (resent0 &hether .e coul$ thri-e on such foo$ is -ery $ou7tful0 &e are the result of ages of continuous a$a(tation8 an$ .e cannot ra$ically change .ithout unforeseen an$8 in all (ro7a7ility8 $isastrous consequences0 >o uncertain an e'(eri)ent shoul$ not 7e trie$0 3y far the 7est .ay8 it see)s to )e8 to )eet the ra-ages of the e-il8 .oul$ 7e to fin$ .ays of increasing the (ro$ucti-ity of the soil0 &ith this o7Hect the (reser-ation of forests is of an i)(ortance .hich cannot 7e o-eresti)ate$8 an$ in this connection8 also8 the utiliBation of .ater9(o.er for (ur(oses of electrical trans)ission8 $is(ensing in )any .ays .ith the necessity of 7urning .oo$8 an$ ten$ing there7y to forest (reser-ation8 is to 7e strongly a$-ocate$0 3ut there are li)its in the i)(ro-e)ent to 7e effecte$ in this an$ si)ilar .ays0 To increase )aterially the (ro$ucti-ity of the soil8 it )ust 7e )ore effecti-ely fertiliBe$ 7y artificial )eans0 The question of foo$9(ro$uction resol-es itself8 then8 into the question ho. 7est to fertiliBe the soil0 &hat it is that )a$e the soil is still a )ystery0 To e'(lain its origin is (ro7a7ly equi-alent to e'(laining the origin of life itself0 The roc2s8 $isintegrate$ 7y )oisture an$ heat an$ .in$ an$ .eather8 .ere in the)sel-es not ca(a7le of )aintaining life0 >o)e une'(laine$ con$ition arose8 an$ so)e ne. (rinci(le ca)e into effect8 an$ the first layer ca(a7le of sustaining lo. organis)s8 li2e )osses .as for)e$0 These8 7y their life an$ $eath8 a$$e$ )ore of the life sustaining quality to the soil8 an$ higher organis)s coul$ then su7sist8 an$ so on an$ on8 until at last highly $e-elo(e$ (lant an$ ani)al life coul$ flourish0 3ut though the theories are8 e-en no.8 not in agree)ent as to ho. fertiliBation is effecte$8 it is a fact8 only too .ell ascertaine$8 that the soil cannot in$efinitely sustain life8 an$ so)e .ay )ust 7e foun$ to su((ly it .ith the su7stances .hich ha-e 7een a7stracte$ fro) it 7y the (lants0 The chief an$ )ost -alua7le a)ong these su7stances are co)(oun$s of nitrogen8 an$ the chea( (ro$uction of these is8 therefore8 the 2ey for the solution of the all9i)(ortant foo$ (ro7le)0 ;ur at)os(here contains an ine'hausti7le a)ount of nitrogen8 an$ coul$ .e 7ut o'i$ise it an$ (ro$uce these co)(oun$s8 an incalcula7le 7enefit for )an2in$ .oul$ follo.0 #ong ago this i$ea too2 a (o.erful hol$ on the i)agination of scientific )en8 7ut an efficient )eans for acco)(lishing this result coul$ not 7e $e-ise$0 The (ro7le) .as ren$ere$ e'tre)ely $ifficult 7y the e'traor$inary inertness of the nitrogen8 .hich refuses to co)7ine e-en .ith o'ygen0 3ut here electricity co)es to our ai$I the $or)ant affinities of the ele)ent are a.a2ene$ 7y an electric current of the (ro(er quality0 As a lu)( of coal .hich has 7een in contact .ith o'ygen for centuries .ithout 7urning .ill co)7ine .ith it .hen once ignite$8 so nitrogen8 e'cite$ 7y electricity8 .ill 7urn0 , $i$ not succee$8 ho.e-er8 in (ro$ucing electrical $ischarges e'citing -ery effecti-ely the at)os(heric nitrogen until a co)(arati-ely recent $ate8 although , sho.e$8 in /ay8 18918 in a scientific lecture8 a no-el for) of $ischarge or electrical fla)e na)e$ ">t0 "l)o's hotfire8" .hich8 7esi$es 7eing ca(a7le of generating oBone in a7un$ance8 also (ossesse$8 as , (ointe$ out on that occasion8 $istinctly the quality of e'citing che)ical affinities0 This $ischarge or fla)e .as then only three or four inches long8 its che)ical action .as li2e.ise -ery fee7le8 an$ consequently the (rocess of o'i$ation of nitrogen .as .asteful0 Ho. to intensify this action .as the question0 "-i$ently electric currents of a (eculiar 2in$ ha$ to 7e (ro$uce$ in or$er to ren$er the (rocess of nitrogen co)7ustion )ore efficient0 The first a$-ance .as )a$e in ascertaining that the che)ical acti-ity of the $ischarge .as -ery consi$era7ly increase$ 7y using currents of e'tre)ely high frequency or rate of -i7ration0 This .as an i)(ortant i)(ro-e)ent8 7ut (ractical consi$erations soon set a $efinite li)it to the (rogress in this $irection0 1e't8 the effects of the electrical (ressure of the current i)(ulses8 of their .a-e9for) an$ other characteristic features8 .ere in-estigate$0 Then the influence of the at)os(heric (ressure an$ te)(erature an$ of the (resence of .ater an$ other 7o$ies .as stu$ie$8 an$ thus the 7est con$itions for causing the )ost intense che)ical action of the $ischarge an$ securing the highest efficiency of the (rocess .ere gra$ually ascertaine$0 1aturally8 the i)(ro-e)ents .ere not quic2 in co)ingJ still8 little 7y little8 , a$-ance$0 The fla)e gre. larger an$ larger8 an$ its o'i$iBing action gre. )ore intense0 Fro) an insignificant 7rush9$ischarge a fe. inches long it $e-elo(e$ into a )ar-ellous electrical (heno)enon8 a roaring 7laBe8 $e-ouring the nitrogen of the at)os(here an$ )easuring si'ty or se-enty feet across0 Thus slo.ly8 al)ost i)(erce(ti7ly8 (ossi7ility 7eca)e acco)(lish)ent0 All is not yet $one8 7y any )eans8 7ut to .hat a $egree )y efforts ha-e 7een re.ar$e$ an i$ea )ay 7e gaine$ fro) an ins(ection of Fig0 18 .hich8 .ith its title8 is self e'(lanatory0 The fla)e9li2e $ischarge -isi7le is (ro$uce$ 7y the intense electrical oscillations .hich (ass through the coil sho.n8 an$ -iolently agitate the electrifie$ )olecules of the air0 3y this )eans a strong affinity is create$ 7et.een the t.o nor)ally in$ifferent constituents of the at)os(here8 an$ they co)7ine rea$ily8 e-en if no further (ro-ision is )a$e for intensifying the che)ical action of the $ischarge0 ,n the )anufacture of nitrogen co)(oun$s 7y this )etho$8 of course8 e-ery
(ossi7le )eans 7earing u(on the intensity of this action an$ the efficiency of the (rocess .ill 7e ta2en a$-antage of8 an$8 7esi$es8 s(ecial arrange)ents .ill 7e (ro-i$e$ for the fi'ation of the co)(oun$s for)e$8 as they are generally unsta7le8 the nitrogen 7eco)ing again inert after a little la(se of ti)e0 >tea) is a si)(le an$ effecti-e )eans for fi'ing (er)anently the co)(oun$s0 The result illustrate$ )a2es it (ractica7le to o'i$ise the at)os(heric nitrogen in unli)ite$ quantities8 )erely 7y the use of chea( )echanical (o.er an$ si)(le electrical a((aratus0 ,n this )anner )any co)(oun$s of nitrogen )ay 7e )anufacture$ all o-er the .orl$8 at a s)all cost8 an$ in any $esire$ a)ount8 an$ 7y )eans of these co)(oun$s the soil can 7e fertiliBe$ an$ its (ro$ucti-eness in$efinitely increase$0 An a7un$ance of chea( an$ healthful foo$8 not artificial8 7ut such as .e are accusto)e$ to8 )ay thus 7e o7taine$0 This ne. an$ ine'hausti7le source of foo$9su((ly .ill 7e of incalcula7le 7enefit to )an2in$8 for it .ill enor)ously contri7ute to the increase of the hu)an )ass8 an$ thus a$$ i))ensely to hu)an energy0 >oon8 , ho(e8 the .orl$ .ill see the 7eginning of an in$ustry .hich8 in ti)e to co)e8 .ill8 , 7elie-e8 7e in i)(ortance ne't to that of iron0
T0* S*CON% 5#O;'*M: 0OF TO #*%=C* T0* 7O#C* #*TA#%:NB T0* 0=MAN MASSAT0* A#T O7 T*'A=TOMAT:CS& As 7efore state$8 the force .hich retar$s the on.ar$ )o-e)ent of )an is (artly frictional an$ (artly negati-e0 To illustrate this $istinction , )ay na)e8 for e'a)(le8 ignorance8 stu(i$ity8 an$ i)7ecility as so)e of the (urely frictional forces8 or resistances $e-oi$ of any $irecti-e ten$ency0 ;n the other han$8 -isionariness8 insanity8 self9 $estructi-e ten$ency8 religious fanaticis)8 an$ the li2e8 are all forces of a negati-e character8 acting in $efinite $irections0 To re$uce or entirely o-erco)e these $issi)ilar retar$ing forces8 ra$ically $ifferent )etho$s )ust 7e e)(loye$0 ;ne 2no.s8 for instance8 .hat a fanatic )ay $o8 an$ one can ta2e (re-enti-e )easures8 can enlighten8 con-ince8 an$8 (ossi7ly $irect hi)8 turn his -ice into -irtueJ 7ut one $oes not 2no.8 an$ ne-er can 2no.8 .hat a 7rute or an i)7ecile )ay $o8 an$ one )ust $eal .ith hi) as .ith a )ass8 inert8 .ithout )in$8 let loose 7y the )a$ ele)ents0 A negati-e force al.ays i)(lies so)e quality8 not infrequently a high one8 though 7a$ly $irecte$8 .hich it is (ossi7le to turn to goo$ a$-antageJ 7ut a $irectionless8 frictional force in-ol-es una-oi$a7le loss0 "-i$ently8 then8 the first an$ general ans.er to the a7o-e question isI turn all negati-e force in the right $irection an$ re$uce all frictional force0 There can 7e no $ou7t that8 of all the frictional resistances8 the one that )ost retar$s hu)an )o-e)ent is ignorance0 1ot .ithout reason sai$ that )an of .is$o)8 3u$$haI ",gnorance is the greatest e-il in the .orl$0" The friction .hich results fro) ignorance8 an$ .hich is greatly increase$ o.ing to the nu)erous languages an$ nationalities8 can 7e re$uce$ only 7y the s(rea$ of 2no.le$ge an$ the unification of the heterogeneous ele)ents of hu)anity0 1o effort coul$ 7e 7etter s(ent0 3ut ho.e-er ignorance )ay ha-e retar$e$ the on.ar$ )o-e)ent of )an in ti)es (ast8 it is certain that8 no.a$ays8 negati-e forces ha-e 7eco)e of greater i)(ortance0 A)ong these there is one of far greater )o)ent than any other0 ,t is calle$ organiBe$ .arfare0 &hen .e consi$er the )illions of in$i-i$uals8 often the a7lest in )in$ an$ 7o$y8 the flo.er of hu)anity8 .ho are co)(elle$ to a life of inacti-ity an$ un(ro$ucti-eness8 the i))ense su)s of )oney $aily require$ for the )aintenance of ar)ies an$ .ar a((aratus8 re(resenting e-er so )uch of hu)an energy8 all the effort uselessly s(ent in the (ro$uction of ar)s an$ i)(le)ents of $estruction8 the loss of life an$ the fostering of a 7ar7arous s(irit8 .e are a((alle$ at the inesti)a7le loss to )an2in$ .hich the e'istence of these $e(lora7le con$itions )ust in-ol-e0 &hat can .e $o to co)7at 7est this great e-ilF #a. an$ or$er a7solutely require the )aintenance of organiBe$ force0 1o co))unity can e'ist an$ (ros(er .ithout rigi$ $isci(line0 "-ery country )ust 7e a7le to $efen$ itself8 shoul$ the necessity arise0 The con$itions of to9$ay are not the result of yester$ay8 an$ a ra$ical change cannot 7e effecte$ to9)orro.0 ,f the nations .oul$ at once $isar)8 it is )ore than li2ely that a state of things .orse than .ar itself .oul$ follo.0 Cni-ersal (eace is a 7eautiful $rea)8 7ut not at once realiBa7le0 &e ha-e seen recently that e-en the no7le effort of the )an in-este$ .ith the greatest .orl$ly (o.er has 7een -irtually .ithout effect0 An$ no .on$er8 for the esta7lish)ent of uni-ersal (eace is8 for the ti)e 7eing8 a (hysical i)(ossi7ility0 &ar is a negati-e force8 an$ cannot 7e turne$ in a (ositi-e $irection .ithout (assing through8 the inter)e$iate (hases0 ,t is a (ro7le) of )a2ing a .heel8 rotating one .ay8 turn in the o((osite $irection .ithout slo.ing it $o.n8 sto((ing it8 an$ s(ee$ing it u( again the other .ay0 ,t has 7een argue$ that the (erfection of guns of great $estructi-e (o.er .ill sto( .arfare0 >o , )yself thought for a long ti)e8 7ut no. , 7elie-e this to 7e a (rofoun$ )ista2e0 >uch $e-elo()ents .ill greatly )o$ify8 7ut not
arrest it0 ;n the contrary8 , thin2 that e-ery ne. ar) that is in-ente$8 e-ery ne. $e(arture that is )a$e in this $irection8 )erely in-ites ne. talent an$ s2ill8 engages ne. effort8 offers ne. incenti-e8 an$ so only gi-es a fresh i)(etus to further $e-elo()ent0 Thin2 of the $isco-ery of gun9(o.$er0 Can .e concei-e of any )ore ra$ical $e(arture than .as effecte$ 7y this inno-ationF #et us i)agine oursel-es li-ing in that (erio$I .oul$ .e not ha-e thought then that .arfare .as at an en$8 .hen the ar)our of the 2night 7eca)e an o7Hect of ri$icule8 .hen 7o$ily strength an$ s2ill8 )eaning so )uch 7efore8 7eca)e of co)(arati-ely little -alueF Det gun(o.$er $i$ not sto( .arfareI quite the o((ositeKit acte$ as a )ost (o.erful incenti-e0 1or $o , 7elie-e that .arfare can e-er 7e arreste$ 7y any scientific or i$eal $e-elo()ent8 so long as si)ilar con$itions to those (re-ailing no. e'ist8 7ecause .ar has itself 7eco)e a science8 an$ 7ecause .ar in-ol-es so)e of the )ost sacre$ senti)ents of .hich )an is ca(a7le0 ,n fact8 it is $ou7tful .hether )en .ho .oul$ not 7e rea$y to fight for a high (rinci(le .oul$ 7e goo$ for anything at all0 ,t is not the )in$ .hich )a2es )an8 nor is it the 7o$yJ it is )in$ an$ 7o$y0 ;ur -irtues an$ our failings are inse(ara7le8 li2e force an$ )atter0 &hen they se(arate8 )an is no )ore0 Another argu)ent8 .hich carries consi$era7le force8 is frequently )a$e8 na)ely8 that .ar )ust soon 7eco)e i)(ossi7le 7e cause the )eans of $efence are outstri((ing the )eans of attac20 This is only in accor$ance .ith a fun$a)ental la. .hich )ay 7e e'(resse$ 7y the state)ent that it is easier to $estroy than to 7uil$0 This la. $efines hu)an ca(acities an$ hu)an con$itions0 &ere these such that it .oul$ 7e easier 7uil$ than to $estroy8 )an .oul$ go on unresiste$8 creating an$ accu)ulating .ithout li)it0 >uch con$itions are not of this earth0 A 7eing .hich coul$ $o this .oul$ not 7e a )anI it )ight 7e a go$0 =efence .ill al.ays ha-e the a$-antage o-er attac28 7ut this alone8 it see)s to )e8 can ne-er sto( .ar0 3y the use of ne. (rinci(les of $efence .e can ren$er har7ours i)(regna7le against attac28 7ut .e cannot 7y such )eans (re-ent t.o .arshi(s )eeting in 7attle on the high sea0 An$ then8 if .e follo. this i$ea to its ulti)ate $e-elo()ent8 .e are le$ to the conclusion that it .oul$ 7e 7etter for )an2in$ if attac2 an$ $efence .ere Hust o((ositely relate$J for if e-ery country8 e-en the s)allest8 coul$ surroun$ itself .ith a .all a7solutely i)(enetra7le8 an$ coul$ $efy the rest of the .orl$8 a state of things .oul$ surely 7e 7rought on .hich .oul$ 7e e'tre)ely unfa-oura7le to hu)an (rogress0 ,t is 7y a7olishing all the 7arriers .hich se(arate nations an$ countries that ci-iliBation is 7est furthere$0 Again8 it is conten$e$ 7y so)e that the a$-ent of the flying9)achine )ust 7ring on uni-ersal (eace0 This8 too8 , 7elie-e to 7e an entirely erroneous -ie.0 The flying9)achine is certainly co)ing8 an$ -ery soon8 7ut the con$itions .ill re)ain the sa)e as 7efore0 ,n fact8 , see no reason .hy a ruling (o.er8 li2e Great 3ritain8 )ight not go-ern the air as .ell as the sea0 &ithout .ishing to (ut )yself on recor$ as a (ro(het8 , $o not hesitate to say that the ne't years .ill see the esta7lish)ent of an "air9(o.er8" an$ its centre )ay 7e not far fro) 1e. Dor20 3ut8 for all that8 )en .ill fight on )errily0 The i$eal $e-elo()ent of the .ar (rinci(le .oul$ ulti)ately lea$ to the transfor)ation of the .hole energy of .ar into (urely (otential8 e'(losi-e energy8 li2e that of an electrical con$enser0 ,n this for) the .ar9energy coul$ 7e )aintaine$ .ithout effortJ it .oul$ nee$ to 7e )uch s)aller in a)ount8 .hile inco)(ara7ly )ore effecti-e0 As regar$s the security of a country against foreign in-asion8 it is interesting to note that it $e(en$s only on the relati-e8 an$ not the a7solute8 nu)7er of the in$i-i$uals or )agnitu$e of the forces8 an$ that8 if e-ery country shoul$ re$uce the .ar9force in the sa)e ratio8 the security .oul$ re)ain unaltere$0 An international agree)ent .ith the o7Hect of re$ucing to a )ini)u) the .ar9force .hich8 in -ie. of the (resent still i)(erfect e$ucation of the )asses8 is a7solutely in$is(ensa7le8 .oul$8 therefore8 see) to 7e the first rational ste( to ta2e to.ar$ $i)inishing the force retar$ing hu)an )o-e)ent0 Fortunately8 the e'isting con$itions cannot continue in$efinitely8 for a ne. ele)ent is 7eginning to assert itself0 A change for the 7etter is e)inent8 an$ , shall no. en$ea-our to sho. .hat8 accor$ing to )y i$eas8 .ill 7e the first a$-ance to.ar$ the esta7lish)ent of (eaceful relations 7et.een nations8 an$ 7y .hat )eans it .ill e-entually 7e acco)(lishe$0 #et us go 7ac2 to the early 7eginning8 .hen the la. of the stronger .as the only la.0 The light of reason .as not yet 2in$le$8 an$ the .ea2 .as entirely at the )ercy of the strong0 The .ea2 in$i-i$ual then 7egan to learn ho. to $efen$ hi)self0 He )a$e use of a clu78 stone8 s(ear8 sling8 or 7o. an$ arro.8 an$ in the course of ti)e8 instea$ of (hysical strength8 intelligence 7eca)e the chief $eci$ing factor in the 7attle0 The .il$ character .as gra$ually softene$ 7y the a.a2ening of no7le senti)ents8 an$ so8 i)(erce(ti7ly8 after ages of continue$ (rogress8 .e ha-e co)e fro) the 7rutal fight of the unreasoning ani)al to .hat .e call the "ci-iliBe$ .arfare" of
to$ay8 in .hich the co)7atants sha2e han$s8 tal2 in a frien$ly .ay8 an$ s)o2e cigars in the entr'actes8 rea$y to engage again in $ea$ly conflict at a signal0 #et (essi)ists say .hat they li2e8 here is an a7solute e-i$ence of great an$ gratifying a$-ance0 3ut no.8 .hat is the ne't (hase in this e-olutionF 1ot (eace as yet8 7y any )eans0 The ne't change .hich shoul$ naturally follo. fro) )o$ern $e-elo()ents shoul$ 7e the continuous $i)inution of the nu)7er of in$i-i$uals engage$ in 7attle0 The a((aratus .ill 7e one of s(ecifically great (o.er8 7ut only a fe. in$i-i$uals .ill 7e require$ to o(erate it0 This e-olution .ill 7ring )ore an$ )ore into (ro)inence a )achine or )echanis) .ith the fe.est in$i-i$uals as an ele)ent of .arfare8 an$ the a7solutely una-oi$a7le consequence of this .ill 7e the a7an$on)ent of large8 clu)sy8 slo.ly )o-ing8 an$ un)anagea7le units0 Greatest (ossi7le s(ee$ an$ )a'i)u) rate of energy9$eli-ery 7y the .ar a((aratus .ill 7e the )ain o7Hect0 The loss of life .ill 7eco)e s)aller an$ s)aller8 an$ finally8 the nu)7er of the in$i-i$uals continuously $i)inishing8 )erely )achines .ill )eet in a contest .ithout 7loo$9she$8 the nations 7eing si)(ly intereste$8 a)7itious s(ectators0 &hen this ha((y con$ition is realiBe$8 (eace .ill 7e assure$0 3ut8 no )atter to .hat $egree of (erfection ra(i$9fire guns8 high9(o.er cannon8 e'(losi-e (roHectiles8 tor(e$o97oats8 or other i)(le)ents of .ar )ay 7e 7rought8 no )atter ho. $estructi-e they )ay 7e )a$e8 that con$ition can ne-er 7e reache$ through any such $e-elo()ent0 All such i)(le)ents require )en for their o(erationJ )en are in$is(ensa7le (arts of the )achinery0 Their o7Hect is to 2ill an$ to $estroy0 Their (o.er resi$es in their ca(acity for $oing e-il0 >o long as )en )eet in 7attle8 there .ill 7e 7loo$she$0 3loo$she$ .ill e-er 2ee( u( 7ar7arous (assion0 To 7rea2 this fierce s(irit8 a ra$ical $e(arture )ust 7e )a$e8 an entirely ne. (rinci(le )ust 7e intro$uce$8 so)ething that ne-er e'iste$ 7efore in .arfareKa (rinci(le .hich .ill forci7ly8 una-oi$a7ly8 turn the 7attle into a )ere s(ectacle8 a (lay8 a contest .ithout loss of 7loo$0 To 7ring on this result )en )ust 7e $is(ense$ .ithI )achine )ust fight )achine0 3ut ho. acco)(lish that .hich see)s i)(ossi7leF The ans.er is si)(le enoughI (ro$uce a )achine ca(a7le of acting as though it .ere (art of a hu)an 7eingKno )ere )echanical contri-ance8 co)(rising le-ers8 scre.s8 .heels8 clutches8 an$ nothing )ore8 7ut a )achine e)7o$ying a higher (rinci(le8 .hich .ill ena7le it to (er for) its $uties as though it ha$ intelligence8 e'(erience8 Hu$ge)ent8 a )in$Y This conclusion is the result of )y thoughts an$ o7ser-ations .hich ha-e e'ten$e$ through -irtually )y .hole life8 an$ , shall no. 7riefly $escri7e ho. , ca)e to acco)(lish that .hich at first see)e$ an unrealisa7le $rea)0 A long ti)e ago8 .hen , .as a 7oy8 , .as afflicte$ .ith a singular trou7le8 .hich see)s to ha-e 7een $ue to an e'traor$inary e'cita7ility of the retina0 ,t .as the a((earance of i)ages .hich8 7y their (ersistence8 )arre$ the -ision of real o7Hects an$ interfere$ .ith thought0 &hen a .or$ .as sai$ to )e8 the i)age of the o7Hect .hich it $esignate$ .oul$ a((ear -i-i$ly 7efore )y eyes8 an$ )any ti)es it .as i)(ossi7le for )e to tell .hether the o7Hect , sa. .as real or not0 This cause$ )e great $isco)fort an$ an'iety8 an$ , trie$ har$ to free )yself of the s(ell0 3ut for a long ti)e , trie$ in -ain8 an$ it .as not8 as , clearly recollect8 until , .as a7out t.el-e years ol$ that , succee$e$ for the first ti)e8 7y an effort of the .ill8 in 7anishing an i)age .hich (resente$ itself0 /y ha((iness .ill ne-er 7e as co)(lete as it .as then8 7ut8 unfortunately (as , thought at that ti)e 8 the ol$ trou7le returne$8 an$ .ith it )y an'iety0 Here it .as that the o7ser-ations to .hich , refer 7egan0 , note$8 na)ely8 that .hene-er the i)age of an o7Hect a((eare$ 7efore )y eyes , ha$ seen so)ething that re)in$e$ )e of it0 ,n the first instances , thought this to 7e (urely acci$ental8 7ut soon , con-ince$ )yself that it .as not so0 A -isual i)(ression8 consciously or unconsciously recei-e$8 in-aria7ly (rece$e$ the a((earance of the i)age0 Gra$ually the $esire arose in )e to fin$ out8 e-ery ti)e8 .hat cause$ the i)ages to a((ear8 an$ the satisfaction of this $esire soon 7eca)e a necessity0 The ne't o7ser-ation , )a$e .as that8 Hust as these i)ages follo.e$ as a result of so)ething , ha$ seen8 so also the thoughts .hich , concei-e$ .ere suggeste$ in li2e )anner0 Again8 , e'(erience$ the sa)e $esire to locate the i)age .hich cause$ the thought8 an$ this search for the original -isual i)(ression soon gre. to 7e a secon$ nature0 /y )in$ 7eca)e auto)atic8 as it .ere8 an$ in the course of years of continue$8 al)ost unconscious (erfor)ance8 , acquire$ the a7ility of locating e-ery ti)e an$8 as a rule8 instantly the -isual i)(ression .hich starte$ the thought0 1or is this all0 ,t .as not long 7efore , .as a.are that also all )y )o-e)ents .ere (ro)(te$ in the sa)e .ay8 an$ so8 searching8 o7ser-ing8 an$ -erifying continuously8 year 7y year8 , ha-e8 7y e-ery thought an$ e-ery act of )ine8 $e)onstrate$8 an$ $o so $aily8 to )y a7solute satisfaction8 that , a) an auto)aton en$o.e$ .ith (o.er of )o-e)ent8 .hich )erely res(on$s to e'ternal sti)uli 7eating u(on )y sense organs8 an$ thin2s an$ acts an$ )o-es accor$ingly0 , re)e)7er only one or t.o cases in all )y life in .hich , .as una7le to locate the first i)(ression .hich (ro)(te$ a )o-e)ent or a thought8 or e-en a $rea)0
F,G0 !0 TH" F,+>T <+ACT,CA# T"#ACT;/AT;10

A )achine ha-ing all the 7o$ily or translatory )o-e)ents an$ the o(erations of the interior )echanis) controlle$ fro) a $istance .ithout .ires0 The cre.less 7oat sho.n in the (hotogra(h contains its o.n )oti-e (o.er8 (ro(elling an$ steering )achinery8 an$ nu)erous other accessories8 all of .hich are controlle$ 7y trans)itting fro) a $istance8 .ithout .ires8 electrical oscillations to a circuit carrie$ 7y the 7oat an$ a$Huste$ to res(on$ only to these oscillations0
&ith these e'(eriences it .as only natural that8 long ago8 , concei-e$ the i$ea of constructing an auto)aton .hich .oul$ )echanically re(resent )e8 an$ .hich .oul$ res(on$8 as , $o )yself8 7ut8 of course8 in a )uch )ore (ri)iti-e )anner8 to e'ternal influences0 >uch an auto)aton e-i$ently ha$ to ha-e )oti-e (o.er8 organs for loco)otion8 $irecti-e organs8 an$ one or )ore sensiti-e organs so a$a(te$ as to 7e e'cite$ 7y e'ternal sti)uli0 This )achine .oul$8 , reasone$8 (erfor) its )o-e)ents in the )anner of a li-ing 7eing8 for it .oul$ ha-e all the chief )echanical characteristics or ele)ents of the sa)e0 There .as still the ca(acity for gro.th8 (ro(agation8 an$8 a7o-e all8 the )in$ .hich .oul$ 7e .anting to )a2e the )o$el co)(lete0 3ut gro.th .as not necessary in this case8 since a )achine coul$ 7e )anufacture$ full gro.n8 so to s(ea20 As to the ca(acity for (ro(agation8 it coul$ li2e.ise 7e left out of consi$eration8 for in the )echanical )o$el it )erely signifie$ a (rocess of )anufacture0 &hether the auto)ation 7e of flesh an$ 7one8 or of .oo$ an$ steel8 it )attere$ little8 (ro-i$e$ it coul$ (erfor) all the $uties require$ of it li2e an intelligent 7eing0 To $o so8 it ha$ to ha-e an ele)ent corres(on$ing to the )in$8 .hich .oul$ effect the control of all its )o-e)ents an$ o(erations8 an$ cause it to act8 in any unforeseen case that )ight (resent itself8 .ith 2no.le$ge8 reason8 Hu$ge)ent8 an$ e'(erience0 3ut this ele)ent , coul$ easily e)7o$y in it 7y con-eying to it )y o.n intelligence8 )y o.n un$erstan$ing0 >o this in-ention .as e-ol-e$8 an$ so a ne. art ca)e into e'istence8 for .hich the na)e "telauto)atics" has 7een suggeste$8 .hich )eans the art of controlling the )o-e)ents an$ o(erations of $istant auto)atons0 This (rinci(le e-i$ently .as a((lica7le to any 2in$ of )achine that )o-es on lan$ or in the .ater or in the air0 ,n a((lying it (ractically for the first ti)e8 , selecte$ a 7oat (see Fig0 ! 0 A storage 7attery (lace$ .ithin it furnishe$
the )oti-e (o.er0 The (ro(eller8 $ri-en 7y a )otor8 re(resente$ the loco)oti-e organs0 The ru$$er8 controlle$ 7y another )otor li2e.ise $ri-en 7y the 7attery8 too2 the (lace of the $irecti-e organs0 As to the sensiti-e organ8 o7-iously the first thought .as to utiliBe a $e-ice res(onsi-e to rays of light8 li2e a seleniu) cell8 to re(resent the hu)an eye0 3ut u(on closer inquiry , foun$ that8 o.ing to e'(eri)ental an$ other $ifficulties8 no thoroughly satisfactory control of the auto)aton coul$ 7e effecte$ 7y light8 ra$iant heat8 hertBian ra$iations8 or 7y rays in general8 that is8 $istur7ances .hich (ass in straight lines through s(ace0 ;ne of the reasons .as that any o7stacle co)ing 7et.een the o(erator an$ the $istant auto)aton .oul$ (lace it 7eyon$ his control0 Another reason .as that the sensiti-e $e-ice re(resenting the eye .oul$ ha-e to 7e in a $efinite (osition .ith res(ect to the $istant controlling a((aratus8 an$ this necessity .oul$ i)(ose great li)itations in the control0 >till another an$ -ery i)(ortant reason .as that8 in using rays8 it .oul$ 7e $ifficult8 if not i)(ossi7le8 to gi-e to the auto)aton in$i-i$ual features or characteristics $istinguishing it fro) other )achines of this 2in$0 "-i$ently the auto)aton shoul$ res(on$ only to an in$i-i$ual call8 as a (erson res(on$s to a na)e0 >uch consi$erations le$ )e to conclu$e that the sensiti-e $e-ice of the )achine shoul$ corres(on$ to the ear rather than the eye of a hu)an 7eing8 for in this case its actions coul$ 7e controlle$ irres(ecti-e of inter-ening o7stacles8 regar$less of its (osition relati-e to the $istant controlling a((aratus8 an$8 last8 7ut not least8 it .oul$ re)ain $eaf an$ unres(onsi-e8 li2e a faithful ser-ant8 to all calls 7ut that of its )aster0 These require)ents )a$e it i)(erati-e to use8 in the control of the auto)aton8 instea$ of light or other rays8 .a-es or $istur7ances .hich (ro(agate in all $irections through s(ace8 li2e soun$8 or .hich follo. a (ath of least resistance8 ho.e-er cur-e$0 , attaine$ the result ai)e$ at 7y )eans of an electric circuit (lace$ .ithin the 7oat8 an$ a$Huste$8 or "tune$8" e'actly to electrical -i7rations of the (ro(er 2in$ trans)itte$ to it fro) a $istant "electrical oscillator0" This circuit8 in res(on$ing8 ho.e-er fee7ly8 to the trans)itte$ -i7rations8 affecte$ )agnets an$ other contri-ances8 through the )e$iu) of .hich .ere controlle$ the )o-e)ents of the (ro(eller an$ ru$$er8 an$ also the o(erations of nu)erous other a((liances0 3y the si)(le )eans $escri7e$ the 2no.le$ge8 e'(erience8 Hu$ge)entKthe )in$8 so to s(ea2Kof the $istant o(erator .ere e)7o$ie$ in that )achine8 .hich .as thus ena7le$ to )o-e an$ to (erfor) all its o(erations .ith reason an$ intelligence0 ,t 7eha-e$ Hust li2e a 7lin$fol$e$ (erson o7eying $irections recei-e$ through the ear0 The auto)atons so far constructe$ ha$ "7orro.e$ )in$s8" so to s(ea28 as each )erely for)e$ (art of the $istant o(erator .ho con-eye$ to it his intelligent or$ersJ 7ut this art is only in the 7eginning0 , (ur(ose to sho. that8 ho.e-er i)(ossi7le it )ay no. see)8 an auto)aton )ay 7e contri-e$ .hich .ill ha-e its "o.n )in$8" an$ 7y this , )ean that it .ill 7e a7le8 in$e(en$ent of any o(erator8 left entirely to itself8 to (erfor)8 in res(onse to e'ternal influences affecting its sensiti-e organs8 a great -ariety of acts an$ o(erations as if it ha$ intelligence0 ,t .ill 7e a7le to follo. a course lai$ out or to o7ey or$ers gi-en far in a$-anceJ it .ill 7e ca(a7le of $istinguishing 7et.een .hat it ought an$ .hat it ought not to $o8 an$ of )a2ing e'(eriences or8 other.ise state$8 of recor$ing i)(ressions .hich .ill $efinitely affect its su7sequent actions0 ,n fact8 , ha-e alrea$y concei-e$ such a (lan0 Although , e-ol-e$ this in-ention )any years ago an$ e'(laine$ it to )y -isitors -ery frequently in )y la7oratory $e)onstrations8 it .as not until )uch later8 long after , ha$ (erfecte$ it8 that it 7eca)e 2no.n8 .hen8 naturally enough8 it ga-e rise to )uch $iscussion an$ to sensational re(orts0 3ut the true significance of this ne. art .as not gras(e$ 7y the )aHority8 nor .as the great force of the un$erlying (rinci(le recogniBe$0 As nearly as , coul$ Hu$ge fro) the nu)erous co))ents .hich a((eare$8 the results , ha$ o7taine$ .ere consi$ere$ as entirely i)(ossi7le0 "-en the fe. .ho .ere $is(ose$ to a$)it the (ractica7ility of the in-ention sa. in it )erely an auto)o7ile tor(e$o8 .hich .as to 7e use$ for the (ur(ose of 7lo.ing u( 7attleshi(s8 .ith $ou7tful success0 The general i)(ression .as that , conte)(late$ si)(ly the steering of such a -essel 7y )eans of HertBian or other rays0 There are tor(e$oes steere$ electrically 7y .ires8 an$ there are )eans of co))unicating .ithout .ires8 an$ the a7o-e .as8 of course an o7-ious inference0 Ha$ , acco)(lishe$ nothing )ore than this8 , shoul$ ha-e )a$e a s)all a$-ance in$ee$0 3ut the art , ha-e e-ol-e$ $oes not conte)(late )erely the change of $irection of a )o-ing -esselJ it affor$s )eans of a7solutely controlling8 in e-ery res(ect8 all the innu)era7le translatory )o-e)ents8 as .ell as the o(erations of all the internal organs8 no )atter ho. )any8 of an in$i-i$ualiBe$ auto)aton0 Criticis)s to the effect that the control of the auto)aton coul$ 7e interfere$ .ith .ere )a$e 7y (eo(le .ho $o not e-en $rea) of the .on$erful results .hich can 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y use of electrical -i7rations0 The .orl$ )o-es slo.ly8 an$ ne. truths are $ifficult to see0 Certainly8 7y the use of this (rinci(le8 an ar) for attac2 as .ell as $efence )ay 7e (ro-i$e$8 of a $estructi-eness all the greater as the (rinci(le is a((lica7le to su7)arine an$ aerial -essels0 There is -irtually no restriction as to the a)ount of e'(losi-e it can carry8 or as to the $istance at .hich it can stri2e8 an$ failure is al)ost i)(ossi7le0 3ut the force of this ne. (rinci(le $oes not .holly resi$e in its $estructi-eness0 ,ts a$-ent intro$uces into .arfare an ele)ent .hich ne-er
e'iste$ 7eforeKa fighting9)achine .ithout )en as a )eans of attac2 an$ $efence0 The continuous $e-elo()ent in this $irection )ust ulti)ately )a2e .ar a )ere contest of )achines .ithout )en an$ .ithout loss of lifeKa con$ition .hich .oul$ ha-e 7een i)(ossi7le .ithout this ne. $e(arture8 an$ .hich8 in )y o(inion8 )ust 7e reache$ as (reli)inary to (er)anent (eace0 The future .ill either 7ear out or $is(ro-e these -ie.s0 /y i$eas on this su7Hect ha-e 7een (ut forth .ith $ee( con-iction8 7ut in a hu)7le s(irit0 The esta7lish)ent of (er)anent (eaceful relations 7et.een nations .oul$ )ost effecti-ely re$uce the force retar$ing the hu)an )ass8 an$ .oul$ 7e the 7est solution of this great hu)an (ro7le)0 3ut .ill the $rea) of uni-ersal (eace e-er 7e realiBe$F #et us ho(e that it .ill0 &hen all $ar2ness shall 7e $issi(ate$ 7y the light of science8 .hen all nations shall 7e )erge$ into one8 an$ (atriotis) shall 7e i$entical .ith religion8 .hen there shall 7e one language8 one country8 one en$8 then the $rea) .ill ha-e 7eco)e reality0
T0* T0:#% 5#O;'*M: 0OF TO :NC#*AS* T0* 7O#C* ACC*'*#AT:NB T0* 0=MAN MASSAT0* 0A#N*SS:NB O7 T0* S=N2S *N*#B@& ;f the three (ossi7le solutions of the )ain (ro7le) of increasing hu)an energy8 this is 7y far the )ost i)(ortant to consi$er8 not only 7ecause of its intrinsic significance8 7ut also 7ecause of its inti)ate 7earing on all the )any ele)ents an$ con$itions .hich $eter)ine the )o-e)ent of hu)anity0 ,n or$er to (rocee$ syste)atically8 it .oul$ 7e necessary for )e to $.ell on all those consi$erations .hich ha-e gui$e$ )e fro) the outset in )y efforts to arri-e at a solution8 an$ .hich ha-e le$ )e8 ste( 7y ste(8 to the results , shall no. $escri7e0 As a (reli)inary stu$y of the (ro7le) an analytical in-estigation8 such as , ha-e )a$e8 of the chief forces .hich $eter)ine the on.ar$ )o-e)ent8 .oul$ 7e of a$-antage8 (articularly in con-eying an i$ea of that hy(othetical "-elocity" .hich8 as e'(laine$ in the 7eginning8 is a )easure of hu)an energyJ 7ut to $eal .ith this s(ecifically here8 as , .oul$ $esire8 .oul$ lea$ )e far 7eyon$ the sco(e of the (resent su7Hect0 >uffice it to state that the resultant of all these forces is al.ays in the $irection of reason8 .hich therefore8 $eter)ines8 at any ti)e8 the $irection of hu)an )o-e)ent0 This is to say that e-ery effort .hich is scientifically a((lie$8 rational8 useful8 or (ractical8 )ust 7e in the $irection in .hich the )ass is )o-ing0 The (ractical8 rational )an8 the o7ser-er8 the )an of 7usiness8 he .ho reasons8 calculates8 or $eter)ines in a$-ance8 carefully a((lies his effort so that .hen co)ing into effect it .ill 7e in the $irection of the )o-e)ent8 )a2ing it thus )ost efficient8 an$ in this 2no.le$ge an$ a7ility lies the secret of his success0 "-ery ne. fact $isco-ere$8 e-ery ne. e'(erience or ne. ele)ent a$$e$ to our 2no.le$ge an$ entering into the $o)ain of reason8 affects the sa)e an$8 therefore8 changes the $irection of )o-e)ent8 .hich8 ho.e-er8 )ust al.ays ta2e (lace along the resultant of all those efforts .hich8 at that ti)e8 .e $esignate as reasona7le8 that is8 self9(reser-ing8 useful8 (rofita7le8 or (ractical0 These efforts concern our $aily life8 our necessities an$ co)forts8 our .or2 an$ 7usiness8 an$ it is these .hich $ri-e )an on.ar$0 3ut loo2ing at all this 7usy .orl$ a7out us8 on all this co)(le' )ass as it $aily thro7s an$ )o-es8 .hat is it 7ut an i))ense cloc29.or2 $ri-en 7y a s(ringF ,n the )orning8 .hen .e rise8 .e cannot fail to note that all the o7Hects a7out us are )anufacture$ 7y )achineryI the .ater .e use is lifte$ 7y stea)9(o.erJ the trains 7ring our 7rea2fast fro) $istant localitiesJ the ele-ators in our $.elling an$ our office 7uil$ing8 the cars that carry us there8 are all $ri-en 7y (o.erJ in all our $aily erran$s8 an$ in our -ery life9(ursuit8 .e $e(en$ u(on itJ all the o7Hects .e see tell us of itJ an$ .hen .e return to our )achine9)a$e $.elling at night8 lest .e shoul$ forget it8 all the )aterial co)forts of our ho)e8 our cheering sto-e an$ la)(8 re)in$ us of ho. )uch .e $e(en$ on (o.er0 An$ .hen there is an acci$ental sto((age of the )achinery8 .hen the city is sno.7oun$8 or the life sustaining )o-e)ent other.ise te)(orarily arreste$8 .e are affrightene$ to realiBe ho. i)(ossi7le it .oul$ 7e for us to li-e the life .e li-e .ithout )oti-e (o.er0 /oti-e (o.er )eans .or20 To increase the force accelerating hu)an )o-e)ent )eans8 therefore8 to (erfor) )ore .or20 >o .e fin$ that the three (ossi7le solutions of the great (ro7le) of increasing hu)an energy are ans.ere$ 7y the three .or$sI foo$8 (eace8 .or20 /any a year , ha-e thought an$ (on$ere$8 lost )yself in s(eculations an$ theories8 consi$ering )an as a )ass )o-e$ 7y a force8 -ie.ing his ine'(lica7le )o-e)ent in the light of a )echanical one8 an$ a((lying the si)(le (rinci(les of )echanics to the analysis of the sa)e until , arri-e$ at these solutions8 only to realiBe that they .ere taught to )e in )y early chil$hoo$0 These three .or$s soun$ the 2ey9notes of the Christian religion0 Their scientific )eaning an$ (ur(ose no. clear to )eI foo$ to increase the )ass8 (eace to $i)inish the retar$ing force8 an$ .or2 to increase the force accelerating hu)an )o-e)ent0 These are the only three solutions .hich are (ossi7le of that great (ro7le)8 an$ all of the) ha-e one o7Hect8 one en$8 na)ely8 to increase hu)an energy0 &hen .e recogniBe this8 .e cannot hel( .on$ering ho. (rofoun$ly
.ise an$ scientific an$ ho. i))ensely (ractical the Christian religion is8 an$ in .hat a )ar2e$ contrast it stan$s in this res(ect to other religions0 ,t is un)ista2a7ly the result of (ractical e'(eri)ent an$ scientific o7ser-ation .hich ha-e e'ten$e$ through the ages8 .hile other religions see) to 7e the outco)e of )erely a7stract reasoning0 &or28 untiring effort8 useful an$ accu)ulati-e8 .ith (erio$s of rest an$ recu(eration ai)ing at higher efficiency8 is its chief an$ e-er9recurring co))an$0 Thus .e are ins(ire$ 7oth 7y Christianity an$ >cience to $o our ut)ost to.ar$ increasing the (erfor)ance of )an2in$0 This )ost i)(ortant of hu)an (ro7le)s , shall no. s(ecifically consi$er0
T0* SO=#C* O7 0=MAN *N*#B@AT0* T0#** FA@S O7 %#AF:NB *N*#B@ 7#OM T0* S=N& First let us as2I &hence co)es all the )oti-e (o.erF &hat is the s(ring that $ri-es allF &e see the ocean rise an$ fall8 the ri-ers flo.8 the .in$8 rain8 hail8 an$ sno. 7eat on our .in$o.s8 the trains an$ stea)ers co)e an$ goJ .e hear the rattling noise of carriages8 the -oices fro) the streetJ .e feel8 s)ell8 an$ tasteJ an$ .e thin2 of all this0 An$ all this )o-e)ent8 fro) the surging of the )ighty ocean to that su7tle )o-e)ent concerne$ in our thought8 has 7ut one co))on cause0 All this energy e)anates fro) one single centre8 one single sourceKthe sun0 The sun is the s(ring that $ri-es all0 The sun )aintains all hu)an life an$ su((lies all hu)an energy0 Another ans.er .e ha-e no. foun$ to the a7o-e great questionI To increase the force accelerating hu)an )o-e)ent )eans to turn to the uses of )an )ore of the sun's energy0 &e honour an$ re-ere those great )en of 7ygone ti)es .hose na)es are lin2e$ .ith i))ortal achie-e)ents8 .ho ha-e (ro-e$ the)sel-es 7enefactors of hu)anityKthe religious refor)er .ith his .ise )a'i)s of life8 the (hiloso(her .ith his $ee( truths8 the )athe)atician .ith his for)ulb8 the (hysicist .ith his la.s8 the $isco-erer .ith his (rinci(les an$ secrets .reste$ fro) nature8 the artist .ith his for)s of the 7eautifulJ 7ut .ho honours hi)8 the greatest of all8K.ho can tell the na)e of hi)8K.ho first turne$ to use the sun's energy to sa-e the effort of a .ea2 fello.9creatureF That .as )an's first act of scientific (hilanthro(y8 an$ its consequences ha-e 7een incalcula7le0 Fro) the -ery 7eginning three .ays of $ra.ing energy fro) the sun .ere o(en to )an0 The sa-age8 .hen he .ar)e$ his froBen li)7s at a fire 2in$le$ in so)e .ay8 a-aile$ hi)self of the energy of the sun store$ in the 7urning )aterial0 &hen he carrie$ a 7un$le of 7ranches to his ca-e an$ 7urne$ the) there8 he )a$e use of the sun's store$ energy trans(orte$ fro) one to another locality0 &hen he set sail to his canoe8 he utiliBe$ the energy of the sun a((lie$ to the at)os(here or the a)7ient )e$iu)0 There can 7e no $ou7t that the first is the ol$est .ay0 A fire8 foun$ acci$entally8 taught the sa-age to a((reciate its 7eneficial heat0 He then -ery li2ely concei-e$ of the i$ea of carrying the glo.ing )e)7ers to his a7o$e0 Finally he learne$ to use the force of a s.ift current of .ater or air0 ,t is characteristic of )o$ern $e-elo()ent that (rogress has 7een effecte$ in the sa)e or$er0 The utiliBation of the energy store$ in .oo$ or coal8 or8 generally s(ea2ing8 fuel8 le$ to the stea)9engine0 1e't a great stri$e in a$-ance .as )a$e in energy9trans(ortation 7y the use of electricity8 .hich (er)itte$ the transfer of energy fro) one locality to another .ithout trans(orting the )aterial0 3ut as to the utiliBation of the energy of the a)7ient )e$iu)8 no ra$ical ste( for.ar$ has as yet 7een )a$e 2no.n0 The ulti)ate results of $e-elo()ent in these three $irections areI first8 the 7urning of coal 7y a col$ (rocess in a 7atteryJ secon$8 the efficient utiliBation of the energy of the a)7ient )e$iu)J an$8 thir$ the trans)ission .ithout .ires of electrical energy to any $istance0 ,n .hate-er .ay these results )ay 7e arri-e$ at8 their (ractical a((lication .ill necessarily in-ol-e an e'tensi-e use of iron8 an$ this in-alua7le )etal .ill un$ou7te$ly 7e an essential ele)ent in the further $e-elo()ent along these three lines0 ,f .e succee$ in 7urning coal 7y a col$ (rocess an$ thus o7tain electrical energy in an efficient an$ ine'(ensi-e )anner8 .e shall require in )any (ractical uses of this energy electric )otorsKthat is8 iron0 ,f .e are successful in $eri-ing energy fro) the a)7ient )e$iu)8 .e shall nee$8 7oth in the o7tain)ent an$ utiliBation of the energy8 )achineryKagain8 iron0 ,f .e realiBe the trans)ission of electrical energy .ithout .ires on an in$ustrial scale8 .e shall 7e co)(elle$ to use e'tensi-ely electric generatorsKonce )ore8 iron0 &hate-er .e )ay $o8 iron .ill (ro7a7ly 7e the chief )eans of acco)(lish)ent in the near future8 (ossi7ly )ore so than in the (ast0 Ho. long its reign .ill last is $ifficult to tell8 for e-en no. alu)iniu) is loo)ing u( as a threatening co)(etitor0 3ut for the ti)e 7eing8 ne't to (ro-i$ing ne. resources of energy8 it is of the greatest i)(ortance to )a2ing i)(ro-e)ents in the )anufacture an$ utiliBation of iron0 Great a$-ances are (ossi7le in these latter $irections8 .hich8 if 7rought a7out8 .oul$ enor)ously increase the useful (erfor)ance of )an2in$0
B#*AT 5OSS:;:':T:*S O77*#*% ;@ :#ON 7O# :NC#*AS:NB 0=MAN 5*#7O#MANC*A*NO#MO=S FAST* :N :#ON MAN=7ACT=#*& ,ron is 7y far the )ost i)(ortant factor in )o$ern (rogress0 ,t contri7utes )ore than any other in$ustrial (ro$uct to the force accelerating hu)an )o-e)ent0 >o general is the use of this )etal8 an$ so inti)ately is it connecte$ .ith all that concerns our life8 that it has 7eco)e as in$is(ensa7le to us as the -ery air .e 7reathe0 ,ts na)e is synony)ous .ith usefulness0 3ut8 ho.e-er great the influence of iron )ay 7e on the (resent hu)an $e-elo()ent8 it $oes not a$$ to the force urging )an on.ar$ nearly as )uch as it )ight0 First of all8 its )anufacture as no. carrie$ on is connecte$ .ith an a((alling .aste of fuelKthat is8 .aste of energy0 Then8 again8 only a (art of all the iron (ro$uce$ is a((lie$ for useful (ur(oses0 A goo$ (art of it goes to create frictional resistances8 .hile still another large (art is the )eans of $e-elo(ing negati-e forces greatly retar$ing hu)an )o-e)ent0 Thus the negati-e force of .ar is al)ost .holly re(resente$ in iron0 ,t is i)(ossi7le to esti)ate .ith any $egree of accuracy the )agnitu$e of this greatest of all retar$ing forces8 7ut it is certainly -ery consi$era7le0 ,f the (resent (ositi-e i)(elling force $ue to all useful a((lications of iron 7e re(resente$ 7y ten8 for instance8 , shoul$ not thin2 it e'aggeration to esti)ate the negati-e force of .ar8 .ith $ue consi$eration of all its retar$ing influences an$ results8 at8 say8 si'0 ;n the 7asis of this esti)ate the effecti-e i)(elling force of iron in the (ositi-e $irection .oul$ 7e )easure$ 7y the $ifference of these t.o nu)7ers8 .hich is four0 3ut if8 through the esta7lish)ent of uni-ersal (eace8 the )anufacture of .ar )achinery shoul$ cease8 an$ all struggle for su(re)acy 7et.een nations shoul$ 7e turne$ into healthful8 e-er acti-e an$ (ro$ucti-e co))ercial co)(etition8 then the (ositi-e i)(elling force $ue to iron .oul$ 7e )easure$ 7y the su) of those t.o8 nu)7ers8 .hich is si'teenKthat is8 this force .oul$ ha-e four ti)es its (resent -alue0 This e'a)(le is8 of course8 )erely inten$e$ to gi-e an i$ea of the i))ense increase in the useful (erfor)ance of )an2in$ .hich .oul$ result fro) a ra$ical refor) of the iron in$ustries su((lying the i)(le)ents of .arfare0 A si)ilar inesti)a7le a$-antage in the sa-ing of energy a-aila7le to )an .oul$ 7e secure$ 7y o7-iating the great .aste of coal .hich is inse(ara7ly connecte$ .ith the (resent )etho$s of )anufacturing iron0 ,n so)e countries8 such as Great 3ritain8 the hurtful effects of this squan$ering of fuel are 7eginning to 7e felt0 The (rice of coal is constantly rising8 an$ the (oor are )a$e to suffer )ore an$ )ore0 Though .e are still far fro) the $rea$e$ "e'haustion of the coal9fiel$s8" (hilanthro(y co))an$s us to in-ent no-el )etho$s of )anufacturing iron8 .hich .ill not in-ol-e such 7ar7arous .aste of this -alua7le )aterial fro) .hich .e $eri-e at (resent )ost of our energy0 ,t is our $uty to co)ing generations to lea-e this store of energy intact for the)8 or at least not to touch it until .e shall ha-e (erfecte$ (rocesses for 7urning coal )ore efficiently0 Those .ho are co)ing after us .ill nee$ fuel )ore than .e $o0 &e shoul$ 7e a7le to )anufacture the iron .e require 7y using the sun's energy8 .ithout .asting any coal at all0 As an effort to this en$ the i$ea of s)elting iron ores 7y electric currents o7taine$ fro) the energy of falling .ater has naturally suggeste$ itself to )any0 , ha-e )yself s(ent )uch ti)e in en$ea-ouring to e-ol-e such a (ractical (rocess8 .hich .oul$ ena7le iron to 7e )anufacture$ at s)all cost0 After a (rolonge$ in-estigation of the su7Hect8 fin$ing that it .as un(rofita7le to use the currents generate$ $irectly for s)elting the ore8 , $e-ise$ a )etho$ .hich is far )ore econo)ical0
*CONOM:CA' 5#O%=CT:ON O7 :#ON ;@ A N*F 5#OC*SS& The in$ustrial (roHect8 as , .or2e$ it out si' years ago8 conte)(late$ the e)(loy)ent of the electric currents $eri-e$ fro) the energy of a .aterfall8 not $irectly for s)elting the ore8 7ut for $eco)(osing .ater for a (reli)inary ste(0 To lessen the cost of the (lant8 , (ro(ose$ to generate the currents in e'ce(tionally chea( an$ si)(le $yna)os8 .hich , $esigne$ for this sole (ur(ose0 The hy$rogen li7erate$ in the electrolytic $eco)(osition .as to 7e 7urne$ or reco)7ine$ .ith o'ygen8 not .ith that fro) .hich it .as se(arate$8 7ut .ith that of the at)os(here0 Thus -ery nearly the total electrical energy use$ u( in the $eco)(osition of the .ater .oul$ 7e reco-ere$ in the for) of heat resulting fro) the reco)7ination of the hy$rogen0 This heat .as to 7e a((lie$ to the s)elting of ore0 The o'ygen gaine$ as a 7y9(ro$uct of the $eco)(osition of the .ater , inten$e$ to use for certain other in$ustrial (ur(oses8 .hich .oul$ (ro7a7ly yiel$ goo$ financial returns8 inas)uch as this is the chea(est .ay of o7taining this gas in large quantities0 ,n any e-ent8 it coul$ 7e e)(loye$ to 7urn all 2in$s of refuse8 chea( hy$rocar7on8 or coal of the )ost inferior quality .hich coul$ not 7e 7urne$ in air or 7e other.ise utiliBe$ to a$-antage8 an$ thus again a consi$era7le a)ount of heat .oul$ 7e )a$e a-aila7le for the s)elting of the ore0 To increase the econo)y of the (rocess , conte)(late$8 further)ore8 using an arrange)ent such that the hot )etal an$ the (ro$ucts of co)7ustion8 co)ing out of the furnace8 .oul$ gi-e u( their heat u(on the col$ ore going into the furnace8 so that co)(arati-ely little of the heat energy .oul$ 7e lost in the s)elting0 , calculate$ that (ro7a7ly forty thousan$ (oun$s of iron coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ (er horse9(o.er (er annu) 7y this )etho$0 #i7eral allo.ances .ere )a$e for those losses .hich are una-oi$a7le8 the a7o-e quantity 7eing a7out
half of that theoretically o7taina7le0 +elying on this esti)ate an$ on (ractical $ata .ith reference to a certain 2in$ of san$ ore e'isting in a7un$ance in the region of the Great #a2es8 inclu$ing cost of trans(ortation an$ la7our8 , foun$ that in so)e localities iron coul$ 7e )anufacture$ in this )anner chea(er than 7y any of the a$o(te$ )etho$s0 This result .oul$ 7e o7taine$ all the )ore surely if the o'ygen o7taine$ fro) the .ater8 instea$ of 7eing use$ for s)elting of ore8 as assu)e$8 shoul$ 7e )ore (rofita7ly e)(loye$0 Any ne. $e)an$ for this gas .oul$ secure a higher re-enue fro) the (lant8 thus chea(ening the iron0 This (roHect .as a$-ance$ )erely in the interest of in$ustry0 >o)e $ay8 , ho(e8 a 7eautiful in$ustrial 7utterfly .ill co)e out of the $usty an$ shri-elle$ chrysalis0 The (ro$uction of iron fro) san$ ores 7y a (rocess of )agnetic se(aration is highly co))en$a7le in (rinci(le8 since it in-ol-es no .aste of coalJ 7ut the usefulness of this )etho$ is largely re$uce$ 7y the necessity of )elting the iron after.ar$s0 As to the crushing of iron ore8 , .oul$ consi$er it rational only if $one 7y .ater9 (o.er8 or 7y energy other.ise o7taine$ .ithout consu)(tion of fuel0 An electrolytic col$ (rocess8 .hich .oul$ )a2e it (ossi7le to e'tract iron chea(ly8 an$ also to )oul$ it into the require$ for)s .ithout any fuel consu)(tion8 .oul$8 in )y o(inion8 7e a -ery great a$-ance in iron )anufacture0 ,n co))on .ith so)e other )etals8 iron has so far resiste$ electrolytic treat)ent8 7ut there can 7e no $ou7t that such a col$ (rocess .ill ulti)ately re(lace in )etallurgy the (resent cru$e )etho$ of casting8 an$ thus o7-iating the enor)ous .aste of fuel necessitate$ 7y the re(eate$ heating of )etal in the foun$ries0 C( to a fe. $eca$es ago the usefulness of iron .as 7ase$ al)ost .holly on its re)ar2a7le )echanical (ro(erties8 7ut since the a$-ent of the co))ercial $yna)o an$ electric )otor its -alue to )an2in$ has 7een greatly increase$ 7y its unique )agnetic qualities0 As regar$s the latter8 iron has 7een greatly i)(ro-e$ of late0 The signal (rogress 7egan a7out thirteen years ago8 .hen , $isco-ere$ that in using soft 3esse)er steel instea$ of .rought iron8 as then custo)ary8 in an alternating )otor8 the (erfor)ance of the )achine .as $ou7le$0 , 7rought this fact to the attention of /r0 Al7ert >ch)i$8 to .hose untiring efforts an$ a7ility is largely $ue the su(re)acy of A)erican electrical )achinery8 an$ .ho .as then su(erinten$ent of an in$ustrial cor(oration engage$ in this fiel$0 Follo.ing )y suggestion8 he constructe$ transfor)ers of steel8 an$ they sho.e$ the sa)e )ar2e$ i)(ro-e)ent0 The in-estigation .as then syste)atically continue$ un$er /r0 >ch)i$'s gui$ance8 the i)(urities 7eing gra$ually eli)inate$ fro) the "steel" (.hich .as only such in na)e8 for in reality it .as (ure soft iron 8 an$ soon a (ro$uct resulte$ .hich a$)itte$ of little further i)(ro-e)ent0
T0* COM:NB AB* O7 A'=M:N:=MA%OOM O7 T0* CO55*# :N%=ST#@AT0* B#*AT C:6:':L:NB 5OT*NC@ O7 T0* N*F M*TA'& &ith the a$-ances )a$e in iron of late years .e ha-e arri-e$ -irtually at the li)its of i)(ro-e)ent0 &e cannot ho(e to increase -ery )aterially its tensile strength8 elasticity8 har$ness8 or )allea7ility8 nor can .e e'(ect to )a2e it )uch 7etter as regar$s its )agnetic qualities0 /ore recently a nota7le gain .as secure$ 7y the )i'ture of a s)all (ercentage of nic2el .ith the iron8 7ut there is not )uch roo) for further a$-ance in this $irection0 1e. $isco-eries )ay 7e e'(ecte$8 7ut they cannot greatly a$$ to the -alua7le (ro(erties of the )etal8 though they )ay consi$era7ly re$uce the cost of )anufacture0 The i))e$iate future of iron is assure$ 7y its chea(ness an$ its unri-alle$ )echanical an$ )agnetic qualities0 These are such that no other (ro$uct can co)(ete .ith it no.0 3ut there can 7e no $ou7t that8 at a ti)e not -ery $istant8 iron8 in )any of its no. unconteste$ $o)ains8 .ill ha-e to (ass the sce(tre to anotherI the co)ing age .ill 7e the age of alu)iniu)0 ,t is only se-enty years since this .on$erful )etal .as $isco-ere$ 7y &oehler8 an$ the alu)iniu) in$ustry8 scarcely forty years ol$8 co))an$s alrea$y the attention of the entire .orl$0 >uch ra(i$ gro.th has not 7een recor$e$ in the history of ci-iliBation 7efore0 1ot long ago alu)iniu) .as sol$ at the fanciful (rice of thirty or forty $ollars (er (oun$J to$ay it can 7e ha$ in any $esire$ a)ount for as )any cents0 &hat is )ore8 the ti)e is not far off .hen this (rice8 too8 .ill 7e consi$ere$ fanciful8 for great i)(ro-e)ents are (ossi7le in the )etho$s of its )anufacture0 /ost of the )etal is no. (ro$uce$ in the electric furnace 7y a (rocess co)7ining fusion an$ electrolysis8 .hich offers a nu)7er of a$-antageous features8 7ut in-ol-es naturally a great .aste of the electrical energy of the current0 /y esti)ates sho. that the (rice of alu)iniu) coul$ 7e consi$era7ly re$uce$ 7y a$o(ting in its )anufacture a )etho$ si)ilar to that (ro(ose$ 7y )e for the (ro$uction of iron0 A (oun$ of alu)iniu) requires for fusion only a7out se-enty (er cent of the heat nee$e$ for )elting a (oun$ of iron8 an$ inas)uch as its .eight is only a7out one thir$ of that of the latter8 a -olu)e of alu)iniu) four ti)es that of iron coul$ 7e o7taine$ fro) a gi-en a)ount of heat9energy0 3ut a col$ electrolytic (rocess of )anufacture is the i$eal solution8 an$ on this , ha-e (lace$ )y ho(e0 The a7solutely una-oi$a7le consequence of the a$-ance)ent of the alu)iniu) in$ustry .ill 7e the annihilation
of the co((er in$ustry0 They cannot e'ist an$ (ros(er together8 an$ the latter is $oo)e$ 7eyon$ any ho(e of reco-ery0 "-en no. it is chea(er to con-ey an electric current through alu)iniu) .ires than through co((er .iresJ alu)iniu) castings cost less8 an$ in )any $o)estic an$ other uses co((er has no chance of successfully co)(eting0 A further )aterial re$uction of the (rice of alu)iniu) cannot 7ut 7e fatal to co((er0 3ut the (rogress of the for)er .ill not go on unchec2e$8 for8 as it e-er ha((ens in such cases8 the larger in$ustry .ill a7sor7 the s)aller oneI the giant co((er interests .ill control the (yg)y alu)iniu) interests8 an$ the slo.9(acing co((er .ill re$uce the li-ely gait of alu)iniu)0 This .ill only $elay8 not a-oi$ the i)(en$ing catastro(he0 Alu)iniu)8 ho.e-er8 .ill not sto( at $o.ning co((er0 3efore )any years ha-e (asse$ it .ill 7e engage$ in a fierce struggle .ith iron8 an$ in the latter it .ill fin$ an a$-ersary not easy to conquer0 The issue of the contest .ill largely $e(en$ on .hether iron shall 7e in$is(ensa7le in electric )achinery0 This the future alone can $eci$e0 The )agnetis) as e'hi7ite$ in iron is an isolate$ (heno)enon in nature0 &hat it is that )a2es this )etal 7eha-e so ra$ically $ifferent fro) all other )aterials in this res(ect has not yet 7een ascertaine$8 though )any theories ha-e 7een suggeste$0 As regar$s )agnetis)8 the )olecules of the -arious 7o$ies 7eha-e li2e hollo. 7ea)s (artly fille$ .ith a hea-y flui$ an$ 7alance$ in the )i$$le in the )anner of a see9sa.0 "-i$ently so)e $istur7ing influence e'ists in nature .hich causes each )olecule8 li2e such a 7ea)8 to tilt either one or the other .ay0 ,f the )olecules are tilte$ one .ay8 the 7o$y is )agneticJ if they are tilte$ the other .ay8 the 7o$y is non9)agneticJ 7ut 7oth (ositions are sta7le8 as they .oul$ 7e in the case of the hollo. 7ea)8 o.ing to the rush of the flui$ to the lo.er en$0 1o.8 the .on$erful thing is that the )olecules of all 2no.n 7o$ies .ent one .ay8 .hile those of iron .ent the other .ay0 This )etal8 it .oul$ see)8 has an origin entirely $ifferent fro) that of the rest of the glo7e0 ,t is highly i)(ro7a7le that .e shall $isco-er so)e other an$ chea(er )aterial .hich .ill equal or sur(ass iron in )agnetic qualities0 Cnless .e shoul$ )a2e a ra$ical $e(arture in the character of the electric currents e)(loye$8 iron .ill 7e in$is(ensa7le0 Det the a$-antages it offers are only a((arent0 >o long as .e use fee7le )agnetic forces it is 7y far su(erior to any other )aterialJ 7ut if .e fin$ .ays of (ro$ucing great )agnetic forces8 than 7etter results .ill 7e o7taina7le .ithout it0 ,n fact8 , ha-e alrea$y (ro$uce$ electric transfor)ers in .hich no iron is e)(loye$8 an$ .hich are ca(a7le of (erfor)ing ten ti)es as )uch .or2 (er (oun$ of .eight as those of iron0 This result is attaine$ 7y using electric currents of a -ery high rate of -i7ration8 (ro$uce$ in no-el .ays8 instea$ of the or$inary currents no. e)(loye$ in the in$ustries0 , ha-e also succee$e$ in o(erating electric )otors .ithout iron 7y such ra(i$ly -i7rating currents8 7ut the results8 so far8 ha-e 7een inferior to those o7taine$ .ith or$inary )otors constructe$ of iron8 although theoretically the for)er shoul$ 7e ca(a7le of (erfor)ing inco)(ara7ly )ore .or2 (er unit of .eight than the latter0 3ut the see)ingly insu(era7le $ifficulties .hich are no. in the .ay )ay 7e o-erco)e in the en$8 an$ then iron .ill 7e $one a.ay .ith8 an$ all electric )achinery .ill 7e )anufacture$ of alu)iniu)8 in all (ro7a7ility8 at (rices ri$iculously lo.0 This .oul$ 7e a se-ere8 if not fatal8 7lo. to iron0 ,n )any other 7ranches of in$ustry8 as shi(97uil$ing8 or .here-er lightness of structure is require$8 the (rogress of the ne. )etal .ill 7e )uch quic2er0 For such uses it is e)inently suita7le8 an$ is sure to su(erse$e iron sooner or later0 ,t is highly (ro7a7le that in the course of ti)e .e shall 7e a7le to gi-e it )any of those qualities .hich )a2e iron so -alua7le0 &hile it is i)(ossi7le to tell .hen this in$ustrial re-olution .ill 7e consu))ate$8 there can 7e no $ou7t that the future 7elongs to alu)iniu)8 an$ that in ti)es to co)e it .ill 7e the chief )eans of increasing hu)an (erfor)ance0 ,t has in this res(ect ca(acities greater 7y far than those of any other )etal0 , shoul$ esti)ate its ci-iliBing (otency at fully one hun$re$ ti)es that of iron0 This esti)ate8 though it )ay astonish8 is not at all e'aggerate$0 First of all8 .e )ust re)e)7er that there is thirty ti)es as )uch alu)iniu) as iron in 7ul28 a-aila7le for the uses of )an0 This in itself offers great (ossi7ilities0 Then8 again8 the ne. )etal is )uch )ore easily .or2a7le8 .hich a$$s to its -alue0 ,n )any of its (ro(erties it (arta2es of the character of a (recious )etal8 .hich gi-es it a$$itional .orth0 ,ts electric con$ucti-ity8 .hich8 for a gi-en .eight8 is greater than that of any other )etal8 .oul$ 7e alone sufficient to )a2e it one of the )ost i)(ortant factors in future hu)an (rogress0 ,ts e'tre)e lightness )a2es it far )ore easy to trans(ort the o7Hects )anufacture$0 3y -irtue of this (ro(erty it .ill re-olutioniBe na-al construction8 an$ in facilitating trans(ort an$ tra-el it .ill a$$ enor)ously to the useful (erfor)ance of )an2in$0 3ut its greatest ci-iliBing (ro(erty .ill 7e8 , 7elie-e8 in acrial tra-el8 .hich is sure to 7e 7rought a7out 7y )eans of it0 Telegra(hic instru)ents .ill slo.ly enlighten the 7ar7arian0 "lectric )otors an$ la)(s .ill $o it )ore quic2ly8 7ut quic2er than anything else the flying9)achine .ill $o it0 3y ren$ering tra-el i$eally easy it .ill 7e the 7est )eans for unifying the heterogeneous ele)ents of hu)anity0 As the first ste( to.ar$ this realiBation .e shoul$ (ro$uce a lighter storage97attery or get )ore energy fro) coal0
*77O#TS TOFA#% O;TA:N:NB MO#* *N*#B@ 7#OM COA'AT0* *'*CT#:C T#ANSM:SS:ONAT0* BAS-*NB:N*AT0* CO'%-COA' ;ATT*#@& , re)e)7er that at one ti)e , consi$ere$ the (ro$uction of electricity 7y 7urning coal in a 7attery as the greatest achie-e)ent to.ar$ the a$-ancing ci-iliBation8 an$ , a) sur(rise$ to fin$ ho. )uch the continuous stu$y of these su7Hects has )o$ifie$ )y -ie.s0 ,t no. see)s to )e that to 7urn coal8 ho.e-er efficiently8 in a 7attery .oul$ 7e a )ere )a2eshift8 a (hase in the e-olution to.ar$ so)ething )uch )ore (erfect0 After all8 in generating electricity in this )anner8 .e shoul$ 7e $estroying )aterial8 an$ this .oul$ 7e a 7ar7arous (rocess0 &e ought to 7e a7le to o7tain the energy .e nee$ .ithout consu)(tion of )aterial0 3ut , a) far fro) un$errating the -alue of such an efficient )etho$ of 7urning fuel0 At the (resent ti)e )ost )oti-e (o.er co)es fro) coal8 an$8 either $irectly or 7y its (ro$ucts8 it a$$s -astly to hu)an energy0 Cnfortunately8 in all the (rocess no. a$o(te$8 the larger (ortion of the energy of the coal is uselessly $issi(ate$0 The 7est stea)9engines utiliBe only a s)all (art of the total energy0 "-en in gas9engines8 in .hich8 (articularly of late8 7etter results are o7taina7le8 there is still a 7ar7arous .aste going on0 ,n our electric9lighting syste)s .e scarcely utiliBe one thir$ of one (er cent08 an$ in lighting 7y gas a )uch s)aller fraction8 of the total energy of the coal0 Consi$ering the -arious uses of coal throughout the .orl$8 .e certainly $o not utiliBe )ore than t.o (er cent of its energy theoretically a-aila7le0 The )an .ho shoul$ sto( this senseless .aste .oul$ 7e a great 7enefactor of hu)anity8 though the solution he .oul$ offer coul$ not 7e a (er)anent one8 since it .oul$ ulti)ately lea$ to the e'haustion of the store of )aterial0 "fforts to.ar$ o7taining )ore energy fro) coal are no. 7eing )a$e chiefly in t.o $irectionsK 7y generating electricity an$ 7y (ro$ucing gas for )oti-e9(o.er (ur(oses0 ,n 7oth of these lines nota7le success has alrea$y 7een achie-e$0 The a$-ent of the alternating9current syste) of electric (o.er9trans)ission )ar2s an e(och in the econo)y of energy a-aila7le to )an fro) coal0 "-i$ently all electrical energy o7taine$ fro) a .aterfall8 sa-ing so )uch fuel8 is a net gain to )an2in$8 .hich is all the )ore effecti-e as it is secure$ .ith little e'(en$iture of hu)an effort8 an$ as this )ost (erfect of all 2no.n )etho$s of $eri-ing energy fro) the sun contri7utes in )any .ays to the a$-ance)ent of ci-iliBation0 3ut electricity ena7les us also to get fro) coal )uch )ore energy than .as (ractica7le in the ol$ .ays0 ,nstea$ of trans(orting the coal to $istant (laces of consu)(tion8 .e 7urn it near the )ine8 $e-elo( electricity in the $yna)os8 an$ trans)it the current to re)ote localities8 thus effecting a consi$era7le sa-ing0 ,nstea$ of $ri-ing the )achinery in a factory in the ol$ .asteful .ay of 7elts an$ shafting8 .e generate electricity 7y stea)9(o.er an$ o(erate electric )otors0 ,n this )anner it is not unco))on to o7tain t.o or three ti)es as )uch effecti-e )oti-e (o.er fro) the fuel8 7esi$es securing )any other i)(ortant a$-antages0 ,t is in this fiel$ as )uch as in the trans)ission of energy to great $istance that the alternating syste)8 .ith its i$eally si)(le )achinery8 is 7ringing a7out an in$ustrial re-olution0 3ut in )any lines this (rogress has not 7een yet fully felt0 For e'a)(le8 stea)ers an$ trains are still 7eing (ro(elle$ 7y the $irect a((lication of stea)9(o.er to shafts or a'les0 A )uch greater (ercentage of the heat9energy of the fuel coul$ 7e transfor)e$ into )oti-e energy 7y using8 in (lace of the a$o(te$ )arine engines an$ loco)oti-es8 $yna)os $ri-en 7y s(ecially $esigne$ high9(ressure stea)9 or gas9engines an$ 7y utiliBing the electricity generate$ for the (ro(ulsion0 A gain of fifty to one hun$re$ (er cent in the effecti-e energy $eri-e$ fro) the coal coul$ 7e secure$ in this )anner0 ,t is $ifficulty to un$erstan$ .hy a fact so (lain an$ o7-ious is not recei-ing )ore attention fro) engineers0 ,n ocean stea)ers such an i)(ro-e)ent .oul$ 7e (articularly $esira7le8 as it .oul$ $o a.ay .ith noise an$ increase )aterially the s(ee$ an$ the carrying ca(acity of the liners0 >till )ore energy is no. 7eing o7taine$ fro) coal 7y the latest i)(ro-e$ gas9engine8 the econo)y of .hich is8 on the a-erage8 (ro7a7ly t.ice that of the 7est stea)9engine0 The intro$uction of the gas9engine is -ery )uch facilitate$ 7y the i)(ortance of the gas in$ustry0 &ith the increasing use of the electric light )ore an$ )ore of the gas is utiliBe$ for heating an$ )oti-e9(o.er (ur(oses0 ,n )any instances gas is )anufacture$ close to the coal9)ine an$ con-eye$ to $istant (laces of consu)(tion8 a consi$era7le sa-ing 7oth in cost of trans(ortation an$ in utiliBation of the energy of the fuel 7eing thus effecte$0 ,n the (resent state of the )echanical an$ electrical arts the )ost rational .ay of $eri-ing energy fro) coal is e-i$ently to )anufacture gas close to the coal store8 an$ to utiliBe it8 either on the s(ot or else.here8 to generate electricity for in$ustrial uses in $yna)os $ri-en 7y gas engines0 The co))ercial success of such a (lant is largely $e(en$ent u(on the (ro$uction of gas9 engines of great no)inal horse9(o.er8 .hich8 Hu$ging fro) the 2een acti-ity in this fiel$ .ill soon 7e forthco)ing0 ,nstea$ of consu)ing coal $irectly8 as usual8 gas shoul$ 7e )anufacture$ fro) it an$ 7urne$ to econo)iBe energy0 3ut all such i)(ro-e)ents cannot 7e )ore than (assing (hases in the e-olution to.ar$ so)ething far )ore (erfect8 for ulti)ately .e )ust succee$ in o7taining electricity fro) coal in a )ore $irect .ay8 in-ol-ing no great
loss of heat9energy0 &hether coal can 7e o'i$iBe$ 7y a col$ (rocess is still a question0 ,ts co)7ination .ith o'ygen al.ays in-ol-es heat8 an$ .hether the energy of the co)7ination of the car7on .ith another ele)ent can 7e turne$ $irectly into electrical energy has not yet 7een $eter)ine$0 Cn$er certain con$itions nitric aci$ .ill 7urn the car7on8 generating an electric current8 7ut the solution $oes not re)ain col$0 ;ther )eans of o'i$iBing coal ha-e 7een (ro(ose$8 7ut they ha-e offere$ no (ro)ise of lea$ing to an efficient (rocess0 /y o.n lac2 of success has 7een co)(lete8 though (erha(s not quite so co)(lete as that of so)e .ho ha-e "(erfecte$" the col$9coal 7attery0 This (ro7le) is essentially one for the che)ist to sol-e0 ,t is not for the (hysicist8 .ho $eter)ines all his results in a$-ance8 so that8 .hen the e'(eri)ent is trie$8 it cannot fail0 Che)istry8 though a (ositi-e science8 $oes not yet a$)it of a solution 7y such (ositi-e )etho$s as those .hich are a-aila7le in the treat)ent of )any (hysical (ro7le)s0 The result8 if (ossi7le8 .ill 7e arri-e$ at through (atient trying rather than through $e$uction or calculation0 The ti)e .ill soon co)e8 ho.e-er8 .hen the che)ist .ill 7e a7le to follo. a course clearly )a((e$ out 7eforehan$8 an$ .hen the (rocess of his arri-ing at a $esire$ result .ill 7e (urely constructi-e0 The col$9coal 7attery .oul$ gi-e a great i)(etus to electrical $e-elo()entJ it .oul$ lea$ -ery shortly to a (ractical flying9)achine8 an$ .oul$ enor)ously enhance the intro$uction of the auto)o7ile0 3ut these an$ )any other (ro7le)s .ill 7e 7etter sol-e$8 an$ in a )ore scientific )anner8 7y a light storage 7attery0
*N*#B@ 7#OM T0* M*%:=MAT0* F:N%M:'' AN% T0* SO'A# *NB:N*)AMOT:6* 5OF*# 7#OM T*##*ST#:A' 0*ATA*'*CT#:C:T@ 7#OM NAT=#A' SO=#C*S& 3esi$es fuel8 there is a7un$ant )aterial fro) .hich .e )ight e-entually $eri-e (o.er0 An i))ense a)ount of energy is loc2e$ u( in li)estone8 for instance8 an$ )achines can 7e $ri-en 7y li7erating the car7onic aci$ through sul(huric aci$ or other.ise0 , once constructe$ such an engine8 an$ it o(erate$ satisfactorily0 3ut8 .hate-er our resources of (ri)ary energy )ay 7e in the future8 .e )ust8 to 7e rational8 o7tain it .ithout consu)(tion of any )aterial0 #ong ago , ca)e to this conclusion8 an$ to arri-e at this result only t.o .ays8 as 7efore in$icate$8 a((eare$ (ossi7leKeither to turn to use the energy of the sun store$ in the a)7ient )e$iu)8 or to trans)it8 through the )e$iu)8 the sun's energy to $istant (laces fro) so)e locality .here it .as o7taina7le .ithout consu)(tion of )aterial0 At that ti)e , at once reHecte$ the latter )etho$ as entirely i)(ractica7le8 an$ turne$ to e'a)ine the (ossi7ilities of the for)er0 ,t is $ifficult to 7elie-e8 7ut it is8 ne-ertheless8 a fact8 that since ti)e i))e)orial )an has ha$ at his $is(osal a fairly goo$ )achine .hich has ena7le$ hi) to utiliBe the energy of the a)7ient )e$iu)0 This )achine is the .in$)ill0 Contrary to (o(ular 7elief8 the (o.er o7taina7le fro) .in$ is -ery consi$era7le0 /any a $elu$e$ in-entor has s(ent years of his life in en$ea-ouring to "harness the ti$es8" an$ so)e ha-e e-en (ro(ose$ to co)(ress air 7y ti$e9 or .a-e9(o.er for su((lying energy8 ne-er un$erstan$ing the signs of the ol$ .in$)ill on the hill8 as it sorro.fully .a-e$ its ar)s a7out an$ 7a$e the) sto(0 The fact is that a .a-e9 or ti$e9)otor .oul$ ha-e8 as a rule8 7ut a s)all chance of co)(eting co))ercially .ith the .in$)ill8 .hich is 7y far the 7etter )achine8 allo.ing a )uch greater a)ount of energy to 7e o7taine$ in a si)(ler .ay0 &in$9(o.er has 7een8 in ol$ ti)es8 of inesti)a7le -alue to )an8 if for nothing else 7ut for ena7ling hi)8 to cross the seas8 an$ it is e-en no. a -ery i)(ortant factor in tra-el an$ trans(ortation0 3ut there are great li)itations in this i$eally si)(le )etho$ of utiliBing the sun's energy0 The )achines are large for a gi-en out(ut8 an$ the (o.er is inter)ittent8 thus necessitating the storage of energy an$ increasing the cost of the (lant0 A far 7etter .ay8 ho.e-er8 to o7tain (o.er .oul$ 7e to a-ail oursel-es of the sun's rays8 .hich 7eat the earth incessantly an$ su((ly energy at a )a'i)u) rate of o-er four )illion horse(o.er (er square )ile0 Although the a-erage energy recei-e$ (er square )ile in any locality $uring the year is only a s)all fraction of that a)ount8 yet an ine'hausti7le source of (o.er .oul$ 7e o(ene$ u( 7y the $isco-ery of so)e efficient )etho$ of utiliBing the energy of the rays0 The only rational .ay 2no.n to )e at the ti)e .hen , 7egan the stu$y of this su7Hect .as to e)(loy so)e 2in$ of heat9 or ther)o$yna)ic9engine8 $ri-en 7y a -olatile flui$ e-a(orate$ in a 7oiler 7y the heat of the rays0 3ut closer in-estigation of this )etho$8 an$ calculation8 sho.e$ that8 not.ithstan$ing the a((arently -ast a)ount of energy recei-e$ fro) the sun's rays8 only a s)all fraction of that energy coul$ 7e actually utiliBe$ in this )anner0 Further)ore8 the energy su((lie$ through the sun's ra$iations is (erio$ical8 an$ the sa)e li)itations as in the use of the .in$)ill , foun$ to e'ist here also0 After a long stu$y of this )o$e of o7taining )oti-e (o.er fro) the sun8 ta2ing into account the necessarily large 7ul2 of the 7oiler8 the lo. efficiency of the heat9engine8 the a$$itional cost of storing the energy an$ other $ra.7ac2s8 , ca)e to the conclusion that the "solar engine8" a fe. instances e'ce(te$8 coul$ not 7e in$ustrially e'(loite$ .ith success0
Another .ay of getting )oti-e (o.er fro) the )e$iu) .ithout consu)ing any )aterial .oul$ 7e to utiliBe the heat containe$ in the earth8 the .ater8 or the air for $ri-ing an engine0 ,t is a .ell92no.n fact that the interior (ortions of the glo7e are -ery hot8 the te)(erature rising8 as o7ser-ations sho.8 .ith the a((roach to the centre at the rate of a((ro'i)ately 1 $egree C0 for e-ery hun$re$ feet of $e(th0 The $ifficulties of sin2ing shafts an$ (lacing 7oilers at $e(ths of8 say8 t.el-e thousan$ feet8 corres(on$ing to an increase in te)(erature of a7out 1!5 $egrees C08 are not insu(era7le8 an$ .e coul$ certainly a-ail oursel-es in this .ay of the internal heat of the glo7e0 ,n fact8 it .oul$ not 7e necessary to go to any $e(th at all in or$er to $eri-e energy fro) the store$ terrestrial heat0 The su(erficial layers of the earth an$ the air strata close to the sa)e are at a te)(erature sufficiently high to e-a(orate so)e e'tre)ely -olatile su7stances8 .hich .e )ight use in our 7oilers instea$ of .ater0 There is no $ou7t that a -essel )ight 7e (ro(elle$ on the ocean 7y an engine $ri-en 7y such a -olatile flui$8 no other energy 7eing use$ 7ut the heat a7stracte$ fro) the .ater0 3ut the a)ount of (o.er .hich coul$ 7e o7taine$ in this )anner .oul$ 7e8 .ithout further (ro-ision8 -ery s)all0 "lectricity (ro$uce$ 7y natural causes is another source of energy .hich )ight 7e ren$ere$ a-aila7le0 #ightning $ischarges in-ol-e great a)ounts of electrical energy8 .hich .e coul$ utiliBe 7y transfor)ing an$ storing it0 >o)e years ago , )a$e 2no.n a )etho$ of electrical transfor)ation .hich ren$ers the first (art of this tas2 easy8 7ut the storing of the energy of lightning $ischarges .ill 7e $ifficult to acco)(lish0 ,t is .ell 2no.n8 further)ore8 that electric currents circulate constantly through the earth8 an$ that there e'ists 7et.een the earth an$ any air stratu) a $ifference of electrical (ressure8 .hich -aries in (ro(ortion to the height0 ,n recent e'(eri)ents , ha-e $isco-ere$ t.o no-el facts of i)(ortance in this connection0 ;ne of these facts is that an electric current is generate$ in a .ire e'ten$ing fro) the groun$ to a great height 7y the a'ial8 an$ (ro7a7ly also 7y the translatory8 )o-e)ent of the earth0 1o a((recia7le current8 ho.e-er8 .ill flo. continuously in the .ire unless the electricity is allo.e$ to lea2 out into the air0 ,ts esca(e is greatly facilitate$ 7y (ro-i$ing at the ele-ate$ en$ of the .ire a con$ucting ter)inal of great surface8 .ith )any shar( e$ges or (oints0 &e are thus ena7le$ to get a continuous su((ly of electrical energy 7y )erely su((orting a .ire at a height8 7ut8 unfortunately8 the a)ount of electricity .hich can 7e so o7taine$ is s)all0 The secon$ fact .hich , ha-e ascertaine$ is that the u((er air strata are (er)anently charge$ .ith electricity o((osite to that of the earth0 >o8 at least8 , ha-e inter(rete$ )y o7ser-ations8 fro) .hich it a((ears that the earth8 .ith its a$Hacent insulating an$ outer con$ucting en-elo(e8 constitutes a highly charge$ electrical con$enser containing8 in all (ro7a7ility8 a great a)ount of electrical energy .hich )ight 7e turne$ to the uses of )an8 if it .ere (ossi7le to reach .ith a .ire to great altitu$es0 ,t is (ossi7le8 an$ e-en (ro7a7le8 that there .ill 7e8 in ti)e8 other resources of energy o(ene$ u(8 of .hich .e ha-e no 2no.le$ge no.0 &e )ay e-en fin$ .ays of a((lying forces such as )agnetis) or gra-ity for $ri-ing )achinery .ithout using any other )eans0 >uch realiBations8 though highly i)(ro7a7le8 are not i)(ossi7le0 An e'a)(le .ill 7est con-ey an i$ea of .hat .e can ho(e to attain an$ .hat .e can ne-er attain0 ,)agine a $is2 of so)e ho)ogeneous )aterial turne$ (erfectly true an$ arrange$ to turn in frictionless 7earings on a horiBontal shaft a7o-e the groun$0 This $is28 7eing un$er the a7o-e con$itions (erfectly 7alance$8 .oul$ rest in any (osition0 1o.8 it is (ossi7le that .e )ay learn ho. to )a2e such a $is2 rotate continuously an$ (erfor) .or2 7y the force of gra-ity .ithout any further effort on our (artJ 7ut it is (erfectly i)(ossi7le for the $is2 to turn an$ to $o .or2 .ithout any force fro) the outsi$e0 ,f it coul$ $o so8 it .oul$ 7e .hat is $esignate$ scientifically as a "(er(etuu) )o7ile8" a )achine creating its o.n )oti-e (o.er0 To )a2e the $is2 rotate 7y the force of gra-ity .e ha-e only to in-ent a screen against this force0 3y such a screen .e coul$ (re-ent this force fro) acting on one half of the $is28 an$ the rotation of the latter .oul$ follo.0 At least8 .e cannot $eny such a (ossi7ility until .e 2no. e'actly the nature of the force of gra-ity0 >u((ose that this force .ere $ue to a )o-e)ent co)(ara7le to that of a strea) of air (assing fro) a7o-e to.ar$ the centre of the earth0 The effect of such a strea) u(on 7oth hal-es of the $is2 .oul$ 7e equal8 an$ the latter .oul$ not rotate or$inarilyJ 7ut if one half shoul$ 7e guar$e$ 7y a (late arresting the )o-e)ent8 then it .oul$ turn0
A %*5A#T=#* 7#OM !NOFN M*T0O%SA5OSS:;:':T@ O7 A >S*'7-ACT:NB> *NB:N* O# MAC0:N*) :NAN:MAT*) @*T CA5A;'*) ':!* A ':6:NB ;*:NB) O7 %*#:6:NB *N*#B@ 7#OM T0* M*%:=MA T0* :%*A' FA@ O7 O;TA:N:NB MOT:6* 5OF*#& &hen , 7egan the in-estigation of the su7Hect un$er consi$eration8 an$ .hen the (rece$ing or si)ilar i$eas (resente$ the)sel-es to )e for the first ti)e8 though , .as then unacquainte$ .ith a nu)7er of the facts
)entione$8 a sur-ey of the -arious .ays of utiliBing the energy of the )e$iu) con-ince$ )e8 ne-ertheless8 that to arri-e at a thoroughly satisfactory (ractical solution a ra$ical $e(arture fro) the )etho$s then 2no.n ha$ to 7e )a$e0 The .in$)ill8 the solar engine8 the engine $ri-en 7y terrestrial heat8 ha$ their li)itations in the a)ount of (o.er o7taina7le0 >o)e ne. .ay ha$ to 7e $isco-ere$ .hich .oul$ ena7le us to get )ore energy0 There .as enough heat9energy in the )e$iu)8 7ut only a s)all (art of it .as a-aila7le for the o(eration of an engine in the .ays then 2no.n0 3esi$es8 the energy .as o7taina7le only at a -ery slo. rate0 Clearly8 then8 the (ro7le) .as to $isco-er so)e ne. )etho$ .hich .oul$ )a2e it (ossi7le 7oth to utiliBe )ore of the heat9energy of the )e$iu) an$ also to $ra. it a.ay fro) the sa)e at a )ore ra(i$ rate0 , .as -ainly en$ea-ouring to for) an i$ea of ho. this )ight 7e acco)(lishe$8 .hen , rea$ so)e state)ents fro) Carnot an$ #or$ :el-in (then >ir &illia) Tho)son .hich )eant -irtually that it is i)(ossi7le for an inani)ate )echanis) or self9acting )achine to cool a (ortion of the )e$iu) 7elo. the te)(erature of the surroun$ing8 an$ o(erate 7y the heat a7stracte$0 These state)ents intereste$ )e intensely0 "-i$ently a li-ing 7eing coul$ $o this -ery thing8 an$ since the e'(eriences of )y early life .hich , ha-e relate$ ha$ con-ince$ )e that a li-ing 7eing is only an auto)aton8 or8 other.ise state$8 a "self9acting9engine8" , ca)e to the conclusion that it .as (ossi7le to construct a )achine .hich .oul$ $o the sa)e0 As the first ste( to.ar$ this realiBation , concei-e$ the follo.ing )echanis)0 ,)agine a ther)o(ile consisting of a nu)7er of 7ars of )etal e'ten$ing fro) the earth to the outer s(ace 7eyon$ the at)os(here0 The heat fro) 7elo.8 con$ucte$ u(.ar$ along these )etal 7ars8 .oul$ cool the earth or the sea or the air8 accor$ing to the location of the lo.er (arts of the 7ars8 an$ the result8 as is .ell 2no.n8 .oul$ 7e an electric current circulating in these 7ars0 The t.o ter)inals of the ther)o(ile coul$ no. 7e Hoine$ through an electric )otor8 an$8 theoretically8 this )otor .oul$ run on an$ on8 until the )e$ia 7elo. .oul$ 7e coole$ $o.n to the te)(erature of the outer s(ace0 This .oul$ 7e an inani)ate engine .hich8 to all e-i$ence8 .oul$ 7e cooling a (ortion of the )e$iu) 7elo. the te)(erature of the surroun$ing8 an$ o(erating 7y the heat a7stracte$0
=,AG+A/ b0 ;3TA,1,1G "1"+GD F+;/ TH" A/3,"1T /"=,C/

A8 )e$iu) .ith little energyJ 48 48 a)7ient )e$iu) .ith )uch energyJ '8 (ath of the energy0
3ut .as it not (ossi7le to realiBe a si)ilar con$ition .ithout necessarily going to a heightF Concei-e8 for the sa2e of illustration8 ?a cylin$rical@ enclosure T8 as illustrate$ in $iagra) 78 such that energy coul$ not 7e transferre$ across it e'ce(t through a channel or (ath ;8 an$ that8 7y so)e )eans or other8 in this enclosure a )e$iu) .ere )aintaine$ .hich .oul$ ha-e little energy8 an$ that on the outer si$e of the sa)e there .oul$ 7e the or$inary a)7ient )e$iu) .ith )uch energy0 Cn$er these assu)(tions the energy .oul$ flo. through the (ath ;8 as in$icate$ 7y the arro.8 an$ )ight then 7e con-erte$ on its (assage into so)e other for) of energy0 The question .as8 Coul$ such a con$ition 7e attaine$F Coul$ .e (ro$uce artificially such a "sin2" for the energy of the a)7ient )e$iu) to flo. inF >u((ose that an e'tre)ely lo. te)(erature coul$ 7e )aintaine$ 7y so)e (rocess in a gi-en s(aceJ the surroun$ing )e$iu) .oul$ then 7e co)(elle$ to gi-e off heat8 .hich coul$ 7e con-erte$ into )echanical or other for) of energy8 an$ utiliBe$0 3y realiBing such a (lan8 .e shoul$ 7e ena7le$ to get at any (oint of the glo7e a continuous su((ly of energy8 $ay an$ night0 /ore than this8 reasoning in the a7stract8 it .oul$ see) (ossi7le to cause a quic2 circulation of the )e$iu)8 an$ thus $ra. the energy at a -ery ra(i$ rate0
Here8 then8 .as an i$ea .hich8 if realiBa7le8 affor$e$ a ha((y solution of the (ro7le) of getting energy fro) the )e$iu)0 3ut .as it realiBa7leF , con-ince$ )yself that it .as so in a nu)7er of .ays8 of .hich one is the follo.ing0 As regar$s heat8 .e are at a high le-el8 .hich )ay 7e re(resente$ 7y the surface of a )ountain la2e consi$era7ly a7o-e the sea8 the le-el of .hich )ay )ar2 the a7solute Bero of te)(erature e'isting in the interstellar s(ace0 Heat8 li2e .ater8 flo.s fro) high to lo. le-el8 an$8 consequently8 Hust as .e can let the .ater of the la2e run $o.n to the sea8 so .e are a7le to let heat fro) the earth's surface tra-el u( into the col$ region a7o-e0 Heat8 li2e .ater8 can (erfor) .or2 in flo.ing $o.n8 an$ if .e ha$ any $ou7t as to .hether .e coul$ $eri-e energy fro) the )e$iu) 7y )eans of a ther)o(ile8 as 7efore $escri7e$8 it .oul$ 7e $is(elle$ 7y this analogue0 3ut can .e (ro$uce col$ in a gi-en (ortion of the s(ace an$ cause the heat to flo. in continuallyF To create such a "sin28" or "col$ hole8" as .e )ight say8 in the )e$iu)8 .oul$ 7e equi-alent to (ro$ucing in the la2e a s(ace either e)(ty or fille$ .ith so)ething )uch lighter than .ater0 This .e coul$ $o 7y (lacing in the la2e a tan28 an$ (u)(ing all the .ater out of the latter0 &e 2no.8 then8 that the .ater8 if allo.e$ to flo. 7ac2 into the tan28 .oul$8 theoretically8 7e a7le to (erfor) e'actly the sa)e a)ount of .or2 .hich .as use$ in (u)(ing it out8 7ut not a 7it )ore0 Consequently nothing coul$ 7e gaine$ in this $ou7le o(eration of first raising the .ater an$ then letting it fall $o.n0 This .oul$ )ean that it is i)(ossi7le to create such a sin2 in the )e$iu)0 3ut let us reflect a )o)ent0 Heat8 though follo.ing certain general la.s of )echanics8 li2e a flui$8 is not suchJ it is energy .hich )ay 7e con-erte$ into other for)s of energy as it (asses fro) a high to a lo. le-el0 To )a2e our )echanical analogy co)(lete an$ true8 .e )ust8 therefore8 assu)e that the .ater8 in its (assage into the tan28 is con-erte$ into so)ething else8 .hich )ay 7e ta2en out of it .ithout using any8 or 7y using -ery little8 (o.er0 For e'a)(le8 if heat 7e re(resente$ in this analogue 7y the .ater of the la2e8 the o'ygen an$ hy$rogen co)(osing the .ater )ay illustrate other for)s of energy into .hich the heat is transfor)e$ in (assing fro) hot to col$0 ,f the (rocess of heat transfor)ation .ere a7solutely (erfect8 no heat at all .oul$ arri-e at the lo. le-el8 since all of it .oul$ 7e con-erte$ into other for)s of energy0 Corres(on$ing to this i$eal case8 all the .ater flo.ing into the tan2 .oul$ 7e $eco)(ose$ into o'ygen an$ hy$rogen 7efore reaching the 7otto)8 an$ the result .oul$ 7e that .ater .oul$ continually flo. in8 an$ yet the tan2 .oul$ re)ain entirely e)(ty8 the gases for)e$ esca(ing0 &e .oul$ thus (ro$uce8 7y e'(en$ing initially a certain a)ount of .or2 to create a sin2 for the heat or8 res(ecti-ely8 the .ater to flo. in8 a con$ition ena7ling us to get any a)ount of energy .ithout further effort0 This .oul$ 7e an i$eal .ay of o7taining )oti-e (o.er0 &e $o not 2no. of any such a7solutely (erfect (rocess of heat9con-ersion8 an$ consequently so)e heat .ill generally reach the lo. le-el8 .hich )eans to say8 in our )echanical analogue8 that so)e .ater .ill arri-e at the 7otto) of the tan28 an$ a gra$ual an$ slo. filling of the latter .ill ta2e (lace8 necessitating continuous (u)(ing out0 3ut e-i$ently there .ill 7e less to (u)( out than flo.s in8 or8 in other .or$s8 less energy .ill 7e nee$e$ to )aintain the initial con$ition than is $e-elo(e$ 7y the fall8 an$ this is to say that so)e energy .ill 7e gaine$ fro) the )e$iu)0 &hat is not con-erte$ in flo.ing $o.n can Hust 7e raise$ u( .ith its o.n energy8 an$ .hat is con-erte$ is clear gain0 Thus the -irtue of the (rinci(le , ha-e $isco-ere$ resi$es .holly in the con-ersion of the energy on the $o.n.ar$ flo.0
7:#ST *77O#TS TO 5#O%=C* T0* S*'7-ACT:NB *NB:N*AT0* M*C0AN:CA' OSC:''ATO#AFO#! O7 %*FA# AN% ':N%*A':C=:% A:#& Ha-ing recogniBe$ this truth8 , 7egan to $e-ise )eans for carrying out )y i$ea8 an$8 after long thought8 , finally concei-e$ a co)7ination of a((aratus .hich shoul$ )a2e (ossi7le the o7taining of (o.er fro) the )e$iu) 7y a (rocess of continuous cooling of at)os(heric air0 This a((aratus8 7y continually transfor)ing heat into )echanical .or28 ten$e$ to 7eco)e col$er an$ col$er8 an$ if it only .ere (ractica7le to reach a -ery lo. te)(erature in this )anner8 then a sin2 for the heat coul$ 7e (ro$uce$8 an$ energy coul$ 7e $eri-e$ fro) the )e$iu)0 This see)e$ to 7e contrary to the state)ents of Carnot an$ #or$ :el-in 7efore referre$ to8 7ut , conclu$e$ fro) the theory of the (rocess that such a result coul$ 7e attaine$0 This conclusion , reache$8 , thin28 in the latter (art of 18838 .hen , .as in <aris8 an$ it .as at a ti)e .hen )y )in$ .as 7eing )ore an$ )ore $o)inate$ 7y an in-ention .hich , ha$ e-ol-e$ $uring the (rece$ing year8 an$ .hich has since 7eco)e 2no.n un$er the na)e of the "rotating )agnetic fiel$0" =uring the fe. years .hich follo.e$ , ela7orate$ further the (lan , ha$ i)agine$8 an$ stu$ie$ the .or2ing con$itions8 7ut )a$e little hea$.ay0 The co))ercial intro$uction in this country of the in-ention 7efore referre$ to require$ )ost of )y energies until 18898 .hen , again too2 u( the i$ea of the self9acting )achine0 A closer in-estigation of the (rinci(les in-ol-e$8 an$ calculation8 no. sho.e$ that the result , ai)e$ at coul$ not 7e reache$ in a (ractical )anner 7y or$inary )achinery8 as , ha$ in the 7eginning e'(ecte$0 This le$ )e8 as a ne't ste(8 to the stu$y of a ty(e of engine generally $esignate$ as "tur7ine8" .hich at first see)e$ to offer 7etter chances for a realiBation of the i$ea0 >oon , foun$8 ho.e-er8 that the tur7ine8 too8 .as unsuita7le0 3ut )y conclusions sho.e$ that if an engine of a (eculiar 2in$ coul$ 7e 7rought to a high $egree of (erfection8 the (lan , ha$ concei-e$ .as realiBa7le8 an$ , resol-e$ to (rocee$ .ith the $e-elo()ent of such an engine8 the (ri)ary o7Hect of .hich .as to secure the greatest econo)y of transfor)ation of heat into
)echanical energy0 A characteristic feature of the engine .as that the .or29(erfor)ing (iston .as not connecte$ .ith anything else8 7ut .as (erfectly free to -i7rate at an enor)ous rate0 The )echanical $ifficulties encountere$ in the construction of this engine .ere greater than , ha$ antici(ate$8 an$ , )a$e slo. (rogress0 This .or2 .as continue$ until early in 189!8 .hen , .ent to #on$on8 .here , sa. <rofessor =e.ar's a$)ira7le e'(eri)ents .ith liquefie$ gases0 ;thers ha$ liquefie$ gases 7efore8 an$ nota7ly ;Ble.s2i 1 an$ <ictet ha$ (erfor)e$ cre$ita7le early e'(eri)ents in this line8 7ut there .as such a -igour a7out the .or2 of =e.ar that e-en the ol$ a((eare$ ne.0 His e'(eri)ents sho.e$8 though in a .ay $ifferent fro) that , ha$ i)agine$8 that it .as (ossi7le to reach a -ery lo. te)(erature 7y transfor)ing heat into )echanical .or28 an$ , returne$8 $ee(ly i)(resse$ .ith .hat , ha$ seen8 an$ )ore than e-er con-ince$ that )y (lan .as (ractica7le0 The .or2 te)(orarily interru(te$ .as ta2en u( ane.8 an$ soon , ha$ in a fair state of (erfection the engine .hich , ha-e na)e$ "the )echanical oscillator0" ,n this )achine , succee$e$ in $oing a.ay .ith all (ac2ings8 -al-es8 an$ lu7rication8 an$ in (ro$ucing so ra(i$ a -i7ration of the (iston that shafts of tough steel8 fastene$ to the sa)e an$ -i7rate$ longitu$inally8 .ere torn asun$er0 3y co)7ining this engine .ith a $yna)o of s(ecial $esign , (ro$uce$ a highly efficient electrical generator8 in-alua7le in )easure)ents an$ $eter)inations of (hysical quantities on account of the un-arying rate of oscillation o7taina7le 7y its )eans0 , e'hi7ite$ se-eral ty(es of this )achine8 na)e$ ")echanical an$ electrical oscillator8" 7efore the "lectrical Congress at the &orl$'s Fair in Chicago $uring the su))er of 18938 in a lecture .hich8 on account of other (ressing .or28 , .as una7le to (re(are for (u7lication0 ;n that occasion , e'(ose$ the (rinci(les of the )echanical oscillator8 7ut the original (ur(ose of this )achine is e'(laine$ here for the first ti)e0 ,n the (rocess8 as , ha$ (ri)arily concei-e$ it8 for the utiliBation of the energy of the a)7ient )e$iu)8 there .ere fi-e essential ele)ents in co)7ination8 an$ each of these ha$ to 7e ne.ly $esigne$ an$ (erfecte$8 as no such )achines e'iste$0 The )echanical oscillator .as the first ele)ent of this co)7ination8 an$ ha-ing (erfecte$ this8 , turne$ to the ne't8 .hich .as an air9co)(ressor of a $esign in certain res(ects rese)7ling that of the )echanical oscillator0 >i)ilar $ifficulties in the construction .ere again encountere$8 7ut the .or2 .as (ushe$ -igourously8 an$ at the close of 1896 , ha$ co)(lete$ these t.o ele)ents of the co)7ination8 an$ thus (ro$uce$ an a((aratus for co)(ressing air8 -irtually to any $esire$ (ressure8 inco)(ara7ly si)(ler8 s)aller8 an$ )ore efficient than the or$inary0 , .as Hust 7eginning .or2 on the thir$ ele)ent8 .hich together .ith the first t.o .oul$ gi-e a refrigerating )achine of e'ce(tional efficiency an$ si)(licity8 .hen a )isfortune 7efell )e in the 7urning of )y la7oratory8 .hich cri((le$ )y la7ours an$ $elaye$ )e0 >hortly after.ar$s =r0 Carl #in$e announce$ the liquefaction of air 7y a self9cooling (rocess8 $e)onstrating that it .as (ractica7le to (rocee$ .ith the cooling until liquefaction of the air too2 (lace0 This .as the only e'(eri)ental (roof .hich , .as still .anting that energy .as o7taina7le fro) the )e$iu) in the )anner conte)(late$ 7y )e0 The liquefaction of air 7y a self9cooling (rocess .as not8 as (o(ularly 7elie-e$8 an acci$ental $isco-ery8 7ut a scientific result .hich coul$ not ha-e 7een $elaye$ )uch longer8 an$ .hich8 in all (ro7a7ility8 coul$ not ha-e esca(e$ =e.ar0 This fascinating a$-ance8 , 7elie-e8 is largely $ue to the (o.erful .or2 of this great >cotch)an0 1e-ertheless8 #in$e's is an i))ortal achie-e)ent0 The )anufacture of liqui$ air has 7een carrie$ on for four years in Ger)any8 on a scale )uch larger than in any other country8 an$ this strange (ro$uct has 7een a((lie$ for a -ariety of (ur(oses0 /uch .as e'(ecte$ of it in the 7eginning8 7ut so far it has 7een an in$ustrial ignis fatuus0 3y the use of such )achinery as , a) (erfecting8 its cost .ill (ro7a7ly 7e greatly lessene$8 7ut e-en then its co))ercial success .ill 7e questiona7le0 &hen8 use$ as a refrigerant it is unecono)ical8 as its te)(erature is unnecessarily lo.0 ,t is as e'(ensi-e to )aintain a 7o$y at a -ery lo. te)(erature as it is to 2ee( it -ery hotJ it ta2es coal to 2ee( air col$0 ,n o'ygen )anufacture it cannot yet co)(ete .ith the electrolytic )etho$0 For use as an e'(losi-e it is unsuita7le8 7ecause its lo. te)(erature again con$e)ns it to a s)all efficiency8 an$ for )oti-e9 (o.er (ur(oses its cost is still 7y far too high0 ,t is of interest to note8 ho.e-er8 that in $ri-ing an engine 7y liqui$ air a certain a)ount of energy )ay 7e gaine$ fro) the engine8 or8 state$ other.ise8 fro) the a)7ient )e$iu) .hich 2ee(s the engine .ar)8 each t.o hun$re$ (oun$s of iron9casting of the latter contri7uting energy at the rate of a7out one effecti-e horse(o.er $uring one hour0 3ut this gain of the consu)er is offset 7y an equal loss of the (ro$ucer0 /uch of this tas2 on .hich , ha-e la7oure$ so long re)ains to 7e $one0 A nu)7er of )echanical $etails are still to 7e (erfecte$ an$ so)e $ifficulties of a $ifferent nature to 7e )astere$8 an$ , cannot ho(e to (ro$uce a self9 acting )achine $eri-ing energy fro) the a)7ient )e$iu) for a long ti)e yet8 e-en if all )y e'(ectations shoul$ )aterialiBe0 /any circu)stances ha-e occurre$ .hich ha-e retar$e$ )y .or2 of late8 7ut for se-eral reasons the $elay .as 7eneficial0
1 :arol >tanista. ;lsBe.s2i (186%91914
;ne of these reasons .as that , ha$ a)(le ti)e to consi$er .hat the ulti)ate (ossi7ilities of this $e-elo()ent )ight 7e0 , .or2e$ for a long ti)e fully con-ince$ that the (ractical realiBation of this )etho$ of o7taining energy fro) the sun .oul$ 7e of incalcula7le in$ustrial -alue8 7ut the continue$ stu$y of the su7Hect re-eale$ the fact that .hile it .ill 7e co))ercially (rofita7le if )y e'(ectations are .ell foun$e$8 it .ill not 7e so to an e'traor$inary $egree0
%:SCO6*#@ O7 =N* 5*CT*% 5#O5*#T:*S O7 T0* ATMOS50*#*AST#ANB* * 5*#:M*NTSA T#ANSM:SS:ON O7 *'*CT#:CA' *N*#B@ T0#O=B0 ON* F:#* F:T0O=T #*T=#NA T#ANSM:SS:ON T0#O=B0 T0* *A#T0 F:T0O=T AN@ F:#*& Another of these reasons .as that , .as le$ to recogniBe the trans)ission of electrical energy to any $istance through the )e$ia as 7y far the 7est solution of the great (ro7le) of harnessing the sun's energy for the uses of )an0 For a long ti)e , .as con-ince$ that such a trans)ission on an in$ustrial scale8 coul$ ne-er 7e realiBe$8 7ut a $isco-ery .hich , )a$e change$ )y -ie.0 , o7ser-e$ that un$er certain con$itions the at)os(here8 .hich is nor)ally a high insulator8 assu)es con$ucting (ro(erties8 an$ so 7eco)es ca(a7le of con-eying any a)ount of electrical energy0 3ut the $ifficulties in the .ay of a (ractical utiliBation of this $isco-ery for the (ur(ose of trans)itting electrical energy .ithout .ires .ere see)ingly insu(era7le0 "lectrical (ressures of )any )illions of -olts ha$ to 7e (ro$uce$ an$ han$le$J generating a((aratus of a no-el 2in$8 ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing the i))ense electrical stresses8 ha$ to 7e in-ente$ an$ (erfecte$8 an$ a co)(lete safety against the $angers of the high9tension currents ha$ to 7e attaine$ in the syste) 7efore its (ractical intro$uction coul$ 7e e-en thought of0 All this coul$ not 7e $one in a fe. .ee2s or )onths8 or e-en years0 The .or2 require$ (atience an$ constant a((lication8 7ut the i)(ro-e)ents ca)e8 though slo.ly0 ;ther -alua7le results .ere8 ho.e-er8 arri-e$ at in the course of this long9continue$ .or28 of .hich , shall en$ea-our to gi-e a 7rief account8 enu)erating the chief a$-ances as they .ere successi-ely effecte$0 The $isco-ery of the con$ucting (ro(erties of the air8 though une'(ecte$8 .as only a natural result of e'(eri)ents in a s(ecial fiel$ .hich , ha$ carrie$ on for so)e years 7efore0 ,t .as8 , 7elie-e8 $uring 1889 that certain (ossi7ilities offere$ 7y e'tre)ely ra(i$ electrical oscillations $eter)ine$ )e to $esign a nu)7er of s(ecial )achines a$a(te$ for their in-estigation0 ;.ing to the (eculiar require)ents8 the construction of these )achines .as -ery $ifficult8 an$ consu)e$ )uch ti)e an$ effortJ 7ut )y .or2 on the) .as generously re.ar$e$8 for , reache$ 7y their )eans se-eral no-el an$ i)(ortant results0 ;ne of the earliest o7ser-ations , )a$e .ith these ne. )achines .as that electrical oscillations of an e'tre)ely high rate act in an e'traor$inary )anner u(on the hu)an organis)0 Thus8 for instance8 , $e)onstrate$ that (o.erful electrical $ischarges of se-eral hun$re$ thousan$ -olts8 .hich at that ti)e .ere consi$ere$ a7solutely $ea$ly8 coul$ 7e (asse$ through the 7o$y .ithout incon-enience or hurtful consequences0 These oscillations (ro$uce$ other s(ecific (hysiological effects8 .hich8 u(on )y announce)ent8 .ere eagerly ta2en u( 7y s2ille$ (hysicians an$ further in-estigate$0 This ne. fiel$ has (ro-e$ itself fruitful 7eyon$ e'(ectation8 an$ in the fe. years .hich ha-e (asse$ since8 it has 7een $e-elo(e$ to such an e'tent that it no. for)s a legiti)ate an$ i)(ortant $e(art)ent of )e$ical science0 /any results8 thought i)(ossi7le at that ti)e8 are no. rea$ily o7taina7le .ith these oscillations8 an$ )any e'(eri)ents un$rea)e$ of then can no. 7e rea$ily (erfor)e$ 7y their )eans0 , still re)e)7er .ith (leasure ho.8 nine years ago8 , (asse$ the $ischarge of a (o.erful in$uction9coil through )y 7o$y to $e)onstrate 7efore a scientific society the co)(arati-e har)lessness of -ery ra(i$ly -i7rating electric currents8 an$ , can still recall the astonish)ent of )y au$ience0 , .oul$ no. un$erta2e8 .ith )uch less a((rehension that , ha$ in that e'(eri)ent8 to trans)it through )y 7o$y .ith such currents the entire electrical energy of the $yna)os no. .or2ing at 1iagaraKforty or fifty thousan$ horse9(o.er0 , ha-e (ro$uce$ electrical oscillations .hich .ere of such intensity that .hen circulating through )y ar)s an$ chest they ha-e )elte$ .ires .hich Hoine$ )y han$s8 an$ still , felt no incon-enience0 , ha-e energiBe$ .ith such oscillations a loo( of hea-y co((er .ire so (o.erfully that )asses of )etal8 an$ e-en o7Hects of an electrical resistance s(ecifically greater than that of hu)an tissue 7rought close to or (lace$ .ithin the loo(8 .ere heate$ to a high te)(erature an$ )elte$8 often .ith the -iolence of an e'(losion8 an$ yet into this -ery s(ace in .hich this terri7ly9$estructi-e tur)oil .as going on , ha-e re(eate$ly thrust )y hea$ .ithout feeling anything or e'(eriencing inHurious after9 effects0 Another o7ser-ation .as that 7y )eans of such oscillations light coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ in a no-el an$ )ore econo)ical )anner8 .hich (ro)ise$ to lea$ to an i$eal syste) of electric illu)ination 7y -acuu)9tu7es8 $is(ensing .ith the necessity of rene.al of la)(s or incan$escent fila)ents8 an$ (ossi7ly also .ith the use of .ires in the interior of 7uil$ings0 The efficiency of this light increases in (ro(ortion to the rate of the oscillations8
an$ its co))ercial success is8 therefore8 $e(en$ent on the econo)ical (ro$uction of electrical -i7rations of transcen$ing rates0 ,n this $irection , ha-e )et .ith gratifying success of late8 an$ the (ractical intro$uction of this ne. syste) of illu)ination is not far off0 The in-estigations le$ to )any other -alua7le o7ser-ations an$ results8 one of the )ore i)(ortant of .hich .as the $e)onstration of the (ractica7ility of su((lying electrical energy through one .ire .ithout return0 At first , .as a7le to trans)it in this no-el )anner only -ery s)all a)ounts of electrical energy8 7ut in this line also )y efforts ha-e 7een re.ar$e$ .ith si)ilar success0
F,G0 30 "]<"+,/"1T T; ,##C>T+AT" TH" >C<<#D,1G ;F "#"CT+,CA# "1"+GD TH+;CGH A >,1G#" &,+" &,TH;CT +"TC+1
An or$inary incan$escent la)(8 connecte$ .ith one or 7oth of its ter)inals to the .ire for)ing the u((er free en$ of the coil sho.n in the (hotogra(h8 is lighte$ 7y electrical -i7rations con-eye$ to it through the coil fro) an electrical oscillator8 .hich is .or2e$ only to one fifth of one (er cent0 of its full ca(acity0
The (hotogra(h sho.n in Fig0 3 illustrates8 as its title e'(lains8 an actual trans)ission of this 2in$ effecte$ .ith a((aratus use$ in other e'(eri)ents here $escri7e$0 To .hat a $egree the a((liances ha-e 7een (erfecte$ since )y first $e)onstrations early in 1891 7efore a scientific society8 .hen )y a((aratus .as 7arely ca(a7le of lighting one la)( (.hich result .as consi$ere$ .on$erful 8 .ill a((ear .hen , state that , ha-e no. no $ifficulty in lighting in this )anner four or fi-e hun$re$ la)(s8 an$ coul$ light )any )ore0 ,n fact8 there is no li)it to the a)ount of energy .hich )ay in this .ay 7e su((lie$ to o(erate any 2in$ of electrical $e-ice0
F,G0 60 "]<"+,/"1T T; ,##C>T+AT" TH" T+A1>/,>>,;1 ;F "#"CT+,CA# "1"+GD TH+;CGH TH" "A+TH &,TH;CT &,+"0
The coil sho.n in the (hotogra(h has its lo.er en$ or ter)inal connecte$ to the groun$8 an$ is e'actly attune$ to the -i7rations of a $istant electrical oscillator0 The la)( lighte$ is in an in$e(en$ent .ire loo(8 energiBe$ 7y in$uction fro) the coil e'cite$ 7y the electrical -i7rations trans)itte$ to it through the groun$ fro) the oscillator8 .hich is .or2e$ only to fi-e (er cent0 of its full ca(acity0
After $e)onstrating the (ractica7ility of this )etho$ of trans)ission8 the thought naturally occurre$ to )e to use the earth as a con$uctor8 thus $is(ensing .ith all .ires0 &hate-er electricity )ay 7e8 it is a fact that it 7eha-es li2e an inco)(ressi7le flui$8 an$ the earth )ay 7e loo2e$ u(on as an i))ense reser-oir of electricity8 .hich8 , thought8 coul$ 7e $istur7e$ effecti-ely 7y a (ro(erly $esigne$ electrical )achine0 Accor$ingly8 )y ne't efforts .ere $irecte$ to.ar$ (erfecting a s(ecial a((aratus .hich .oul$ 7e highly effecti-e in creating a $istur7ance of electricity in the earth0 The (rogress in this ne. $irection .as necessarily -ery slo. an$ the .or2 $iscouraging8 until , finally succee$e$ in (erfecting a no-el 2in$ of transfor)er or in$uction9coil8 (articularly suite$ for this s(ecial (ur(ose0 That it is (ractica7le8 in this )anner8 not only to trans)it )inute a)ounts of electrical energy for o(erating $elicate electrical $e-ices8 as , conte)(late$ at first8 7ut also electrical energy in a((recia7le quantities8 .ill a((ear fro) an ins(ection of Fig0 68 .hich illustrates an actual e'(eri)ent of this 2in$ (erfor)e$ .ith the sa)e a((aratus0 The result o7taine$ .as all the )ore re)ar2a7le as the to( en$ of the coil .as not connecte$ to a .ire or (late for )agnifying the effect0
>F:#*'*SS> T*'*B#A50@AT0* S*C#*T O7 T=N:NBA*##O#S :N T0* 0*#TL:AN :N6*ST:BAT:ONS AA #*C*:6*# O7 FON%*#7=' S*NS:T:6*N*SS& As the first -alua7le result of )y e'(eri)ents in this latter line a syste) of telegra(hy .ithout .ires resulte$8 .hich , $escri7e$ in t.o scientific lectures in Fe7ruary an$ /arch8 18930 ,t is )echanically illustrate$ in $iagra) c8 the u((er (art of .hich sho.s the electrical arrange)ent as , $escri7e$ it then8 .hile the lo.er (art illustrates its )echanical analogue0 The syste) is e'tre)ely si)(le in (rinci(le0 ,)agine t.o tuning9for2s 9+ 918 one at the sen$ing9 an$ the other at the recei-ing9station res(ecti-ely8 each ha-ing attache$ to its lo.er (rong a )inute (iston *8 fitting in a cylin$er0 3oth the cylin$ers co))unicate .ith a large reser-oir !8 .ith elastic .alls8 .hich is su((ose$ to 7e close$ an$ fille$ .ith a light an$ inco)(ressi7le flui$0 3y stri2ing re(eate$ly one of the (rongs of the tuning9for2 98 the s)all (iston * 7elo. .oul$ 7e -i7rate$8 an$ its -i7rations8 trans)itte$ through the flui$8 .oul$ reach the $istant for2 918 .hich is "tune$" to the for2 98 or8 state$ other.ise8 of e'actly the sa)e note as the latter0 The for2 91 .oul$ no. 7e set -i7rating8 an$ its -i7ration .oul$ 7e intensifie$ 7y the continue$ action of the $istant for2 9 until its u((er (rong8 s.inging far out8 .oul$ )a2e an electrical connection .ith a stationary contact c''8 starting in this )anner so)e electrical or other a((liances .hich )ay 7e use$ for recor$ing the signals0 ,n this si)(le .ay )essages coul$ 7e e'change$ 7et.een the t.o stations8 a si)ilar contact cC 7eing (ro-i$e$ for this (ur(ose8 close to the u((er (rong of the for2 98 so that the a((aratus at each station coul$ 7e e)(loye$ in turn as recei-er an$ trans)itter0
=,AG+A/ c0 "&,+"#">>" T"#"G+A<HD /"CHA1,CA##D ,##C>T+AT"=0 The electrical syste) illustrate$ in the u((er figure of $iagra) c is e'actly the sa)e in (rinci(le8 the t.o .ires or circuits E&3 an$ E1&1318 .hich e'ten$ -ertically to a height8 re(resenting the t.o tuning9for2s .ith the (istons attache$ to the)0 These circuits are connecte$ .ith the groun$ 7y (lates E+ E18 an$ to t.o ele-ate$ )etal sheets 3+ 318 .hich store electricity an$ thus )agnify consi$era7ly the effect0 The close$ reser-oir !8 .ith elastic .alls8 is in this case re(lace$ 7y the earth8 an$ the flui$ 7y electricity0 3oth of these circuits are "tune$" an$
o(erate Hust li2e the t.o tuning9for2s0 ,nstea$ of stri2ing the for2 9 at the sen$ing9station8 electrical oscillations are (ro$uce$ in the -ertical sen$ing9 or trans)itting9.ire E&38 as 7y the action of a source &8 inclu$e$ in this .ire8 .hich s(rea$ through the groun$ an$ reach the $istant -ertical recei-ing9.ire E1&1318 e'citing corres(on$ing electrical oscillations in the sa)e0 ,n the latter .ire or circuit is inclu$e$ a sensiti-e $e-ice or recei-er &18 .hich is thus set in action an$ )a$e to o(erate a relay or other a((liance0 "ach station is8 of course8 (ro-i$e$ 7oth .ith a source of electrical oscillations & an$ a sensiti-e recei-er &18 an$ a si)(le (ro-ision is )a$e for using each of the t.o .ires alternately to sen$ an$ to recei-e the )essages0
F,G0 40 <H;T;G+A<H,C G,"& ;F TH" C;,#> +"><;1=,1G T; "#"CT+,CA# ;>C,##AT,;1>0

The (icture sho.s a nu)7er of coils 8 $ifferently attune$ an$ res(on$ing to the -i7rations trans)itte$ to the) through the earth fro) an electrical oscillator0 The large coil on the right8 $ischarging strongly8 is tune$ to the fun$a)ental -i7ration8 .hich is fifty thousan$ (er secon$J the t.o larger -ertical coils to t.ice that nu)7erJ the s)aller .hite .ire coil to four ti)es that nu)7er8 an$ the re)aining s)all coils to higher tones0 The -i7rations (ro$uce$ 7y the oscillator .ere so intense that they affecte$ (erce(ti7ly a s)all coil tune$ to the t.enty9si'th higher tone0
The e'act attune)ent of the t.o circuits secures great a$-antages8 an$8 in fact8 it is essential in the (ractical use of the syste)0 ,n this res(ect )any (o(ular errors e'ist8 an$8 as a rule8 in the technical re(orts on this su7Hect circuits an$ a((liances are $escri7e$ as affor$ing these a$-antages .hen fro) their -ery nature it is e-i$ent that this is i)(ossi7le0 ,n or$er to attain the 7est results it is essential that the length of each .ire or circuit8 fro) the groun$ connection to the to(8 shoul$ 7e equal to one quarter of the .a-e9length of the electrical -i7ration in the .ire8 or else equal to that length )ulti(lie$ 7y an o$$ nu)7er0 &ithout the o7ser-ation of this rule it is -irtually i)(ossi7le to (re-ent the interference an$ insure the (ri-acy of )essages0 Therein lies the secret of tuning0 To o7tain the )ost satisfactory results it is8 ho.e-er8 necessary to resort to electrical -i7rations of lo. (itch0 The HertBian s(ar2 a((aratus8 use$ generally 7y e'(eri)enters8 .hich (ro$uces oscillations of a -ery high rate8 (er)its no effecti-e tuning8 an$ slight $istur7ances are sufficient to ren$er an e'change of )essages i)(ractica7le0 3ut scientifically $esigne$8 efficient a((liances allo. nearly (erfect a$Hust)ent0 An e'(eri)ent (erfor)e$ .ith the i)(ro-e$ a((aratus re(eate$ly referre$ to8 an$ inten$e$ to con-ey an i$ea of this feature8 is
illustrate$ in Fig0 48 .hich is sufficiently e'(laine$ 7y its note0 >ince , $escri7e$ these si)(le (rinci(les of telegra(hy .ithout .ires , ha-e ha$ frequent occasion to note that the i$entical features an$ ele)ents ha-e 7een use$8 in the e-i$ent 7elief that the signals are 7eing trans)itte$ to consi$era7le $istance 7y "HertBian" ra$iations0 This is only one of )any )isa((rehensions to .hich the in-estigations of the la)ente$ (hysicist ha-e gi-en rise0 A7out thirty9three years ago /a'.ell8 follo.ing u( a suggesti-e e'(eri)ent )a$e 7y Fara$ay in 18648 e-ol-e$ an i$eally si)(le theory .hich inti)ately connecte$ light8 ra$iant heat8 an$ electrical (heno)ena8 inter(reting the) as 7eing all $ue to -i7rations of a hy(othetical flui$ of inconcei-a7le tenuity8 calle$ the ether0 1o e'(eri)ental -erification .as arri-e$ at until HertB8 at the suggestion of Hel)holtB8 un$ertoo2 a series of e'(eri)ents to this effect0 HertB (rocee$e$ .ith e'traor$inary ingenuity an$ insight8 7ut $e-ote$ little energy to the (erfection of his ol$9fashione$ a((aratus0 The consequence .as that he faile$ to o7ser-e the i)(ortant function .hich the air (laye$ in his e'(eri)ents8 an$ .hich , su7sequently $isco-ere$0 +e(eating his e'(eri)ents an$ reaching $ifferent results8 , -enture$ to (oint out this o-ersight0 The strength of the (roofs 7rought for.ar$ 7y HertB in su((ort of /a'.ell's theory resi$e$ in the correct esti)ate of the rates of -i7ration of the circuits he use$0 3ut , ascertaine$ that he coul$ not ha-e o7taine$ the rates he thought he .as getting0 The -i7rations .ith i$entical a((aratus he e)(loye$ are8 as a rule8 )uch slo.er8 this 7eing $ue to the (resence of air8 .hich (ro$uces a $a)(ening effect u(on a ra(i$ly -i7rating electric circuit of high (ressure8 as a flui$ $oes u(on a -i7rating tuning9for20 , ha-e8 ho.e-er8 $isco-ere$ since that ti)e other causes of error8 an$ , ha-e long ago cease$ to loo2 u(on his results as 7eing an e'(eri)ental -erification of the (oetical conce(tions of /a'.ell0 The .or2 of the great Ger)an (hysicist has acte$ as an i))ense sti)ulus to conte)(orary electrical research8 7ut it has li2e.ise8 in a )easure8 7y its fascination8 (aralyse$ the scientific )in$8 an$ thus ha)(ere$ in$e(en$ent inquiry0 "-ery ne. (heno)enon .hich .as $isco-ere$ .as )a$e to fit the theory8 an$ so -ery often the truth has 7een unconsciously $istorte$0 &hen , a$-ance$ this syste) of telegra(hy8 )y )in$ .as $o)inate$ 7y the i$ea of effecting co))unication to any $istance through the earth or en-ironing )e$iu)8 the (ractical consu))ation of .hich , consi$ere$ of transcen$ent i)(ortance8 chiefly on account of the )oral effect .hich it coul$ not fail to (ro$uce uni-ersally0 As the first effort to this en$ , (ro(ose$ at that ti)e8 to e)(loy relay9stations .ith tune$ circuits8 in the ho(e of )a2ing thus (ractica7le signalling o-er -ast $istances8 e-en .ith a((aratus of -ery )o$erate (o.er then at )y co))an$0 , .as confi$ent8 ho.e-er8 that .ith (ro(erly $esigne$ )achinery signals coul$ 7e trans)itte$ to any (oint of the glo7e8 no )atter .hat the $istance8 .ithout the necessity of using such inter)e$iate stations0 , gaine$ this con-iction through the $isco-ery of a singular electrical (heno)enon8 .hich , $escri7e$ early in 189!8 in lectures , $eli-ere$ 7efore so)e scientific societies a7roa$8 an$ .hich , ha-e calle$ a "rotating 7rush0" This is a 7un$le of light .hich is for)e$8 un$er certain con$itions8 in a -acuu)97ul78 an$ .hich is of a sensiti-eness to )agnetic an$ electric influences 7or$ering8 so to s(ea28 on the su(ernatural0 This light97un$le is ra(i$ly rotate$ 7y the earth's )agnetis) as )any as t.enty thousan$ ti)es (re secon$8 the rotation in these (arts 7eing o((osite to .hat it .oul$ 7e in the southern he)is(here8 .hile in the region of the )agnetic equator it shoul$ not rotate at all0 ,n its )ost sensiti-e state8 .hich is $ifficult to o7tain8 it is res(onsi-e to electric or )agnetic influences to an incre$i7le $egree0 The )ere stiffening of the )uscles of the ar) an$ consequent slight electrical change in the 7o$y of an o7ser-er stan$ing at so)e $istance fro) it8 .ill (erce(ti7ly affect it0 &hen in this highly sensiti-e state it is ca(a7le of in$icating the slightest )agnetic an$ electric changes ta2ing (lace in the earth0 The o7ser-ation of this .on$erful (heno)enon i)(resse$ )e strongly that co))unication at any $istance coul$ 7e easily effecte$ 7y its )eans8 (ro-i$e$ that a((aratus coul$ 7e (erfecte$ ca(a7le of (ro$ucing an electric or )agnetic change of state8 ho.e-er s)all8 in the terrestrial glo7e or en-ironing )e$iu)0
%*6*'O5M*NT O7 A N*F 5#:NC:5'*AT0* *'*CT#:CA' OSC:''ATO#A5#O%=CT:ON O7 :MM*NS* *'*CT#:CA' MO6*M*NTSAT0* *A#T0 #*S5ON%S TO MANA:NT*#5'AN*TA#@ COMM=N:CAT:ON NOF 5#O;A;'*& , resol-e$ to concentrate )y efforts u(on this -entureso)e tas28 though it in-ol-e$ great sacrifice8 for the $ifficulties to 7e )astere$ .ere such that , coul$ ho(e to consu))ate it only after years of la7our0 ,t )eant $elay of other .or2 to .hich , .oul$ ha-e (referre$ to $e-ote )yself8 7ut , gaine$ the con-iction that )y energies coul$ not 7e )ore usefully e)(loye$J for , recogniBe$ that an efficient a((aratus for8 the (ro$uction of (o.erful electrical oscillations8 as .as nee$e$ for that s(ecific (ur(ose8 .as the 2ey to the solution of other )ost i)(ortant electrical an$8 in fact8 hu)an (ro7le)s0 1ot only .as co))unication8 to any $istance8 .ithout .ires (ossi7le 7y its )eans8 7ut8 li2e.ise8 the trans)ission of energy in great a)ounts8 the 7urning of the at)os(heric nitrogen8 the (ro$uction of an efficient illu)inant8 an$ )any other results of inesti)a7le scientific an$ in$ustrial
-alue0 Finally8 ho.e-er8 , ha$ the satisfaction of acco)(lishing the tas2 un$erta2en 7y the use of a ne. (rinci(le8 the -irtue of .hich is 7ase$ on the )ar-ellous (ro(erties of the electrical con$enser0 ;ne of these is that it can $ischarge or e'(lo$e its store$ energy in an inconcei-a7ly short ti)e0 ;.ing to this it is unequalle$ in e'(losi-e -iolence0 The e'(losion of $yna)ite is only the 7reath of a consu)(ti-e co)(are$ .ith its $ischarge0 ,t is the )eans of (ro$ucing the strongest current8 the highest electrical (ressure8 the greatest co))otion in the )e$iu)0 Another of its (ro(erties8 equally -alua7le8 is that its $ischarge )ay -i7rate at any rate $esire$ u( to )any )illions (er secon$0
F,G0 %0 <H;T;G+A<H,C G,"& ;F TH" ">>"1T,A# <A+T> ;F TH" "#"CT+,CA# ;>C,##AT;+ C>"= ,1 TH" "]<"+,/"1T> =">C+,3"= , ha$ arri-e$ at the li)it of rates o7taina7le in other .ays .hen the ha((y i$ea (resente$ itself to )e to resort to the con$enser0 , arrange$ such an instru)ent so as to 7e charge$ an$ $ischarge$ alternately in ra(i$ succession through a coil .ith a fe. turns of stout .ire8 for)ing the (ri)ary of a transfor)er or in$uction9coil0 "ach ti)e the con$enser .as $ischarge$ the current .oul$ qui-er in the (ri)ary .ire an$ in$uce corres(on$ing oscillations in the secon$ary0 Thus a transfor)er or in$uction9coil on ne. (rinci(les .as e-ol-e$8 .hich , ha-e calle$ "the electrical oscillator8" (arta2ing of those unique qualities .hich characteriBe the con$enser8 an$ ena7ling results to 7e attaine$ i)(ossi7le 7y other )eans0 "lectrical effects of any $esire$ character an$ of intensities un$rea)e$ of 7efore are no. easily (ro$uci7le 7y (erfecte$ a((aratus of this 2in$8 to .hich frequent reference has 7een )a$e8 an$ the essential (arts of .hich are sho.n in Fig0 %0 For certain (ur(oses a strong in$ucti-e effect is require$J for others the greatest (ossi7le su$$ennessJ for others again8 an e'ce(tionally high rate of -i7ration or e'tre)e (ressureJ .hile for certain other o7Hects i))ense electrical )o-e)ents are necessary0 The (hotogra(hs in Figs0 *8 88 98 an$ 158 of e'(eri)ents (erfor)e$ .ith such an oscillator8 )ay ser-e to illustrate so)e of these features an$ con-ey an i$ea of the )agnitu$e of the effects actually (ro$uce$0 The co)(leteness of the titles of the figures referre$ to )a2es a further $escri(tion of the) unnecessary0
F,G0 *0 "]<"+,/"1T T; ,##C>T+AT" A1 ,1=CCT,G" "FF"CT ;F A1 "#"CT+,CA# ;>C,##AT;+ ;F G+"AT <;&"+0

The (hotogra(h sho.s three or$inary incan$escent la)(s lighte$ to full can$le9(o.er 7y currents in$uce$ in a local loo( consisting of a single .ire for)ing a square of fifty feet each si$e8 .hich inclu$es the la)(s8 an$ .hich is at a $istance of one hun$re$ feet fro) the (ri)ary circuit energiBe$ 7y the oscillator0 The loo( li2e.ise inclu$es an electrical con$enser8 an$ is e'actly attune$ to the -i7rations of the oscillator8 .hich is .or2e$ at less than fi-e (ercent of its total ca(acity0
F,G0 80 "]<"+,/"1T T; ,##C>T+AT" TH" CA<AC,TD ;F TH" ;>C,##AT;+ F;+ <+;=CC,1G "#"CT+,CA# "]<#;>,;1> ;F G+"AT <;&"+0
1ote to Fig0 80 The coil8 (artly sho.n in the (hotogra(h8 creates an alternati-e )o-e)ent of electricity fro) the earth into a large reser-oir an$ 7ac2 at a rate of one hun$re$ thousan$ alternations (er secon$0 The a$Hust)ents are such that the reser-oir is fille$ full an$ 7ursts at each alternation Hust at the )o)ent .hen the electrical (ressure reaches the )a'i)u)0 The $ischarge esca(es .ith a $eafening noise8 stri2ing an unconnecte$ coil t.enty9t.o feet a.ay8 an$ creating such a co))otion of electricity in the earth that s(ar2s an inch long can 7e $ra.n fro) a .ater )ain at a $istance of three hun$re$ feet fro) the la7oratory0
F,G0 90 "]<"+,/"1T T; ,##C>T+AT" TH" CA<AC,TD ;1 TH" ;>C,##AT;+ F;+ C+"AT,1G A G+"AT "#"CT+,CA# /;G"/"1T0
The 7all sho.n in the (hotogra(h8 co-ere$ .ith a (olishe$ )etallic coating of t.enty square feet of surface8 re(resents a large reser-oir of electricity8 an$ the in-erte$ tin (an un$erneath8 .ith a shar( ri)8 a 7ig o(ening through .hich the electricity can esca(e 7efore filling the reser-oir0 The quantity of electricity set in )o-e)ent is so great that8 although )ost of it esca(es through the ri) of the (an or o(ening (ro-i$e$8 the 7all or reser-oir is ne-ertheless alternately e)(tie$ an$ fille$ to o-er9flo.ing (as is e-i$ent fro) the $ischarge esca(ing on the to( of the 7all one hun$re$ an$ fifty thousan$ ti)es (er secon$0
F,G0 150 <H;T;G+A<H,C G,"& ;F A1 "]<"+,/"1T T; ,##C>T+AT" A1 "FF"CT ;F A1 "#"CT+,CA# ;>C,##AT;+ ="#,G"+,1G "1"+GD AT A +AT" ;F >"G"1TD9F,G" TH;C>A1= H;+>"9<;&"+0
The $ischarge8 creating a strong $raft o.ing to the heating of the air8 is carrie$ u(.ar$ through the o(en roof of the 7uil$ing0 The greatest .i$th across is nearly se-enty feet0 The (ressure is o-er t.el-e )illion -olts8 an$ the current alternates one hun$re$ an$ thirty thousan$ ti)es (er secon$0
Ho.e-er e'traor$inary the results sho.n )ay a((ear8 they are 7ut trifling co)(are$ .ith those .hich are attaina7le 7y a((aratus $esigne$ on these sa)e (rinci(les0 , ha-e (ro$uce$ electrical $ischarges the actual (ath of .hich8 fro) en$ to en$8 .as (ro7a7ly )ore than one hun$re$ feet longJ 7ut it .oul$ not 7e $ifficult to reach lengths one hun$re$ ti)es as great0 , ha-e (ro$uce$ electrical )o-e)ents occurring at the rate of a((ro'i)ately one hun$re$ thousan$ horse9(o.er8 7ut rates of one8 fi-e8 or ten )illion horse9(o.er are easily (ractica7le0 ,n these e'(eri)ents effects .ere $e-elo(e$ inco)(ara7ly greater than any e-er (ro$uce$ 7y hu)an agencies8 an$ yet these results are 7ut an e)7ryo of .hat is to 7e0 That co))unication .ithout .ires to any (oint of the glo7e is (ractica7le .ith such a((aratus .oul$ nee$ no $e)onstration8 7ut through a $isco-ery .hich , )a$e , o7taine$ a7solute certitu$e0 <o(ularly e'(laine$8 it is e'actly thisI &hen .e raise the -oice an$ hear an echo in re(ly8 .e 2no. that the soun$ of the -oice )ust ha-e reache$ a $istant .all8 or 7oun$ary8 an$ )ust ha-e 7een reflecte$ fro) the sa)e0 "'actly as the soun$8 so an electrical .a-e is reflecte$8 an$ the sa)e e-i$ence .hich is affor$e$ 7y an echo is offere$ 7y an electrical (heno)enon 2no.n as a "stationary" .a-eKthat is8 a .a-e .ith fi'e$ no$al an$ -entral regions0 ,nstea$ of sen$ing soun$9-i7rations to.ar$ a $istant .all8 , ha-e sent electrical -i7rations to.ar$ the re)ote 7oun$aries of the earth8 an$ instea$ of the .all the earth has re(lie$0 ,n (lace of an echo , ha-e o7taine$ a stationary electrical .a-e8 a .a-e reflecte$ fro) afar0 >tationary .a-es in the earth )ean so)ething )ore than )ere telegra(hy .ithout .ires to any $istance0 They .ill ena7le us to attain )any i)(ortant s(ecific results i)(ossi7le other.ise0 For instance8 7y their use .e )ay (ro$uce at .ill8 fro) a sen$ing9station8 an electrical effect in any (articular region of the glo7eJ .e )ay $eter)ine the relati-e (osition or course of a )o-ing o7Hect8 such as a -essel at sea8 the $istance tra-erse$ 7y the sa)e8 or its s(ee$J or .e )ay sen$ o-er the earth a .a-e of electricity tra-elling at any rate .e $esire8 fro) the (ace of a turtle u( to lightning s(ee$0 &ith these $e-elo()ents .e ha-e e-ery reason to antici(ate that in a ti)e not -ery $istant )ost telegra(hic )essages across the oceans .ill 7e trans)itte$ .ithout ca7les0 For short $istances .e nee$ a ".ireless" tele(hone8 .hich requires no e'(ert o(erators0 The greater the s(aces to 7e 7ri$ge$8 the )ore rational 7eco)es co))unication .ithout .ires0 The ca7le is not only an easily $a)age$ an$ costly instru)ent8 7ut it li)its us in the s(ee$ of trans)ission 7y reason of a certain electrical (ro(erty inse(ara7le fro) its construction0 A (ro(erly $esigne$ (lant for effecting co))unication .ithout .ires ought to ha-e )any ti)es the .or2ing ca(acity of a ca7le8 .hile it .ill in-ol-e inco)(ara7ly less e'(ense0 1ot a long ti)e .ill (ass8 , 7elie-e8 7efore co))unication 7y ca7le .ill 7eco)e o7solete8 for not only .ill signalling 7y this ne. )etho$ 7e quic2er an$ chea(er8 7ut also )uch safer0 3y using so)e ne. )eans for isolating the )essages .hich , ha-e contri-e$8 an al)ost (erfect (ri-acy can 7e secure$0 , ha-e o7ser-e$ the a7o-e effects so far only u( to a li)ite$ $istance of a7out si' hun$re$ )iles8 7ut inas)uch as there is -irtually no li)it to the (o.er of the -i7rations (ro$uci7le .ith such an oscillator8 , feel quite confi$ent of the success of such a (lant for effecting transoceanic co))unication0 1or is this all0 /y )easure)ents an$ calculations ha-e sho.n that it is (erfectly (ractica7le to (ro$uce on our glo7e8 7y the use of these (rinci(les8 an electrical )o-e)ent of such )agnitu$e that8 .ithout the slightest $ou7t8 its effect .ill 7e (erce(ti7le on so)e of our nearer (lanets8 as Genus an$ /ars0 Thus fro) )ere (ossi7ility inter(lanetary co))unication has entere$ the stage of (ro7a7ility0 ,n fact8 that .e can (ro$uce a $istinct effect on one of these (lanets in this no-el )anner8 na)ely8 7y $istur7ing the electrical con$ition of the earth8 is 7eyon$ any $ou7t0 This .ay of effecting such co))unication is8 ho.e-er8 essentially $ifferent fro) all others .hich ha-e so far 7een (ro(ose$ 7y scientific )en0 ,n all the (re-ious instances only a )inute fraction of the total energy reaching the (lanetKas )uch as it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le to concentrate in a reflectorKcoul$ 7e utiliBe$ 7y the su((ose$ o7ser-er in his instru)ent0 3ut 7y the )eans , ha-e $e-elo(e$ he .oul$ 7e ena7le$ to concentrate the larger (ortion of the entire energy trans)itte$ to the (lanet in his instru)ent8 an$ the chances of affecting the latter are there7y increase$ )any )illionfol$0 3esi$es )achinery for (ro$ucing -i7rations of the require$ (o.er8 .e )ust ha-e $elicate )eans ca(a7le of re-ealing the effects of fee7le influences e'erte$ u(on the earth0 For such (ur(oses8 too8 , ha-e (erfecte$ ne. )etho$s0 3y their use .e shall li2e.ise 7e a7le8 a)ong other things8 to $etect at consi$era7le $istance the (resence of an ice7erg or other o7Hect at sea0 3y their use8 also8 , ha-e $isco-ere$ so)e terrestrial (heno)ena still une'(laine$0 That .e can sen$ a )essage to a (lanet is certain8 that .e can get an ans.er is (ro7a7leI )an is not the only 7eing in the ,nfinite gifte$ .ith a )in$0
T#ANSM:SS:ON O7 *'*CT#:CA' *N*#B@ TO AN@ %:STANC* F:T0O=T F:#*SANOF 5#ACT:CA;'* AT0* ;*ST M*ANS O7 :NC#*AS:NB T0* 7O#C* ACC*'*#AT:NB T0* 0=MAN MASS& The )ost -alua7le o7ser-ation )a$e in the course of these in-estigations .as the e'traor$inary 7eha-iour of the at)os(here to.ar$ electric i)(ulses of e'cessi-e electro)oti-e force0 The e'(eri)ents sho.e$ that the air at the or$inary (ressure 7eca)e $istinctly con$ucting8 an$ this o(ene$ u( the .on$erful (ros(ect of trans)itting large a)ounts of electrical energy for in$ustrial (ur(oses to great $istances .ithout .ires8 a (ossi7ility .hich8 u( to that ti)e8 .as thought of only as a scientific $rea)0 Further in-estigation re-eale$ the i)(ortant fact that the con$ucti-ity i)(arte$ to the air 7y these electrical i)(ulses of )any )illions of -olts increase$ -ery ra(i$ly .ith the $egree of rarefaction8 so that air strata at -ery )o$erate altitu$es8 .hich are easily accessi7le8 offer8 to all e'(eri)ental e-i$ence8 a (erfect con$ucting (ath8 7etter than a co((er .ire8 for currents of this character0 Thus the $isco-ery of these ne. (ro(erties of the at)os(here not only o(ene$ u( the (ossi7ility of trans)itting8 .ithout .ires8 energy in large a)ounts8 7ut8 .hat .as still )ore significant8 it affor$e$ the certitu$e that energy coul$ 7e trans)itte$ in this )anner econo)ically0 ,n this ne. syste) it )atters littleKin fact8 al)ost nothingK .hether the trans)ission is effecte$ at a $istance of a fe. )iles or of a fe. thousan$ )iles0 &hile , ha-e not8 as yet8 actually effecte$ a trans)ission of a consi$era7le a)ount of energy8 such as .oul$ 7e of in$ustrial i)(ortance8 to a great $istance 7y this ne. )etho$8 , ha-e o(erate$ se-eral )o$el (lants un$er e'actly the sa)e con$itions .hich .ill e'ist in a large (lant of this 2in$8 an$ the (ractica7ility of the syste) is thoroughly $e)onstrate$0 The e'(eri)ents ha-e sho.n conclusi-ely that8 .ith t.o ter)inals )aintaine$ at an ele-ation of not )ore than thirty thousan$ to thirty9fi-e thousan$ feet a7o-e sea9le-el8 an$ .ith an electrical (ressure of fifteen to t.enty )illion -olts8 the energy of thousan$s of horse9(o.er can 7e trans)itte$ o-er $istances .hich )ay 7e hun$re$s an$8 if necessary8 thousan$s of )iles0 , a) ho(eful8 ho.e-er8 that , )ay 7e a7le to re$uce -ery consi$era7ly the ele-ation of the ter)inals no. require$8 an$ .ith this o7Hect , a) follo.ing u( an i$ea .hich (ro)ises such a realiBation0 There is8 of course8 a (o(ular (reHu$ice against using an electrical (ressure of )illions of -olts8 .hich )ay cause s(ar2s to fly at $istances of hun$re$s of feet8 7ut8 (ara$o'ical as it )ay see)8 the syste)8 as , ha-e $escri7e$ it in a technical (u7lication8 offers greater (ersonal safety than )ost of the or$inary $istri7ution circuits no. use$ in the cities0 This is8 in a )easure8 7orne out 7y the fact that8 although , ha-e carrie$ on such e'(eri)ents for a nu)7er of years8 no inHury has 7een sustaine$ either 7y )e or any of )y assistants0 3ut to ena7le a (ractical intro$uction of the syste)8 a nu)7er of essential require)ents are still to 7e fulfille$0 ,t is not enough to $e-elo( a((liances 7y )eans of .hich such a trans)ission can 7e effecte$0 The )achinery )ust 7e such as to allo. the transfor)ation an$ trans)ission8 of electrical energy un$er highly econo)ic an$ (ractical con$itions0 Further)ore8 an in$uce)ent )ust 7e offere$ to those .ho are engage$ in the in$ustrial e'(loitation of natural sources of (o.er8 as .aterfalls8 7y guaranteeing greater returns on the ca(ital in-este$ than they can secure 7y local $e-elo()ent of the (ro(erty0 Fro) that )o)ent .hen it .as o7ser-e$ that8 contrary to the esta7lishe$ o(inion8 lo. an$ easily accessi7le strata of the at)os(here are ca(a7le of con$ucting electricity8 the trans)ission of electrical energy .ithout .ires has 7eco)e a rational tas2 of the engineer8 an$ one sur(assing all others in i)(ortance0 ,ts (ractical consu))ation .oul$ )ean that energy .oul$ 7e a-aila7le for the uses of )an at any (oint of the glo7e8 not in s)all a)ounts such as )ight 7e $eri-e$ fro) the a)7ient )e$iu) 7y suita7le )achinery8 7ut in quantities -irtually unli)ite$8 fro) .aterfalls0 "'(ort of (o.er .oul$ then 7eco)e the chief source of inco)e for )any ha((ily situate$ countries8 as the Cnite$ >tates8 Cana$a8 Central an$ >outh A)erica8 >.itBerlan$8 an$ >.e$en0 /en coul$ settle $o.n e-ery.here8 fertiliBe an$ irrigate the soil .ith little effort8 an$ con-ert 7arren $eserts into gar$ens8 an$ thus the entire glo7e coul$ 7e transfor)e$ an$ )a$e a fitter a7o$e for )an2in$0 ,t is highly (ro7a7le that if there are intelligent 7eings on /ars they ha-e long ago realiBe$ this -ery i$ea8 .hich .oul$ e'(lain the changes on its surface note$ 7y astrono)ers0 The at)os(here on that (lanet8 7eing of consi$era7ly s)aller $ensity than that of the earth8 .oul$ )a2e the tas2 )uch )ore easy0 ,t is (ro7a7le that .e shall soon ha-e a self9acting heat9engine ca(a7le of $eri-ing )o$erate a)ounts of energy fro) the a)7ient )e$iu)0 There is also a (ossi7ilityKthough a s)all oneKthat .e )ay o7tain electrical energy $irect fro) the sun0 This )ight 7e the case if the /a'.ellian theory is true8 accor$ing to .hich electrical -i7rations of all rates shoul$ e)anate fro) the sun0 , a) still in-estigating this su7Hect0 >ir &illia) Croo2es has sho.n in his 7eautiful in-ention 2no.n as the "ra$io)eter" that rays )ay (ro$uce 7y i)(act a )echanical effect8 an$ this )ay lea$ to so)e i)(ortant re-elation as to the utiliBation of the sun's rays in no-el .ays0 ;ther
sources of energy )ay 7e o(ene$ u(8 an$ ne. )etho$s of $eri-ing energy fro) the sun $isco-ere$8 7ut none of these or si)ilar achie-e)ents .oul$ equal in i)(ortance the trans)ission of (o.er to any $istance through the )e$iu)0 , can concei-e of no technical a$-ance .hich .oul$ ten$ to unite the -arious ele)ents of hu)anity )ore effecti-ely than this one8 or of one .hich .oul$ )ore a$$ to an$ )ore econo)iBe hu)an energy0 ,t .oul$ 7e the 7est )eans of increasing the force accelerating the hu)an )ass0 The )ere )oral influence of such a ra$ical $e(arture .oul$ 7e incalcula7le0 ;n the other han$ if at any (oint of the glo7e energy can 7e o7taine$ in li)ite$ quantities fro) the a)7ient )e$iu) 7y )eans of a self9acting heat9engine or other.ise8 the con$itions .ill re)ain the sa)e as 7efore0 Hu)an (erfor)ance .ill 7e increase$8 7ut )en .ill re)ain strangers as they .ere0 , antici(ate that any8 un(re(are$ for these results8 .hich8 through long fa)iliarity8 a((ear to )e si)(le an$ o7-ious8 .ill consi$er the) still far fro) (ractical a((lication0 >uch reser-e8 an$ e-en o((osition8 of so)e is as useful a quality an$ as necessary an ele)ent in hu)an (rogress as the quic2 rece(ti-ity an$ enthusias) of others0 Thus8 a )ass .hich resists the force at first8 once set in )o-e)ent8 a$$s to the energy0 The scientific )an $oes not ai) at an i))e$iate result0 He $oes not e'(ect that his a$-ance$ i$eas .ill 7e rea$ily ta2en u(0 His .or2 is li2e that of the (lanterKfor the future0 His $uty is to lay the foun$ation for those .ho are to co)e8 an$ (oint the .ay0 He li-es an$ la7ours an$ ho(es .ith the (oet .ho saysI >chaff' $as Tag.er2 )einer Hdn$e8 Hohes Glec28 $ass ich's -ollen$eY #ass8 o lass )ich nicht er)attenY 1ein8 es sin$ nicht leere Trdu)eI EetBt nur >tangen8 $iese 3du)e Ge7en einst noch Frucht un$ >chatten0 =aily .or2K)y han$s' e)(loy)ent8 To co)(lete is (ure enHoy)entY #et8 oh8 let )e ne-er falterY 1oY there is no e)(ty $rea)ingI #oY these trees8 7ut 7are (oles see)ing8 Det .ill yiel$ 7oth foo$ an$ shelterY Goethe's "Ho(e" Translate$ 7y &illia) Gi7son8 Co)0 C0 >0 10
1-01-01-90: Tesla2s New %is(oEery by Nikola Tesla

The &un+ Ne" -ork Ca(acity of "lectrical Con$uctors is Garia7le8 1ot Constant8 an$ For)ulas &ill Ha-e to 3e +e.ritten K Ca(acity Garies &ith A7solute Height A7o-e >ea #e-el8 +elati-e Height Fro) "arth an$ =istance Fro) the >un 1i2ola Tesla announce$ yester$ay another ne. $isco-ery in electricity0 This ti)e it is a ne. la. an$ 7y reason of it8 /r0 Tesla asserts8 a large (art of technical literature .ill ha-e to 7e re.ritten0 "-er since anything has 7een 2no.n a7out electricity8 scientific )en ha-e ta2en for grante$ that the ca(acity of an electrical con$uctor is constant0 &hen Tesla .as e'(eri)enting in Colora$o he foun$ out that this ca(acity is not constantK7ut -aria7le0 Then he $eter)ine$ to fin$ out the la. go-erning this (heno)enon0 He $i$ so8 an$ all this he e'(laine$ to The >un yester$ay0 Here is .hat he sai$I ">ince )any years scientific )en engage$ in the stu$y of (hysics an$ electrical research ha-e ta2en it for grante$ that certain quantities8 entering continuously in their esti)ates an$ calculations8 are fi'e$ an$ unaltera7le0 The e'act $eter)ination of these quantities 7eing of (articular i)(ortance in electrical -i7rations8 .hich are engrossing )ore an$ )ore the attention of e'(eri)enters all o-er the .orl$8 it see)s to 7e i)(ortant to acquaint others .ith so)e of )y o7ser-ations8 .hich ha-e finally le$ )e to the results no. attracting uni-ersal attention0 These o7ser-ations8 .ith .hich , ha-e long 7een fa)iliar8 sho. that so)e of the quantities referre$ to are -aria7le an$ that8 o.ing to this8 a large (ortion of the technical literature is $efecti-e0 , shall en$ea-our to con-ey the 2no.le$ge of the facts , ha-e $isco-ere$ in (lain language8 $e-oi$ as )uch as (ossi7le of technicalities0" ",t is .ell 2no.n that an electric circuit co)(acts itself li2e a s(ring .ith a .eight attache$ to it0 >uch a s(ring -i7rates at a $efinite rate8 .hich is $eter)ine$ 7y t.o quantities8 the (lia7ility of the s(ring an$ the )ass of the .eight0 >i)ilarly an electric circuit -i7rates8 an$ its -i7ration8 too8 is $e(en$ent on t.o quantities8 $esignate$ as electrostatic ca(acity an$ in$uctance0 The ca(acity of the electric circuit corres(on$s to the (lia7ility of the s(ring an$ the in$uctance to the )ass of the .eight0" ""'actly as )echanics an$ engineers ha-e ta2en it for grante$ that the (lia7ility of the s(ring re)ains the sa)e8 no )atter ho. it 7e (lace$ or use$8 so electricians an$ (hysicists ha-e assu)e$ that the electrostatic ca(acity of a con$ucting 7o$y8 say of a )etallic s(here8 .hich is frequently use$ in e'(eri)ents8 re)ains a fi'e$ an$ unaltera7le quantity8 an$ )any scientific results of the greatest i)(ortance are $e(en$ent on this assu)(tion0 1o.8 , ha-e $isco-ere$ that this ca(acity is not fi'e$ an$ unaltera7le at all0 ;n the contrary8 it is susce(ti7le to great changes8 so that un$er certain con$itions it )ay a)ount to )any ti)es its theoretical -alue8 or )ay e-entually 7e s)aller0 ,nas)uch as e-ery electrical con$uctor8 7esi$es (ossessing an in$uctance8 has also a certain a)ount of ca(acity8 o.ing to the -ariations of the latter8 the in$uctance8 too8 is see)ingly )o$ifie$ 7y the sa)e causes that ten$ to )o$ify the ca(acity0 These facts , $isco-ere$ so)e ti)e 7efore , ga-e a technical $escri(tion of )y syste) of energy trans)ission an$ telegra(hy .ithout .ires8 .hich8 , 7elie-e8 7eca)e first 2no.n through )y 3elgian an$ 3ritish (atents0" ",n this syste)8 , then e'(laine$8 that8 in esti)ating the .a-e9length of the electrical -i7ration in the trans)itting an$ recei-ing circuits8 $ue regar$ )ust 7e ha$ to the -elocity .ith .hich the -i7ration is (ro(agate$ through each of the circuits8 this -elocity 7eing gi-en 7y the (ro$uct of the .a-e9length an$ the nu)7er of -i7rations (er secon$0 The rate of -i7ration 7eing8 ho.e-er8 as 7efore state$8 $e(en$ent on the ca(acity an$ in$uctance in each case8 , o7taine$ $iscor$ant -alues0" "Continuing the in-estigation of this astonishing (heno)enon , o7ser-e$ that the ca(acity -arie$ .ith the ele-ation of the con$ucting surface a7o-e the groun$ an$ , soon ascertaine$ the la. of this -ariation0 The ca(acity increase$ as the con$ucting surface .as ele-ate$8 in o(en s(ace8 fro) one9half to three9quarters of 1 (ercent (er foot of ele-ation0 ,n 7uil$ings8 ho.e-er8 or near large structures8 this increase often a)ounte$ to 45 (ercent (er foot of ele-ation8 an$ this alone .ill sho. to .hat e'tent )any of the scientific e'(eri)ents recor$e$ in technical literature are erroneous0 ,n $eter)ining the length of the coils or con$uctors such as , e)(loy in )y syste) of .ireless telegra(hy8 for instance8 the rule .hich , ha-e gi-en is8 in -ie. of the a7o-e8 i)(ortant to o7ser-e0" "Far )ore interesting8 ho.e-er8 for )en of science is the fact , o7ser-e$ later8 that the ca(acity un$ergoes an annual -ariation .ith a )a'i)u) in su))er8 an$ a )ini)u) in .inter0 ,n Colora$o8 .here , continue$ .ith
i)(ro-e$ )etho$s of in-estigations 7egun in 1e. Dor28 an$ .here , foun$ the rate of increase slightly greater8 , further)ore o7ser-e$ that there .as a $iurnal -ariation .ith a )a'i)u) $uring the night0 Further8 , foun$ that sunlight causes a slight increase in ca(acity0 The )oon also (ro$uces an effect8 7ut , $o not attri7ute it to its light0" "The i)(ortance of these o7ser-ations .ill 7e 7etter a((reciate$ .hen it is state$ that o.ing to these changes of a quantity su((ose$ to 7e constant an electrical circuit $oes not -i7rate at a unifor) rate8 7ut its rate is )o$ifie$ in accor$ance .ith the )o$ifications of the ca(acity0 Thus a circuit -i7rates a little slo.er at an ele-ation than .hen at a lo.er le-el0 An oscillating syste)8 as use$ in telegra(hy .ithout .ires8 -i7rates a little quic2er .hen the shi( gets into the har7our than .hen on o(en sea0 >uch a circuit oscillates quic2er in the .inter than in the su))er8 though it 7e at the sa)e te)(erature8 an$ a trifle quic2er at night than in $ayti)e8 (articularly if the sun is shining0" "Ta2ing together the results of )y in-estigations , fin$ that this -ariation of the ca(acity an$ consequently of the -i7ration (erio$ is e-i$ently $e(en$ent8 first8 on the a7solute height a7o-e sea le-el8 though in a s)aller $egreeJ secon$8 on the relati-e height of the con$ucting surface or ca(acity .ith res(ect to the 7o$ies surroun$ing itJ thir$8 on the $istance of the earth fro) the sun8 an$ fourth8 on the relati-e change of the circuit .ith res(ect to the sun8 cause$ 7y the $iurnal rotation of the earth0 These facts )ay 7e of (articular interest to )eteorologists an$ astrono)ers8 inas)uch as (ractical )etho$s of inquiry )ay result fro) these o7ser-ations8 .hich )ay 7e useful in their res(ecti-e fiel$s0 ,t is (ro7a7le that .e shall (erfect instru)ents for in$icating the altitu$e of a (lace 7y )eans of a circuit8 (ro(erly constructe$ an$ arrange$8 an$ , ha-e thought of a nu)7er of other uses to .hich this (rinci(le )ay 7e (ut0" ",t .as in the course of in-estigations of this 2in$ in Colora$o that , first note$ certain -ariations in electrical syste)s arrange$ in (eculiar .ays0 These -ariations , first $isco-ere$ 7y calculating o-er the results , ha$ (re-iously note$8 an$ it .as only su7sequently that , actually (ercei-e$ the)0 ,t .ill thus 7e clear that so)e .ho ha-e -enture$ to attri7ute the (heno)ena , ha-e o7ser-e$ to or$inary at)os(heric $istur7ances ha-e )a$e a hasty conclusion0" 2olorado &*rings ;ct0 !38 1899 "'(eri)ents to further ascertain the influence of ele-ation u(on ca(acity0 The coil referre$ to on a (re-ious occasion .as finishe$ .ith e'actly %89 turns on a $ru) of eight feet in length an$ 16" $ia)0 The .ire use$ .as cor$ 1o0 !5 as 7efore state$ so that the a((ro'i)ate esti)ate of self9in$uction an$ other (articulars hol$s goo$0 The coil .as set u( u(right outsi$e of the 7uil$ing at so)e $istance to re$uce any errors $ue to the influence of the .oo$.or20 Fro) the 7uil$ing e'ten$e$ a structure of $ry (ine to a height of a7out si'ty feet fro) the groun$0 This fra)e.or2 su((orte$8 on a (roHecting cross7ea)8 a (ulley (.oo$ .ith cor$ for (ulling u( a 7all or other o7Hect to any $esire$ height .ithin the li)its (er)itte$ an$ this 7ea) also carrie$ on its e'tre)e en$ an$ close to the (ulley a strong glass 7ottle .ithin .hich .as fastene$ a 7are .ire 1o0 158 .hich e'ten$e$ -ertically $o.n.ar$ to the to( of the coil0 The 7ottle .as an or$inary Cha)(agne 7ottle8 fro) .hich the .ine ha$ 7een (oure$ outY an$ the 7otto) 7ro2en in0 ,t .as force$ nec2 $o.n.ar$ into a hole 7ore$ into the 7ea) an$ fastene$ 7esi$es .ith a cor$0 A ta(ering (lug of har$ .oo$ .as .e$ge$ into the nec2 an$ into this (lug .as fastene$ the .ire0 The 7ottle .as finally fille$ .ith )elte$ .a'0 The .hole arrange)ent is illustrate$ in the s2etch sho.n in .hich 7 is the 7ottle .ith .oo$en (lug ( su((orte$ on 7ea) 3 also carrying (ulley (8 o-er .hich (asses the cor$ for (ulling u( the o7Hect8 .hich in this case is sho.n as the s(here C0 The s(heres use$ .ere of
.oo$ an$ hollo. an$ co-ere$ -ery s)oothly .ith tin foil an$ any (oints of the foil .ere (resse$ in so as to 7e 7elo. the surface of the s(here0 0 0 0
1-01-0"-0": Tesla2s Fireless 'ig,t 4y Nikola Tesla

&cientific American 1i2ola Tesla has gi-en to The 1e. Dor2 >un an authoriBe$ state)ent concerning his ne. e'(eri)ents on the (ro$uction of light .ithout the ai$ of .ires0 /r0 Tesla saysI "This light is the result of continuous efforts since )y early e'(eri)ental $e)onstrations 7efore scientific societies here an$ a7roa$0 ,n or$er to )a2e it suita7le for co))ercial use8 , ha$ to o-erco)e great $ifficulties0 ;ne of these .as to (ro$uce fro) or$inary currents of su((ly electrical oscillations of enor)ous ra(i$ity in a si)(le an$ econo)ical )anner0 This8 , a) gla$ to say8 , ha-e no. acco)(lishe$8 an$ the results sho. that .ith this ne. for) of light a higher econo)y is (ractica7le than .ith the (resent illu)inants0 The light offers8 7esi$es8 )any s(ecific a$-antages8 not the least of .hich is foun$ in its hygienic (ro(erties0 ,t is8 , 7elie-e8 the closest a((roach to $aylight .hich has yet 7een reache$ fro) any artificial source0 "The la)(s are glass tu7es .hich )ay 7e 7ent in any orna)ental .ay0 , )ost generally use a rectangular s(iral8 containing a7out t.enty to t.enty9fi-e feet of tu7ing )a2ing so)e t.el-e to fourteen con-olutions0 The total illu)inating surface of a la)( is fro) 355 to 655 square inches0 The en$s of the s(iral tu7e are co-ere$ .ith a )etallic coating8 an$ (ro-i$e$ .ith hoo2s for hanging the la)( on the ter)inals of the source of oscillations0 The tu7e contains gases rarefie$ to a certain $egree8 $eter)ine$ in the course of long e'(eri)entation as 7eing con$ucti-e to the 7est results0 "The (rocess of light (ro$uction is8 accor$ing to )y -ie.s8 as follo.sI The street current is (asse$ through a )achine .hich is an electrical oscillator of (eculiar construction an$ transfor)s the su((ly current8 7e it $irect or alternating8 into electrical oscillations of -ery high frequency0 These oscillations8 co)ing to the )etallically9coate$ en$s of the glass tu7e8 (ro$uce in the interior corres(on$ing electrical oscillations8 .hich set the )olecules an$ ato)s of the inclose$ rarefie$ gases into -iolent co))otion8 causing the) to -i7rate at enor)ous rates an$ e)it those ra$iations .hich .e 2no. as light0 The gases are not ren$ere$ incan$escent in the or$inary sense8 for if it .ere so8 they .oul$ 7e hot8 li2e an incan$escent fila)ent0 As a )atter of fact8 there is -ery little heat noticea7le8 .hich s(ea2s .ell for the econo)y of the light8 since all heat .oul$ 7e loss0 "This high econo)y results chiefly fro) three causesI First8 fro) the high rate of the electrical oscillationsJ secon$8 fro) the fact that the entire light9gi-ing 7o$y8 7eing a highly attenuate$ gas8 is e'(ose$ an$ can thro. out its ra$iations uni)(e$e$8 an$8 thir$8 7ecause of the s)allness of the (articles co)(osing the light9gi-ing 7o$y8 in consequence of .hich they can 7e quic2ly thro.n into a high rate of -i7ration8 so that co)(arati-ely little energy is lost in the lo.er or heat -i7rations0 An i)(ortant (ractical a$-antage is that the la)(s nee$ not 7e rene.e$ li2e the or$inary ones8 as there is nothing in the) to consu)e0 >o)e of these la)(s , ha-e ha$ for years8 an$ they are no. in Hust as goo$ a con$ition as they e-er .ere0 The illu)inating (o.er of each of these la)(s is8 )easure$ 7y the (hoto)etric )etho$8 a7out fifty can$le (o.er8 7ut , can )a2e the) of any (o.er $esire$8 u( to that of se-eral arc lights0 ,t is a re)ar2a7le feature of the light that $uring the $ay it can scarcely 7e seen8 .hereas at night the .hole roo) is 7rilliantly illu)inate$0 &hen the eye 7eco)es use$ to the light of these tu7es8 an or$inary incan$escent la)( or gas 7urner (ro$uces a -iolent (ain in the eye .hen it is turne$ on8 sho.ing in a stri2ing )anner to .hat a $egree these concentrate$ sources of light .hich .e no. use are $etri)ental to the eye0 ", ha-e foun$ that in al)ost all its actions the light (ro$uces the sa)e effects as9sunlight8 an$ this )a2es )e ho(eful that its intro$uction into $.ellings .ill ha-e the effect of i)(ro-ing8 in a )easure no. i)(ossi7le to esti)ate8 the hygienic con$itions0 >ince sunlight is a -ery (o.erful curati-e agent8 an$ since this light )a2es it (ossi7le to ha-e sunlight8 so to s(ea28 of any $esire$ intensity8 $ay an$ night in our ho)es8 it stan$s to reason that the $e-elo()ent of ger)s .ill 7e chec2e$ an$ )any $iseases8 as consu)(tion8 for instance8 successfully co)7ate$ 7y continually e'(osing the (atients to the rays of these la)(s0 , ha-e ascertaine$ un)ista2a7ly that the light (ro$uces a soothing action on the ner-es8 .hich , attri7ute to the effect .hich it has u(on the retina of the eye0 ,t also i)(ro-es -ision Hust e'actly as the sunlight8 an$ it oBonises slightly the at)os(here0 These effects can 7e regulate$ at .ill0 For instance8 in hos(itals8 .here such a light is of (ara)ount i)(ortance8 la)(s )ay 7e $esigne$ .hich .ill (ro$uce Hust that quality of oBone .hich the (hysician )ay $esire for the (urification of the at)os(here8 or if necessary8 the oBone (ro$uction can 7e sto((e$ altogether0 "The la)(s are -ery chea( to )anufacture8 an$ 7y the fact that they nee$ not 7e e'change$ li2e or$inary la)(s or 7urners they are ren$ere$ still less e'(ensi-e0 The chief consi$eration is8 of course8 in co))ercial intro$uction8 the energy consu)(tion0 &hile , a) not yet (re(are$ to gi-e e'act figures8 , can say that8 gi-en a certain quantity of electrical energy fro) the )ains8 , can (ro$uce )ore light than can 7e (ro$uce$ 7y the or$inary )etho$s0 ,n intro$ucing this syste) of lighting )y transfor)er8 or oscillator8 .ill 7e usually locate$ at
so)e con-enient (lace in the 7ase)ent8 an$ fro) there the transfor)e$ currents .ill 7e le$ as usual through the 7uil$ing0 The la)(s can 7e run .ith one .ire alone8 as , ha-e sho.n in )y early $e)onstrations8 an$ in so)e cases , can $is(ense entirely .ith the .ires0 , ho(e that ulti)ately .e shall get to this i$eal for) of illu)ination8 an$ that .e shall ha-e in our roo)s la)(s .hich .ill 7e set aglo. no )atter .here they are (lace$8 Hust as an o7Hect is heate$ 7y heat rays e)anating fro) a sto-e0 The la)(s .ill then 7e han$le$ li2e 2erosene la)(s8 .ith this $ifference8 ho.e-er8 that the energy .ill 7e con-eye$ through s(ace0 The ulti)ate (erfection of a((aratus for the (ro$uction of electrical oscillations .ill (ro7a7ly 7ring us to this great realiBation8 an$ then .e shall finally ha-e the light .ithout heat or 'col$' light0 , ha-e no $ifficulty no. to illu)inate the roo) .ith such .ireless la)(s8 7ut a nu)7er of i)(ro-e)ents )ust 7e )a$e yet 7efore it can 7e generally intro$uce$0"
1-01-0"-0-: Tal.ing wit, 5lanets 4y Nikola Tesla

2ollierCs #eekly Whence8 then8 $oes it co)eF &ho 2no.sF &ho can assign li)its to the su7tlety of nature's influencesF <erha(s8 if .e coul$ clearly (ercei-e all the intricate )echanis) of the glorious s(ectacle that is continually unfol$ing 7efore us8 an$ coul$8 also8 trace this $esire to its $istant origin8 .e )ight fin$ it in the sorro.ful -i7rations of the earth .hich 7egan .hen it (arte$ fro) its celestial (arent0 3ut in this age of reason it is not astonishing to fin$ (ersons .ho scoff at the -ery thought of effecting co))unication .ith a (lanet0 First of all8 the argu)ent is )a$e that there is only a s)all (ro7a7ility of other (lanets 7eing inha7ite$ at all0 This argu)ent has ne-er a((eale$ to )e0 ,n the solar syste)8 there see) to 7e only t.o (lanets99Genus an$ /ars99ca(a7le of sustaining life such as oursI 7ut this $oes not )ean that there )ight not 7e on all of the) so)e other for)s of life0 Che)ical (rocesses )ay 7e )aintaine$ .ithout the ai$ of o'ygen8 an$ it is still a question .hether che)ical (rocesses are a7solutely necessary for the sustenance of organiBe$ 7eings0 /y i$ea is that the $e-elo()ent of life )ust lea$ to for)s of e'istence that .ill 7e (ossi7le .ithout nourish)ent an$ .hich .ill not 7e shac2le$ 7y consequent li)itations0 &hy shoul$ a li-ing 7eing not 7e a7le to o7tain all the energy it nee$s for the (erfor)ance of its life functions fro) the en-iron)ent8 instea$ of through consu)(tion of foo$8 an$ transfor)ing8 7y a co)(licate$ (rocess8 the energy of che)ical co)7inations into life9sustaining energyF ,f there .ere such 7eings on one of the (lanets .e shoul$ 2no. ne't to nothing a7out the)0 1or is it necessary to go so far in our assu)(tions8 for .e can rea$ily concei-e that8 in the sa)e $egree as the at)os(here $i)inishes in $ensity8 )oisture $isa((ears an$ the (lanet freeBes u(8 organic life )ight also un$ergo corres(on$ing )o$ifications8 lea$ing finally to for)s .hich8 accor$ing to our (resent i$eas of life8 are i)(ossi7le0 , .ill rea$ily a$)it8 of course8 that if there shoul$ 7e a su$$en catastro(he of any 2in$ all life (rocesses )ight 7e arreste$J 7ut if the change8 no )atter ho. great8 shoul$ 7e gra$ual8 an$ occu(ie$ ages8 so that the ulti)ate results coul$ 7e intelligently foreseen8 , cannot 7ut thin2 that reasoning 7eings .oul$ still fin$ )eans of e'istence0 They .oul$ a$a(t the)sel-es to their constantly changing en-iron)ent0 >o , thin2 it quite (ossi7le that in a froBen (lanet8 such as our )oon is su((ose$ to 7e8 intelligent 7eings )ay still $.ell8 in its interior8 if not on its surface0 S:BNA':NB AT 100)000)000 M:'*SM Then it is conten$e$ that it is 7eyon$ hu)an (o.er an$ ingenuity to con-ey signals to the al)ost inconcei-a7le $istances of fifty )illion or one hun$re$ )illion )iles0 This )ight ha-e 7een a -ali$ argu)ent for)erly0 ,t is not so no.0 /ost of those .ho are enthusiastic u(on the su7Hect of inter(lanetary co))unication ha-e re(ose$ their faith in the light9ray as the 7est (ossi7le )e$iu) of such co))unication0 True8 .a-es of light8 o.ing to their i))ense ra(i$ity of succession8 can (enetrate s(ace )ore rea$ily than .a-es less ra(i$8 7ut a si)(le consi$eration .ill sho. that 7y their )eans an e'change of signals 7et.een this earth an$ its co)(anions in the solar syste) is8 at least no.8 i)(ossi7le0 3y .ay of illustration8 let us su((ose that a square )ile of the earth's surface99the s)allest area that )ight (ossi7ly 7e .ithin reach of the 7est telesco(ic -ision of other .orl$s99.ere co-ere$ .ith incan$escent la)(s8 (ac2e$ closely together so as to for)8 .hen illu)inate$8 a continuous sheet of light0 ,t .oul$ require not less than one hun$re$ )illion horse9(o.er to light this area of la)(s8 an$ this is )any ti)es the a)ount of )oti-e (o.er no. in the ser-ice of )an throughout the .orl$0 3ut .ith the no-el )eans8 (ro(ose$ 7y )yself8 , can rea$ily $e)onstrate that8 .ith an e'(en$iture not e'cee$ing t.o thousan$ horse9(o.er8 signals can 7e trans)itte$ to a (lanet such as /ars .ith as )uch e'actness an$ certitu$e as .e no. sen$ )essages 7y .ire fro) 1e. Dor2 to <hila$el(hia0 These )eans are the result of long9 continue$ e'(eri)ent an$ gra$ual i)(ro-e)ent0 >o)e ten years ago8 , recogniBe$ the fact that to con-ey electric currents to a $istance it .as not at all necessary to e)(loy a return .ire8 7ut that any a)ount of energy )ight 7e trans)itte$ 7y using a single .ire0 , illustrate$ this (rinci(le 7y nu)erous e'(eri)ents8 .hich8 at that ti)e8 e'cite$ consi$era7le attention a)ong scientific )en0 This 7eing (ractically $e)onstrate$8 )y ne't ste( .as to use the earth itself as the )e$iu) for con$ucting the currents8 thus $is(ensing .ith .ires an$ all other artificial con$uctors0 >o , .as le$ to the $e-elo()ent of a syste) of energy trans)ission an$ of telegra(hy .ithout the use of .ires8 .hich , $escri7e$ in 18930 The $ifficulties , encountere$ at first in the trans)ission of currents through the earth .ere -ery great0 At that ti)e ,
ha$ at han$ only or$inary a((aratus8 .hich , foun$ to 7e ineffecti-e8 an$ , concentrate$ )y attention i))e$iately u(on (erfecting )achines for this s(ecial (ur(ose0 This .or2 consu)e$ a nu)7er of years8 7ut , finally -anquishe$ all $ifficulties an$ succee$e$ in (ro$ucing a )achine .hich8 to e'(lain its o(eration in (lain language8 rese)7le$ a (u)( in its action8 $ra.ing electricity fro) the earth an$ $ri-ing it 7ac2 into the sa)e at an enor)ous rate8 thus creating ri((les or $istur7ances .hich8 s(rea$ing through the earth as through a .ire8 coul$ 7e $etecte$ at great $istances 7y carefully attune$ recei-ing circuits0 ,n this )anner , .as a7le to trans)it to a $istance8 not only fee7le effects for the (ur(oses of signaling8 7ut consi$era7le a)ounts of energy8 an$ later $isco-eries , )a$e con-ince$ )e that , shall ulti)ately succee$ in con-eying (o.er .ithout .ires8 for in$ustrial (ur(oses8 .ith high econo)y8 an$ to any $istance8 ho.e-er great0 * 5*#:M*NTS :N CO'O#A%O To $e-elo( these in-entions further8 , .ent to Colora$o in .here , continue$ )y in-estigations along these an$ other lines8 one of .hich in (articular , no. consi$er of e-en greater i)(ortance than the trans)ission of (o.er .ithout .ires0 , constructe$ a la7oratory in the neigh7ourhoo$ of <i2e's <ea20 The con$itions in the (ure air of the Colora$o /ountains (ro-e$ e'tre)ely fa-oura7le for )y e'(eri)ents8 an$ the results .ere )ost gratifying to )e0 , foun$ that , coul$ not only acco)(lish )ore .or28 (hysically an$ )entally8 than , coul$ in 1e. Dor28 7ut that electrical effects an$ changes .ere )ore rea$ily an$ $istinctly (ercei-e$0 A fe. years ago it .as -irtually i)(ossi7le to (ro$uce electrical s(ar2s t.enty or thirty foot longJ 7ut , (ro$uce$ so)e )ore than one hun$re$ feet in length8 an$ this .ithout $ifficulty0 The rates of electrical )o-e)ent in-ol-e$ in strong in$uction a((aratus ha$ )easure$ 7ut a fe. hun$re$ horse9(o.er8 an$ , (ro$uce$ electrical )o-e)ents of rates of one hun$re$ an$ ten thousan$ horse9(o.er0 <rior to this8 only insignificant electrical (ressures .ere o7taine$8 .hile , ha-e reache$ fifty )illion -olts0 The acco)(anying illustrations8 .ith their $escri(ti-e titles8 ta2en fro) an article , .rote for the "Century /agaBine8" ?"The <ro7le) of ,ncreasing Hu)an "nergy"@ )ay ser-e to con-ey an i$ea of the results , o7taine$ in the $irections in$icate$0 /any (ersons in )y o.n (rofession ha-e .on$ere$ at the) an$ ha-e as2e$ .hat , a) trying to $o0 3ut the ti)e is not far a.ay no. .hen the (ractical results of )y la7ours .ill 7e (lace$ 7efore the .orl$ an$ their influence felt e-ery.here0 ;ne of the i))e$iate consequences .ill 7e the trans)ission of )essages .ithout .ires8 o-er sea or lan$8 to an i))ense $istance0 , ha-e alrea$y $e)onstrate$8 7y crucial tests8 the (ractica7ility of signalling 7y )y syste) fro) one to any other (oint of the glo7e8 no )atter ho. re)ote8 an$ , shall soon con-ert the $is7elie-ers0 , ha-e e-ery reason for congratulating )yself that throughout these e'(eri)ents8 )any of .hich .ere e'cee$ingly $elicate an$ haBar$ous8 neither )yself nor any of )y assistants recei-e$ any inHury0 &hen .or2ing .ith these (o.erful electrical oscillations the )ost e'traor$inary (heno)ena ta2e (lace at ti)es0 ;.ing to so)e interference of the oscillations8 -erita7le 7alls of fire are a(t to lea( out to a great $istance8 an$ if any one .ere .ithin or near their (aths8 he .oul$ 7e instantly $estroye$0 A )achine such as , ha-e use$ coul$ easily 2ill8 in an instant8 three hun$re$ thousan$ (ersons0 , o7ser-e$ that the strain u(on )y assistants .as telling8 an$ so)e of the) coul$ not en$ure the e'tre)e tension of the ner-es0 3ut these (erils are no. entirely o-erco)e8 an$ the o(eration of such a((aratus8 ho.e-er (o.erful8 in-ol-es no ris2 .hate-er0 As , .as i)(ro-ing )y )achines for the (ro$uction of intense electrical actions8 , .as also (erfecting the )eans for o7ser-ing fee7le effects0 ;ne of the )ost interesting results8 an$ also one of great (ractical i)(ortance8 .as the $e-elo()ent of certain contri-ances for in$icating at a $istance of )any hun$re$ )iles an a((roaching stor)8 its $irection8 s(ee$ an$ $istance tra-elle$0 These a((liances are li2ely to 7e -alua7le in future )eteorological o7ser-ations an$ sur-eying8 an$ .ill len$ the)sel-es (articularly to )any na-al uses0 ,t .as in carrying on this .or2 that for the first ti)e , $isco-ere$ those )ysterious effects .hich ha-e elicite$ such unusual interest0 , ha$ (erfecte$ the a((aratus referre$ to so far that fro) )y la7oratory in the Colora$o )ountains , coul$ feel the (ulse of the glo7e8 as it .ere8 noting e-ery electrical change that occurre$ .ithin a ra$ius of ele-en hun$re$ )iles0 T*##:7:*% ;@ S=CC*SS , can ne-er forget the first sensations , e'(erience$ .hen it $a.ne$ u(on )e that , ha$ o7ser-e$ so)ething (ossi7ly of incalcula7le consequences to )an2in$0 , felt as though , .ere (resent at the 7irth of a ne. 2no.le$ge or the re-elation of a great truth0 "-en no.8 at ti)es8 , can -i-i$ly recall the inci$ent8 an$ see )y a((aratus as though it .ere actually 7efore )e0 /y first o7ser-ations (ositi-ely terrifie$ )e8 as there .as
(resent in the) so)ething )ysterious8 not to say su(ernatural8 an$ , .as alone in )y la7oratory at nightJ 7ut at that ti)e the i$ea of these $istur7ances 7eing intelligently controlle$ signals $i$ not yet (resent itself to )e0 The changes , note$ .ere ta2ing (lace (erio$ically8 an$ .ith such a clear suggestion of nu)7er an$ or$er that they .ere not tracea7le to any cause then 2no.n to )e0 , .as fa)iliar8 of course8 .ith such electrical $istur7ances as are (ro$uce$ 7y the sun8 Aurora 3orealis an$ earth currents8 an$ , .as as sure as , coul$ 7e of any fact that these -ariations .ere $ue to none of these causes0 The nature of )y e'(eri)ents (reclu$e$ the (ossi7ility of the changes 7eing (ro$uce$ 7y at)os(heric $istur7ances8 as has 7een rashly asserte$ 7y so)e0 ,t .as so)e ti)e after.ar$ .hen the thought flashe$ u(on )y )in$ that the $istur7ances , ha$ o7ser-e$ )ight 7e $ue to an intelligent control0 Although , coul$ not $eci(her their )eaning8 it .as i)(ossi7le for )e to thin2 of the) as ha-ing 7een entirely acci$ental0 The feeling is constantly gro.ing on )e that , ha$ 7een the first to hear the greeting of one (lanet to another0 A (ur(ose .as 7ehin$ these electrical signalsJ an$ it .as .ith this con-iction that , announce$ to the +e$ Cross >ociety8 .hen it as2e$ )e to in$icate one of the great (ossi7le achie-e)ents of the ne't hun$re$ years8 that it .oul$ (ro7a7ly 7e the confir)ation an$ inter(retation of this (lanetary challenge to us0 >ince )y return to 1e. Dor2 )ore urgent .or2 has consu)e$ all )y attentionJ 7ut , ha-e ne-er cease$ to thin2 of those e'(eriences an$ of the o7ser-ations )a$e in Colora$o0 , a) constantly en$ea-ouring to i)(ro-e an$ (erfect )y a((aratus8 an$ Hust as soon as (ractica7le , shall again ta2e u( the threa$ of )y in-estigations at the (oint .here , ha-e 7een force$ to lay it $o.n for a ti)e0 COMM=N:CAT:NB F:T0 T0* MA#T:ANS At the (resent stage of (rogress8 there .oul$ 7e no insur)ounta7le o7stacle in constructing a )achine ca(a7le of con-eying a )essage to /ars8 nor .oul$ there 7e any great $ifficulty in recor$ing signals trans)itte$ to us 7y the inha7itants of that (lanet8 if they 7e s2ille$ electricians0 Co))unication once esta7lishe$8 e-en in the si)(lest .ay8 as 7y a )ere interchange of nu)7ers8 the (rogress to.ar$ )ore intelligi7le co))unication .oul$ 7e ra(i$0 A7solute certitu$e as to the recei(t an$ interchange of )essages .oul$ 7e reache$ as soon as .e coul$ res(on$ .ith the nu)7er "four8" say8 in re(ly to the signal "one8 t.o8 three0" The /artians8 or the inha7itants of .hate-er (lanet ha$ signalle$ to us8 .oul$ un$erstan$ at once that .e ha$ caught their )essage across the gulf of s(ace an$ ha$ sent 7ac2 a res(onse0 To con-ey a 2no.le$ge of for) 7y such )eans is8 .hile -ery $ifficult8 not i)(ossi7le8 an$ , ha-e alrea$y foun$ a .ay of $oing it0 &hat a tre)en$ous stir this .oul$ )a2e in the .orl$Y Ho. soon .ill it co)eF For that it .ill so)e ti)e 7e acco)(lishe$ )ust 7e clear to e-ery thoughtful 7eing0 >o)ething8 at least8 science has gaine$0 3ut , ho(e that it .ill also 7e $e)onstrate$ soon that in )y e'(eri)ents in the &est , .as not )erely 7ehol$ing a -ision8 7ut ha$ caught sight of a great an$ (rofoun$ truth0
1-0"-0"-08: :nEentor Tesla2s 5lant Nearing Com$letion

>&*ecial to the Eagle@ 4rooklyn Eagle 4uildings at #ardencliff to be Dsed in Develo*ing (is Electrical Discoveries &IN6IN5 A BE!- DEE3 #E%% A 4ig To"er 1== 9eet in Diameter and 'ver ?== 9eet (igh,,3o"er (ouse and Dynamos &ar$enclyffe8 #0 ,08 Fe7ruary 899&or2 on the 7uil$ings at &ar$enclyffe8 #0 ,0 to 7e use$ 7y "lectrician Tesla in the $e-elo()ent of his electrical $isco-eries8 is (rogressing ra(i$ly0 The (o.er house is co)(lete$ an$ the foun$ations of the 7ig to.er ha-e 7een lai$0 The .or2ing roo)8 or to.er8 .hich .ill 7e the foun$ation for /r0 Tesla's across9the9.orl$ flashes8 .ill 7e octagonal in sha(e an$ .ill 7e !15 feet high8 155 feet ,n $ia)eter at t7e 7ase8 narro.ing $o.n to 85 feet in $ia)eter at the to(0 ,t .ill 7e constructe$ chiefly of .oo$8 though the 7uil$ers say that fifty tons of iron an$ steel an$ 458555 7olts of -arious siBes are use$ in ,ts construction0 ,nsi$e the 7ig to.er a .ell 1!5 feet $ee( has 7een sun28 the .ell 7eing 1! feet square8 case$ ,ts entire $e(th .ith 8 inch ti)7ers8 .hich .ill 7e finishe$ off .ith 7ric2 an$ ce)ent0 A staircase8 .hich .ill lea$ $o.n into the .ell8 is nearly co)(lete$0 Trans-ersely across the 7otto) of the .ell .ill 7e a series of four tunnels8 each to 7e 155 feet long8 an$ a force of .or2)en has 7egun .or2 on these su7terranean (assages0 The (o.er house ,s constructe$ of (resse$ 7ric28 an$ is 155 feet square0 ,n it are a 7oiler roo)8 engine an$ $yna)o roo)8 )achine sho( an$ la7oratory0 The &estinghouse Co)(any furnishe$ the electrical equi()ent8 7oilers8 engines an$ $yna)os0 ;nly the finishing touches are nee$e$ on the electrical equi()ent to )a2e it a-aila7le an$ /r0 Tesla (ro)ises to 7egin acti-e o(erations -ery soon0
1-0"-05-18: Startling 5redi(tion of t,e Forld2s Breatest 'iEing S(ientist in an Arti(le Fritten for t,e Sunday Nort, Ameri(an 4y Nikola Tesla
3hiladel*hia , North American #or$ :el-in's article containing the astonishing (ro(hecy that .in$)ills .ill furnish the future (o.er of the .orl$ .as .ritten e'(ressly for the >un$ay 1orth A)erican $uring his recent -isit to the Cnite$ >tates0 ,t is the only article that ca)e fro) his (en .hile he .as in A)erica0 ")anating fro) a less fa)ous source the (re$iction that one $ay the earth .ill return to its )ost (ri)iti-e )oti-e (o.er .oul$ 7e recei-e$ .ith little less than ri$icule0 ,n -ie. of the fact that #or$ :el-in is 7eyon$ question the greatest scientific authority8 as is sho.n 7y the re-erence .ith .hich he .as recei-e$ 7y A)erican sa-ants8 his o(inion in this )atter is of the ut)ost i)(ortance to the .orl$ at large0 ,n $iscussing the su7Hect .ith a re(orter for the >un$ay 1orth A)erican8 #or$ :el-in asserte$ that fro) the (resent outloo2 the .in$)ill .ill 7e the only source of )oti-e (o.er to .hich )an .ill 7e a7le to turn once the su((ly of coal is e'hauste$0 >torehouses of (o.er8 such as 1iagara Falls8 he sai$8 a((ear8 u(on their face8 to 7e enor)ous8 7ut .hen the tre)en$ous a)ount of energy require$ to )o-e the .heels of the earth's energy is consi$ere$8 they sin2 into insignificance0 ;nce the coal fiel$s are stri((e$ of their (recious contents8 he state$8 efforts .ill $ou7tless 7e )a$e to raise at least a (artial su((ly of fuel u(on the far)s of the lan$0 This is not so unreasona7le as at first it see)s0 The far)ers in ,o.a an$ 1e7ras2a8 .here coal is scarce an$ -ery e'(ensi-e8 are e-en no. 7urning their e'cess of corn as fuel0 The su((ly fro) this source8 .ill8 as #or$ :el-in (oints out8 necessarily 7e -ery li)ite$8 as years go 7y an$ the (o(ulation of the .orl$ increases0 The su((ly of air8 ho.e-er8 is ine'hausti7le an$ #or$ :el-in 7elie-es )an .ill 7e o7lige$ to ha-e recourse to it as a )oti-e (o.er8 Hust as he $i$ hun$re$s of years ago0 Co))enting on the )oti-e (o.er of the future8 1i2ola Tesla8 the electrical scientist8 agrees .ith #or$ :el-in that the .orl$ )ust one $ay fall 7ac2 u(on the force of the .in$0 Tho)as A0 "$ison8 .ho in a$$ition to 7eing the .orl$'s greatest electrician is a )an of -arie$ achie-e)ents8 a$)its that one $ay the fuel su((ly .ill 7e e'hauste$0 This $ay he 7elie-es .ill 7e e'cee$ingly re)ote8 esti)ating that the >outh A)erican forests alone coul$ (ro-i$e fuel08 in .oo$8 for fifty thousan$ years0 &hen the last 7it of fuel has 7een consu)e$8 the .in$ )ay 7e utiliBe$ in generating electricity .hich .ill turn a goo$ (ortion of the .orl$'s )achinery0 ,t is suggeste$ 7y <rofessor #angley8 in s(ea2ing of #or$ :el-in's (ro(hecy8 that the sun )ay one $ay share .ith the .in$ in furnishing (o.er8 if in$ee$ it $oes not $o all the .or20 A$)iral 3ra$for$8 .ho has 7een 7usy for the (ast fe. years locating sites for Cnite$ >tates coaling stations at the four corners of the earth8 ta2es the )ost o(ti)istic -ie. of all0 He 7elie-es that .hen the coal su((ly is e'hauste$ so)e other )eans of furnishing )oti-e (o.er equally goo$ .ill 7e foun$ to ta2e its (lace8 an$ that the .orl$ .ill not 7e seriously affecte$0 &,1=/,##> /C>T 3" TH" FCTC+" >;C+C" ;F <;&"+ 9 7y #or$ :el-in (The only article .ritten 7y #or$ :el-in $uring his recent -isit to the Cnite$ >tates To (re$ict that the .orl$'s in$ustrial (rogress .ill one $ay 7e halte$ an$ then rolle$ 7ac2 in (ri)iti-e )etho$s is not a -ery $aring (ro(hecy .hen the con$itions are0 stu$ie$ closely0 Coal is 2ing of the in$ustrial .orl$0 The 2ing's reign is li)ite$0 >ooner or later8 it has 7een esti)ate$ that the .orl$'s su((ly of coal .ill ha-e 7een e'hauste$0 The co))ission a((ointe$ to inquire into the all9i)(ortant )atter in Great 3ritain has e-en sai$ that a fe. hun$re$ years at the outsi$e .ill see the last 7as2et of coal ta2en fro) the )ines of "nglan$0 ,n other quarters the su((ly is ra(i$ly $i)inishing0 The enor)ous a)ount of coal require$ to run our great ocean stea)shi(s8 our le-iathans of the $ee(8 an$ the innu)era7le factories of our cities is )a2ing such inroa$s u(on the a-aila7le store that nature cannot fore-er su((ly the $e)an$0 &hen all the coal of the earth is use$8 .hat thenF <er(le'e$ hu)anity confronte$ .ith the (ossi7ility of its in$ustrial )achinery 7eing sto((e$ for .ant of (o.er8 .ill 7e force$ to turn fro) earth to air0 ,n the .orl$ there is to 7e foun$ a force that has stoo$ )an in goo$ stea$ fro) ti)e i))e)orial0 #ong 7efore the $ays of the stea) engine or the ocean liners8 shi(s .ere .afte$ fro) shore to shore 7y )eans of the force that lur2s in the air0 The ti)e .ill co)e8 unless )an's ingenuity $e-ises so)e )eans of re(lacing the e'hauste$ coal su((ly .ith a fuel that .ill 7e equally efficacious 9 .hen the s.ift stea)ing greyhoun$s of the oceans .ill 7e $ry9$oc2e$ an$ their -itals torn out0 Then the lightene$ shi(s .ill 7e fitte$ .ith the )asts an$ sails of the ol$ sailing $ays8 an$ once )ore the seas .ill 7e $otte$ .ith -essels (ro(elle$ 7y the )etho$ that is at (resent in $ecline0 The $ay u(on .hich the last sho-elful of coal is ta2en fro) the 7o.els of the earth .ill )ar2 the (assing of the )agnificent 7attleshi(8 the s.ift cruiser an$ the tor(e$o 7oat0 The na-ies of the nations .ill (erish in a $ay for .ant of life9gi-ing fire in the furnace roo)s0 ,n their (lace .ill
arise .hite9.inge$ fleets $e(en$ing alone on their sailing (o.er8 as in the $ays of 1elsonJ the question of .hich ocean liner can cut $o.n ti)e of the (assage fro) 1e. Dor2 to #i-er(ool .ill no longer interest -oyagers8 for the tri( .ill $e(en$8 as of ol$8 on the fa-oura7le .in$s an$ the sailing ca(acity of the shi(0 ;n lan$ the effect of the e'haustion of the coal su((ly .ill 7e e-en )ore )ar2e$ than on sea0 "-ery 7uil$ing coul$ 7e su((lie$ .ith its o.n .in$)ill8 to use the )oti-e (o.er that .an$ers .here it listeth on its roof to( to turn .heels that .ill lift its ele-ators8 generate electricity for its )achineryJ (u)( its .ater su((ly an$ $o all that coal no. )a2es (ossi7le in the )achine roo)J sails on our factories8 sails on our )ills an$ in our shi(yar$s to catch the slightest 7reath that 7lo.s an$ turn it into a )eans of )o-ing the .heels of (rogressJ .in$ (o.er utiliBe$ e-ery.here as the ser-ant of )an8 free for e-ery one8 .or2ing silently as a great force .hile the .orl$ slee(s0 <ossi7ly the e'haustion of the coal su((ly of the earth )ay turn out to 7e so)ething of a 7lessing .hen it is consi$ere$ ho. $ifficult an$ $angerous it is to .rest fro) the groun$ the hi$$en resources of nature for use as fuel8 an$ ho. natural an$ easy it is to )a2e the (o.er of .in$ $o the .or2 no. $one 7y coal0 Then8 in the great lan$ changes of the coalless age , see -ast fiel$s of -egetation (lante$ es(ecially to ser-e as fuel0 "ach agriculturist .ill ha-e his o.n reser-ation .here the fa)ily fuel .ill 7e gro.nJ a ne. in$ustry .ill 7e 7orn 9 the culti-ation of fuel0 &ater (o.er .ill 7e largely useful8 7ut the (o.er to 7e $eri-e$ fro) this source is not -ery great0 1iagara is a -ast force to loo2 at8 7ut )easure$ in the horse(o.er it is not so tre)en$ous0 The ti$es cannot furnish any (o.er .orth s(ea2ing ofJ fire.oo$ )ust $o )uch )ore0 ACH,"G"/"1T> THAT HAG" /A=" #;+= :"#G,1 FA/;C> He "sta7lishe$ the =octrine of the Conser-ation of "nergy0 His >i(hon +ecor$er /a$e Transatlantic Telegra(hy Feasi7le K 3usiness /an an$ A7le <olitician ,t is not e'aggeration to say that no li-ing scientist ran2s higher than #or$ :el-in0 His fa)e is .orl$9.i$e0 The sa-ants of all countries recogniBe in hi) the greatest of (hysicists8 an$ the rare co)7inations of an a7struse thin2er an$ a (ractical in-entor0 /erely to )ention a fe. of the $irections in .hich he has achie-e$ success is to sho. the e'traor$inary acti-ity that has )ar2e$ his career0 His fa)e as an electrician al)ost equals his e)inence as a (hysicist0 He is an unequale$ )athe)atician8 the in-entor of a hun$re$ -alua7le $e-ices .hich are in $aily use8 a great teacher8 an e'(oun$er of (o(ular science8 an$ a cle-er an$ successful (olitician0 &hat he has $one in any one of these lines .oul$ suffice to )a2e a (rou$ re(utation8 an$ in a$$ition he has foun$ ti)e to 7e a 2een 7usiness )an an$ to 7uil$ u( a consi$era7le fortune0 An$ all this is the achie-e)ent of a )an .ho starte$ (oor an$ ha$ his o.n .ay to )a2e (ractically .ithout assistance0 :el-in8 then (lain &illia) Tho)son8 first 7eca)e note$ for the (art he (laye$ in the in-ention an$ installation of the Atlantic ca7le0 This .as in 184*0 The greatest o7stacle .hich ha$ to 7e o-erco)e 7efore the syste) coul$ 7e esta7lishe$ .as a certain sluggishness in the flo. of the current .hich ha$ the effect of )a2ing the )essage al)ost inau$i7le0 Tho)son (ro)(tly re)e$ie$ this $efect8 an$ then set hi)self to the $isco-ery of an instru)ent for ta2ing $o.n ca7le )essages0 The result .as the "si(hon recor$er"8 .hich is still in use throughout the .orl$ in all ocean telegra(hy0 &ith it as )any as 135 .or$s (er )inute ha-e 7een sent8 .here t.o or three .ere for)erly the rule0 Along the sa)e line :el-in also in-ente$ nu)erous instru)ents for )easuring 7oth strong an$ fee7le currents0 For his .or2 in connection .ith the ca7le Tho)son .as 2nighte$0 T.enty9fi-e years later8 in 189!8 he .as ele-ate$ to the (eerage as #or$ :el-in0 "-en 7efore his great success .ith the ca7le the young in-entor ha$ 7een recogniBe$ as a scientist of e'ce(tional attain)ents0 ,t is a fact8 in$ee$8 that he 7egan $oing great things .hen little )ore than a 7oy0 His chair as (rofessor of natural (hiloso(hy at Glasgo. he .on .hen only !! years of age0 The attention of "nglish scholars ha$ 7een $ra.n to hi) at that ti)e 7ecause of his )athe)atical (ro.ess 9 he .on ten (riBes an$ .rote )any i)(ortant (a(ers .hile at Ca)7ri$ge0 For fifty9three years he hel$ his chair at Glasgo.8 an$ the (assing of the half century .as signaliBe$ 7y a cele7ration in .hich the scientists of (ractically the .hole .orl$ too2 (art0 ,t .as a great s(ontaneous $e)onstration entirely .ithout (rece$ent or (arallel0 The $istincti-e feature of #or$ :el-in's acti-ities8 the 2eynote to his career8 so to s(ea28 is his (o.er of co)7ining the a7stract .ith the (ractical0 Although a (rofoun$ thin2er an$ scholar8 to .ho) the )ost a$-ance$ lines of hu)an research are as si)(le as the al(ha7et to the or$inary lay)an8 he has0 7een the in-entor of a legion of the little things that )en nee$ in their e-ery$ay li-es0 1ot only has he $ealt in theory8 7ut he has $one
things0 His -arious )easuring an$ testing $e-ices ha-e 2e(t a fir) of instru)ent )a2ers in Glasgo. 7usy for years0 A)ong these8 (ro7a7ly the 7est 2no.n is his )agnetic co)(ass for the use of )ariners0 This .as such a ra$ical i)(ro-e)ent on any e'isting instru)ent that it $is(laces 8the others8 an$ still re)ains a factor of incalcula7le -alue in securing the safety of ocean tra-el0 Another i)(ortant in-ention )uch use$ on shi(s is a $ee(9sea soun$ing a((aratus8 .hich (er)its .hat (re-iously ha$ ne-er e-en 7een $rea)e$ of8 the ta2ing of soun$ings in 155 fatho)s fro) a shi( running 1% 2nots0 /any of #or$ :el-in's researches ha-e $ealt .ith the $octrine of the conser-ation of energy0 He .as8 in$ee$8 one of the si' or eight )en8 .ho8 li-ing in $ifferent countries an$ .or2ing in entire in$e(en$ence of each other8 si)ultaneously esta7lishe$ this i)(ortant theory0 Another su7Hect .hich he has )a$e a s(ecialty8 is the age of the earth8 an$ his contro-ersies .ith the e'tra-agant clai)s of the geologists are reno.ne$0 The (resent theory of the ether8 the light97earing8 electricity9carrying so)ething .hich fills all s(ace8 has 7een in large (art his creation8 an$ his fa)ous i$ea that .hat .e call )atter is )erely -ortices or .hirl(ools in this ether )ay 7e regar$e$ as one of the )ost far9reaching s(eculations in )o$ern (hysics0 The )echanical (rinci(le 7y .hich .e o7tain liqui$ air 9 that a co)(resse$ gas e'(an$ing freely8 .ithout $oing .or28 cools slightly )ore than the theory $e)an$s 9 is a $isco-ery :el-in )a$e in conHunction .ith his frien$ Eoule0 >o great an authority has #or$ :el-in 7eco)e on all )atters $ealing .ith either s(eculati-e or (ractical science that in "nglan$ he is calle$ u(on to (ass on the (ractica7ility of al)ost e-ery i)(ortant scientific (ro(osition that co)es u( for $iscussion0 His la7oratory contains the 7est equi()ent in the .orl$ for )a2ing tests0 The first storage 7atteries i)(orte$ into "nglan$ fro) France .ere sent to hi) for a -er$ict0 &hen A)erican ca(italists concei-e$ the (lan of utiliBing the (o.er of 1iagara Falls for co))ercial (ur(oses an$ of trans)itting it for $istances8 it .as #or$ :el-in .ho) they (lace$ at the hea$ of the co))ittee of e'(erts .hich (asse$ on the original (lans0 #or$ :el-in's achie-e)ents as (hysicist8 electrician an$ in-entor .oul$ ha-e )a$e at least three e)inent re(utations0 His )ar-ellous .or2s ha-e not only 7een recogniBe$ 7y Great 3ritain8 7ut nearly all the nations of "uro(e ha-e sho.ere$ their honours u(on hi)0 He is a )e)7er of the <russian ;r$er (our le /erite8 gran$ officer of the #egion of Honour of France8 co))an$er of the ;r$er of :ing #eo(ol$ of 3elgiu)8 or$er of the first class of >acre$ Treasure of Ea(an8 foreign associate of the 3erlin Aca$e)y of >cience8 (resi$ent of the +oyal >ociety of "nglan$ an$ )any others0 Fifteen uni-ersities ha-e conferre$ on hi) the honour of their $egrees0 "=,>;18 T">#A8 A=/,+A# 3+A=F;+= A1= <+;F0 #A1G#"D =,>CC>> F+;/ TH",+ <;,1T> ;F G,"& H,> A/AW,1G <+;<H"CD T">#A TH,1:> &,1= <;&"+ >H;C#= 3" C>"= /;+" 1;& 9 7y 1i2ola Tesla The (o.er of the .in$ has 7een o-erloo2e$0 >o)e $ay it .ill 7e forci7ly 7rought to the (osition it $eser-es through the nee$ of a su7stitute for the (resent )etho$ of generating (o.er0 Gi-en a goo$ 7reeBe8 , ha-e esti)ate$ that there is as )uch as half a horse9(o.er to e-ery square foot of area e'(ose$0 ,)agine .hat energy is left unuse$ .ith all this force at han$0 The contri-ance that has 7een at the $is(osal of )an2in$ fro) all ti)e8 the .in$)ill8 is no. seen in the rural $istricts only0 The (o(ular )in$ cannot gras( the (o.er there is in the .in$0 /any a $elu$e$ in-entor has s(ent years of his life in en$ea-ouring to harness the ti$es8 an$ so)e ha-e e-en (ro(ose$ to co)(ress air 7y ti$e or .a-e (o.er for su((lying energy8 ne-er un$erstan$ing the signs of the ol$ .in$)ill on the hill as it sorro.fully .a-es its ar)s a7out an$ 7i$s the) sto(0 The fact is that the .a-e or ti$e )otor .oul$ ha-e 7ut s)all chance of co)(eting co))ercially .ith the .in$)ill8 .hich is 7y far the 7etter )achine8 allo.ing a )uch greater a)ount of energy to 7e o7taine$ in a si)(ler .ay0 &in$ (o.er has 7een in all ti)es of inesti)a7le -alue to )an8 if for nothing else than for ena7ling hi) to cross the seas8 an$ it is e-en no. a -ery i)(ortant factor in trans(ortation0 3ut there are li)itations in this si)(le )etho$ of utiliBing the sun's energy0 The )achines are large for a gi-en out(ut an$ the (o.er is inter)ittent8 thus necessitating a storage of energy an$ increasing the cost of the (lant0 3ut there is no question as to its usefulness as a su7stitute for the energy $eri-e$ fro) fuel8 an$ the fact that this (o.er is literally as free as air )a2es it a .on$erful factor in the future of the .orl$ of in$ustry0 A(art fro) the -ie.s e'(resse$ 7y #or$ :el-in regar$ing the future8 .hen the coal su((ly shall ha-e 7een e'hauste$8 there is nee$ of )ore attention 7eing (ai$ to it in the (resent $ay0 The )an .ho cannot affor$ to ha-e a furnace in his house )ay ha-e a .in$)ill on the roof0 ,n this la7our9 sa-ing age it is astonishing that far)ers are the only citiBens .ho call the .in$ their frien$0 =.ellers in cities toil u( an$ $o.n stairs hauling an$ carrying .hile a7o-e the) is a goo$9nature$ giant .ho can $o all this .or2 for
the) if they .ill 7ut force hi) into ser-ice0 &hy .ait for the coal su((ly of the earth to 7e e'hauste$ 7efore enlisting the ai$ of this -ast aerial forceF The (o.er to run ele-ators8 (u)( .ater to roof tan2s8 cool houses in the su))er an$ heat the) in the .inter is a7o-e us8 at any one's 7ec2 an$ call0 A little ingenuity .ill ena7le any househol$er to harness the .in$ an$ lea-e it to $o the .or2 that he has consi$ere$ (art of the curse of A$a)0 >C1'> +AD> &,## 3" HA+1">>"=8 >CGG">T> <+;F">>;+ #A1G#"D 9 7y <rofessor >0 <0 #angley8 of the >)ithsonian ,nstitution0 #or$ :el-in's suggestion of the return to .in$ as a )oti-e (o.er is (regnant of suggestion0 The (ro7le) is one that )ust engage the scientific )in$ until (ressure of circu)stances forces a solution0 3ut8 at the sa)e ti)e8 .hile , $o not .ish to (lace )yself in the (osition of flatly contra$icting so e)inent a thin2er an$ stu$ent as his #or$shi(8 , feel that his solution of the (ro7le) is 7ut (artial at the 7est8 an$ that the true su7stitute for coal .ill 7e foun$ in another $irection0 The (o.er that e'ists in the sun's rays .ill8 in all (ro7a7ility8 7e the force that .ill $ri-e the .heels of factories an$ (ro(el shi(s an$ rail9roa$s0 The tre)en$ous energy that is store$ in these rays has long 7een 2no.n to science an$ se-eral (ractical atte)(ts ha-e 7een )a$e to utiliBe the)0 As , ha-e alrea$y (ointe$ out in )y .or28 "The 1e. "cono)y8" the i$ea is 7eginning to (ass into the region of the (ractical utility8 an$ is the for) of the latest achie-e)ent of /r0 "ricsson's e-er young genius is rea$y for actual .or2 on an econo)ical scale0 His ne. solar engine8 .hich there is e-ery reason to 7elie-e is )ore efficient than /ouchot's .oul$ (ro7a7ly 7e ca(a7le of econo)ical use for (u)(ing .ater in the $esert regions of our o.n country0 &e )ust consi$er the gro.ing $e)an$ for (o.er in the .orl$ an$ the fact that its stoc2 of coal8 though -ast8 is strictly li)ite$ in the sense that .hen it is gone .e can get a7solutely no )ore0 The sun has 7een )a2ing a little e-ery $ay for )illions of years 9 so little an$ for so long that it is as though ti)e ha$ $aily $ri((e$ a single (enny into the 7an2 for our cre$it for untol$ ages8 until an enor)ous fun$ ha$ 7een thus slo.ly accu)ulate$ in our fa-our0 &e are no. $ra.ing on this fun$ li2e a (ro$igal .ho thin2s his )eans en$less8 7ut the $ay .ill co)e .hen our chec2 .ill no longer 7e honoure$8 an$ .hat shall .e $o thenF The e'haustion of so)e of the coal 7e$s is an affair of the i))e$iate future8 7y co)(arison .ith the -ast (erio$ of ti)e .e ha-e 7een s(ea2ing of0 The "nglish coal 7e$s8 it is asserte$8 .ill 7e quite use$ u( in a7out three hun$re$ years )ore0 Three hun$re$ years ago the sun8 loo2ing $o.n on the "nglan$ of our forefathers8 sa. a fair lan$ of green .oo$s an$ quiet .aters8 a lan$ un-e'e$ .ith noisier )achinery than the s(inning .heel0 3ecause of the coal .hich has 7een $ug fro) its soil8 he sees it no. soot97lac2ene$8 furro.e$ .ith rail.ay cuttings8 co-ere$ .ith noisy )anufactories8 fille$ .ith gri)y o(erati-es8 .hile the islan$ sha2es .ith the thro7 of coal9$ri-en engines8 an$ its once quiet .aters are churne$ 7y the .heels of stea)shi(s0 /any generations of )en ha-e (asse$ to )a2e the "nglan$ of "liBa7eth into the "nglan$ of :ing "$.ar$8 7ut .hat a 7rief )o)ent this is co)(are$ .ith the -ast la(se of ages $uring .hich the coal .as 7eing store$Y &hat a )o)ent in the life of the "all97ehol$ing sun"8 .ho in a fe. hun$re$ years )ay sen$ his 7ea)s through rents in the i-y9gro.n .alls of $eserte$ factories8 u(on silent engines 7ro.n .ith rust8 .hile the )ill han$ has gone to other lan$s8 the ri-ers are clean again8 the har7ours sho. only .hite sails an$ "nglan$'s "7lac2 country" is green once )oreY To A)erica8 too8 such a ti)e )ay co)e8 though at a )ore $istant $ate0 Future ages )ay see the seat of e)(ire transferre$ to regions of the earth no. 7arren an$ $esolate$ un$er intense solar heat 9 countries .hich8 for that -ery cause8 .ill not i)(ro7a7ly 7eco)e the seat of )echanical an$ hence of (olitical (o.er0 &hoe-er fin$s the .ay to )a2e in$ustrially useful8 the -ast sun (o.er no. .aste$ on the $eserts of 1orth Africa or the shores of the +e$ >ea .ill effect a greater change in )en's affairs than any conqueror in history has $one0 He .ill once )ore (eo(le those .aste (laces .ith the life that s.ar)e$ there in the 7est $ays of Carthage an$ of ol$ "gy(t8 7ut un$er another ci-iliBation8 .here )an no longer shall .orshi( the sun as a go$8 7ut shall ha-e learne$ to )a2e it his ser-ant0 "=,>;1 <CT> ;FF TH" "G,# =AD F;+ /;+" THA1 458555 D"A+> 9 7y Tho)as A0 "$ison , cannot altogether agree .ith #or$ :el-in as to the nearness of ti)e .hen the fuel su((ly of the .orl$ .ill 7e e'hauste$0 There is .oo$ enough in the forests of >outh A)erica to su((ly the .orl$ .ith fuel for 458555 years0 &oo$ as fuel ta2es u( )ore s(ace than coal8 7ut it )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that .e are constantly econo)iBing on the a)ount of fuel necessary to $o a gi-en a)ount of .or20 The quantity of fuel use$ to run a loco)oti-e is 7eing re$uce$ as the )achine is (erfecte$ an$ the engineers learn to )a2e the coal 7o' s)aller .ithout re$ucing the s(ee$ of the engine0 3y the ti)e the coal su((ly is e'hauste$ it )ay 7e (ossi7le to 7urn .oo$ .ith equally goo$
results0 A .in$)ill is a 7ig cu)7erso)e thing an$ , cannot thin2 it (ossi7le that (rogressi-e )en .ill settle $o.n contente$ to go 7ac2 to this (ri)iti-e )etho$ of o7taining (o.er0 , ha-e a .in$)ill on )y o.n (ro(erty8 7ut , ne-er thought it a)ounte$ to )uch8 e'ce(t for (u)(ing .ater0 &in$ (o.er8 as e-ery school7oy 2no.s8 can 7e use$ for generating electricity8 7ut the horse(o.er thus o7taine$ .oul$ not 7e a$equate to the $e)an$s of this 7ustling age0 A$$itional energy coul$ 7e o7taine$ 7y shi(s at sea fro) the )otion of the -essel 7eing utiliBe$ as a generati-e agent0 &hile the shi( )o-es through the .ater8 (ro(elle$ 7y the force of the .in$ on its sails8 the .a-e (o.er coul$ 7e caught u( an$ turne$ into a )eans of (ro-i$ing electricity0 Then8 too8 sea)en .ill (ro7a7ly e'(lain that the .in$ that $ri-es a shi( is not the only force to 7e o7taine$ fro) the air0 There are aerial currents that can 7e )a$e use of 7y )eans of a((ro(riate a((liances for catching their force0 /A1'> &,T &,## >;#G" TH" <+;3#"/ 9 7y +ear A$)iral +0 30 3ra$for$ +ear A$)iral +0 30 3ra$for$8 chief of the 3ureau of "qui()ent8 at &ashington8 regar$s the question of the future )oti-e (o.er fro) an e'tre)ely (ractical stan$(oint0 "#or$ :el-in8" he sai$8 "is a scientist8 a great scientist8 7ut , thin2 he is 7orro.ing trou7le0 The (ro7le) that is 7efore us no. is not .hat the )oti-e (o.er .ill 7e t.o hun$re$ or three hun$re$ years fro) to9$ay0 ,t is ho. 7est )ay .e conser-e the energy .e ha-e alrea$y store$ a.ay in coal0 The su((ly of this article is strictly li)ite$8 an$ its consu)(tion is9increasing in al)ost arith)etical ratio0 "Cnless so)e force is $isco-ere$ to re(lace it8 .e .ill soon 7e at the en$ of our resources0 3ut it is also true that unless so)ething is $isco-ere$ to ta2e the (lace of coal an$ stea)8 .e shall 7e co)(elle$ to fall 7ac2 in the en$ u(on the t.o great forces of nature 9 the sun's rays an$ the .in$0 3oth of these can 7e utiliBe$ to generate (o.er8 7ut the trou7le .ith 7oth is that they are -aria7le0 "<o.er cannot8 of course8 7e generate$ fro) the sun's rays at night8 nor on a clou$y $ay8 an$ .e ha-e (erio$s of cal)8 .hen the .in$ is scarcely (erce(ti7le0 ";n the other han$8 to say .hat the (o.er of the future .ill 7e is (ure s(eculation an$ (ro(hecy0 , a) no se-enth son of a se-enth son8 an$ $o not care to go into the (ro(hesying 7usiness0 3ut fifty years 7efore the $isco-ery of the stea) engine or the $isco-ery of coal8 .ho .oul$ ha-e $are$ to (re$ict the (resent )echanical $e-elo()ent of ci-iliBationF ">o)ething of the sa)e sort )ay occur $uring the ne't fifty years0 >o)e ingenious )an )ay $isco-er a force of nature that .ill entirely su(erse$e stea)0 3ut this , can say8 that unless such a $isco-ery is )a$e8 the .in$)ills .ill in ti)e thro. their ar)s to the 7reeBe8 an$ the solar engines .ill (u)( our .ater an$ $ri-e our factories0"
1-0/-01-01: *le(tri(al os(illator A(tiEity Ten Million 0orse$ower ;urning Atmos$,eri( Nitrogen 1y 0ig,-7re8uen(y %is(,arges TwelEe Million 6olts& 4y Nikola Tesla
Ne" -ork , .ish to announce that in connection .ith the co))ercial intro$uction of )y in-entions , shall ren$er (rofessional ser-ices in the general ca(acity of consulting electrician an$ engineer0 The near future8 , e'(ect .ith confi$ence8 .ill 7e a .itness of re-olutionary $e(artures in the (ro$uction8 transfor)ation an$ trans)ission of energy8 trans(ortation8 lighting8 )anufacture of che)ical co)(oun$s8 telegra(hy8 tele(hony an$ other arts an$ in$ustries0 ,n )y o(inion8 these a$-ances are certain to follo. fro) the uni-ersal a$o(tion of high9(otential an$ high9 frequency currents an$ no-el regenerati-e (rocesses of refrigeration to -ery lo. te)(eratures0 /uch of the ol$ a((aratus .ill ha-e to 7e i)(ro-e$8 an$ )uch of the ne. $e-elo(e$8 an$ , 7elie-e that .hile furthering )y o.n in-entions8 , shall 7e )ore hel(ful in this e-olution 7y (lacing at the $is(osal of others the 2no.le$ge an$ e'(erience , ha-e gaine$0 >(ecial attention .ill 7e gi-en 7y )e to the solution of (ro7le)s requiring 7oth e'(ert infor)ation an$ in-enti-e resource K .or2 co)ing .ithin the s(here of )y constant training an$ (re$ilection0 , shall un$erta2e the e'(eri)ental in-estigation an$ (erfection of i$eas8 )etho$s an$ a((liances8 the $e-ising of useful e'(e$ients an$8 in (articular8 the $esign an$ construction of )achinery for the attain)ent of $esire$ results0 Any tas2 su7)itte$ to an$ acce(te$ 7y )e8 .ill 7e carrie$ out thoroughly an$ conscientiously0 1i2ola Tesla #a7oratory8 #ong ,slan$8 10 D0 +esi$ence8 &al$orf8 1e. Dor2 City0
At the to( ro. fro) left to rightI +otating fiel$ )otorJ "lectrical oscillatorJ acti-iy ten )illion Horse(o.erJ ;scillatory high frequency Coil To( /i$ sectionI /agnifying high (otential trans)itterJ <o.er trans)ission .ithout .ires (7elo. &ar$enclyffe J Tune$ recei-ing transfor)er 3otto) /i$ sectionI Artificial insulation of )ains 7y refrigeratu)J Control of in$i-i$ualise$ auto)ats at a $istance 3otto) centreI 3urning at)os(heric 1itrogen 7y high frequency $ischarge 1! )illion -oltsJ >ecrecy non interference an$ )ulti(licity of )essages ,t is not clearly -isi7le in the scan8 7ut un$er the &ar$enclyffe8 7ehin$ the )ain (aragra(h te't8 there a((ears his large Colora$o >(rings Coil in .hite8 clear gra(hics .hile it is $ischarging0 #atin quote is foun$ on to(I ANihil in sacculo )uod non fuerit in ca*iteA .hich )eans literally you can't ha-e anything in your (oc2et that you first $on't ha-e in your hea$
1-0/-0"-06: A Stri.ing Tesla Manifesto 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical #orld and Engineer &e re(ro$uce here.ith in slightly re$uce$ facsi)ile the first (age of a four (age circular .hich has 7een issue$ this .ee2 7y /r0 1i2ola Tesla in a large square en-elo(e 7earing a large re$ .a' seal .ith the initials8 "10T0" At the 7ac2 of the (age .hich .e re(ro$uce is gi-en a list of 93 (atents issue$ in this country to /r0 Tesla0 The fourth (age is 7lan20 The thir$ (age has a little -ignette of 1iagara Falls an$ is $e-ote$ to quotations fro) -arious utterances of /r0 Tesla0 The first of these is fro) his lecture $eli-ere$ in 1893 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ the 1ational "lectric #ight Association8 as to trans)ission of intelligi7le signals an$ (o.er to any $istance .ithout the use of .ires0 The secon$ quotation is fro) his article on the (ro7le) of increasing hu)an energy8 .hich a((eare$ in the Century /agaBine in Eune8 19558 $ealing .ith -irtually the sa)e su7Hect0 The thir$ ite) quotes fro) his (atents8 1os0 %6484*% an$ %698%!18 $ealing .ith the trans)ission of electrical energy in any quantity to any $istance8 .ith trans)itting an$ recei-ing a((aratus )o-a7le as in shi(s or 7alloons0 The circular is an e'tre)ely interesting one0 ,t is )ost su)(tuously got u( on -ellu) (a(er an$ altogether constitutes a )anifesto .orthy of the original genius issuing it0 ,t is to 7e gathere$ fro) the circular that /r0 Tesla (ro(oses to enter the fiel$ of consulting engineershi(8 in .hich he alrea$y has enHoye$ an e'tensi-e connection here an$ a7roa$0
1-0/-09-05: T,e Transmission of *le(tri(al *nergy Fit,out Fires 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical #orld and Engineer
It is i)(ossi7le to resist your courteous request e'ten$e$ on an occasion of such )o)ent in the life of your
Hournal0 Dour letter has -i-ifie$ the )e)ory of our 7eginning frien$shi(8 of the first i)(erfect atte)(ts an$ un$eser-e$ successes8 of 2in$nesses an$ )isun$erstan$ings0 ,t has 7rought (ainfully to )y )in$ the greatness of early e'(ectations8 the quic2 flight of ti)e8 an$ alasY the s)allness of realiBations0 The follo.ing lines .hich8 7ut for your initiati-e8 )ight not ha-e 7een gi-en to the .orl$ for a long ti)e yet8 are an offering in the frien$ly s(irit of ol$8 an$ )y 7est .ishes for your future success acco)(any the)0 To.ar$s the close of 1898 a syste)atic research8 carrie$ on for a nu)7er of years .ith the o7Hect of (erfecting a )etho$ of trans)ission of electrical energy through the natural )e$iu)8 le$ )e to recogniBe three i)(ortant necessitiesI First8 to $e-elo( a trans)itter of great (o.erJ secon$8 to (erfect )eans for in$i-i$ualiBing an$ isolating the energy trans)itte$J an$8 thir$8 to ascertain the la.s of (ro(agation of currents through the earth an$ the at)os(here0 Garious reasons8 not the least of .hich .as the hel( (roffere$ 7y )y frien$ #eonar$ "0 Curtis an$ the Colora$o >(rings "lectric Co)(any8 $eter)ine$ )e to select for )y e'(eri)ental in-estigations the large (lateau8 t.o thousan$ )eters a7o-e sea9le-el8 in the -icinity of that $elightful resort8 .hich , reache$ late in /ay8 18990 , ha$ not 7een there 7ut a fe. $ays .hen , congratulate$ )yself on the ha((y choice an$ , 7egan the tas28 for .hich , ha$ long traine$ )yself8 .ith a grateful sense an$ full of ins(iring ho(e0 The (erfect (urity of the air8 the unequale$ 7eauty of the s2y8 the i)(osing sight of a high )ountain range8 the quiet an$ restfulness of the (laceKall aroun$ contri7ute$ to )a2e the con$itions for scientific o7ser-ations i$eal0 To this .as a$$e$ the e'hilarating influence of a glorious cli)ate an$ a singular shar(ening of the senses0 ,n those regions the organs un$ergo (erce(ti7le (hysical changes0 The eyes assu)e an e'traor$inary li)(i$ity8 i)(ro-ing -isionJ the ears $ry out an$ 7eco)e )ore susce(ti7le to soun$0 ;7Hects can 7e clearly $istinguishe$ there at $istances such that , (refer to ha-e the) tol$ 7y so)eone else8 an$ , ha-e hear$Kthis , can -enture to -ouch forKthe cla(s of thun$er se-en an$ eight hun$re$ 2ilo)etres a.ay0 , )ight ha-e $one 7etter still8 ha$ it not 7een te$ious to .ait for the soun$s to arri-e8 in $efinite inter-als8 as heral$e$ (recisely 7y an electrical in$icating a((aratusK nearly an hour 7efore0 ,n the )i$$le of Eune8 .hile (re(arations for other .or2 .ere going on8 , arrange$ one of )y recei-ing transfor)ers .ith the -ie. of $eter)ining in a no-el )anner8 e'(eri)entally8 the electric (otential of the glo7e an$ stu$ying its (erio$ic an$ casual fluctuations0 This for)e$ (art of a (lan carefully )a((e$ out in a$-ance0 A highly sensiti-e8 self9restorati-e $e-ice8 controlling a recor$ing instru)ent8 .as inclu$e$ in the secon$ary circuit8 .hile the (ri)ary .as connecte$ to the groun$ an$ an ele-ate$ ter)inal of a$Husta7le ca(acity0 The -ariations of (otential ga-e rise to electric surgings in the (ri)aryJ these generate$ secon$ary currents8 .hich in turn affecte$ the sensiti-e $e-ice an$ recor$er in (ro(ortion to their intensity0 The earth .as foun$ to 7e8 literally8 ali-e .ith electrical -i7rations8 an$ soon , .as $ee(ly a7sor7e$ in the interesting in-estigation0 1o 7etter o((ortunities for such o7ser-ations as , inten$e$ to )a2e coul$ 7e foun$ any.here0 Colora$o is a country fa)ous for the natural $is(lays of electric force0 ,n that $ry an$ rarefie$ at)os(here the sun's rays 7eat the o7Hects .ith fierce intensity0 , raise$ stea)8 to a $angerous (ressure8 in 7arrels fille$ .ith concentrate$ salt solution8 an$ the tin9foil coatings of so)e of )y ele-ate$ ter)inals shri-elle$ u( in the fiery 7laBe0 An e'(eri)ental high9tension transfor)er8 carelessly e'(ose$ to the rays of the setting sun8 ha$ )ost of its insulating co)(oun$ )elte$ out an$ .as ren$ere$ useless0 Ai$e$ 7y the $ryness an$ rarefaction of the air8 the .ater e-a(orates as in a 7oiler8 an$ static electricity is $e-elo(e$ in a7un$ance0 #ightning $ischarges are8 accor$ingly8 -ery frequent an$ so)eti)es of inconcei-a7le -iolence0 ;n one occasion a((ro'i)ately t.el-e thousan$ $ischarges occurre$ in t.o hours8 an$ all in a ra$ius of certainly less than fifty 2ilo)etres fro) the la7oratory0 /any of the) rese)7le$ gigantic trees of fire .ith the trun2s u( or $o.n0 , ne-er sa. fire 7alls8 7ut as co)(ensation for )y $isa((oint)ent , succee$e$ later in $eter)ining the )o$e of their for)ation an$ (ro$ucing the) artificially0 ,n the latter (art of the sa)e )onth , notice$ se-eral ti)es that )y instru)ents .ere affecte$ stronger 7y $ischarges ta2ing (lace at great $istances than 7y those near 7y0 This (uBBle$ )e -ery )uch0 &hat .as the causeF A nu)7er of o7ser-ations (ro-e$ that it coul$ not 7e $ue to the $ifferences in the intensity of the in$i-i$ual $ischarges8 an$ , rea$ily ascertaine$ that the (heno)enon .as not the result of a -arying relation 7et.een the (erio$s of )y recei-ing circuits an$ those of the terrestrial $istur7ances0 ;ne night8 as , .as .al2ing ho)e .ith an assistant8 )e$itating o-er these e'(eriences8 , .as su$$enly staggere$ 7y a thought0 Dears ago8 .hen , .rote a cha(ter of )y lecture 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ the 1ational "lectric #ight Association8 it ha$ (resente$ itself to )e8 7ut , $is)isse$ it as a7sur$ an$ i)(ossi7le0 , 7anishe$ it again0
1e-ertheless8 )y instinct .as arouse$ an$ so)eho. , felt that , .as nearing a great re-elation0 ,t .as on the thir$ of EulyKthe $ate , shall ne-er forgetK.hen , o7taine$ the first $ecisi-e e'(eri)ental e-i$ence of a truth of o-er.hel)ing i)(ortance for the a$-ance)ent of hu)anity0 A $ense )ass of strongly charge$ clou$s gathere$ in the .est an$ to.ar$s the e-ening a -iolent stor) 7ro2e loose .hich8 after s(en$ing )uch of its fury in the )ountains8 .as $ri-en a.ay .ith great -elocity o-er the (lains0 Hea-y an$ long (ersisting arcs for)e$ al)ost in regular ti)e inter-als0 /y o7ser-ations .ere no. greatly facilitate$ an$ ren$ere$ )ore accurate 7y the e'(eriences alrea$y gaine$0 , .as a7le to han$le )y instru)ents quic2ly an$ , .as (re(are$0 The recor$ing a((aratus 7eing (ro(erly a$Huste$8 its in$ications 7eca)e fainter an$ fainter .ith the increasing $istance of the stor)8 until they cease$ altogether0 , .as .atching in eager e'(ectation0 >urely enough8 in a little .hile the in$ications again 7egan8 gre. stronger an$ stronger an$8 after (assing through a )a'i)u)8 gra$ually $ecrease$ an$ cease$ once )ore0 /any ti)es8 in regularly recurring inter-als8 the sa)e actions .ere re(eate$ until the stor) .hich8 as e-i$ent fro) si)(le co)(utations8 .as )o-ing .ith nearly constant s(ee$8 ha$ retreate$ to a $istance of a7out three hun$re$ 2ilo)etres0 1or $i$ these strange actions sto( then8 7ut continue$ to )anifest the)sel-es .ith un$i)inishe$ force0 >u7sequently8 si)ilar o7ser-ations .ere also )a$e 7y )y assistant8 /r0 FritB #o.enstein8 an$ shortly after.ar$s se-eral a$)ira7le o((ortunities (resente$ the)sel-es .hich 7rought out8 still )ore forci7ly8 an$ un)ista2a7ly8 the true nature of the .on$erful (heno)enon0 1o $ou7t8 .hate-er re)aine$I , .as o7ser-ing stationary .a-es0 As the source of $istur7ances )o-e$ a.ay the recei-ing circuit ca)e successi-ely u(on their no$es an$ loo(s0 ,)(ossi7le as it see)e$8 this (lanet8 $es(ite its -ast e'tent8 7eha-e$ li2e a con$uctor of li)ite$ $i)ensions0 The tre)en$ous significance of this fact in the trans)ission of energy 7y )y syste) ha$ alrea$y 7eco)e quite clear to )e0 1ot only .as it (ractica7le to sen$ telegra(hic )essages to any $istance .ithout .ires8 as , recogniBe$ long ago8 7ut also to i)(ress u(on the entire glo7e the faint )o$ulations of the hu)an -oice8 far )ore still8 to trans)it (o.er8 in unli)ite$ a)ounts8 to any terrestrial $istance an$ al)ost .ithout loss0 &ith these stu(en$ous (ossi7ilities in sight8 an$ the e'(eri)ental e-i$ence 7efore )e that their realiBation .as henceforth )erely a question of e'(ert 2no.le$ge8 (atience an$ s2ill8 , attac2e$ -igorously the $e-elo()ent of )y )agnifying trans)itter8 no.8 ho.e-er8 not so )uch .ith the original intention of (ro$ucing one of great (o.er8 as .ith the o7Hect of learning ho. to construct the 7est one0 This is8 essentially8 a circuit of -ery high self9 in$uction an$ s)all resistance .hich in its arrange)ent8 )o$e of e'citation an$ action8 )ay 7e sai$ to 7e the $ia)etrical o((osite of a trans)itting circuit ty(ical of telegra(hy 7y HertBian or electro)agnetic ra$iations0 ,t is $ifficult to for) an a$equate i$ea of the )ar-ellous (o.er of this unique a((liance8 7y the ai$ of .hich the glo7e .ill 7e transfor)e$0 The electro)agnetic ra$iations 7eing re$uce$ to an insignificant quantity8 an$ (ro(er con$itions of resonance )aintaine$8 the circuit acts li2e an i))ense (en$ulu)8 storing in$efinitely the energy of the (ri)ary e'citing i)(ulses an$ i)(ressions u(on the earth of the (ri)ary e'citing i)(ulses an$ i)(ressions u(on the earth an$ its con$ucting at)os(here unifor) har)onic oscillations of intensities .hich8 as actual tests ha-e sho.n8 )ay 7e (ushe$ so far as to sur(ass those attaine$ in the natural $is(lays of static electricity0 >i)ultaneously .ith these en$ea-ours8 the )eans of in$i-i$ualiBation an$ isolation .ere gra$ually i)(ro-e$0 Great i)(ortance .as attache$ to this8 for it .as foun$ that si)(le tuning .as not sufficient to )eet the -igorous (ractical require)ents0 The fun$a)ental i$ea of e)(loying a nu)7er of $istincti-e ele)ents8 co9o(erati-ely associate$8 for the (ur(ose of isolating energy trans)itte$8 , trace $irectly to )y (erusal of >(encer's clear an$ suggesti-e e'(osition of the hu)an ner-e )echanis)0 The influence of this (rinci(le on the trans)ission of intelligence8 an$ electrical energy in general8 cannot as yet 7e esti)ate$8 for the art is still in the e)7ryonic stageJ 7ut )any thousan$s of si)ultaneous telegra(hic an$ tele(honic )essages8 through one single con$ucting channel8 natural or artificial8 an$ .ithout serious )utual interference8 are certainly (ractica7le8 .hile )illions are (ossi7le0 ;n the other han$8 any $esire$ $egree of in$i-i$ualiBation )ay 7e secure$ 7y the use of a great nu)7er of co9o(erati-e ele)ents an$ ar7itrary -ariation of their $istincti-e features an$ or$er of succession0 For o7-ious reasons8 the (rinci(le .ill also 7e -alua7le in the e'tension of the $istance of trans)ission0 <rogress though of necessity slo. .as stea$y an$ sure8 for the o7Hects ai)e$ at .ere in a $irection of )y constant stu$y an$ e'ercise0 ,t is8 therefore8 not astonishing that 7efore the en$ of 1899 , co)(lete$ the tas2 un$erta2en an$ reache$ the results .hich , ha-e announce$ in )y article in the Century /agaBine of Eune8 19558 e-ery .or$ of .hich .as carefully .eighe$0 /uch has alrea$y 7een $one to.ar$s )a2ing )y syste) co))ercially a-aila7le8 in the trans)ission of energy in s)all a)ounts for s(ecific (ur(oses8 as .ell as on an in$ustrial scale0 The results attaine$ 7y )e ha-e )a$e )y sche)e of intelligence trans)ission8 for .hich the na)e of "&orl$ Telegra(hy" has 7een suggeste$8 easily realiBa7le0 ,t constitutes8 , 7elie-e8 in its (rinci(le of o(eration8 )eans e)(loye$ an$ ca(acities of a((lication8 a
ra$ical an$ fruitful $e(arture fro) .hat has 7een $one heretofore0 , ha-e no $ou7t that it .ill (ro-e -ery efficient in enlightening the )asses8 (articularly in still unci-iliBe$ countries an$ less accessi7le regions8 an$ that it .ill a$$ )aterially to general safety8 co)fort an$ con-enience8 an$ )aintenance of (eaceful relations0 ,t in-ol-es the e)(loy)ent of a nu)7er of (lants8 all of .hich are ca(a7le of trans)itting in$i-i$ualiBe$ signals to the utter)ost confines of the earth0 "ach of the) .ill 7e (refera7ly locate$ near so)e i)(ortant centre of ci-iliBation an$ the ne.s it recei-es through any channel .ill 7e flashe$ to all (oints of the glo7e0 A chea( an$ si)(le $e-ice8 .hich )ight 7e carrie$ in one's (oc2et8 )ay then 7e set u( so)e.here on sea or lan$8 an$ it .ill recor$ the .orl$'s ne.s or such s(ecial )essages as )ay 7e inten$e$ for it0 Thus the entire earth .ill 7e con-erte$ into a huge 7rain8 as it .ere8 ca(a7le of res(onse in e-ery one of its (arts0 >ince a single (lant of 7ut one hun$re$ horse9 (o.er can o(erate hun$re$s of )illions of instru)ents8 the syste) .ill ha-e a -irtually infinite .or2ing ca(acity8 an$ it )ust nee$s i))ensely facilitate an$ chea(en the trans)ission of intelligence0 The first of these central (lants .oul$ ha-e 7een alrea$y co)(lete$ ha$ it not 7een for unforeseen $elays .hich8 fortunately8 ha-e nothing to $o .ith its (urely technical features0 3ut this loss of ti)e8 .hile -e'atious8 )ay8 after all8 (ro-e to 7e a 7lessing in $isguise0 The 7est $esign of .hich , 2no. has 7een a$o(te$8 an$ the trans)itter .ill e)it a .a-e co)(le' of total )a'i)u) acti-ity of ten )illion horse9(o.er8 one (er cent0 of .hich is a)(ly sufficient to "gir$le the glo7e0" This enor)ous rate of energy $eli-ery8 a((ro'i)ately t.ice that of the co)7ine$ falls of 1iagara8 is o7taina7le only 7y the use of certain artifices8 .hich , shall )a2e 2no.n in $ue course0 For a large (art of the .or2 .hich , ha-e $one so far , a) in$e7te$ to the no7le generosity of /r0 E0 <ier(ont /organ8 .hich .as all the )ore .elco)e an$ sti)ulating8 as it .as e'ten$e$ at a ti)e .hen those8 .ho ha-e since (ro)ise$ )ost8 .ere the greatest of $ou7ters0 , ha-e also to than2 )y frien$8 >tanfor$ &hite8 for )uch unselfish an$ -alua7le assistance0 This .or2 is no. far a$-ance$8 an$ though the results )ay 7e tar$y8 they are sure to co)e0 /ean.hile8 the trans)ission of energy on an in$ustrial scale is not 7eing neglecte$0 The Cana$ian 1iagara <o.er Co)(any ha-e offere$ )e a s(len$i$ in$uce)ent8 an$ ne't to achie-ing success for the sa2e of the art8 it .ill gi-e )e the greatest satisfaction to )a2e their concession financially (rofita7le to the)0 ,n this first (o.er (lant8 .hich , ha-e 7een $esigning for a long ti)e8 , (ro(ose to $istri7ute ten thousan$ horse9(o.er un$er a tension of one hun$re$ )illion -olts8 .hich , a) no. a7le to (ro$uce an$ han$le .ith safety0 This energy .ill 7e collecte$ all o-er the glo7e (refera7ly in s)all a)ounts8 ranging fro) a fraction of one to a fe. horse9(o.er0 ;ne its chief uses .ill 7e the illu)ination of isolate$ ho)es0 , ta2es -ery little (o.er to light a $.elling .ith -acuu) tu7es o(erate$ 7y high9frequency currents an$ in each instance a ter)inal a little a7o-e the roof .ill 7e sufficient0 Another -alua7le a((lication .ill 7e the $ri-ing of cloc2s an$ other such a((aratus0 These cloc2s .ill 7e e'cee$ingly si)(le8 .ill require a7solutely no attention an$ .ill in$icate rigorously correct ti)e0 The i$ea of i)(ressing u(on the earth A)erican ti)e is fascinating an$ -ery li2ely to 7eco)e (o(ular0 There are innu)era7le $e-ices of all 2in$s .hich are either no. e)(loye$ or can 7e su((lie$8 an$ 7y o(erating the) in this )anner , )ay 7e a7le to offer a great con-enience to .hole .orl$ .ith a (lant of no )ore than ten thousan$ horse9(o.er0 The intro$uction of this syste) .ill gi-e o((ortunities for in-ention an$ )anufacture such as ha-e ne-er (resente$ the)sel-es 7efore0 :no.ing the far9reaching i)(ortance of this first atte)(t an$ its effect u(on future $e-elo()ent8 , shall (rocee$ slo.ly an$ carefully0 "'(erience has taught )e not to assign a ter) to enter(rises the consu))ation of .hich is not .holly $e(en$ent on )y o.n a7ilities an$ e'ertions0 3ut , a) ho(eful that these great realiBations are not far off8 an$ , 2no. that .hen this first .or2 is co)(lete$ they .ill follo. .ith )athe)atical certitu$e0 &hen the great truth acci$entally re-eale$ an$ e'(eri)entally confir)e$ is fully recogniBe$8 that this (lanet8 .ith all its a((alling i))ensity8 is to electric currents -irtually no )ore than a s)all )etal 7all an$ that 7y this fact )any (ossi7ilities8 each 7affling i)agination an$ of incalcula7le consequence8 are ren$ere$ a7solutely sure of acco)(lish)entJ .hen the first (lant is inaugurate$ an$ it is sho.n that a telegra(hic )essage8 al)ost as secret an$ non9interfera7le as a thought8 can 7e trans)itte$ to any terrestrial $istance8 the soun$ of the hu)an -oice8 .ith all its intonations an$ inflections8 faithfully an$ instantly re(ro$uce$ at any other (oint of the glo7e8 the energy of a .aterfall )a$e a-aila7le for su((lying light8 heat or )oti-e (o.er8 any.here9on sea8 or lan$8 or high in the air9hu)anity .ill 7e li2e an ant hea( stirre$ u( .ith a stic2I >ee the e'cite)ent co)ingY
1-0/-11-"<: 'etter from Ni.ola Tesla 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork &un "/y attention has 7een calle$ to nu)erous co))ents on )y letter8 (u7lishe$ in your issue of 1o-e)7er 18 an$ relating to the electrical equi()ent of the ne.ly o(ene$ cataco)7 in this city0 >o)e of the) are 7ase$ on erroneous assu)(tions8 .hich it is necessary for )e to correct0 "&hen , state$ that )y syste) .as a$o(te$8 , $i$ not )ean that , originate$ e-ery electrical a((liance in the su7.ay0 For instance8 the one .hich that ill9fate$ electrician .as re(airing .hen he .as 2ille$8 t.o $ays after the cataco)7 .as rea$y for (u7lic use8 .as not in-ente$ 7y )e0 1or .as that other $e-ice on the si$etrac2e$ car8 .hich8 as .ill 7e re)e)7ere$8 cause$ the 7urning of t.o )en0 , also )ust $eny any connection .ith that s.itch or contri-ance .hich .as res(onsi7le for the (re)ature $eath of a )an i))e$iately after.ar$s8 as .ell as .ith that other8 .hich cut short the life of his unfortunate successor0 1one of these funeral $e-ices8 , e)(hatically state8 or any of the other .hich 7rought on collisions8 $elays an$ -arious trou7les an$ .ere instru)ental in the loss of ar)s an$ legs of se-eral -icti)s8 are of )y in-ention8 nor $o they for)8 in )y o(inion8 necessary a((urtenances of an intelligently (lanne$ sche)e for the (ro(ulsion of cars0 +eferring to these contri-ances8 it is significant to rea$ in so)e Hournals of the 8th inst0 that a s)all fir) faile$ 7ecause their 7i$ .as too lo.0 This is in$icati-e of 2een co)(etition an$ shar( cutting of (rices8 an$ $oes not see) in 2ee(ing .ith the )unificence clai)e$ for the ,nter7orough Co)(any0 ", )erely inten$e$ to say in )y letter that )y syste) of (o.er trans)ission .ith three9(hase generators an$ synchronous )otor con-erters .as a$o(te$ in the su7.ay8 the sa)e as on the ele-ate$ roa$0 , $e-ise$ it )any years ago for the e'(ress (ur(ose of )eeting the -arie$ .ants of a general electrical $istri7ution of light an$ (o.er0 ,t has 7een e'tensi-ely intro$uce$ all o-er the .orl$ 7ecause of its great fle'i7ility8 an$ un$er such con$itions of use has 7een foun$ of great -alue0 3ut the i$ea of e)(loying in this great city's )ain artery8 in a case (resenting such rigi$ require)ents8 this fle'i7le syste)8 offering innu)era7le chances for 7rea2$o.ns8 acci$ents an$ inHuries to life an$ (ro(erty8 is altogether too a7sur$ to $ignify it .ith any serious co))ent0 Here only )y )ulti(hase syste)8 .ith in$uction )otors an$ close$ coil ar)atures 9 a((aratus unfailing in its o(eration an$ )ini)iBing the $angers of tra-el 9 shoul$ ha-e 7een installe$0 1othing8 not e-en ignorance8 .ill (re-ent its ulti)ate a$o(tionJ an$ the sooner the change is )a$e the 7etter it .ill 7e for all concerne$0 <ersonally8 , ha-e no financial or other interest in the )atter8 e'ce(t that as a long resi$ent of this city , .oul$ ha-e 7een gla$ to see )y in-entions (ro(erly use$ to the a$-antage of the co))unity0 Cn$er the circu)stances , )ust forego this gratification0 "The consequences of the un(ar$ona7le )ista2e of the ,nter7orough Co)(any are not confine$ to this first su7.ay or e-en to this city0 &e are $ri-en to tra-el un$ergroun$0 The ele-ate$ roa$ is the eighth .on$er8 as colossal an$ i)(osing in the feature of (u7lic for7earance as the <yra)i$ of Cheo(s in its $i)ensions0 >ooner or later all interur7an rail.ays )ust 7e transfor)e$ into su7terranean0 This .ill call for i))ense in-est)ents of ca(ital8 an$ if $efecti-e electrical a((aratus is generally a$o(te$ the $a)age to life an$ (ro(erty .ill 7e incalcula7le8 not to s(ea2 of incon-enience to the (u7lic0 ",t see)s (ro(er to )e to ac2no.le$ge on this occasion the (ainsta2ing suggestions of so)e frien$s of )ine8 )ostly un2no.n to )e8 7oth in the large $o)ain of electrical achie-e)ent an$ in the s)all s(here of )y frien$shi(8 to again a$$ress the A)erican ,nstitute0 ,t is custo)ary .ith scientific )en to (resent an original su7Hect only once0 , ha-e $one so an$ $o not $esire to $e(art fro) this esta7lishe$ (rece$ent0 A lecture on the $efects of the su7.ay offers great o((ortunities8 7ut .oul$ not 7e original0 ,n -ie. of certain insinuations , )ay cite a recently (u7lishe$ state)ent of /r0 C0 F0 >cott8 for)erly (resi$ent of the A)erican ,nstituteI 'n a )atter of history it is the Tesla (rinci(le an$ the Tesla syste) .hich ha-e 7een the $irecting factors in )o$ern electrical engineering (ractice0' There are 7ut a fe. )en .hose ac2no.le$ge)ent of )y o.n .or2 , .oul$ quote0 /r0 >cott is one of the)8 as the )an .hose co9o(eration .as )ost efficient in 7ringing a7out the great in$ustrial re-olution through these in-entions0 3ut the suggestions of )y goo$ frien$s ha-e fallen on fruitful groun$8 an$ shoul$ it 7e (ossi7le for )e to s(are ti)e an$ energy , )ay as2 the city authorities for (o.er to in-estigate the su7.ay8 an$ )a2e a s.orn re(ort to the) on all the $efects an$ $eficiencies , )ay $isco-er8 in the interest of (u7lic .elfare0 "A fe. )ore .or$s in relation to the signs0 &ith all $ue res(ect to general o(inion8 , entertain quite a $ifferent -ie. on that su7Hect0 A$-ertising is a useful art8 .hich is 7eing lifte$ continually to a higher (lane8 an$ .ill soon 7e quite res(ecta7le0 ,t shoul$ not 7e ha)(ere$8 7ut rather encourage$0 , .oul$ gi-e the ,nter7orough Co)(any e-ery facility for e'(loiting it8 restricting it only in so far as the artistic e'ecution is concerne$0 A co))ission of ca(a7le )en co)(rising a (ainter8 a scul(tor8 an architect8 a literary )an8 an engineer an$ an e'ecuti-e
7usiness )an )ight 7e a((ointe$8 to (ass u(on the )erits of the signs su7)itte$ for acce(tance0 , $o not see .hy the (u7lic shoul$ o7Hect to the) if they .ere regulate$ in this )anner0 They .ill further 7usiness8 )a2e tra-el less te$ious8 an$ hel( )any s2ilful artisans0 The su7.ays are 7oun$ to 7eco)e )unici(al (ro(erty8 an$ the city .ill then $eri-e a re-enue fro) the)0 &hat is )ost i)(ortant for the safety of life an$ (ro(erty8 quic2ness an$ security of tra-el8 shoul$ 7e first consi$ere$0 All this $e(en$s on the electrical equi()ent0 The engineers ha-e 7uilt a goo$ tunnel8 an$ (ro(er a((aratus shoul$ 7e installe$ to )atch it0 1i2ola Tesla 1e. Dor28 1o-0 !%
1-0/-1"-"-: *le(tri( Autos 4y Nikola Tesla

&*ecial 2orres*ondence+ /anufacturersC !ecord Nicola TeslaCs Bie" of the 9uture in /otive 3o"er. Ne" -ork+ December ?. ,n -ie. of the great interest .hich is 7eing ta2en in the articles (u7lishe$ 7y the /anufacturers' +ecor$ an$ so)e of the )agaBines on the $e-elo()ent of ne. (o.er9(ro$ucers8 through the internal9co)7ustion engine8 for use for trans(ortation (ur(oses 7oth 7y lan$ an$ sea8 the follo.ing signe$ state)ent8 )a$e 7y /r0 1icola Tesla after a $iscussion of a ne. ty(e of auto97us $esigne$ 7y /r0 Charles A0 #ie78 )echanical engineer of the /anhattan Transit Co08 .ill $ou7tless 7e rea$ .ith )uch general interestI 1e. Dor28 =ece)7er 1* /r0 Al7ert <henis8 >(ecial Corres(on$ent /anufacturers' +ecor$8 1e. Dor2I =ear >ir 9 +e(lying to your inquiry of yester$ay8 the a((lication of electricity to the (ro(ulsion of auto)o7iles is certainly a rational i$ea0 , a) gla$ to 2no. that /r0 #ie7 has un$erta2en to (ut it into (ractice0 His long e'(erience .ith the General "lectric Co0 an$ other concerns )ust ha-e e'cellently fitte$ hi) for the tas20 There is no $ou7t that a highly9successful )achine can 7e (ro$uce$ on these lines0 The fiel$ is ine'hausti7le8 an$ this ne. ty(e of auto)o7ile8 intro$ucing electricity 7et.een the (ri)e )o-er an$ the .heels8 has8 in )y o(inion8 a great future0 , ha-e )yself for )any years a$-ocate$ this (rinci(le0 Dour .ill fin$ in nu)erous technical (u7lications state)ents )a$e 7y )e to this effect0 ,n )y article in the Century8 Eune8 19558 , sai$8 in $ealing .ith the su7HectI '>tea)ers an$ trains are still 7eing (ro(elle$ 7y the $irect a((lication of stea) (o.er to shafts or a'les0 A )uch greater (ercentage of the heat energy of the fuel coul$ 7e transfor)e$ in )oti-e energy 7y using8 in (lace of the a$o(te$ )arine engines an$ loco)oti-es8 $yna)os $ri-en 7y s(ecially $esigne$ high9(ressure stea) or gas engines8 7y utiliBing the electricity generate$ for the (ro(ulsion0 A gain of 45 to 155 (ercent8 in the effecti-e energy $eri-e$ fro) the fuel coul$ 7e secure$ in this )anner0 ,t is $ifficult to un$erstan$ .hy a fact so (lain an$ o7-ious is not recei-ing )ore attention fro) engineers0 At first glance it )ay a((ear that to generate electricity 7y an engine an$ then a((ly the current to turn a .heel8 instea$ of turning it 7y )eans of so)e )echanical connection .ith the engine8 is a co)(licate$ an$ )ore or less .asteful (rocess0 3ut it is not soJ on the contrary8 the use of electricity in this )anner secures great (ractical a$-antages0 ,t is 7ut a question of ti)e .hen this i$ea .ill 7e e'tensi-ely a((lie$ to rail.ays an$ also to ocean liners8 though in the latter case the con$itions are not quite so fa-oura7le0 Ho. the railroa$ co)(anies can (ersist in using the or$inary loco)oti-e is a )ystery0 3y (ro-i$ing an engine generating electricity an$ o(erating .ith the current )otors un$er the cars a train can 7e (ro(elle$ .ith greater s(ee$ an$ )ore econo)ically0 ,n France this has alrea$y 7een $one 7y Heil)an8 an$ although his )achinery .as not the 7est8 the results he o7taine$ .ere cre$ita7le an$ encouraging0 , ha-e calculate$ that a nota7le gain in s(ee$ an$ econo)y can also 7e secure$ in ocean liners8 on .hich the i)(ro-e)ent is (articularly $esira7le for )any reasons0 ,t is -ery li2ely that in the near future oil .ill 7e a$o(te$ as fuel8 an$ that .ill )a2e the ne. )etho$ of (ro(ulsion all the )ore co))en$a7le0 The electric )anufacturing co)(anies .ill scarcely 7e a7le to )eet this ne. $e)an$ for generators an$ )otors0 ,n auto)o7iles (ractically nothing has 7een $one in this $irection8 an$ yet it .oul$ see) they offer the greatest o((ortunities for a((lication of this (rinci(le0 The question8 ho.e-er8 is .hich )otor to e)(loy 9 the $irect9current or )y in$uction )otor0 The for)er has certain (references as regar$s the starting an$ regulation8 7ut the co))utators an$ 7rushes are -ery o7Hectiona7le on an auto)o7ile0 ,n -ie. of this , .oul$ a$-ocate the use of the in$uction )otor as an i$eally si)(le )achine .hich can ne-er get out of or$er0 The con$itions are e'cellent8 inas)uch as a -ery lo. frequency is (ractica7le an$ )ore than three (hases can 7e use$0 The regulation shoul$ offer little $ifficulty8 an$ once an auto)o7ile on this no-el (lan is (ro$uce$ its a$-antages .ill 7e rea$ily a((reciate$0 Dours -ery truly8 10 Tesla0
1-05-01-0<: T,e Transmission of *le(tri(al *nergy Fit,out Fires as a Means for 7urt,ering 5ea(e by Nikola Tesla
Electrical #orld and Engineer U*I1-&,A. +-AC-8 assu)ing it to 7e in the fullest sense realiBa7le8 )ight not require eons for its acco)(lish)ent8 ho.e-er (ro7a7le this )ay a((ear8 Hu$ging fro) the i)(erce(ti7ly slo. gro.th of all great refor)atory i$eas of the (ast0 /an8 as a )ass in )o-e)ent8 is inse(ara7le fro) sluggishness an$ (ersistence in his life )anifestations8 7ut it $oes not follo. fro) this that any (assing (hase8 or any (er)anent state of his e'istence8 )ust necessarily 7e attaine$ through a stataclitic (rocess of $e-elo()ent0 ;ur acce(te$ esti)ates of the $uration of natural )eta)or(hoses8 or changes in general8 ha-e 7een thro.n in $ou7t of late0 The -ery foun$ations of science ha-e 7een sha2en0 &e can no longer 7elie-e in the /a'.ellian hy(othesis of trans-ersal ether9un$ulations of electrical -i7rations8 this )ost i)(ortant fiel$ of hu)an en$ea-our8 (articularly in the a$-ance)ent of (hilanthro(y an$ (eace8 .as in no s)all )easure retar$e$ 7y that fascinating illusion8 .hich , since long ho(e$ to $is(el0 , ha-e note$ .ith satisfaction the first signs of a change of scientific o(inion0 The 7rilliant $isco-ery of the e'ce(tionally "ra$io9acti-e" su7stances8 ra$iu) an$ (oloniu)8 7y /rs0>2lo$o.s2a Curie8 has li2e.ise affor$e$ )e )uch (ersonal gratification8 7eing an eclatant confir)ation of )y early e'(eri)ental $e)onstrations8 of electrifie$ ra$ian strea)s of (ri)ary )atter or cor(uscular e)anations (Electrical !evie"8 1e. Dor28 189%9189* 8 .hich .ere then recei-e$ .ith incre$ulity0 They ha-e a.a2ene$ us fro) the (oetical $rea) of an intangi7le con-eyor of energy8 .eightless8 structureless ether8 to the (lain8 (al(a7le reality of a (on$erous )e$iu) of coarse (articles8 or 7o$ily carriers of force0 They ha-e le$ us to a ra$ically ne. inter(retation of the changes an$ transfor)ations .e (ercei-e0 "nlightene$ 7y this recognition8 .e cannot say the sun is hot8 the )oon is col$8 the star is 7right8 for all these )ight 7e (urely electrical (heno)ena0 ,f this 7e the case8 then e-en our conce(tions of ti)e an$ s(ace )ay ha-e to 7e )o$ifie$0 >o8 too8 as regar$s the organic .orl$8 a si)ilar re-olution of thought is $istinctly o7ser-a7le0 ,n 7iological an$ Boological research the 7ol$ i$eas of Haensel ha-e foun$ su((ort in recent $isco-eries0 A heretic 7elief in such (ossi7ilities as the artificial (ro$uction of si)(le li-ing )aterial aggregates8 the s(ontaneous natural creation of co)(le' organis)s an$ .ilful se' control8 is gaining groun$0 &e still 7rush it asi$e8 7ut not .ith (e$antic $is$ain as 7efore0 The fact isKour faith in the ortho$o' theory of slo. e-olution is 7eing $estroye$Y Thus a state of hu)an life -aguely $efine$ 7y the ter) "Cni-ersal <eace8" .hile a result of cu)ulati-e effort through centuries (ast8 )ight co)e into e'istence )uickly8 not unli2e a crystal su$$enly for)s in a solution .hich has 7een slo.ly (re(are$0 3ut Hust as no effect can (rece$e its cause8 so this state can ne-er 7e brought on 7y any (act 7et.een nations8 ho.e-er sole)n0 "'(erience is )a$e 7efore the la. is for)ulate$8 7oth are relate$ li2e cause an$ effect0 >o long as .e are clearly conscious of the e'(ectation8 that (eace is to result fro) such a (arlia)entary $ecision8 so long ha-e .e a conclusi-e e-i$ence that .e are not fit for (eace0 ;nly then .hen .e shall feel that such international )eetings are )ere for)al (roce$ures8 unnecessary e'ce(t in so far as they )ight ser-e to gi-e $efinite e'(ression to a co))on $esire8 .ill (eace 7e assure$0 To Hu$ge fro) current e-ents .e )ust 7e8 as yet8 -ery $istant fro) that 7lissful goal0 ,t is true that .e are (rocee$ing to.ar$s it ra(i$ly0 There are a7un$ant signs of this (rogress e-ery.here0 The race en)ities an$ (reHu$ices are $eci$e$ly .aning0 A recent act of His "'cellency8 the <resi$ent of the Cnite$ >tates8 is significant in this res(ect0 &e 7egin to thin2 cos)ically0 ;ur sy)(athetic feelers reach out into the $i) $istance0 The 7acteria of the "&eltsch)erB8" are u(on us0 >o far8 ho.e-er8 uni-ersal har)ony has 7een attaine$ only in a single s(here of international relationshi(0 That is the (ostal ser-ice0 ,ts )echanis) is .or2ing satisfactorily8 7ut Kho. re)ote are .e still fro) that scru(ulous res(ect of the sanctity of the )ail 7agY An$ ho. )uch farther again is the ne't )ilestone on the roa$ to (eaceKan international Hu$icial ser-ice equally relia7le as the (ostalY The co)ing )eeting at the Hague8 no. in$efinitely (ost(one$8 can only consi$er te)(orary e'(e$ients0 General $isar)a)ent 7eing for the (resent entirely out of question8 a (ro(ortionate re$uction )ight 7e reco))en$e$0 The safety of any country an$ of the .orl$'s co))erce $e(en$ing not on the a7solute8 7ut relati-e a)ount of .ar )aterial8 this .oul$ 7e e-i$ently the first reasona7le ste( to ta2e to.ar$s uni-ersal econo)y an$ (eace0 3ut it .oul$ 7e a ho(eless tas2 to esta7lish an equita7le 7asis of a$Hust)ent0 <o(ulation8 na-al strength8 force of
ar)y8 co))ercial i)(ortance8 .ater9(o.er8 or any other natural resource8 actual or (ros(ecti-e8 are equally unsatisfactory stan$ar$s to consi$er0 ,n -ie. of this $ifficulty a )easure suggeste$ 7y Carnegie )ight 7e a$o(te$ 7y a fe. strong countries to scare all the .ea2er ones into (eace0 3ut .hile for the ti)e 7eing such a course )ay see) a$-isa7le8 the 7eneficial effects of this ho)eo(athic treat)ent of the )artial $isease coul$ har$ly 7e lasting0 ,n the first (lace8 a coalition of the lea$ing (o.ers coul$ not fail to create an organiBe$ o((osition8 .hich )ight result in a $isaster all the greater as it .as long $eferre$0 The ulti)ate falling out of the -irtuous8 (eace9$ictating nations8 as certain as the la. of gra-itation8 shoul$ 7e all the )ore rec2one$ .ith8 as it .oul$ 7e e'tre)ely $e)oraliBing0 Again8 it is 7y no )eans sufficient authority0 To conquer 7y sheer force is 7eco)ing har$er an$ har$er e-ery $ay0 =efensi-e is getting continuously the a$-antage of offensi-e8 as .e (rogress in the satanic science of $estruction0 The ne. art of controlling electrically the )o-e)ents an$ o(erations of in$i-i$ualiBe$ auto)ata at a $istance .ithout .ires8 .ill soon ena7le any country to ren$er its coasts i)(regna7le against all na-al attac2s0 ,t is to 7e regrette$8 in this connection8 that )y (ro(osal to the Cnite$ >tates 1a-y four years ago8 to intro$uce this in-ention8 $i$ not recei-e the least encourage)ent0 Also that )y offer to >ecretary #ong to esta7lish telegra(hic co))unication across the <acific ;cean 7y )y .ireless syste) .as thro.n in the na-al .aste 7as2et in &ashington8 quite sans facon0 At that ti)e , ha$ alrea$y announce$ in The 2entury /aga;ine of Eune8 19558 )y successful "gir$ling" of the glo7e .ith electrical i)(ulses (stationary .a-es 8 an$ )y "telauto)ata" ha$ 7een (u7licly e'hi7ite$0 3ut that .as not the fault of the na-al officials8 for then these in-entions of )ine .ere $ecrie$ as 7ol$8 -isionary sche)es8 lou$est in$ee$ 7y those .ho ha-e since 7eco)e Croesuses of <ro)iseKin "light" storage 7atteries8 ";cean" tele(hony an$ "transatlantic" .ireless telegra(hy8 yet re)aine$ to this $ayK>isy(huses of Attain)ent0 Ha$ only a fe. "telauto)atic" tor(e$oes 7een constructe$ an$ a$o(te$ 7y our na-y8 the )ere )oral influence of this .oul$ ha-e 7een (o.erfully an$ )ost 7eneficially felt in the (resent "astern Co)(lication0 1ot to s(ea2 of the a$-antages .hich )ight ha-e 7een secure$ through the $irect an$ instantaneous trans)ission of )essages to our $istant colonies an$ scenes of the (resent 7ar7arous conflicts0 >ince a$-ancing that (rinci(le8 , ha-e in-ente$ a nu)7er of i)(ro-e)ents8 )a2ing it (ossi7le to $irect such a tor(e$o8 su7)ersi7le at .ill8 fro) a $istance )uch greater than the range of the largest gun8 .ith unerring (recision8 u(on the o7Hect to 7e $estroye$0 &hat is still )ore sur(rising8 the o(erator .ill not nee$ to see the infernal engine or e-en 2no. its location8 an$ the ene)y .ill 7e una7le to interfere8 in the slightest8 .ith its )o-e)ents 7y any electrical )eans0 ;ne of these $e-il9telauto)ata .ill soon 7e constructe$8 an$ , shall 7ring it to the attention of go-ern)ents0 The $e-elo()ent of this art )ust una-oi$a7ly arrest the construction of e'(ensi-e 7attleshi(s as .ell as lan$ fortifications8 an$ re-olutioniBe the )eans an$ )etho$s of .arfare0 The $istance at .hich it can stri2e8 an$ the $estructi-e (o.er of such a )uasi,intelligent )achine 7eing for all (ractical (ur(oses unli)ite$8 the gun8 the ar)our of the 7attleshi( an$ the .all of the fortress8 lose their i)(ort an$ significance0 ;ne can (ro(hesy .ith a =aniel's confi$ence that s2ille$ electricians .ill settle the 7attles of the near future0 3ut this is the least0 ,n its effect u(on .ar an$ (eace8 electricity offers still )uch greater an$ )ore .on$erful (ossi7ilities0 To sto( .ar 7y the (erfection of engines of $estruction alone8 )ight consu)e centuries an$ centuries0 ;ther )eans )ust 7e e)(loye$ to hasten the en$0 &hat are these to 7eF #et us consi$er0 Fights 7et.een in$i-i$uals8 as .ell as go-ern)ents an$ nations8 in-aria7ly result fro) )isun$erstan$ings in the 7roa$est inter(retation of this ter)0 /isun$erstan$ings are al.ays cause$ 7y the ina7ility of a((reciating one another's (oint of -ie.0 This again is $ue to the ignorance of those concerne$8 not so )uch in their o"n8 as in their mutual fiel$s0 The (eril of a clash is aggra-ate$ 7y a )ore or less (re$o)inant sense of co)7ati-eness8 (ose$ 7y e-ery hu)an 7eing0 To resist this inherent fighting ten$ency the 7est .as is to $is(el ignorance of the $oings of others 7y a syste)atic s(rea$ of general 2no.le$ge0 &ith this o7Hect in -ie.8 it is )ost i)(ortant to ai$ e'change of thought an$ intercourse0 /utual un$erstan$ing .oul$ 7e i))ensely facilitate$ 7y the use of one uni-ersal tongue0 3ut .hich shall it 7e8 is the great question0 At (resent it loo2s as if the "nglish )ight 7e a$o(te$ as such8 though it )ust 7e a$)itte$ that it is not the )ost suita7le0 "ach language8 of course8 e'cels in so)e feature0 The "nglish len$s itself to a terse8 forceful e'(ression of facts0 The French is (recise an$ finely $istincti-e0 The ,talian is (ro7a7ly the )ost )elo$ious an$ easiest to learn0 The >la-ic tongues are -ery rich in soun$ 7ut e'tre)ely $ifficult to )aster0 The Ger)an is unequalle$ in the facility it offers for coining an$ co)7ining .or$s0 A (ractical ans.er to that )o)entous question )ust (erforce 7e foun$ in ti)es to co)e8 for it is )anifest that 7y a$o(ting one co))on language the on.ar$ )arch of )an .oul$ 7e (ro$igiously quic2ene$0 , $o not 7elie-e that an artificial concoction8 li2e Gola(u28 .ill e-er fin$ uni-ersal acce(tance8 ho.e-er ti)e9sa-ing it )ight 7e0 That .oul$ 7e
contrary to hu)an nature0 #anguages ha-e gro.n into our hearts0 , rather loo2 to the (ossi7ility of a re-ersion to the ol$ #atin or Gree2 )other tongues8 7asing )yself in this conclusion on the >(encerian la. of rhyth) ? see >(encer's First <rinci(les@0 ,t see)s unfortunate that the "nglish9s(ea2ing nations8 .ho are no. fittest to rule the .orl$8 .hile en$o.e$ .ith e'traor$inary energy an$ (ractical intelligence8 are singularly .anting in linguistic talent0 1e't to s(eech .e )ust consi$er (er)anent recor$s of all 2in$s as a )eans for $isse)inating general infor)ation8 or that 2no.le$ge of mutual en$ea-our .hich is chiefly con$uci-e to har)ony0 Here the ne.s(a(ers (lay 7y far the )ost i)(ortant (art0 They are un$ou7te$ly )ore effecti-e than institutions of learning8 li7raries8 )useu)s an$ in$i-i$ual corres(on$ence8 all co)7ine$0 The 2no.le$ge they con-ey is8 on the .hole8 su(erficial an$ so)eti)es $efecti-e8 7ut it is (oure$ out in a )ighty strea) that reaches far an$ .i$e0 =isregar$ing the force of electrical in-ention8 that of Hournalis) is the greatest in urging (eace0 ;ur schools are instru)ental8 )ainly8 in the furtherance of s(ecial thorough 2no.le$ge in our o"n fiel$s8 .hich is $estructi-e of concor$ance0 A .orl$ co)(ose$ of crass s(ecialists only .oul$ 7e (er(etually at .ar0 The $iffusion of general 2no.le$ge through li7raries an$ si)ilar sources of infor)ation is -ery slo.0 As to in$i-i$ual corres(on$ence8 it is (rinci(ally useful as an in$is(ensa7le ingre$ient of the ce)ent of co))ercial interest8 that )ost (o.erful 7in$ing )aterial 7et.een heterogeneous )asses of hu)anity0 ,t .oul$ 7e har$ to o-eresti)ate the 7eneficial influence of the )ar-ellous an$ (recise art of (hotogra(hy8 nor can that of other arts or )eans of recor$ing 7e ignore$0 3ut a si)(le reflection .ill sho. that the (eace9)a2ing force of all (er)anent8 (rinte$8 (rinte$ or other recor$s8 resi$es not in the)sel-es0 ,t )ust 7e sought else.here0 This is also true of s(eech0 ;ur senses ena7le us to (ercei-e only a )inute (ortion of the outsi$e .orl$0 ;ur hearing e'ten$s to a s)all $istance0 ;ur sight is i)(e$e$ 7y inter-ening 7o$ies an$ sha$o.s0 To 2no. each other .e )ust reach 7eyon$ the s(here of our sense (erce(tions0 &e )ust trans)it our intelligence8 tra-el8 trans(ort the )aterials an$ transfer the energies necessary for our e'istence0 Follo.ing this thought .e no. realiBe8 forci7ly enough to $is(ense .ith argu)ent8 that of all other conquests of )an8 .ithout e'ce(tion8 that .hich is )ost $esira7le8 .hich .oul$ 7e )ost hel(ful in the esta7lish)ent of uni-ersal (eaceful relations isKthe co)(lete ANNI(I%ATI'N '9 DI&TAN2E0 To achie-e this .on$er8 electricity is the one an$ only )eans0 ,nesti)a7le goo$ has alrea$y 7een $one 7y the use of this all (o.erful agent8 the nature of .hich is still a )ystery0 ;ur astonish)ent at .hat has 7een acco)(lishe$ .oul$ 7e uncontrolla7le .ere it not hel$ in chec2 7y the e'(ectation of greater )iracles to co)e0 That one8 the greatest of all8 can 7e -ie.e$ in three as(ectsI Dissemination of intelligence+ trans*ortation+ and transmission of *o"er. +eferring to the first8 the (resent syste)s of telegra(hic an$ tele(honic co))unication are -ery li)ite$ in sco(e0 The con$ucting channels are costly an$ of s)all .or2ing ca(acity0 There is serious in$ucti-e $istur7ance8 an$ stor)s ren$er the ser-ice unsafe .hich8 )oreo-er8 is too e'(ensi-eI A -ast i)(ro-e)ent .ill 7e effecte$ 7y (lacing the .ires un$ergroun$ an$ insulating the) artificially8 7y refrigeration0 Their .or2ing ca(acity also coul$ 7y in$efinitely aug)ente$ 7y resorting to the ne. (rinci(le of "in$i-i$ualiBation8" .hich , ha-e )ore recently announce$8 (er)itting the si)ultaneous trans)ission of thousan$s of telegra(hic an$ tele(honic )essages8 .ithout interference8 o-er a single .ire0 The (u7lic .oul$ 7e alrea$y (rofiting fro) these great a$-ances .ere it not for the stoli$ in$ifference of the lea$ing co)(anies engage$ in the trans)ission of intelligence0 3ut ne. concerns are s(ringing into e'istence an$ the near future .ill .itness a great transfor)ation along these t.o lines of in-ention0 The su7)arine ca7les are su7Hect to still greater li)itations0 >o)e o7stacles to ra(i$ signalling8 through the)8 see) insu(era7le0 The atte)(ts to o-erco)e these ha-e 7een nu)erous8 7ut so far all ha-e (ro-e$ futile0 The cele7rate$ )athe)atician8 ;0 Hea-isi$e8 an$ se-eral a7le electricians follo.ing in his footste(s8 ha-e fallen into the singular error that ra(i$ telegra(hy an$ e-en tele(hony through ocean ca7les .oul$ 7e )a$e (ractica7le 7y the use of in$uction coils0 ,n$uctances )ight 7e to so)e e'tent hel(ful on co)(arati-ely short lines .ith thic2 (a(er insulationJ on long lines insulate$ .ith ru77er or gutta9(ercha they .oul$ 7e (ositi-ely $etri)ental0 ,)(ro-e)ents .ill8 un$ou7te$ly8 7e )a$e8 7ut great electrostatic ca(acity an$ una-oi$a7le loss of energy in the insulation an$ surroun$ing con$uctors .ill al.ays restrict the usefulness of the trans)ission through artificial con$uctors is necessarily confine$ to a s)all nu)7er of stations0 ,t is therefore e-i$ent that the a7olish)ent of all these $ra.7ac2s 7y the con-eyance of signals or )essages .ithout .ires8 as , ha-e un$erta2en in )y ".orl$" telegra(hy an$ tele(hony8 .ill 7e of the greatest )o)ent in the furtherance of (eace0 The unifying influence of this a$-ance .ill 7e felt all the )ore8 as it .ill not only co)(letely
annihilate $istance8 7ut also )a2e it (ossi7le to o(erate fro) a singe ".orl$" telegra(hy (lant8 an unli)ite$ nu)7er of recei-ing stations $istri7ute$ all o-er the glo7e8 an$ .ith equal facility8 irres(ecti-e of location0 &ithin a fe. years a si)(le an$ ine'(ensi-e $e-ice8 rea$ily carrie$ a7out8 .ill ena7le one to recei-e on lan$ or sea the (rinci(al ne.s8 to hear a s(eech8 a lecture8 a song or (lay of a )usical instru)ent8 con-eye$ fro) any other region of the glo7e0 The in-ention .ill also )eet the crying nee$ for chea( trans)ission to great $istances8 )ore es(ecially o-er the oceans0 The s)all .or2ing ca(acity of the ca7les an$ the e'cessi-e cost of )essages are no. fatal i)(e$i)ents in the $isse)ination of intelligence .hich can only 7e re)o-e$ 7y trans)ission .ithout .ires0 The $eficiencies of HertBian telegra(hy ha-e create$ in the (u7lic )in$ the i)(ression that e'clusi-e or (ri-ate )essages .ithout the use of artificial channels are i)(ractica7le0 As a )atter of fact8 nothing coul$ 7e )ore erroneous0 "-er since its first a((earance in 18918 , ha-e $enie$ the co))ercial (ossi7ilities of the syste) of signalling 7y HertBian or electro)agnetic .a-es8 an$ )y forecasts ha-e 7een fully confir)e$0 ,t len$s itself little to tuning8 still less to the higher artifices of "in$i-i$ualiBation8" an$ trans)ission to consi$era7le $istances is .holly out of the question0 <ortentous clai)s for this )etho$ of co))unication .ere )a$e three years ago8 7ut they ha-e 7een una7le to stan$ the har$8 cruel test of ti)e0 /oreo-er8 , ha-e recently learne$ through the lea$ing 3ritish electrical Hournal (Electrician8 #on$on8 Fe7ruary !*8 1953 8 that so)e e'(eri)enters ha-e a7an$one$ all their o.n an$ ha-e 7een "con-erte$" to )y )etho$s an$ a((liances8 .ithout )y a((ro-al an$ officiation0 , .as 7oth astonishe$ an$ (aine$Kastonishe$ at the nonchalance an$ lac2 of a((reciation of these )en8 (aine$ at the ina7ility e'hi7ite$ in the construction an$ use of )y a((aratus0 /y high ho(es raise$ 7y that e'cellent Hournal8 ho.e-er8 are still to 7e realiBe$8 for , ha-e ascertaine$ that His /aHesty the :ing of "nglan$8 His e'cellency the <resi$ent of the Cnite$ >tates8 an$ other (ersons of e'alte$ (ositions ha-e8 after all8 not conferre$ u(on )e the i)(erisha7le honour of graciously con$escen$ing to the use for )y coils8 transfor)ers an$ high9(otential )etho$s of trans)ission8 7ut ha-e e'change$ their august greetings through the )e$iu) of a ca7le in the ol$9fashione$ .ay0 &hat has 7een actually achie-e$ 7y HertBian telegra(hy can only 7e conHecture$0 Auite $ifferent con$itions e'ist in )y syste) in .hich the electro)agnetic .a-es or ra$iations are $esigne$ly )ini)iBe$8 the connection of one of the ter)inals of the trans)itting circuit to the groun$ ha-ing8 itself8 the effect of re$ucing the energy of these ra$iations to a7out one9half0 Cn$er o7ser-ance of (ro(er rules an$ artifices the $istance is of little or no consequence8 an$ 7y s2ilful a((lication of the (rinci(le of "in$i-i$ualiBation8" re(eate$ly referre$ to the )essages )ay 7e ren$ere$ 7oth non9interfering an$ non9interfera7le0 This in-ention8 .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ in technical (u7lications8 atte)(ts to i)itate8 in a -ery cru$e .ay8 the ner-ous syste) in the hu)an 7o$y0 ,t .as the outco)e of long9continue$ tests $e)onstrating the i)(ossi7ility of satisfying rigorous co))ercial require)ents 7y )y earlier syste)8 7ase$ on si)(le tuning8 in .hich the selecti-e quality is $e(en$ent on a single characteristic feature0 ,n this later i)(ro-e)ent the e'clusi-eness an$ non9interfera7ility of i)(ulses trans)itte$ through a co))on channel result fro) coo(erati-e association for a number of $istincti-e ele)ents8 an$ can 7e (ushe$ as far as $esire$0 ,n actual (ractice it is foun$ that 7y co)7ining only t.o -i7rations or tones8 a $egree of (ri-acy sufficient for )ost (ur(oses is attaine$0 &hen three -i7rations are co)7ine$8 it is e'tre)ely $ifficult8 e-en for a s2ille$ e'(ert8 to rea$ or to $istur7 signals not inten$e$ for hi)8 .ith four it is a -ain un$erta2ing0 The (ro7a7ility of his getting the secret co)7inations at the right )o)ents an$ in (ro(er or$er8 is )uch s)aller than that of $ra.ing an a)7o8 terno or quaterno8 res(ecti-ely8 in a lottery0 Fro) e'(eri)ental facts8 , conclu$e that the in-ention .ill (er)it the si)ultaneous trans)ission of se-eral )illions of se(arately $istinguisha7le )essages through the earth8 .hich8 strangely enough8 is in this res(ect )uch su(erior to an artificial con$uctor0 This nu)7er ought to 7e sufficient to )eet all the (ressing necessities of intelligence trans)ission for at least one century to co)e0 ,t is i)(ortant to o7ser-e that 7ut one ".orl$" telegra(hy (lant8 such as , a) no. co)(leting8 .ill ha-e a greater .or2ing ca(acity than all the ocean cables combined. ;nce these facts are recogniBe$ this ne. art8 .hich , a) inaugurating8 .ill s.ee( the .orl$ .ith the force of a uragan0 ,n trans(ortation a great change is no. going on0 The trolley lines are 7eing e'ten$e$8 the stea) loco)oti-e is )a2ing (lace for the electric )otor0 The ocean liners are a$o(ting the tur7ine0 #an$ tra-el is 7eing i)(ro-e$ 7y the auto)o7ile0 The .aterfalls are 7eing harnesse$ an$ the energy use$ in the (ro(ulsion of cars0 The a$-antages of first generating electricity 7y a (ri)e )o-er8 are 7eing )ore an$ )ore a((reciate$0 To the )aHority8 this )ay a((ear a roun$a7out .ay of $oing8 7ut in reality it is as $irect as the $ri-ing of a (ulley fro) another 7y a 7elt0 The i$ea is alrea$y 7eing a((lie$ to rail9roa$s8 an$ auto)o7iles of this ne. ty(e are )a2ing their a((earance0 The ocean -essels are 7oun$ to follo.0 An i))ense an$ -irgin fiel$ .ill 7e thus o(ene$ u( to the )anufacturers of electric )achinery0 "ffort to.ar$s sa-ing ti)e an$ )oney is characteristic of all )o$ern
)etho$s of trans(ortation0 ,n )any of these ne. $e-elo()ents8 the artificial insulation of the high9tension )ains 7y refrigeration .ill 7e -ery useful0 Ho.e-er (ara$o'ical8 it is true8 that 7y the use of this in-ention8 (o.er for all in$ustrial (ur(oses can 7e trans)itte$ to $istances of )any hun$re$s of )iles8 not only .ithout any loss8 7ut .ith a((recia7le gain of energy0 This is $ue to the fact that the con$uctor is )uch col$er than the surroun$ing )e$iu)0 The o(erati-eness of this )etho$ is restricte$ to the use of a gaseous refrigerant8 no 2no.n liqui$ (er)itting the attain)ent of a sufficiently lo. te)(erature of the trans)ission line0 Hy$rogen is 7y far the 7est cooling agent to e)(loy0 3y its use electric rail.ays can 7e e'ten$e$ to any $esire$ $istance0 ;.ing to the s)allness of oh)ic loss8 the o7Hections to the )ulti(hase syste) $isa((ear an$ in$uction )otors .ith close$ coil ar)atures can 7e a$o(te$0 , fin$ that e-en trans)ission through a su7)arine ca7le8 as fro) >.e$en to "nglan$8 of great a)ounts of (o.er is (erfectly (ractica7le0 3ut the i$eal solution of the (ro7le) of trans(ortation .ill 7e arri-e$ at only .hen the co)(lete annihilation of $istance in the trans)ission of (o.er in large a)ounts shall ha-e 7eco)e a co))ercial reality0 That $ay .e shall in-a$e the $o)ain of the 7ir$0 &hen the -e'ing (ro7le) of aerial na-igation8 .hich has $efie$ his atte)(ts for ages8 is sol-e$8 )an .ill a$-ance .ith giant stri$es0 That electrical energy can 7e econo)ically trans)itte$ .ithout .ires to any terrestrial $istance8 , ha-e un)ista2a7ly esta7lishe$ in nu)erous o7ser-ations8 e'(eri)ents an$ )easure)ents8 qualitati-e an$ quantitati-e0 These ha-e $e)onstrate$ that is (ractica7le to $istri7ute (o.er fro) a central (lant in unli)ite$ a)ounts8 .ith a loss not e'cee$ing a small fraction of one *er cent+ in the trans)ission8 e-en to the greatest $istance8 t.el-e thousan$ )ilesKto the o((osite en$ of the glo7e0 This see)ingly i)(ossi7le feat can no. 7e rea$ily (erfor)e$ 7y any electrician fa)iliar .ith the $esign an$ construction of )y "high9(otential )agnifying trans)itter8" the )ost )ar-ellous electrical a((aratus of .hich , ha-e 2no.le$ge8 ena7ling the (ro$uction of effects of unli)ite$ intensities in the earth an$ its a)7ient at)os(here0 ,t is8 essentially8 a freely -i7rating secon$ary circuit of $efinite length8 -ery high self9in$uction an$ s)all resistance8 .hich has one of its ter)inals in inti)ate $irect or in$ucti-e connection .ith the groun$ an$ the other .ith an ele-ate$ con$uctor8 an$ u(on .hich the electrical oscillations of a (ri)ary or e'citing circuit are i)(resse$ un$er con$itions of resonance0 To gi-e an i$ea of the ca(a7ilities of this .on$erful a((liance8 , )ay state that , ha-e o7taine$8 7y its )eans8 s(ar2 $ischarges e'ten$ing through )ore than one hun$re$ feet an$ carrying currents of one thousan$ a)(eres8 electro)oti-e forces a((ro'i)ating t.enty )illion -olts8 che)ically acti-e strea)ers co-ering areas of se-eral thousan$ square feet8 an$ electrical $istur7ances in the natural )e$ia sur*assing those cause$ 7y lightning8 in intensity0 &hate-er the future )ay 7ring8 the uni-ersal a((lication of these great (rinci(les is fully assure$8 though it )ay 7e long in co)ing0 &ith the o(ening of the first (o.er (lant8 incre$ulity .ill gi-e .ay to .on$er)ent8 an$ this to ingratitu$e8 as e-er 7efore0 The ti)e is not $istant .hen the energy of falling .ater .ill 7e )an's life energy0 >o far only a7out )illion horse9(o.er ha-e 7een harnesse$ 7y )y syste) of alternating9current trans)ission0 This is little8 7ut corres(on$s8 ne-ertheless to the a$$ing of si'ty )illion in$efatiga7le la7ourers8 .or2ing -irtually .ithout foo$ an$ (ay8 to the .orl$'s (o(ulation0 The (roHects .hich ha-e co)e to )y o.n attention8 ho.e-er8 conte)(late the e'(loitation of .ater (o.ers aggregating so)ething li2e one hun$re$ an$ fifty )illion horse9 (o.er0 >houl$ they 7e carrie$ out in a quarter of a century8 as see)s (ro7a7le fro) (resent in$ications8 there .ill 7e8 on the a-erage t.o such untiring la7ourers for e-ery in$i-i$ual0 #ong 7efore this consu))ation8 coal an$ oil )ust cease to 7e i)(ortant factors in the sustenance of hu)an life on this (lanet0 ,t shoul$ 7e 7orne in )in$ that electrical energy o7taine$ 7y harnessing a .aterfall is (ro7a7ly fifty ti)es )ore effecti-e than fuel energy0 >ince this is the )ost (erfect .ay of ren$ering the sun's energy a-aila7le8 the $irection of the future )aterial $e-elo()ent of )an is clearly in$icate$0 He .ill li-e on ".hite coal0" #i2e a 7a7e to the )others's 7reast .ill he cling to his .aterfall0 "Gi-e us our $aily .aterfall8" .ill 7e the (rayer of the co)ing generations0 Deus futurus est deus a)uae deiectusE 3ut the fact that stationary .a-es are (ro$uci7le in the earth is of s(ecial an$8 in )any .ays8 still greater significance in the intellectual $e-elo()ent of hu)anity0 <o(ularly e'(laine$8 such a .a-e is a (heno)enon generically a2in to an echoKa result of reflection0 ,t affor$s a (ositi-e an$ uncontro-erti7le e'(eri)ental e-i$ence that the electric current8 after (assing into the earth tra-els to the $ia)etrically o((osite region of the sa)e an$ re7oun$ing fro) there8 returns to its (oint of $e(arture .ith -irtually un$i)inishe$ force0 The outgoing an$ returning currents clash an$ for) no$es an$ loo(s si)ilar to those o7ser-a7le on a -i7rating cor$0 To tra-erse the entire $istance of a7out t.enty9fi-e thousan$ )iles8 equal to the circu)ference of the glo7e8 the current requires a certain ti)e inter-al8 .hich , ha-e a((ro'i)ately ascertaine$0 ,n yiel$ing this 2no.le$ge8 nature has re-eale$ one of its )ost (recious secrets8 of inesti)a7le consequence to )an0 >o astoun$ing are the facts in this connection8 that it .oul$ see) as though the Creator8 hi)self8 ha$ electrically $esigne$ this (lanet
Hust for the (ur(ose of ena7ling us to achie-e .on$ers .hich8 7efore )y $isco-ery8 coul$ not ha-e 7een concei-e$ 7y the .il$est i)agination0 A full account of )y $isco-eries an$ i)(ro-e)ents .ill 7e gi-en to the .orl$ in a s(ecial .or2 .hich , a) (re(aring0 ,n so far8 ho.e-er8 as they relate to in$ustrial an$ co))ercial uses8 they .ill 7e $isclose$ in (atent s(ecifications )ost carefully $ra.n0 As state$ in a recent article (Electrical #orld and Engineer8 /arch 48 1956 8 , ha-e 7een since so)e ti)e at .or2 on $esigns of a (o.er (lant .hich is to trans)it ten thousan$ horse9(o.er .ithout .ires0 The energy is to 7e collecte$ all o-er the earth at )any (laces an$ in -arying a)ounts0 ,t shoul$ not 7e un$erstoo$ that the (ractical realiBation of this un$erta2ing is necessarily far off0 The (lans coul$ 7e easily finishe$ this .inter8 an$ if so)e (reli)inary .or2 on the foun$ations coul$ 7e $one in the )eanti)e the (lant )ight 7e rea$y for o(eration 7efore the close of ne't fall0 &e .oul$ then ha-e at our $is(osal a unique an$ in-alua7le )achine0 Eust this one oscillator .oul$ a$-ance the .orl$ a century0 ,ts ci-iliBing influence .oul$ 7e felt e-en 7y the hu)7lest $.eller in the .il$erness0 /illions of instru)ents of all 2in$s8 for all i)agina7le (ur(oses8 coul$ 7e o(erate$ fro) that one )achine0 Cni-ersal ti)e coul$ 7e $istri7ute$ 7y si)(le ine'(ensi-e cloc2s requiring no attention an$ running .ith nearly )athe)atical (recision0 >toc29tic2ers8 synchronous )o-e)ents an$ innu)era7le $e-ices of this character coul$ 7e .or2e$ in unison all o-er the earth0 ,nstru)ents )ight 7e (ro-i$e$ for in$icating the course of a -essel at sea8 the $istance tra-erse$8 the s(ee$8 the hour at any (articular (lace8 the latitu$e an$ longitu$e0 ,ncalcula7le co))ercial a$-antages coul$ 7e thus secure$ an$ countless acci$ents an$ $isasters a-oi$e$0 Here an$ there a house )ight 7e lighte$ or so)e other .or2 requiring a fe. horse9(o.er (erfor)e$0 &hat is far )ore i)(ortant than this8 flying )achines )ight 7e $ri-en in any (art of the .orl$0 They coul$ 7e )a$e to tra-el s.iftly 7ecause of their s)all .eight an$ great )oti-e (o.er0 /y intention .oul$ 7e to utiliBe this first (lant rather as )eans of enlighten)ent8 to collect its (o.er in -ery s)all a)ounts8 an$ at as )any (laces as (ossi7le0 The 2no.le$ge that there is thro77ing through the earth energy rea$ily a-aila7le e-ery.here8 .oul$ e'ert a strong sti)ulus on stu$ents8 )echanics an$ in-entors of all countries0 This .oul$ 7e (ro$ucti-e of infinite goo$0 /anufacture .oul$ recei-e a fresh an$ (o.erful incenti-e0 Con$itions8 such as ne-er e'iste$ 7efore in co))erce8 .oul$ 7e 7rought a7out0 >u((ly .oul$ 7e e-er ina$equate to $e)an$0 The in$ustries of iron8 co((er8 alu)iniu)8 insulate$ .ire an$ )any others8 coul$ not fail to $eri-e great an$ lasting 7enefits fro) this $e-elo()ent0 The econo)ic trans)ission of (o.er .ithout .ires is of all9sur(assing i)(ortance to )an0 3y its )eans he .ill gain co)(lete )astery of the air8 the sea an$ the $esert0 ,t .ill ena7le hi) to $is(ense .ith the necessity of )ining8 (u)(ing8 trans(orting an$ 7urning fuel8 an$ so $o a.ay .ith innu)era7le causes of sinful .aste0 3y its )eans8 he .ill o7tain at any (lace an$ in any $esire$ a)ount8 the energy of re)ote .aterfallsKto $ri-e his )achinery8 to construct his canals8 tunnels an$ high.ays8 to )anufacture the )aterials of his .ant8 his clothing an$ foo$8 to heat an$ light his ho)eKyear in8 year out8 e-er an$ e-er8 7y $ay an$ 7y night0 ,t .ill )a2e the li-ing glorious sun his o7e$ient8 toiling sla-e0 ,t .ill 7ring (eace an$ har)ony on earth0 ;-er fi-e years ha-e ela(se$ since that (ro-i$ential lightning stor) on the 3$ of Euly8 18998 of .hich , tol$ in the article 7efore )entione$8 an$ through .hich , $isco-ere$ the terrestrial stationary .a-esJ nearly fi-e years since , (erfor)e$ the great e'(eri)ent .hich on that unforgetta7le $ay8 the $ar2 Go$ of Thun$er )ercifully sho.e$ )e in his -ast8 a.e9soun$ing la7oratory0 , thought then that it .oul$ ta2e a year to esta7lish co))ercially )y .ireless gir$le aroun$ the .orl$0 AlasY )y first ".orl$ telegra(hy" (lant is not yet co)(lete$8 its construction has (rogresse$ 7ut slo.ly $uring the (ast t.o years0 An$ this )achine , a) building is 7ut a (laything8 an oscillator of a )a'i)u) acti-ity of only ten )illion horse9(o.er8 Hust enough to thro. this (lanet into fee7le tre)ors8 7y sign an$ .or$Kto telegra(h an$ to tele(hone0 #hen shall , see co)(lete$ that first (o.er (lant8 that 7ig oscillator .hich , a) designingY Fro) .hich a current stronger than that of a .el$ing )achine8 un$er a tension of one hun$re$ )illion -olts8 is to rush through the earthY &hich .ill $eli-er energy at the rate of one thousan$ )illion horse9(o.erKone hun$re$ Falls of 1iagara co)7ine$ in one8 stri2ing the uni-erse .ith 7lo.sK7lo.s that .ill .a2e fro) their slu)7er the slee(iest electricians8 if there 7e any8 on Genus or /arsY 0 0 0 ,t is not a $rea)8 it is a sim$le feat of s(ientifi( ele(tri(al engineering8 only e'(ensi-eK7lin$8 faint9hearte$8 $ou7ting .orl$Y 0 0 0 Hu)anity is not yet sufficiently a$-ance$ to 7e .illingly le$ 7y the $isco-er's 2een searching sense0 3ut .ho 2no.sF <erha(s it is 7etter in this (resent .orl$ of ours that a re-olutionary i$ea or in-ention instea$ of 7eing hel(e$ an$ (atte$8 7e ha)(ere$ an$ ill9treate$ in its a$olescenceK7y .ant of )eans8 7y selfish interest8 (e$antry8 stu(i$ity an$ ignoranceJ that it 7e attac2e$ an$ stifle$J that it (ass through 7itter trials an$ tri7ulations8 through the heartless strife of co))ercial e'istence0 &o $o .e get our light0 >o all that .as great in the (ast .as ri$icule$8 con$e)ne$8 co)7ate$8 su((resse$Konly to e)erge all the )ore (o.erfully8 all the )ore triu)(hantly fro) the struggle0
1-05-06-"/: Tesla on Su1way %angers 4y Nikola Tesla

"lectrical &orl$ an$ "ngineer The 1e. Dor2 >un of Eune 1% (rinte$ the follo.ing letter fro) /r0 1i2ola TeslaI The floo$ing of the su7.ay is a cala)ity a(t to re(eat itself0 As your rea$ers .ill re)e)7er8 it $i$ not occur for the first ti)e last >un$ay0 &ater8 li2e fire8 .ill 7rea2 loose occasionally in s(ite of (recautions0 ,t .ill ne-er 7e (ossi7le to guar$ against a casual 7ursting of a )ainJ for .hile the con$uit can 7e safely relie$ u(on un$er nor)al .or2ing con$itions8 any acci$ental o7struction to the flo. )ay cause a (ressure .hich no (i(e or Hoint can .ithstan$0 ,n fact8 if .e are to (lace faith in the gloo)y forecasts of Co))issioner ;a2ley8 .ho ought to 2no.8 such floo$s )ay 7e e'(ecte$ to ha((en frequently in the future0 ,n -ie. of this it see)s ti)ely to call to (u7lic attention a $anger inherent to the electrical equi()ent .hich has 7een thrust u(on the ,nter7orough Co)(any 7y inco)(etent a$-isers0 The su7.ay is 7oun$ to 7e successful8 an$ .oul$ 7e so if the cars .ere $ra.n 7y )ules8 for it is the i$eal )eans of trans(ortation in cro.$e$ cities0 3ut the full )easure of success of .hich it is ca(a7le .ill 7e attaine$ only .hen the financiers shall say to the electric co)(aniesI "Gi-e us the 7est8 regar$less of e'(ense0" ,t is to 7e regrette$ that this i)(ortant (ioneering enter(rise8 in other res(ects a7ly )anage$ an$ engineere$8 shoul$ ha-e 7een treate$ .ith such gross neglect in its )ost -ital feature0 1o o((ortunity .as gi-en to )yself8 the in-entor an$ (atentee of the syste) a$o(te$ in the su7.ay an$ the ele-ate$ roa$s8 for offering so)e useful suggestion8 nor .as a single electrician or engineer of the General "lectric an$ &estinghouse co)(anies consulte$8 the -ery )en .ho shoul$ ha-e 7een thought of first of all0 ;nce large su)s of )oney are in-este$ in a $efecti-e sche)e it is $ifficult to )a2e a change8 ho.e-er $esira7le it )ay 7e0 The )o-e)ent of ne. ca(ital is largely $eter)ine$ 7y (re-ious in-est)ent0 "-en the ne. roa$s no. (lanne$ are li2ely to 7e equi((e$ .ith the sa)e cla(tra( $e-ices8 an$ so the e-il .ill gro.0 "=as e7en ist $er Fluch $er 7oesen Thut8 $as sie fortBeugen$ 3oeses )uss ge7aeren0" The $anger to .hich , refer lies in the (ossi7ility of generating an e'(losi-e )i'ture 7y electrolytic $eco)(osition an$ ther)ic $issociation of the .ater through the $irect currents use$ in the o(eration of the cars0 >uch a (rocess )ight go on for hours an$ $ays .ithout 7eing notice$J an$ .ith currents of this 2in$ it is scarcely (ractica7le to a-oi$ it altogether0 ,t .ill 7e recalle$ that an e'(ert foun$ the (ercentage of free o'ygen in the su7.ay a((recia7ly a7o-e that .hich )ight reasona7ly ha-e 7een e'(ecte$ in such a )ore or less stagnate$ channel0 , ha-e ne-er $ou7te$ the correctness of that analysis an$ ha-e assu)e$ that o'ygen is 7eing continuously set free 7y stray currents (assing through the )oist groun$0 The total a)(erage of the nor)al .or2ing current in the tunnel is -ery great8 an$ in case of floo$ing .oul$ 7e sufficient to generate not far fro) 155 cu7ic feet of hy$rogen (er )inute0 ,nas)uch8 ho.e-er8 as in rail.ay o(eration the fuses )ust 7e set har$8 in or$er to a-oi$ frequent interru(tion of the ser-ice 7y their 7lo.ing out8 in such an e)ergency the current .oul$ 7e of 0 )uch greater -olu)e an$ hy$rogen .oul$ 7e )ore a7un$antly li7erate$0 ,t is a (eculiar (ro(erty of this gas that it is ca(a7le of e'(lo$ing .hen )i'e$ .ith a co)(arati-ely large -olu)e of air8 an$ any engineer can con-ince hi)self 7y a si)(le calculation that8 say8 1558555 cu7ic feet of e'(losi-e )ight 7e for)e$ 7efore the $anger is $isco-ere$8 re(orte$ an$ (re-enti-e )easures ta2en0 &hat the effect of such an e'(losion )ight 7e on life an$ (ro(erty is not (leasant to conte)(late0 True8 such a $isaster is not (ro7a7le8 7ut the (resent electrical equi()ent )a2es it (ossi7le8 an$ this (ossi7ility shoul$ 7e8 7y all )eans8 re)o-e$0 The o((ressi-eness of the tunnel at)os(here is in a large )easure $ue to the heat su((lie$ 7y the currents8 an$ to the (ro$uction of nitrous aci$ in the arcs8 .hich is enhance$ 7y rarefaction of the air through ra(i$ )otion0 >o)e (ro-ision for -entilation is i)(erati-e0 3ut -entilation .ill not $o a.ay .ith the $anger , ha-e (ointe$ out0 ,t can 7e co)(letely a-oi$e$ only 7y $iscar$ing the $irect current0 , shoul$ say that the city authorities8 for this if for no other reason8 shoul$ for7i$ its use 7y a (ro(er act of legislation0 /ean.hile8 the o.ners of a$Hacent (ro(erty shoul$ o7Hect to its e)(loy)ent8 an$ the insurance co)(anies shoul$ refuse the grant of (olicies on such (ro(erty e'ce(t on ter)s .hich it )ay (lease the) to )a2e0
1-05-0<-1/: Tesla2s #e$ly to *dison 4y Nikola Tesla

English /echanic and #orld of &cience >ays "&e >hall >oon 7e Tal2ing +oun$ the &orl$"0 As .e sai$ last .ee28 /r0 "$ison .as re(orte$ to ha-e sai$ in an inter-ie. of the 1e. Dor2 &orl$ that he $i$ not 7elie-e .ith Tesla in 7eing a7le to tal2 roun$ the .orl$8 7ut that he thought /arconi .oul$8 sooner or later8 (erfect his syste)0 1i2ola Tesla has re(lie$0 He saysI ,n the course of certain in-estigations .hich , carrie$ on for the (ur(ose of stu$ying the effects of lightning $ischarges u(on the electrical con$ition of the earth , o7ser-e$ that sensiti-e recei-ing instru)ents arrange$ so as to 7e ca(a7le of res(on$ing to electrical $istur7ances create$ 7y the $ischarges at ti)es faile$ to res(on$ .hen they shoul$ ha-e $one so8 an$ u(on inquiring into the causes of this une'(ecte$ 7eha-iour , $isco-ere$ it to 7e $ue to the character of the electrical .a-es .hich .ere (ro$uce$ in the earth 7y the lightning $ischarges8 an$ .hich ha$ no$al regions follo.ing at $efinite $istances the shifting source of the $istur7ances0 Fro) $ata o7taine$ in a large nu)7er of o7ser-ations of the )a'i)a an$ )ini)a of these .a-es , foun$ their length to -ary a((ro'i)ately fro) t.enty9fi-e to se-enty 2ilo)etres8 an$ these results an$ theoretical $e$uctions le$ )e to the conclusion that .a-es of this 2in$ )ay 7e (ro(agate$ in all $irections o-er the glo7e8 an$ that they )ay 7e of still )ore .i$ely $iffering lengths8 the e'tre)e li)its 7eing i)(ose$ 7y the (hysical $i)ensions an$ (ro(erties of the earth0 +ecognising in the e'istence of these .a-es an un)ista2a7le e-i$ence that the $istur7ances create$ ha$ 7een con$ucte$ fro) their origin to the )ost re)ote (ortions of the glo7e8 an$ ha$ 7een thence reflecte$8 , concei-e$ the i$ea of (ro$ucing such .a-es in the earth 7y artificial )eans8 .ith the o7Hect of using the) for )any useful (ur(oses for .hich they are or )ight 7e foun$ a((lica7le0 3eat #ightning Flashes0 This (ro7le) .as ren$ere$ e'tre)ely $ifficult8 o.ing to the i))ense $i)ensions of the (lanet8 an$ consequently enor)ous )o-e)ent of electricity or rate at .hich electrical energy ha$ to 7e $eli-ere$ in or$er to a((ro'i)ate8 e-en in a re)ote $egree8 )o-e)ents or rates .hich are )anifestly attaine$ in the $is(lays of electrical forces in nature8 an$ .hich see)e$ at first unrealisa7le 7y any hu)an agenciesJ 7ut 7y gra$ual an$ continuous i)(ro-e)ents of a generator of electrical oscillations8 .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ in )y <atents 1os0 %6484*% an$ %698%!18 , finally succee$e$ in reaching electrical )o-e)ents or rates of $eli-ery of electrical energy not only a((ro'i)ately8 7ut8 as sho.n in co)(arati-e tests an$ )easure)ents8 actually sur(assing those of lightning $ischarges an$ 7y )eans of this a((aratus , ha-e foun$ it (ossi7le to re(ro$uce8 .hene-er $esire$8 (heno)ena in the earth the sa)e as or si)ilar to those $ue to such $ischarges0 &ith the 2no.le$ge of the (heno)ena $isco-ere$ 7y )e8 an$ the )eans at co))an$ for acco)(lishing these results8 , a) ena7le$8 not only to carry out )any o(erations 7y the use of 2no.n instru)ents8 7ut also to offer a solution for )any i)(ortant (ro7le)s in-ol-ing the o(eration or control of re)ote $e-ices .hich8 for .ant of this 2no.le$ge an$ the a7sence of these )eans8 ha-e heretofore 7een entirely i)(ossi7le0 For e'a)(le8 7y the use of such a generator of stationary .a-es an$ recei-ing a((aratus (ro(erly (lace$ an$ a$Huste$ in any other locality8 ho.e-er re)ote8 it is (ractica7le to trans)it intelligi7le signals8 or to control or actuate at .ill any one or all of such a((aratus for )any other i)(ortant an$ -alua7le (ur(oses8 as for in$icating .hene-er $esire$ the correct ti)e of an o7ser-atory8 or for ascertaining the relati-e (osition of a 7o$y or $istance of the sa)e .ith reference to the gi-en (oint8 or for $eter)ining the course of a )o-ing o7Hect8 such as a -essel at sea8 the $istance tra-erse$ 7y the sa)e or its s(ee$J or for (ro$ucing )any other useful effects at a $istance $e(en$ent on the intensity8 .a-elength8 $irection or -elocity of )o-e)ents8 or other feature or (ro(erty of $istur7ances of this character0 A 3it of >arcas)0 <er)it )e to say on this occasion that if there e'ist to9$ay no facilities for .ireless telegra(hic an$ tele(hone co))unication 7et.een the )ost $istant countries8 it is )erely 7ecause a series of )isfortunes an$ o7stacles ha-e $elaye$ the consu))ation of )y la7ours8 .hich )ight ha-e 7een co)(lete$ three years ago0 ,n this connection , shall .ell re)e)7er the efforts of so)e8 un.ise enough to 7elie-e that they can gain an a$-antage 7y thro.ing san$ in the eyes of the (eo(le an$ retar$ing the (rogress of in-ention0 >houl$ the first )essages across the seas (ro-e cala)itous to the)8 it .ill 7e a (unish)ent regretta7le 7ut fully $eser-e$0
1-05-0<-16: Tesla on t,e 5eary Nort, 5ole *+$edition 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork &un To the "$itor of the 1e. Dor2 >unI "-ery7o$y )ust ha-e 7een (lease$ to learn that Co))o$ore <eary has finally o7taine$ the financial assistance .hich .ill ena7le hi) to start .ithout further $elay on his i)(ortant Hourney0 #et us .ish the 7ol$ na-igator the )ost co)(lete success in his (erilous un$erta2ing8 in the interest of hu)anity as .ell as for his o.n an$ his co)(anions' sa2e an$ the gratification of the generous $onors .ho ha-e ai$e$ hi)0 3ut8 .hile -oicing these senti)ents8 let us ho(e that <eary's .ill 7e the last atte)(t to reach the (ole in this slo.8 (eni7le an$ haBar$ous .ay0 &e ha-e alrea$y sufficiently a$-ance$ in the 2no.le$ge of electricity an$ its a((lications to a-ail oursel-es of 7etter )eans of trans(ortation8 ena7ling us to reach an$ to e'(lore .ithout $ifficulty an$ in a )ore (erfect )anner not only the 1orth8 7ut also the >outh <ole8 an$ any other still un2no.n regions of the earth's surface0 , refer to the facilities affor$e$ in this res(ect 7y the trans)ission of electrical energy .ithout .ires an$ aerial na-igation8 .hich has foun$ in the no-el art its i$eal solution0 /any of your rea$ers .ill8 no $ou7t8 7e un$er the i)(ression that , a) s(ea2ing )erely of (ossi7ilities0 As a )atter of fact8 fro) the (rinci(les in-ol-e$ an$ the e'(eri)ents .hich , ha-e actually (erfor)e$8 not only is the (ractical success of such $istri7ution of (o.er re$uce$ to a $egree of )athe)atical certitu$e8 7ut the trans)ission can 7e9effecte$ .ith an econo)y )uch greater than (ossi7le 7y the (resent )etho$ in-ol-ing the use of .ires0 ,t .oul$ not ta2e long to 7uil$ a (lant for (ur(oses of aerial na-igation an$ geogra(hical research8 nor .oul$ it cost as )uch as )ight 7e su((ose$0 ,ts location .oul$ 7e (erfectly i))aterial0 ,t )ight 7e at the 1iagara8 or at the Gictorian Falls in Africa8 .ithout any a((recia7le $ifference in the (o.er collecte$ in a flying )achine or other a((aratus0 A (o(ular error8 .hich , ha-e often o((ortunity to correct8 is to 7elie-e that the energy of such a (lant .oul$ $issi(ate itself in all $irections0 This is not so8 as , ha-e (ointe$ out in )y technical (u7lications0 "lectricity is $is(lace$ 7y the trans)itter in all $irections8 equally through the earth an$ the airJ that is true8 7ut energy is e'(en$e$ only at the (lace .here it is collecte$ an$ use$ to (erfor) so)e .or20 To illustrate8 a (lant of 158555 H<8 such as , ha-e 7een (lanning8 )ight 7e running full 7last at 1iagara8 an$ there )ight 7e 7ut one flying )achine8 of8 say8 45 H< o(erating in so)e $istant (lace8 the location 7eing of a7solutely no consequence0 ,n this case 45 H< .oul$ 7e all the (o.er furnishe$ 7y the (lant to the rest of the uni-erse0 Although the electrical oscillations .oul$ )anifest the)sel-es all o-er the earth8 at the surface as .ell as high in the air8 -irtually no (o.er .oul$ 7e consu)e$0 /y e'(eri)ents ha-e sho.n that the entire electrical )o-e)ent .hich 2ee(s the .hole glo7e a9tre)7le can 7e )aintaine$ .ith 7ut a fe. horse(o.er0 A(art fro) the trans)itting an$ recei-ing a((aratus8 the only loss incurre$ is the energy ra$iate$ in the for) of HertBian or electro9)agnetic .a-es8 .hich can 7e re$uce$ to any entirely insignificant quantity0 , a((reciate the $ifficulty .hich your non9technical rea$ers )ust e'(erience in co)(rehen$ing the .or2ing of this syste)0 To gain a rough i$ea8 let the) i)agine the trans)itter an$ the earth to 7e t.o elastic 7ags8 one -ery s)all an$ the other i))ense8 7oth 7eing connecte$ 7y a tu7e an$ fille$ .ith so)e inco)(ressi7le flui$0 A (u)( is (ro-i$e$ for forcing the flui$ fro) one into the other8 alternately an$ in ra(i$ succession0 1o.8 to (ro$uce a great )o-e)ent of the flui$ in a 7ag of such enor)ous siBe as the earth .oul$ require a (u)( so large that it .oul$ 7e a greater tas2 to construct it than to 7uil$ a thousan$ "gy(tian (yra)i$s0 3ut there is a .ay of acco)(lishing this .ith a (u)( of -ery s)all $i)ensions0 The 7ag connecte$ to the earth is elastic8 an$ .hen su$$enly struc2 -i7rates at a certain rate0 The first artifice consists in so $esigning an$ a$Husting the (arts that the natural -i7rations of the 7ag are in synchronis) .ith the stro2es of the (u)(0 Cn$er such con$itions the 7ag is set into -iolent -i7rations8 an$ the flui$ is )a$e to rush in an$ out .ith terrific force0 3ut the i))ense 7ag 9 the earth8 is still co)(arati-ely un$istur7e$0 ,ts siBe8 ho.e-er8 $oes not e'e)(t it fro) the la.s of nature8 an$ Hust as the s)all 7ag8 so too the earth8 res(on$s to certain i)(ulses0 This fact , $isco-ere$ in 18990 The secon$ artifice is to so a$Hust the trans)itter that it .ill furnish these (articular i)(ulses0 &hen all is (ro(erly $one the large 7ag is thro.n into s(as)s of -i7ration8 an$ the effects are 7e.il$ering0 3ut no (o.er is yet trans)itte$8 an$ all this colossal )o-e)ent requires little energy to )aintain0 ,t is li2e an engine running .ithout loa$0 1e't let your rea$ers i)agine that at any (lace .here it )ay 7e $esire$ to $eli-er energy a s)all elastic 7ag8 not unli2e the first8 is connecte$ to the large one through a tu7e0 The thir$ artifice consists in so (ro(ortioning the (arts that the attach)ent .ill 7e res(onsi-e to the i)(ulse trans)itte$8 this resulting in a great intensification of the -i7ration of the 7ag0 >till the (u)( .ill not furnish (o.er until these -i7rations are )a$e to $o .or2 of so)e
2in$0 To con$uce to an un$erstan$ing of the fourth artifice8 that of "in$i-i$ualiBation8" let your rea$ers follo. )e a ste( further8 an$ concei-e the flo. of energy to any (oint can 7e controlle$ fro) the (lace .here the (u)( is locate$ at .ill8 an$ .ith equal facility an$ (recision8 regar$less of $istance8 an$8 further)ore8 through a $e-ice such as the co)7ination loc2 of a safe8 they .ill then ha-e a cru$e i$ea of the (rocesses in-ol-e$0 3ut only .hen they realiBe that all these an$ )any other (rocesses not )entione$8 an$ relate$ to one another li2e the lin2s of a chain8 are co)(lete$ in a fraction of a secon$8 .ill your rea$ers 7e a7le to a((reciate the )agical (otencies of electrical -i7rations an$ for) a conce(tion of the )iracles .hich a s2ille$ electrician can (erfor) 7y the use of these a((liances0 , earnestly ho(e that in the near future the con$itions .ill 7e fa-oura7le for the construction of a (lant such as , ha-e (ro(ose$0 As soon as this is $one it .ill 7e (ossi7le to a$a(t electrical )otors to flying )achines of the ty(e (o(ulariBe$ 7y >antos =u)ont0 There .ill 7e no necessity of carrying a generator or store of )oti-e energy an$ consequently the )achine .ill 7e )uch lighter an$ s)aller0 ;.ing to this an$ also to the greater (o.er a-aila7le for (ro(ulsion8 the s(ee$ .ill 7e consi$era7ly increase$0 3ut a fe. of such )achines8 (ro(erly equi((e$ .ith (hotogra(hic an$ other a((liances8 .ill 7e sufficient to gi-e us in a short ti)e an e'act 2no.le$ge of the entire earth's surface0 ,t shoul$ 7e 7orne in )in$8 ho.e-er8 that for the or$inary uses of a single (erson a -ery s)all )achine of not )ore than one9quarter horse9(o.er8 corres(on$ing to the .or2 of t.o )en8 .oul$ 7e a)(ly sufficient so that .hen the first (lant of 158555 H< is installe$8 the co))o$ity of aerial flight can 7e offere$ to a great )any in$i-i$uals all the .orl$ o-er0 , can concei-e of no i)(ro-e)ent .hich .oul$ 7e )ore efficient in the furtherance of ci-iliBation than this0 10 T">#A
1-0<-09-00: Signalling to Mars I A 5ro1lem of *le(tri(al *ngineering 4y Nikola Tesla

(arvard Illustrated 3y 1i2ola Tesla0 ,n the early (art of 19558 still -i-i$ly i)(resse$ 7y certain o7ser-ations8 , ha$ )a$e shortly 7efore8 an$ feeling that the ti)e ha$ co)e to (re(are the .orl$ for an e'(eri)ent .hich .ill soon 7e un$erta2en8 , $.elt on the (ractica7ility of inter(lanetary signalling in an article .hich a((eare$ in the Eune nu)7er of Century /agaBine of the sa)e year0 ,n or$er to correct an erroneous re(ort .hich gaine$ .i$e circulation8 a state)ent .as (u7lishe$ in Collier's &ee2ly of Fe70 98 19518 $efining )y (osition in general ter)s0 "-er since8 )y thoughts ha-e 7een centre$ on the su7Hect8 an$ )y original con-iction has 7een strengthene$ 7oth 7y reflection an$ suggestion0 Chief a)ong the sti)ulating influences .as the re-elatory .or2 of <erci-al #o.ell8 $escri7e$ in a -olu)e .ith .hich the o7ser-atory8 7earing his na)e8 has honoure$ )e0 1o one can loo2 at his glo7e of /ars .ithout a feeling of (rofoun$ astonish)ent8 if not a.e0 These )ar2ings8 still i)(erfectly $iscerne$ an$ inco)(rehensi7le8 7ut e-i$ently inten$e$ for a useful (ur(ose8 )ay they not contain a recor$ of $ee( )eaning left 7y a su(erior race8 (erha(s e'tinct8 to tell its young 7rethren in other .orl$s of secrets $isco-ere$8 of life an$ struggle8 of their o.n terri7le fateF &hat )ighty (athos an$ lo-e in such a gigantic $ra)a of the uni-erseI 3ut let us ho(e that the astrono)er has seen true8 that /ars is not a col$ gra-e8 7ut the a7o$e of ha((y intelligent creatures8 fro) .ho) .e )ay learn0 ,n the light of this glorious (ossi7ility8 signalling to that (lanet (resents itself as a (re9e)inently (ractical (ro(osition .hich8 to carry out8 no hu)an sacrifice coul$ 7e too great0 Can it 7e $oneF &hat chance is there that it .ill 7e $oneF These questions .ill 7e ans.ere$ $efinitely the )o)ent all $ou7t as to the e'istence of highly $e-elo(e$ 7eings on /ars is $is(elle$0 The straightness of the lines on #o.ell's )a(8 their unifor) .i$th an$ other geo)etrical (eculiarities8 $o not8 the)sel-es8 a((eal to )e as strong (roofs of artificiality0 , shoul$ thin2 that a (lanet large enough not to 7e froBen stiff in a s(as) of -olcanic action8 li2e our )oon8 )ust8 in the course of eons8 ha-e all its )ountains le-elle$8 the -alleys fille$8 the roc2s groun$ to san$8 an$ ulti)ately assu)e the for) of a s)ooth s(heroi$8 .ith all its ri-ers flo.ing in geo$etically straight lines0 The unifor) .i$th of the .ater.ays can 7e consistently e'(laine$8 their crossings8 ho.e-er o$$ an$ (uBBling8 )ight 7e acci$ental0 3ut , quite agree .ith <rofessor /orse8 that this .hole .on$erful )a( (ro$uces the a7solute an$ irresisti7le con-iction8 that these "canals" o.e their e'istence to a gui$ing intelligence0 Their great siBe is not a -ali$ argu)ent to the contrary0 ,t .oul$ )erely i)(ly that the /artians ha-e harnesse$ the energy of .aterfalls0 &e 2no. of no other source of (o.er co)(etent to e'(lain such tre)en$ous feats of engineering0 They coul$ not 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y ca(turing the sun's rays or a7stracting heat i)(arte$ to the at)os(here8 for this8 accor$ing to our 7est 2no.le$ge8 .oul$ require clu)sy an$ inefficient )achinery0 #arge falls coul$ 7e o7taine$ near the (olar ca(s 7y e'tensi-e $a)s0 &hile )uch less effecti-e than our o.n8 they coul$ .ell furnish se-eral 7illions of horse9(o.er0 ,t shoul$ 7e 7orne in )in$ that )any /artian tas2s in )echanical engineering are )uch easier than the terrestrial8 on account of the s)aller )ass of the (lanet an$ lesser $ensity8 .hich8 in the su(erficial layers8 )ay 7e consi$era7ly 7elo. the )ean0 To a still greater $egree this is true of electrical engineering0 Ta2ing into account the s(ace enco)(asse$ 7y /ars8 a syste) of .ireless trans)ission of energy8 such as , ha-e (erfecte$8 .oul$ 7e there )uch )ore a$-antageously a((lie$8 for8 un$er si)ilar con$itions8 a recei-ing circuit .oul$ collect si'teen ti)es as )uch energy as on the earth0 The astonishing e-i$ences furnishe$ 7y #o.ell are not only in$icati-e of organic life8 7ut they )a2e it a((ear -ery (ro7a7le that /ars is still (o(ulate$J an$ further)ore8 that its inha7itants are highly $e-elo(e$ intelligent 7eings0 ,s there any other (roof of such e'istenceF , ans.er8 e)(hatically8 yes8 (ro)(te$ 7oth 7y an instinct .hich has ne-er yet $ecei-e$ )e8 an$ o7ser-ation0 , refer to the strange electrical $istur7ances8 the $isco-ery of .hich , announce$ si' years ago0 At that ti)e , .as only certain that they .ere of (lanetary origin0 1o.8 after )ature thought an$ stu$y8 , ha-e co)e to the (ositi-e conclusion that they )ust e)anate fro) /ars0 #ife8 as a great (hiloso(her has sai$8 is 7ut a continuous a$Hust)ent to the en-iron)ent0 >i)ilar con$itions )ust 7ring forth si)ilar auto)ata0 &e can ha-e no i$ea .hat a /artian )ight 7e li2e8 7ut he certainly has sensiti-e organs8 )uch as our o.n8 res(onsi-e to e'ternal sti)uli0 The in$ications of these instru)ents )ust 7e real an$ true0 A straight line8 a geo)etrical figure8 a nu)7er8 )ust con-ey to his )in$ a clear an$ $efinite conce(tion0 He ought to thin2 an$ reason li2e oursel-es0 ,f he 7reathes8 eats an$ $rin2s8 he is )o-e$ 7y )oti-es an$ $esires not -ery $ifferent fro) our o.n0 >uch colossal transfor)ation as is o7ser-a7le on the face of /ars coul$ not ha-e 7een .rought e'ce(t 7y 7eings ages ahea$ of us in $e-elo()ent0 &hat .on$er8 then8 if they ha-e )a(s of this8 our glo7e8 as (erfect as <rofessor <ic2ering's (hotogra(hs of the )oonF &hat .on$er if they are signalling to usF &e are sufficiently a$-ance$ in electrical science to 2no. that their tas2 is )uch easier than ours0 The question is8 can .e trans)it electrical energy to that i))ense $istanceF This , thin2 )yself co)(etent
to ans.er in the affir)ati-e0 10 Tesla
1-0<-09-08: Tuned 'ig,tning 4y Nikola Tesla

English /echanic and #orld of &cience , rea$ .ith interest an article in the >un$ay &orl$ of Ean0 !5 on "Tune$ #ightning8" $escri7e$ as a )ysterious ne. energy8 .hich is to turn e-ery .heel on earth8 an$ is su((ose$ to ha-e 7een recently $isco-ere$ 7y the =anish in-entors &al$e)ar <oulsen an$ <0 ;0 <e$erson0 Fro) other re(orts , ha-e gathere$ that these gentle)en ha-e so far confine$ the)sel-es to the (eaceful (ro$uction of )iniature 7olts not )any inches long8 an$ , a) .on$ering .hat an account of their (ros(ecti-e achie-e)ents .oul$ rea$ li2e if they ha$ succee$e$ in o7taining8 li2e )yself8 electrical $ischarges of 155 ft08 far sur(assing lightning in so)e features of intensity an$ (o.er0 ,n -ie. of their li)ite$ Eo-ian e'(erience8 the (rogra))e outline$ 7y the =anish engineers is rather e'tensi-e8 #or$ Ar)strong's -ast resources not.ithstan$ing0 1aturally enough8 , shall loo2 .ith interest to their tele(honing across the Atlantic8 su((lying light an$ (ro(elling airshi(s .ithout .ires0 Anch io suito (ittore0 (,8 too8 a) a (ainter0 ,n the )ean ti)e it )ay not 7e a)iss to state here inci$entally that all the essential (rocesses of an$ a((liances for the generation8 trans)ission8 transfor)ation8 $istri7ution8 storage8 regulation8 control8 an$ econo)ic utilisation of "tune$ lightning" ha-e 7een (atente$ 7y )e8 an$ that , ha-e long since un$erta2en8 an$ a) s(aring no effort to ren$er these a$-ances instru)ental in insuring the .elfare8 co)fort8 an$ con-enience8 (ri)arily8 of )y fello. citiBens0 There is nothing re)ar2a7le in the $e)onstration re(orte$ to ha-e 7een )a$e 7efore >ir &illia) <reece an$ <rof0 >yl-anus <0 Tho)(son8 nor is there any no-elty in the electrical $e-ices e)(loye$0 The lighting of arc la)(s through the hu)an 7o$y8 the fusing of a (iece of co((er in )i$9air8 as $escri7e$8 are si)(le e'(eri)ents .hich 7y the use of )y high9frequency transfor)ers any stu$ent of electricity can rea$ily (erfor)0 They teach nothing ne.8 an$ ha-e no 7earing on .ireless trans)ission8 for the actions -irtually cease at a $istance of a fe. feet fro) the source of -i7ratory energy0 Dears ago , ga-e e'hi7itions of si)ilar an$ other )uch )ore stri2ing e'(eri)ents .ith the sa)e 2in$ of a((aratus8 )any of .hich ha-e 7een illustrate$ an$ e'(laine$ in technical Hournals0 The (u7lishe$ recor$s are o(en to ins(ection0 +egar$less of all that8 the =anish in-entors ha-e not as yet offere$ the slightest (roof that their e'(ectations are realisa7le8 an$ 7efore a$-ancing seriously the clai) that an efficient .ireless $istri7ution of light an$ (o.er to great $istances is (ossi7le8 they shoul$8 at least8 re(eat those of )y e'(eri)ents .hich ha-e furnishe$ this e-i$ence0 A scientific au$ience cannot hel( 7eing i)(resse$ 7y a $is(lay of interesting (heno)ena8 7ut the originality an$ significance of a $e)onstration such as that referre$ to can only 7e Hu$ge$ 7y an e'(ert (ossesse$ of full 2no.le$ge an$ ca(a7le of $ra.ing correct conclusions0 A no-el effect8 s(ectacular an$ sur(rising8 )ight 7e quite uni)(ortant8 .hile another8 see)ingly trifling8 is of the greatest consequence0 To illustrate8 let )e )ention here t.o .i$ely $ifferent e'(eri)ents of )ine0 ,n one the 7o$y of a (erson .as su7Hecte$ to the ra(i$ly9alternating (ressure of an electrical oscillator of t.o an$ a half )illion -oltsJ in the other a s)all incan$escent la)( .as lighte$ 7y )eans of a resonant circuit groun$e$ on one en$8 all the energy 7eing $ra.n through the earth electrifie$ fro) a $istant trans)itter0 The first (resents a sight )ar-ellous an$ unforgetta7le0 ;ne sees the e'(eri)enter stan$ing on a 7ig sheet of fierce8 7lin$ing fla)e8 his .hole 7o$y en-elo(e$ in a )ass of (hos(horescent .riggling strea)ers li2e the tentacles of an octo(us0 3un$les of light stic2 out fro) his s(ine0 As he stretches out the ar)s8 thus forcing the electric flui$ out.ar$ly8 roaring tongues of fire lea( fro) his fingerti(s0 ;7Hects in his -icinity 7ristle .ith rays8 e)it )usical notes8 glo.8 gro. hot0 He is the centre of still )ore curious actions8 .hich are in-isi7le0 At each thro7 of the electric force )yria$s of )inute (roHectiles are shot off fro) hi) .ith such -elocities as to (ass through the a$Hoining .alls0 He is in turn 7eing -iolently 7o)7ar$e$ 7y the surroun$ing air an$ $ust0 He e'(eriences sensations .hich are in$escri7a7le0 A lay)an8 after .itnessing this stu(en$ous an$ incre$i7le s(ectacle8 .ill thin2 little of the secon$ )o$est e'hi7it0 3ut the e'(ert .ill not 7e $ecei-e$0 He realiBes at once that the secon$ e'(eri)ent is e-er so )uch )ore
$ifficult to (erfor) an$ i))ensely )ore consequential0 He 2no.s that to )a2e the little fila)ent glo.8 the entire surface of the (lanet8 t.o hun$re$ )illion square )iles8 )ust 7e strongly electrifie$0 This calls for (eculiar electrical acti-ities8 hun$re$s of ti)es greater than those in-ol-e$ in the lighting of an arc la)( through the hu)an 7o$y0 &hat i)(resses hi) )ost8 ho.e-er8 is the 2no.le$ge that the little la)( .ill s(ring into the sa)e 7rilliancy any.here on the glo7e8 there 7eing no a((recia7le $i)inution of the effect .ith the increase of $istance fro) the trans)itter0 This is a fact of o-er.hel)ing i)(ortance8 (ointing .ith certitu$e to the final an$ lasting solution of all the great social8 in$ustrial8 financial8 (hilanthro(ic8 international8 an$ other (ro7le)s confronting hu)anity8 a solution of .hich .ill 7e 7rought a7out 7y the co)(lete annihilation of $istance in the con-eyance of intelligence8 trans(ort of 7o$ies an$ )aterials8 an$ the trans)ission of the energy necessary to )an's e'istence0 /ore light has 7een thro.n on this scientific truth lately through <rof0 >la7y's s(len$i$ an$ (ath97rea2ing e'(eri)ent in esta7lishing (erfect .ireless tele(hone connection 7et.een 1au) an$ 3erlin8 Ger)any8 a $istance of t.enty )iles0 &ith a((aratus (ro(erly organise$ such tele(honic co))unication can 7e effecte$ .ith the sa)e facility an$ (recision at the greatest terrestrial $istance0 The $isco-ery of the stationary terrestrial .a-es8 sho.ing that8 $es(ite its -ast e'tent8 the entire (lanet can 7e thro.n into resonant -i7ration li2e a little tuning for2J that electrical oscillations suite$ to its (hysical (ro(erties an$ $i)ensions (ass through it uni)(e$e$8 in strict o7e$ience to a si)(le )athe)atical la.8 has (ro-e$ 7eyon$ the sha$o. of a $ou7t that the earth8 consi$ere$ as a channel for con-eying electrical energy8 e-en in such $elicate an$ co)(le' trans)issions as hu)an s(eech or )usical co)(osition8 is infinitely su(erior to a .ire or ca7le8 ho.e-er .ell $esigne$0 Gery soon it .ill 7e (ossi7le to tal2 across an ocean as clearly an$ $istinctly as across a ta7le0 The first (ractical success8 alrea$y forecast 7y >la7y's con-incing $e)onstration8 .ill 7e the signal for re-olutionary i)(ro-e)ents .hich .ill ta2e the .orl$ 7y stor)0 Ho.e-er great the success of the tele(hone8 it is Hust 7eginning its e-i$ence of usefulness0 &ireless trans)ission of s(eech .ill not only (ro-i$e ne. 7ut also enor)ously e'ten$ e'isting facilities0 This .ill 7e )erely the forerunner of e-er so )uch )ore i)(ortant $e-elo()ent8 .hich .ill (rocee$ at a furious (ace until8 7y the a((lication of these sa)e great (rinci(les8 the (o.er of .aterfalls can 7e focuse$ .hene-er $esire$J until the air is conquere$8 the soil fructifie$ an$ e)7ellishe$J until8 in all $e(art)ents of hu)an life $istance has lost its )eaning8 an$ e-en the i))ense gulf se(arating us fro) other .orl$s is 7ri$ge$0
1-0<-09-1-: Tesla2s Fireless Tor$edo 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times ,n-entor >ays He =i$ >ho. That ,t &or2e$ <erfectly To the "$itor of The 1e. Dor2 Ti)esI A re(ort in the Ti)es of this )orning says that , ha-e attaine$ no (ractical results .ith )y $irigi7le .ireless tor(e$o0 , ha-e constructe$ such )achines8 an$ sho.n the) in o(eration on frequent occasions0 They ha-e .or2e$ (erfectly an$ e-ery7o$y .ho sa. the) .as a)aBe$ at their (erfor)ance0 ,t is true that )y efforts to ha-e this no-el )eans for attac2 an$ $efence a$o(te$ 7y our Go-ern)ent ha-e 7een unsuccessful8 7ut this is no $iscre$it to )y in-ention0 , ha-e s(ent years in fruitless en$ea-our 7efore the .orl$ recogniBe$ the -alue of )y rotating fiel$ $isco-eries .hich are no. uni-ersally a((lie$0 The ti)e is not yet ri(e for the telauto)atic art0 ,f its (ossi7ilities .ere a((reciate$ the nations .oul$ not 7e 7uil$ing large 7attleshi(s0 >uch a floating fortress )ay 7e safe against an or$inary tor(e$o8 7ut .oul$ 7e hel(less in a 7attle .ith a )achine .hich carries t.enty tons of e'(losi-e8 )o-es s.iftly un$er.ater8 an$ is controlle$ .ith (recision 7y an o(erator 7eyon$ the range of the largest gun0 As to (roHecting .a-e9energy to any (articular region of the glo7e8 , ha-e gi-en a clear $escri(tion of the )eans in technical (u7lications0 1ot only can this 7e $one 7y the )eans of )y $e-ices8 7ut the s(ot at .hich the $esire$ effect is to 7e (ro$uce$ can 7e calculate$ -ery closely8 assu)ing the acce(te$ terrestrial )easure)ents to 7e correct0 This8 of course8 is not the case0 C( to this $ay .e $o not 2no. a $ia)eter of the glo7e .ithin one thousan$ feet0 /y .ireless (lant .ill ena7le )e to $eter)ine it .ithin fifty feet or less8 .hen it .ill 7e (ossi7le to rectify )any geo$etical $ata an$ )a2e such calculations as those referre$ to .ith greater accuracy0 NI6'%A TE&%A Ne" -ork+ /arch 11+ 11=.
1-0<-09-"6: Fireless on #ail roads 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times Nikola Tesla &ays It Is 3erfectly 3ractical and #ill &oon 4e In Dse. To the Editor of The Ne" -ork Times$ 1o argu)ent is nee$e$ to sho. that the rail roa$s offer o((ortunities for a$-antageous use of a (ractical .ireless syste)0 &ithout question8 its .i$est fiel$ of a((lication is the con-eyance to the trains of such general infor)ation as is in$is(ensa7le for 2ee(ing the tra-eller in touch .ith the .orl$0 ,n the near future a telegra(hic (rinter of ne.s8 a stoc2 tic2er8 a tele(hone8 an$ other 2in$re$ a((liances .ill for) (arts of the regular .ireless equi()ent of a rail roa$ train0 >uccess in this s(here is all the )ore certain8 as the ne. is not antagonistic8 7ut8 on the contrary8 -ery hel(ful to the ol$0 The technical $ifficulties are )ini)iBe$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of a trans)itter the effecti-eness of .hich is uni)(aire$ 7y $istance0 ,n -ie. of the great losses of life an$ (ro(erty8 i)(ro-e$ safety $e-ices on the cars are urgently nee$e$0 3ut u(on careful in-estigation it .ill 7e foun$ that the outloo2 in this $irection is not -ery (ro)ising for the .ireless art0 ,n the first (lace the rail roa$s are ra(i$ly changing to electric )oti-e (o.er8 an$ in all such cases the lines 7eco)e a-aila7le for the o(eration of all sorts of signalling a((aratus8 of .hich she tele(hone is 7y far the )ost i)(ortant0 This -alua7le i)(ro-e)ent is $ue to <rof0 E0 <aley8 .ho intro$uce$ it in Ger)any eight years ago0 3y ena7ling the engineer or con$uctor of any train to call u( any other train or station along the trac2 an$ o7tain full an$ un)ista2a7le infor)ation8 the lia7ility of collisions an$ other acci$ents .ill 7e greatly re$uce$0 <u7lic o(inion shoul$ co)(el the i))e$iate a$o(tion of this in-ention0 Those roa$s .hich $o not conte)(late this transfor)ation )ight a-ail the)sel-es of .ireless trans)ission for si)ilar (ur(oses8 7ut inas)uch as e-ery train .ill require in a$$ition to a co)(lete outfit an e'(ert o(erator8 )any roa$s )ay (refer to use a .ire8 unless a .ireless tele(hone can 7e offere$ to the)0 1,:;#A T">#A 1e. Dor28 /arch !48 195*
1-0<-05-0": Ni.ola Tesla O1Je(ts 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times Thinks (e &hould !eceive 2redit for (is '"n Inventions. To the Editor of The Ne" -ork Times$ , ha-e 7een )uch sur(rise$ to rea$ in The Ti)es of >un$ay8 A(ril !18 that A$)iral H0 10 /anney8 C0>010 attri7utes a .ell92no.n in-ention of )ine8 a (rocess for the (ro$uction of continuous electrical oscillations 7y )eans of the electric arc an$ con$enser8 to Galentine <oulsen8 the =anish engineer0 This i)(ro-e)ent has 7een e)7o$ie$ 7y )e in nu)erous for)s of a((aratus i$entifie$ .ith )y na)eJ an$ , ha-e $escri7e$ it )inutely in (atents an$ scientific articles0 To quote 7ut one of )any references8 , )ay )ention )y e'(eri)ental lecture on "#ight an$ ;ther High9Frequency <heno)ena8" (u7lishe$ un$er the aus(ices of the Fran2lin Association8 for .hich 7oth of these societies ha-e $istinguishe$ )e0 , share .ith A$)iral /anney in the gratification that .e are in the lea$8 an$ (articularly that .ireless )essages ha-e 7een trans)itte$ fro) <ensacola to <oint #orne0 ,nas)uch8 ho.e-er8 as this feat coul$ not ha-e 7een acco)(lishe$ e'ce(t 7y the use of so)e of )y o.n $e-ices8 it .oul$ ha-e 7een a graceful act on his (art to 7ring this feat to the attention of the .ireless conference0 /y theory has al.ays 7een that )ilitary )en are su(erior to ci-ilians in courtesy0 , ha-e not 7een $iscourage$ 7y the refusal of our Go-ern)ent to a$o(t )y .ireless syste) si' years ago8 .hen , offere$ it8 not 7y the un(leasant (ros(ect of )y (assing through the e'(eriences $escri7e$ 7y /ar2 T.ain in his story of the 7eef contract8 7ut , see no reason .hy , shoul$ 7e $e(ri-e$ of a .ell9earne$ honour an$ satisfaction0 The Ti)es has hurt )e grie-ouslyJ not 7y accusing )e of co))ercialis)8 nor 7y its un2in$ e$itorial co))ents on those letters , .rote8 in con$e)nation of )y syste) of (o.er trans)ission in the >u7.ay0 ,t is another inHury8 (erha(s8 unintentional8 .hich , ha-e felt )ost 2eenly0 The e$itor of The Ti)es )ay not ha-e 2no.n that , a) a stu$ent of a((lie$ )athe)atics .hen he (er)itte$ a fello. stu$ent of )ine to insinuate in The Ti)es of /arch !8 that , a-ail )yself of in-entions of others0 , cannot (er)it such i$eas to gain groun$ in this co))unity8 an$8 Hust to illu)inate the situation8 , shall quote fro) the lea$ing electrical (a(er8 The #on$on "lectrician8 referring to so)e .ireless (lants of 3raun an$ /arconiI "The s(ar2 occurs 7et.een 7alls in the (ri)ary circuit of a Tesla coil0 The air .ireQQQis in series .ith a Tesla transfor)er QQQThe generating (lant is -irtually a <ol$hu in )iniature0 "-i$ently 3raun8 li2e /arconi8 has 7een con-erte$ to the high9(otential )etho$s intro$uce$ 7y Tesla0" 1ee$less to a$$ that this su7stitution of the ol$8 ineffecti-e HertBian a((liances for )y o.n has not 7een authoriBe$ 7y )e0 /y fello.9stu$ent can rest assure$ that , a) scru(ulously res(ecting the rights of others0 ,f , .ere not (ro)(te$ to $o so 7y a sense of fairness an$ (ri$e , .oul$ 7e 7y the (o.er , ha-e of in-enting anything , (lease0 10 T">#A 1e. Dor28 A(ril 358 195*
1-0<-05-09: Tesla2s Tidal FaEe to Ma.e Far im$ossi1le 4y Nikola Tesla

English /echanic and #orld of &cience Eust at this ti)e8 .hen all efforts to.ar$s (eaceful ar7itration not.ithstan$ing8 the nations are (re(aring to e'(en$ i))ense su)s in the $esign an$ construction of )onstrous 7attleshi(s8 it )ay 7e useful to 7ring to the attention of the general (u7lic a singular )eans for na-al attac2 an$ $efence8 .hich the telauto)atic art has )a$e (ossi7le8 an$ .hich is li2ely to 7eco)e a $eci$ing factor in the near future0 A fe. re)ar2s on this in-ention8 of .hich the .ireless tor(e$o is 7ut a s(ecial a((lication8 are in$is(ensa7le to the un$erstan$ing an$ fullQa((reciation of the na-al (rinci(le of $estruction0 The telauto)atic art is the result of en$ea-ours to (ro$uce an auto)aton ca(a7le of )o-ing an$ acting as if (ossesse$ of intelligence an$ $istinct in$i-i$uality0 =isconnecte$ fro) its higher e)7o$i)ent8 an organis)8 such as a hu)an 7eing8 is a heat 9 or ther)o$yna)ic engine 9 co)(risingI9 (1 a co)(lete (lant for recei-ing8 transfor)ing8 an$ su((lying energyJ (! a((aratus for loco)otion an$ other )echanical (erfor)anceJ (3 $irecti-e organsJ an$ (6 sensiti-e instru)ents res(onsi-e to e'ternal influences8 all these (arts constituting a .hole of )ar-ellous (erfection0 The a)7ient )e$iu) is ali-e .ith )o-e)ent an$ energy8 in a state of unceasing agitation .hich is 7eyon$ co)(rehension0 >trangely enough8 to )ost of this terri7le tur)oil the hu)an )achine is insensi7le0 The auto)aton $oes not feel the .eight of the at)os(here crushing hi) .ith a force of 1% tons0 He is unaffecte$ 7y the sho.er of (articles shooting through his 7o$y of clou$ an$ the hurricane of finer su7stance rushing through hi) .ith the s(ee$ of light0 He is unconscious that he is 7eing .his2e$ through s(ace at the fearful rate of *58555 )iles an hour0 3ut .hen gentle .a-es of light or soun$ stri2e hi) his eye an$ ear res(on$8 his resonant ner-e fi7res trans)it the -i7rations an$ his )uscles contract an$ rela'0 Thus8 li2e a float on a tur7ulent sea8 s.aye$ 7y e'ternal influences8 he )o-es an$ acts0 The a-erage (erson is not a.are of this constant $e(en$ence on his en-iron)entJ 7ut a traine$ o7ser-er has no $ifficulty in locating the (ri)ary $istur7ance .hich (ro)(ts hi) into action8 an$ continue$ e'ercise soon satisfies hi) that -irtually all of his (urely )echanical )otions are cause$ 7y -isual i)(ressions8 $irectly or in$irectly recei-e$0 C>,1G TH" <+,1C,<#"> ;F HC/A1 ACT,;10 A )achine of such inconcei-a7le co)(le'ity as the 7o$y of an organise$ 7eing8 ca(a7le of an infinite -ariety of actions8 .ith controlling organs su(ersensiti-e8 res(onsi-e to influences al)ost i))aterial8 cannot 7e )anufacture$ 7y )anJ 7ut the )echanical (rinci(les in-ol-e$ in the .or2ing of the li-ing auto)aton are also a((lica7le to an inani)ate engine8 ho.e-er cru$e0 An auto)o7ile 7oat .as first e)(loye$ to carry out the i$ea0 ,ts storage 7attery an$ )otor furnishe$ the (o.erJ the (ro(eller an$ ru$$er8 res(ecti-ely8 ser-e$ as loco)oti-e an$ $irecti-e organs8 an$ a -ery $elicate electrical $e-ice8 actuate$ 7y a circuit tune$ to a $istant trans)itter8 too2 the (lace of the ear0 This )echanis) follo.e$ (erfectly the .ireless signals or co))ents of the o(erator in control of the trans)itter8 (erfor)ing e-ery )o-e)ent an$ action as if it ha$ 7een gifte$ .ith intelligence0 The ne't ste( .as to in$i-i$ualise the )achine0 The attune)ent of the controlling circuits ga-e9it a s(ecial feature8 7ut this .as not sufficiently $istincti-e0 An in$i-i$uality i)(lies a nu)7er of characteristic traits .hich8 though (erha(s e'tant else.here8 are unique in that (articular co)7ination0 Here again the ani)ate$ auto)aton8 .ith its ner-e9signal syste)8 .as coarsely i)itate$0 The action of the $elicate $e-ice 9 the ear 9 .as )a$e $e(en$ent on a nu)7er of sensitise$ recei-ing circuits8 each recognisa7le 7y its o.n free -i7rations8 an$ all together 7y the character of their o(erati-e co)7ination0 Corres(on$ingly the trans)itter .as $esigne$ to e)it a .a-e9co)(le' e'actly )atching the co)7ination in the nu)7er an$ (itch of in$i-i$ual -i7rations8 their grou()ent an$ or$er of succession0 &;1="+> ;F TH" 1"& T"#ACT;/AT;10 That )uch is $one8 7ut )ore is to co)e0 A )echanis) is 7eing (erfecte$ .hich .ithout o(erator in control8 left to itself8 .ill 7eha-e as if en$o.e$ .ith intelligence of its o.n0 ,t .ill 7e res(onsi-e to the faintest e'ternal influences an$ fro) these8 unai$e$8 $eter)ine its su7sequent actions as if (ossesse$ of selecti-e qualities8 logic8 an$ reason0 ,t .ill (erfor) the $uties of an intelligent sla-e0 /any of us .ill li-e to see 3ul.er's $rea) realise$0 The rea$er for .ho) the (rece$ing short e'(lanation of this no-el art is inten$e$ )ay thin2 it si)(le an$ easy of e'ecution8 7ut it is far fro) 7eing so0 ,t has ta2en years of stu$y an$ e'(eri)ent to $e-elo( the necessary )etho$s an$ a((aratus8 an$ fi-e in-entions8 all )ore or less fun$a)ental an$ $ifficult to (ractise8
)ust 7e e)(loye$ to o(erate successfully an$ in$i-i$ualise$ telauto)aton0 >uch a no-el engine of .ar 9 a -essel of any 2in$8 su7)arine or aerial 9 carrying an agent of unli)ite$ (otency of $estruction8 .ith no soul a7oar$8 yet ca(a7le of $oing all it is $esigne$ for8 as if fully equi((e$ .ith a fearless cre. in co))an$ of its ca(tain8 )ust nee$s 7ring on a re-olution in the (resent )eans of attac2 an$ $efence0 >ince ages hu)an ingenuity has 7een 7ent u(on in-enting infernal )achines0 ;f these the )o$ern cannon has 7een so far the )ost re)ar2a7le0 A 1! in0 gun charge$ .ith cor$ite is sai$ to hurl a (roHectile of 845 l70 .ith the initial -elocity of nearly !8955 ft0 (er secon$8 i)(arting to it the energy of 11585558555 ft0 l70 &ere it not for the resistance of the air such a (roHectile .oul$ tra-el a7out fifty )iles 7efore stri2ing the groun$0 ,t .oul$ ta2e 38355 H0 <0 )ore than a )inute to accu)ulate its )echanical energy0 3ear in )in$8 ho.e-er8 that all this energy is i)(arte$ to the (roHectile .hile it is 7eing urge$ through the gun97arrel .ith a )ean force of 18155 tons0 ,f the 7arrel is 45 ft0 long an$ the a-erage -elocity through it 18455 ft0 (er secon$8 the .hole energy is transferre$ to a )o-ing )ass in 1/35th of a secon$J hence the rate of (erfor)ance is 18855 ti)es the a7o-e9that is a7out %85558555 H0<0 This see)s .on$erful in$ee$8 7ut is nothing as co)(are$ .ith rates o7taine$ 7y other )eans0 "lectricity can 7e store$ in the for) of e'(losi-e energy of a -iolence against .hich the $etonation of cor$ite is 7ut a 7reath0 &ith a )agnifying trans)itter as $iagra))atically illustrate$8 rates of !485558555 H0<0 ha-e alrea$y 7een o7taine$0 A si)ilar an$ )uch i)(ro-e$ )achine8 no. un$er construction8 .ill )a2e it (ossi7le to attain )a'i)u) e'(losi-e rates of o-er 85585558555 H0<08 t.enty ti)es the (erfor)ance of the =rea$nought's 7roa$si$e of eight 1! in0 guns si)ultaneously fire$0 These figures are so incre$i7le that astrono)ers unacquainte$ .ith the )ar-ellous a((liance ha-e naturally $ou7te$ the (ractica7ility of signalling to /ars0 ,n reality8 7y its )eans the see)ingly -isionary (roHect has 7een re$uce$ to a rational engineering (ro7le)0 The ti)e is not far $istant .hen all the tre)en$ous .astes of .ar .ill 7e sto((e$8 an$ then8 if there are 7attles8 they .ill 7e fought .ith .ater9(o.er an$ electrical .a-es0 That hu)anity is )o-ing fast to.ar$s this realisation is e-i$ent fro) )any in$ications0 &hat is )ost to 7e regrette$ in the (resent .ar regi)e is that the effort of so )any e'quisite intelligences )ust 7e unecono)ically a((lie$8 since it cannot 7e entirely go-erne$ 7y the .a-ering struggle of o((osing (rinci(les0 This fe-erish stri-ing to )eet the instant $e)an$8 to create ty(e after ty(e8 one to $e-our the other8 to )erge into one contrasting ele)ent8 lea$s8 li2e a night)are8 fro) one to another a7sur$ity0 >uch a )onstrosity is the latest creation of the na-al constructor 9 a !58555 ton 7attleshi(0 ,n theory it is con$e)ne$ 7y co)(etent authorities0 "-erything (oints to the $e-elo()ent of a s)all -essel .ith internal co)7ustion engines8 e'tre)e s(ee$8 an$ fe. .ea(ons of great $estructi-eness0 3ut the ne. le-iathan is a$)ira7ly a$a(te$ to the (ractical require)ents of the $ay0 ,n attac2 it coul$ alone annihilate a nation's fleet0 ,t is equally effecti-e in $efence0 ,f equi((e$ .ith (ro(er acoustic an$ electrical a((liances it has little to fear fro) a su7)arine8 an$ an or$inary tor(e$o .ill scarcely hurt it0 That is .hy the first of these )onsters8 7uilt in "nglan$8 has 7een na)e =rea$nought0 1o.8 there is a no-el )eans for attac2ing a fortress of this 2in$8 fro) shore or on the high seas8 against .hich all its gun9(o.er an$ ar)our resistance are of no a-ail0 ,t is the ti$al .a-e0 &HAT TH" T">#A T,=A# &AG" &,## =;0 >uch a .a-e can 7e (ro$uce$ .ith t.enty or thirty tons of chea( e'(losi-e8 carrie$ to its $estination an$ ignite$ 7y a non9interferi7le telauto)aton0 The ti$al $istur7ance8 as here consi$ere$8 is a (eculiar hy$ro$yna)ic (heno)enon8 in )any res(ects $ifferent fro) the co))only occurring8 characterise$ 7y a rhyth)ical succession of .a-es0 ,t consists generally of 7ut a single a$-ancing s.ell succee$e$ 7y a hollo.8 the .ater if not other.ise agitate$ 7eing (erfectly cal) in front an$ -ery nearly so 7ehin$0 The .a-e is (ro$uce$ 7y so)e su$$en e'(losion or u(hea-al8 an$ is8 as a rule8 asy))etrical for a large (art of its course0 Those .ho ha-e encountere$ a ti$al .a-e )ust ha-e o7ser-e$ that the sea rises rather slo.ly8 7ut the $escent into the trough is stee(0 This is $ue to the fact that the .ater is lifte$8 (ossi7ly -ery slo.ly8 un$er the action of a -arying force8 great at first8 7ut $ying out quic2ly8 .hile the raise$ )ass is urge$ $o.n.ar$ 7y the constant force of gra-ity0 &hen (ro$uce$ 7y natural causes these .a-es are not -ery $angerous to or$inary -essels8 7ecause the $istur7ance originate$ at a great $e(th0 To gi-e a fairly accurate i$ea of the efficacy of this no-el )eans of $estruction8 (articularly a$a(te$ for the coast $efence8 it )ay 7e assu)e$ that thirty tons of nitro9glycerine co)(oun$8 as $yna)ite8 7e e)(loye$ to create the ti$al $istur7ance0 This )aterial8 .eighing a7out t.ice as )uch as .ater8 can 7e store$ in a cu7ical tan2 8 ft0 each .ay8 or a s(herical -essel of 15 ft0 $ia)eter0 The rea$er .ill no. un$erstan$ that this charge is to 7e entruste$ to a non9interferi7le telauto)aton8 hea-ily (rotecte$8 an$ (artly su7)erge$ or su7)arine8 .hich is un$er (erfect control of a s2ille$ o(erator far a.ay0 At the (ro(itious )o)ent the signal is gi-en8 the charge sun2 to the (ro(er $e(th an$ ignite$0 The .ater is inco)(ressi7le0 The hy$rostatic (ressure is the sa)e in all $irections0 The e'(losion (ro(agates
through the co)(oun$ .ith a s(ee$ of three )iles a secon$0 ;.ing to all this8 the .hole )ass .ill 7e con-erte$ into gas 7efore the .ater can gi-e .ay a((recia7ly8 an$ a s(herical 7u77le 15 ft0 in $ia)eter .ill for)0 The gaseous (ressure against the surroun$ing .ater .ill 7e !58555 at)os(heres8 or 165 tons (er square inch0 &hen the great 7u77le has e'(an$e$ to t.ice its original -olu)e it .ill .eigh as )uch as the .ater it $is(laces8 an$ fro) that )o)ent on8 its lo.er en$ ta(ering )ore an$ )ore into a cone8 it .ill 7e $ri-en u( .ith a ra(i$ly9 increasing force ten$ing to.ar$s !58555 tons0 Cn$er the terrific i)(ulsion it .oul$ shoot u( the surface li2e a 7ullet .ere it not for the .ater resistance8 .hich .ill li)it its )a'i)u) s(ee$ to 85 ft0 (er secon$0 Consi$er not the quantity an$ energy of the u(hea-al0 The caloric (otential energy of the co)(oun$ is !8855 heat units (er (oun$8 or8 in )echanical equi-alent8 al)ost 18555 ft09tons0 The entire (otential energy of the e'(losi-e .ill thus 7e %%85558555 ft09tons0 ;f course8 only a (art of this i))ense store is transfor)a7le into )echanical effort0 Theoretically8 65 l70 of goo$ s)o2eless (o.$er .oul$ 7e sufficient to i)(art to the =rea$nought's 845 l70 (roHectile the tre)en$ous -elocity )entione$ a7o-e8 7ut it actually ta2es a charge of !45 l70 The ti$al .a-e generator is a $yna)ic transfor)er )uch su(erior to the gun8 its greatest (ossi7le efficiency 7eing as high as 66 (er cent0 Ta2ing8 to 7e conser-ati-e8 38 (er cent8 instea$8 there .ill 7e the total (otential store a7out !4 )illion foot9tons o7taine$ in )echanical energy0 H;& TH" "1"/D &;C#= 3" "1GC#F"=0 ;ther.ise state$8 !485558555 tons 9 that is8 8%585558555 cu0 ft0 of .ater8 coul$ 7e raise$ 1 ft08 or a s)aller quantity to a corres(on$ingly greater ele-ation0 The height an$ length of the .a-e .ill 7e $eter)ine$ 7y the $e(th at .hich the $istur7ance originate$0 ;(ening in the centre li2e a -olcano8 the great hollo.s .ill 7elch forth a sho.er of ice0 >o)e si'teen secon$s later a -alley of %55 ft0 $e(th8 counte$ fro) nor)al ocean le-el8 .ill for)8 surroun$e$ 7y a (erfectly circular s.ell8 a((ro'i)ately of equal height8 .hich .ill enlarge in $ia)eter at the rate of a7out !!5 ft0 (er secon$0 ,t is futile to consi$er the effect of such an eru(tion on a -essel situate$ near 7y8 ho.e-er large0 The entire na-y of a great country8 if )asse$ aroun$8 .oul$ 7e $estroye$0 3ut it is instructi-e to inquire .hat such a .a-e coul$ $o to a 7attleshi( of the =rea$nought ty(e at consi$era7le $istance fro) it origin0 A si)(le calculation .ill sho. that .hen the outer circle has e'(an$e$ to three9quarters of a )ile8 the s.ell8 a7out 18!45 ft0 long8 .oul$ still 7e )ore than 155 ft0 in height8 fro) crest to nor)al sea le-el8 an$ .hen the circle is one an$ one9quarter )ile in $ia)eter the -ertical $istance fro) crest to trough .ill 7e o-er 155 ft0 The first i)(act of the .ater .ill (ro$uce (ressures of three tons (er square foot8 .hich all o-er the e'(ose$ surface of8 say8 !58555 sq0 ft08 )ay a)ount to %58555 tons8 eight ti)es the force of the recoil of the 7roa$si$e0 That first i)(act )ay in itself 7e fatal0 =uring )ore than ten secon$s the -essel .ill 7e entirely su7)erge$ an$ finally $ro((e$ into the hollo. fro) a height of a7out *4 ft08 the $escent 7eing effecte$ )ore or less li2e a free fall0 ,t .ill then sin2 far 7elo. the surface8 ne-er to rise0
1-0<-05-1-: Mr& Tesla on t,e Fireless Transmission of 5ower 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork #orld To the Editor of The #orld$ , ha-e enHoye$ -ery )uch the o$$ (re$iction of >ir Hugh 3ell8 <resi$ent of the ,ron an$ >teel ,nstitute8 .ith reference to the .ireless trans)ission of (o.er8 re(orte$ in The &orl$ of the 15th inst0 &ith all the res(ect $ue to that great institution , .oul$ ta2e the li7erty to re)ar2 that if its <resi$ent is a genuine (ro(het he )ust ha-e o-ersle(t hi)self a trifle0 >ir Hugh .oul$ honour )e if he .oul$ carefully (eruse )y 3ritish (atent 1o0 88!558 in .hich , ha-e recor$e$ so)e of )y $isco-eries an$ e'(eri)ents8 an$ .hich )ay influence hi) to consi$era7ly re$uce his conser-ati-e esti)ate of one hun$re$ years for the fulfil)ent of his (ro(hecy0 <ersonally8 7asing )yself on the 2no.le$ge of this art to .hich , ha-e $e-ote$ )y 7est energies8 , $o not hesitate to state here for future reference an$ as a test of accuracy of )y scientific forecast that flying )achines an$ shi(s (ro(elle$ 7y electricity trans)itte$ .ithout .ire .ill ha-e cease$ to 7e a .on$er in ten years fro) no.0 , .oul$ say fi-e .ere it not that there is such a thing as "inertia of hu)an o(inion" resisting re-olutionary i$eas0 ,t is i$le to 7elie-e that 7ecause )an is en$o.e$ .ith higher attri7utes his )aterial e-olution is go-erne$ 7y other than general (hysical la.s0 ,f the genius of in-ention .ere to re-eal to)orro. the secret of i))ortality8 of eternal 7eauty an$ youth8 for .hich all hu)anity is aching8 the sa)e ine'ora7le agents .hich (re-ent a )ass fro) changing su$$enly its -elocity .oul$ li2e.ise resist the force of the ne. 2no.le$ge until ti)e gra$ually )o$ifies hu)an thought0 &hat has a)use$ )e still )ore8 ho.e-er8 is the curious inter-ie. .ith #e.is 1i'on8 the na-al contractor8 (rinte$ in the &orl$ of the 11th inst0 ,s it (ossi7le that the fa)ous $esigner of the ;regon is not 7etter -erse$ in e$itorial )atters than so)e of )y far)ing neigh7ours of >horeha)F ;ne cannot esca(e that con-iction0 &e are not in the $ar2 as regar$s the electrical energy containe$ in the earth0 ,t is altogether too insignificant for any in$ustrial use0 The current circulating through the glo7e is of enor)ous -olu)e 7ut of s)all tension8 an$ coul$ (erfor) 7ut little .or20 3esi$e8 ho. $oes 1i'on (ro(ose to coa' the current fro) the natural (ath of lo. resistance into an artificial channel of high resistanceF >urely he 2no.s that .ater $oes not flo. u( hill0 ,t is a7sur$ of hi) to co)(are the ine'hausti7le $yna)ic energy of .in$ .ith the )agnetic energy of the earth8 .hich is )inute in a)ount an$ in a static con$ition0 The tor(e$o he (ro(oses to 7uil$ is not no-el0 The (rinci(le is ol$0 , coul$ refer hi) to so)e of )y o.n suggestions of nine years ago0 There are )any (ractical $ifficulties in the carrying out of the i$ea8 an$ as )uch 7etter )eans for $estroying a su7)arine are a-aila7le it is $ou7tful that such a tor(e$o .ill e-er 7e constructe$0 1i'on has faile$ to gras( that in )y .ireless syste) the effect $oes not $i)inish .ith $istance0 The HertB .a-es ha-e nothing to $o .ith it e'ce(t that so)e of )y a((aratus )ay 7e use$ in their (ro$uction0 >o too a :ohinoor )ight 7e e)(loye$ to cut .in$o.9glass0 An$ yet8 the see)ing (ara$o' can 7e easily un$erstoo$ 7y any )an of or$inary intelligence0 ,)agine only that the earth .ere a hollo. shell or reser-oir in .hich the trans)itter .oul$ co)(ress so)e flui$8 as air8 for o(erating )achinery in -arious localities0 &hat $ifference .oul$ it )a2e .hen this reser-oir is ta((e$ to su((ly the co)(resse$ flui$ to the )otorF 1one .hate-er8 for the (ressure is the sa)e e-ery.here0 This is also true of )y electrical syste)8 .ith all consi$erations in its fa-our0 ,n such a )echanical syste) of (o.er $istri7ution great losses are una-oi$a7le an$ $efinite li)its in the quality of the energy trans)itte$ e'ist0 1ot so in the electrical .ireless su((ly0 ,t .oul$ not 7e $ifficult to con-ey to one of our liners8 say8 458555 horse(o.er fro) a (lant locate$ at 1iagara8 Gictoria or other .aterfall8 a7solutely irres(ecti-e of location0 ,n fact8 there .oul$ not 7e a $ifference of )ore than a s)all fraction of one (er cent8 .hether the source of energy 7e in the -icinity of the -essel or 1!8555 )iles a.ay8 at the anti(o$es0 1,:;#A T">#A 1e. Dor28 /ay 1%8 195*0
1-0<-06-"9: Can ;ridge t,e Ba$ to Mars 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times Nikola Tesla on (is #ireless &ystem for the Transmission of Energy. To the Editor of the Ne" -ork Times$ Dou ha-e calle$ )e an "in-entor of so)e useful (ieces of electrical a((aratus"0 ,t is not quite u( to )y as(irations8 7ut , )ust resign )yself to )y (rosaic fate0 , cannot $eny that you are right0 1early four )illion horse (o.er of .aterfalls are harnesse$ 7y )y alternating current syste) of trans)ission8 .hich is li2e saying that one hun$re$ )illion )en untiring8 consu)ing nothing8 recei-ing no (ay 9 are la7ouring to (ro-i$e for one hun$re$ )illion tons of coal annually0 ,n this great city the ele-ate$ roa$s8 the su7.ays8 the >treet rail.ays are o(erate$ 7y )y syste)8 an$ the la)(s an$ other electrical a((liances get the current through )achinery of )y in-ention0 An$ as in 1e. Dor2 so all the .orl$ o-er .here electricity is intro$uce$0 The tele(hone an$ incan$escent la)( fill s(ecific an$ )inor $e)an$s8 electric (o.er )eets the )any general an$ sterner necessities of life0 Des8 , )ust a$)it8 ho.e-er reluctantly8 the truth of your unflattering contention0 3ut the greater co))ercial i)(ortance of this in-ention of )ine is not the only a$-antage , ha-e o-er )y cele7rate$ (re$ecessors in the real) of the useful8 .ho ha-e gi-en us the tele(hone an$ the incan$escent la)(0 <er)it )e to re)in$ you that , $i$ not ha-e8 li2e 3ell8 such (o.erful hel( as the +eis tele(hone8 .hich re(ro$uce$ )usic an$ only nee$e$ a $eft turn of an a$Husting scre. to re(eat the hu)an -oiceJ or such -igorous assistance as "$ison foun$ in the incan$escent la)(s of :ing an$ >tarr8 .hich only nee$e$ to 7e )a$e of high resistance0 1ot at all0 , ha$ to cut the (ath )yself8 an$ )y han$s are still sore0 All the ar)y of )y o((onents an$ $etractors .as e-er a7le to $ru) u( against )e in a fanatic contest has si))ere$ $o.n to a short article 7y an ,talian 9 <rof0 Ferraris 9 $ealing .ith an a7stract an$ )eaningless i$ea of a rotating )agnetic (ole an$ (u7lishe$ years after )y $isco-ery8 )onths e-en after )y co)(lete $isclosure of the .hole (ractically $e-elo(e$ syste) in all its essential uni-ersally a$o(te$ features0 ,t is a (u7lication8 (essi)istic an$ $iscouraging8 $e-oi$ of the $isco-erer's -irility an$ force8 $e-oi$ of results8 utterly .anting in the faith an$ $e-otion of the in-entor8 a $efecti-e an$ 7elate$ recor$ of a goo$ 7ut fee7le )an .hose only res(onse to )y .hole9soule$ 7rother greeting .as a (lainti-e cry of (riority 9 a sa$ contrast to the strong an$ equani)ous >challen7erger8 a true A)erican engineer8 .ho stoically 7ore the (ain that 2ille$ hi)0 A fun$a)ental $isco-ery or original in-ention is al.ays useful8 7ut it is often )ore than that0 There are (hysicists an$ (hiloso(hers to .ho) the )ar-ellous )anifestations of )y rotating )agnetic fiel$8 the suggesti-e (heno)ena of rotation .ithout -isi7le connection8 the i$eal 7eauty of )y in$uction )otor .ith its contactless ar)ature8 )ean quite as )uch as the thousan$s of )illions of $ollars in-este$ in enter(rises of .hich it is the foun$ation0 An$ this is true of all )y $isco-eries8 in-entions8 an$ scientific results .hich , ha-e since announce$8 for , ha-e ne-er in-ente$ .hat i))e$iate necessity suggeste$8 7ut .hat , foun$ as )ost $esira7le to in-ent8 irres(ecti-e of ti)e0 #et )e tell you only of one 9 )y ")agnifying trans)itter"8 a )achine .ith .hich , ha-e (asse$ a current of one hun$re$ a)(eres aroun$ the glo7e8 .ith .hich , can )a2e the .hole earth lou$ly re(eat a .or$ s(o2en in the tele(hone8 .ith .hich , can easily 7ri$ge the gulf .hich se(arates us fro) /ars0 =o you )ean to say that )y trans)itter is nothing )ore than a "useful (iece of electrical a((aratus"F , $o not .ish to enlarge on this for o7-ious reasons0 To 7e co)(elle$ 7y taciturn a$)irers to $.ell on )y o.n achie-e)ents is hurting )y $elicate sensi7ilities8 7ut as , o7ser-e your heroic an$ increasing efforts in (raising your (a(er8 .hile your $istinguishe$ confreres )aintain on its )erits a stoli$ silence8 , feel that there is8 at least8 one )an in 1e. Dor2 a7le to a((reciate the incongeniality of the corres(on$ence0 Allo. )e to as2 you Hust one or t.o questions in regar$ to a .or2 .hich , 7egan in 189!8 ins(ire$ 7y a high tri7ute fro) #or$ +ayleigh at the +oyal ,nstitution8 )ost $ifficult la7our .hich , ha-e carrie$ on for years8 encourage$ 7y the sy)(athetic interest an$ a((ro-al of He)holtB8 #or$ :el-in8 an$ )y great frien$s8 >ir &illia) Croo2es an$ >ir Ea)es =e.ar8 ri$icule$ 7y s)all )en .hose na)es , ha-e seen $is(laye$ in -ulgar an$ $ece(ti-e a$-ertise)ents0 , refer to )y syste) of .ireless trans)ission of energy0 The (rinci(les .hich it in-ol-es are eternal0 &e are on a con$ucting 7o$y8 insulate$ in s(ace8 of $efinite an$ unchangea7le $i)ensions an$ (ro(erties0 ,t .ill ne-er 7e (ossi7le to trans)it electrical energy econo)ically through this 7o$y an$ its en-iron)ent e'ce(t 7y essentially the sa)e )eans an$ )etho$s .hich , ha-e $isco-ere$8 an$ the syste) is so (erfect no. that it a$)its of 7ut little i)(ro-e)ent0 >ince , ha-e acce(te$ as true your o(inion8 .hich , ho(e .ill not 7e share$ 7y (osterity8 .oul$ you )in$ telling a reason .hy this a$-ance shoul$ not stan$ .orthily 7esi$e the $isco-eries of Co(ernicusF &ill you state .hy it shoul$ not 7e e-er so )uch )ore i)(ortant an$ -alua7le to the (rogress an$ .elfare of )anF &e coul$ still 7elie-e in the geocentric theory an$ yet a$-ance -irtually as .e $o0 The .or2 of the astrono)er
.oul$ suffer8 for so)e of his $e$uctions .oul$ rest on erroneous assu)(tions0 3ut8 after all8 .e shall ne-er 2no. the inti)ate nature of things0 >o long as our (erce(tions are accurate our logic .ill 7e true0 1o one can esti)ate to .hat an e'tent the great 2no.le$ge he con-eye$ has 7een instru)ental in $e-elo(ing the (o.er of our )in$s an$ furthering $isco-ery an$ in-ention0 Det8 it has left all the (ressing )aterial (ro7le)s confronting us unsol-e$0 1o. )y .ireless syste) offers (ractical solutions for all0 The aerial na-igation8 .hich no. agitates the )in$s8 is only one of its )any an$ o7-ious a((lications equally consequential0 The .aterfalls of this country alone8 its greatest .ealth8 are a$equate to satisfy the .ants of hu)anity for thousan$s of years to co)e0 Their energy can 7e use$ .ith the sa)e facility to $ig the <ana)a Canal as to o(erate the >i7erian +ail.ay or to irrigate an$ fertiliBe the >ahara0 The Anglo9>a'on race has a great (ast an$ (resent8 7ut its real greatness is in the future8 .hen the .ater (o.er it o.ns or controls shall su((ly the necessities of the entire .orl$0 As to uni-ersal (eace 9 if there is nothing in the or$er of nature .hich )a2es .ar in$is(ensa7le to the safe an$ sane (rogress of )an8 if that uto(ian e'istence is at all (ossi7le8 it can 7e only attaine$ through this -ery )eans8 for all international friction can 7e trace$ to 7ut one cause 9 the i))ense e'tension of the (lanet0 /y syste) of .ireless trans)ission co)(letely annihilates $istance in all $e(art)ents of hu)an acti-ity0 ,f this $oes not a((eal to you sufficiently to recogniBe in )e a $isco-erer of (rinci(les8 $o )e8 at least8 the Hustice of calling )e an "in-entor of so)e 7eautiful (ieces of electrical a((aratus0" 1,:;#A T">#A 1e. Dor28 Eune !18 195*
1-0<-10-1-: Slee$ from *le(tri(ity 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times Nikola Tesla Noted Narcotic Influences of 3eriodic 2urrents in 1010. To the Editor of The Ne" -ork Times$ , ha-e rea$ .ith interest the re(orts in The Ti)es of the 13th an$ 14th inst0 referring to <rof0 #e$uc's $isco-ery of causing slee( 7y electric )eans0 &hile it is (ossi7le that he has )a$e a $istinct a$-ance there is no no-elty in the effect itself0 The narcotic influence of certain (erio$ic currents .as long ago $isco-ere$ 7y )e an$ has 7een (ointe$ out in so)e of )y technical (u7lications8 a)ong .hich , )ay )ention a (a(er on "High Frequency ;scillators for "lectro Thera(eutic an$ ;ther <ur(oses"8 rea$ 7efore the A)erican "lectro Thera(eutic Association8 >e(t0 138 18980 , ha-e also sho.n that hu)an tissues offer little resistance to the electric flo. an$ suggeste$ an a7solutely (ainless )etho$ of electrocution 7y (assing the currents through the 7rain0 ,t is -ery li2ely that <rof0 #e$uc has ta2en a$-antage of the sa)e general (rinci(les though he a((lies the currents in a $ifferent )anner0 ,n one res(ect8 ho.e-er8 )y o7ser-ations are at -ariance .ith those re(orte$0 Fro) the s(ecial $is(atch in The Ti)es of the 13th inst0 it .oul$ a((ear that slee( is in$uce$ the )o)ent the currents are turne$ on8 an$ that a.a2ening follo.s as soon as the electro$es are .ith$ra.n0 ,t is8 of course8 i)(ossi7le to tell ho. strong a current .as e)(loye$8 7ut the resistance of the hea$ )ight ha-e 7een8 (erha(s8 38555 oh)s8 so that at thirty -olts the current coul$ ha-e 7een only a7out 19155 of an a)(ere0 1o.8 , ha-e (asse$ a current of at least 48555 ti)es stronger through )y hea$ an$ $i$ not lose consciousness8 7ut , in-aria7ly fell into a lethargic slee( so)e ti)e after0 This fact i)(resses )e .ith certain argu)ents of <rof0 3ar2er of Colu)7ia Cni-ersity in your issue of >e(t0 140 , ha-e al.ays 7een con-ince$ that electric anaesthesia .ill 7eco)e (ractical8 7ut the a((lication of currents to the 7rain is so $elicate an$ $angerous an o(eration that the ne. )etho$ .ill require long ar2 careful e'(eri)entation 7efore it 8can 7e use$ .ith certitu$e0 1,:;#A T">#A 1e. Dor28 ;ct0 1%8 195*0
1-0<-10-"": 5ossi1ilities of Fireless 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times 1i2ola Tesla >ays =istance For)s 1o ;7stacle to Trans)ission of "nergy0 To the "$itor of The 1e. Dor2 Ti)esI ,n your issue of the 19th inst0 "$ison )a2es state)ents .hich cannot fail to create erroneous i)(ressions00 There is a -ast $ifference 7et.een (ri)iti-e HertB.a-e signalling8 (ractica7le to 7ut a fe. )iles8 an$ the great art of .ireless trans)ission of energy8 .hich ena7les an e'(ert to trans)it8 to any $istance8 not only signals8 7ut (o.er in unli)ite$ a)ounts8 an$ of .hich the e'(eri)ents across the Atlantic are a cru$e a((lication0 The (lants are quite inefficient8 unsuita7le for finer .or28 an$ totally $oo)e$ to an effect less than one (ercent of that , attaine$ in )y test in 18990 "$ison thin2s that >ir Hira) /a'i) is 7lo.ing hot air0 The fact is )y #ong ,slan$ (lant .ill trans)it al)ost its entire energy to the anti(o$es8 if $esire$0 As to /artin's co))unication , can only say8 that , shall 7e a7le to attain a .a-e acti-ity of 85585558555 horse (o.er an$ a si)(le calculation .ill sho.8 that the inha7itants of that (lanet8 if there 7e any8 nee$ not ha-e a #or$ +aleigh to $etect the $istur7ance0 +eferring to your e$itorial co))ent of e-en $ate8 the question of .ireless interference is (uBBling only 7ecause of its no-elty0 The un$erlying (rinci(le is ol$8 an$ it has (resente$ itself for consi$eration in nu)erous for)s0 Eust no. it a((ears in the no-el as(ects of aerial na-igation an$ .ireless trans)ission0 "-ery hu)an effort )ust of necessity create a $istur7ance0 &hat $ifference is there in essence8 7et.een the co))otion (ro$uce$ 7y any re-olutionary i$ea or i)(ro-e)ent an$ that of a .ireless trans)itterF The s(ectre of interference has 7een conHure$ 7y HertB.a-e or ra$io telegra(hy in .hich attune)ent is a7solutely i)(ossi7le8 si)(ly 7ecause the effect $i)inishes ra(i$ly .ith $istance0 3ut to )y syste) of energy trans)ission8 7ase$ on the use of i)(ulses not sensi7ly $i)inishing .ith $istance8 (erfect attune)ent an$ the higher artifice of in$i-i$ualiBation are (ractica7le0 As e-er8 the ghost .ill -anish .ith the .ireless $a.n0 NI6'%A TE&%A Ne" -ork+ 'ct. ?1+ 11=..
1-0<-10-"5: Tesla on Fireless 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Daily Tribune Electrical Inventor Thinks /arconiCs 3lants Inefficient. To the Editor of The Tribune$ >irI ,n so far as .ireless art is concerne$ there is a -ast $ifference 7et.een the great in-entor Tho)as A0 "$ison an$ )yself8 integrally in )y fa-our0 /r0 "$ison 2no.s little of the theory an$ (ractice of electrical -i7rationsJ , ha-e8 in this s(ecial fiel$8 (ro7a7ly )ore e'(erience than any of )y conte)(oraries0 That you are not as yet a7le to i)(art your .is$o) 7y .ireless tele(hone to so)e su7scri7er in any other (art of the .orl$8 ho.e-er re)ote8 an$ that the (resses of your -alua7le (a(er are not o(erate$ 7y .ireless (o.er is largely $ue to your o.n effort an$ those of so)e of your $istinguishe$ confreres of this city8 an$ to the efficient assistance you ha-e recei-e$ fro) )y cele7rate$ colleagues8 Tho)as A0 "$ison an$ /ichael <u(in8 assistant consulting .ireless engineers0 3ut it .as all .elco)e to )e0 =ifficulty $e-elo(s resource0 The trans)ission across the Atlantic .as not )a$e 7y any $e-ice of /r0 /arconi's8 7ut 7y )y syste) of .ireless trans)ission of energy8 an$ , ha-e alrea$y gi-en notice 7y ca7le to )y frien$ >ir Ea)es =e&ar an$ the +oyal ,nstitution of this fact0 , shall also request so)e e)inent )an of science to ta2e careful note of the .hole a((aratus8 its )o$e of o(eration8 $i)ensions8 linear an$ electrical8 all constants an$ qualitati-e (erfor)ance8 so as to )a2e (ossi7le its e'act re(ro$uction an$ re(etition of the e'(eri)ents0 This request is entirely i)(ersonal0 , a) a citiBen of the Cnite$ >tates8 an$ , 2no. that the ti)e .ill co)e .hen )y 7usy fello. citiBens8 too a7sor7e$ in co))ercial (ursuits to thin2 of (osterity8 .ill honour )y )e)ory0 A )easure)ent of the ti)e inter-al ta2en in the (assage of the signal necessary to the full an$ (ositi-e $e)onstration .ill sho. that the current crosses the ocean .ith a )ean s(ee$ of %!48555 )iles a secon$0 The /arconi (lants are inefficient8 an$ $o not len$ the)sel-es to the (ractice of t.o $isco-eries of )ine8 the "art of in$i-i$ualiBation"8 that )a2es the )essage non9interfering an$ non9interfera7le8 an$ the "stationary .a-es"8 .hich annihilate $istance a7solutely an$ )a2e the .hole earth equi-alent to a con$uctor $e-oi$ of resistance0 &ere it not for this $eficiency8 the nu)7er of .or$s (er )inute coul$ 7e increase$ at .ill 7y "in$i-i$ualiBing"0 Dou ha-e alrea$y co))ente$ u(on this a$-ance in ter)s .hich ha-e cause$ )e no s)all astonish)ent8 in -ie. of your nor)al attitu$e0 The un$erlying (rinci(le is to co)7ine a nu)7er of -i7rations8 (refera7ly slightly $is(lace$8 to re$uce further the $anger of interference8 acti-e an$ (assi-e8 an$ to )a2e the o(eration of the recei-er $e(en$ent on the co9o(erati-e effect of a nu)7er of attune$ ele)ents0 Eust to illustrate .hat can 7e $one8 su((ose that only four -i7rations .ere isolate$ on each trans)itter0 let those on one si$e 7e res(ecti-ely a8 78 c8 an$ $0 Then the follo.ing in$i-i$ualiBe$ lines .oul$ 7e a78 ac8 a$8 7c8 7$8 c$8 a7c8 a7$8 ac$8 7e$ an$ a7e$0 The sa)e article on the other si$e .ill gi-e si)ilar co)7inations8 an$ 7oth together t.enty9t.o lines8 .hich can 7e si)ultaneously o(erate$0 To trans)it one thousan$ .or$s a )inute8 only forty9si' .or$s on each co)7ination are necessary0 ,f the (lants .ere suita7le8 not ten years8 as "$ison thin2s8 7ut ten hours .oul$ 7e necessary to (ut this i)(ro-e)ent into (ractice0 To $o this /arconi .oul$ ha-e to construct the (lants8 an$ it .ill then 7e o7ser-e$ that the in$efatiga7le ,talian has $e(arte$ fro) uni-ersal engineering custo)s for the fourth ti)e0 1,:;#A T">#A 1e. Dor28 ;ct0 !68 195*
1-0<-1"-"0: My A$$aratus) says Tesla 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times 2onfident+ (o"ever+ That #ireless Tele*hony is Entirely 3ossible. To the Editor of the Ne" -ork Times$ , ha-e rea$ .ith great interest the re(ort in your issue of to9$ay that the =anish engineer8 &al$e)ar <oulson8 the in-entor of the interesting $e-ice 2no.n as the "telegra(hone"8 has succee$e$ in trans)itting accurately .ireless tele(honic )essages o-er a $istance of !65 )iles0 , ha-e loo2e$ u( the $escri(tion of the a((aratus he has e)(loye$ in the e'(eri)ent an$ fin$ that it co)(risesI (1 /y groun$e$ resonant trans)itting circuitJ (! )y in$ucti-e e'citerJ (3 the so9calle$ "Tesla transfor)er"J (6 )y in$ucti-e coils for raising the tension on the con$enserJ (4 )y entire a((aratus for (ro$ucing un$a)(ene$ or continuous oscillationsJ (% )y concatenate$ tune$ transfor)ing circuitsJ (* )y groun$e$ resonant recei-ing transfor)erJ (8 )y secon$ary recei-ing transfor)er0 , note other i)(ro-e)ents of )ine8 7ut those )entione$ .ill 7e sufficient to sho. that =en)ar2 is a lan$ of easy in-ention0 The clai) that transatlantic .ireless tele(hone ser-ice .ill soon 7e esta7lishe$ 7y these )eans is a )o$est one0 To )y syste) $istance has a7solutely no significance0 /y o.n .ireless (lant .ill trans)it s(eech across the <acific .ith the sa)e (recision an$ accuracy as across the ta7le0 1i2ola Tesla 1e. Dor28 =ec0 198 195*
1-08-00-00: T,e 7uture of Fireless Art 4y Nikola Tesla

#I!E%E&& TE%E5!A3(- F TE%E3('N4y #alter #. /assie F 2harles !. Dnderhill
Mr. Nikola Tesla+ in a recent intervie" by the authors+ as to the future of the #ireless Art+ volunteered the
follo"ing statement "hich is here"ith *roduced in his o"n "ords. "A )ass in )o-e)ent resists change of $irection0 >o $oes the .orl$ o((ose a ne. i$ea0 ,t ta2es ti)e to )a2e u( the )in$s to its -alue an$ i)(ortance0 ,gnorance8 (reHu$ice an$ inertia of the ol$ retar$ its early (rogress0 ,t is $iscre$ite$ 7y insincere e'(onents an$ selfish e'(loiters0 ,t is attac2e$ an$ con$e)ne$ 7y its ene)ies0 "-entually8 though8 all 7arriers are thro.n $o.n8 an$ it s(rea$s li2e fire0 This .ill also (ro-e true of the .ireless art0 "The (ractical a((lications of this re-olutionary (rinci(le ha-e only 7egun0 >o far they ha-e 7een confine$ to the use of oscillations .hich are quic2ly $a)(e$ out in their (assage through the )e$iu)0 >till8 e-en this has co))an$e$ uni-ersal attention0 &hat .ill 7e achie-e$ 7y .a-es .hich $o not $i)inish .ith $istance8 7affles co)(rehension0 ",t is $ifficult for a lay)an to gras( ho. an electric current can 7e (ro(agate$ to $istances of thousan$s of )iles .ithout $i)inution of intention0 3ut it is si)(le after all0 =istance is only a relati-e conce(tion8 a reflection in the )in$ of (hysical li)itation0 A -ie. of electrical (heno)ena )ust 7e free of this $elusi-e i)(ression0 Ho.e-er sur(rising8 it is a fact that a s(here of the siBe of a little )ar7le offers a greater i)(e$i)ent to the (assage of a current than the .hole earth0 "-ery e'(eri)ent8 then8 .hich can 7e (erfor)e$ .ith such a s)all s(here can li2e.ise 7e carrie$ out8 an$ )uch )ore (erfectly8 .ith the i))ense glo7e on .hich .e li-e0 This is not )erely a theory8 7ut a truth esta7lishe$ in nu)erous an$ carefully con$ucte$ e'(eri)ents0 &hen the earth is struc2 )echanically8 as is the case in so)e (o.erful terrestrial u(hea-al8 it -i7rates li2e a 7ell8 its (erio$ 7eing )easure$ in hours0 &hen it is struc2 electrically8 the charge oscillates8 a((ro'i)ately8 t.el-e ti)es a secon$0 3y i)(ressing u(on it current .a-es of certain lengths8 $efinitely relate$ to its $ia)eter8 the glo7e is thro.n into resonant -i7ration li2e a .ire8 stationary .a-es for)ing8 the no$al an$ -entral regions of .hich can 7e locate$ .ith )athe)atical (recision0 ;.ing to this fact an$ the s(heroi$al sha(e of the earth8 nu)erous geo$etical an$ other $ata8 -ery accurate an$ of the greatest scientific an$ (ractical -alue8 can 7e rea$ily secure$0 Through the o7ser-ation of these astonishing (heno)ena .e shall soon 7e a7le to $eter)ine the e'act $ia)eter of the (lanet8 its configuration an$ -olu)e8 the e'tent of its ele-ations an$ $e(ressions8 an$ to )easure8 .ith great (recision an$ .ith nothing )ore than an electrical $e-ice8 all terrestrial $istances0 ,n the $ensest fog or $ar2ness of night8 .ithout a co)(ass or other instru)ents of orientation8 or a ti)e(iece8 it .ill 7e (ossi7le to gui$e a -essel along the shortest or ortho$ro)ic (ath8 to instantly rea$ the latitu$e an$ longitu$e8 the hour8 the $istance fro) any (oint8 an$ the true s(ee$ an$ $irection of )o-e)ent0 3y (ro(er use of such $istur7ances a .a-e )ay 7e )a$e to tra-el o-er the earth's surface .ith any -elocity $esire$8 an$ an electrical effect (ro$uce$ at any s(ot .hich can 7e selecte$ at .ill an$ the geogra(hical (osition of .hich can 7e closely ascertaine$ fro) si)(le rules of trigono)etry0 "This )o$e of con-eying electrical energy to a $istance is not '.ireless' in the (o(ular sense8 7ut a trans)ission through a con$uctor8 an$ one .hich is inco)(ara7ly )ore (erfect than any artificial one0 All i)(e$i)ents of con$uction arise fro) confine)ent of the electric an$ )agnetic flu'es to narro. channels0 The glo7e is free of such cra)(ing an$ hin$er)ent0 ,t is an i$eal con$uctor 7ecause of its i))ensity8 isolation in s(ace8 an$ geo)etrical for)0 ,ts singleness is only an a((arent li)itation8 for 7y i)(ressing u(on it nu)erous non9 interfering -i7rations8 the flo. of energy )ay 7e $irecte$ through any nu)7er of (aths .hich8 though 7o$ily connecte$8 are yet (erfectly $istinct an$ se(arate li2e e-er so )any ca7les0 Any a((aratus8 then8 .hich can 7e o(erate$ through one or )ore .ires8 at $istances o7-iously li)ite$8 can li2e.ise 7e .or2e$ .ithout artificial con$uctors8 an$ .ith the sa)e facility an$ (recision8 at $istances .ithout li)it other than that i)(ose$ 7y the (hysical $i)ensions of the glo7e0 ",t is inten$e$ to gi-e (ractical $e)onstrations of these (rinci(les .ith the (lant illustrate$0 As soon as co)(lete$8 it .ill 7e (ossi7le for a 7usiness )an in 1e. Dor2 to $ictate instructions8 an$ ha-e the) instantly a((ear in ty(e at his office in #on$on or else.here0 He .ill 7e a7le to call u(8 fro) his $es28 an$ tal2 to any tele(hone su7scri7er on the glo7e8 .ithout any change .hate-er in the e'isting equi()ent0 An ine'(ensi-e
instru)ent8 not 7igger than a .atch8 .ill ena7le its 7earer to hear any.here8 on sea or lan$8 )usic or song8 the s(eech of a (olitical lea$er8 the a$$ress of an e)inent )an of science8 or the ser)on of an eloquent clergy)an8 $eli-ere$ in so)e other (lace8 ho.e-er $istant0 ,n the sa)e )anner any (icture8 character8 $ra.ing8 or (rint can 7e transferre$ fro) one to another (lace0 /illions of such instru)ents can 7e o(erate$ fro) 7ut one (lant of this 2in$0 /ore i)(ortant than all of this8 ho.e-er8 .ill 7e the trans)ission of (o.er8 .ithout .ires8 .hich .ill 7e sho.n on a scale large enough to carry con-iction0 These fe. in$ications .ill 7e sufficient to sho. that the .ireless art offers greater (ossi7ilities than any in-ention or $isco-ery heretofore )a$e8 an$ if the con$itions are fa-oura7le8 .e can e'(ect .ith certitu$e that in the ne't fe. years .on$ers .ill 7e .rought 7y its a((lication0"
1-08-01-05: Ni.ola Tesla2s 7ore(ast 7or 1-08 by Nikola Tesla

N.-. #orld Aerial an$ >ea 1a-igation an$ &ireless Telegra(hy to /a2e Astoun$ing >tri$es0 To the "$itor of The &orl$I A forecast 9 not a (ro(hecyY Constant an$ careful stu$y of the state of things in this (articular s(here ena7les an e'(ert to )a2e a forecast fairly accurate of the ne't state0 The see)ingly isolate$ e-ents are to hi) 7ut lin2s of a chain0 As a rule8 the signs he notes are so (ronounce$ that he can (re$ict the changes a7out to ta2e (lace .ith certitu$e0 The (erfor)ance is a )ere 7anality as co)(are$ .ith the (iercing -ie. of the ins(ire$ into the $istant future0 This is a forecast 9 not a (ro(hecy0 The co)ing year .ill 7e great in thought an$ result0 ,t .ill )ar2 the en$ of a nu)7er of erroneous i$eas .hich8 7y their (aralysing effect on the )in$8 ha-e throttle$ in$e(en$ent research an$ ha)(ere$ (rogress an$ $e-elo()ent in -arious $e(art)ents of science an$ engineering0 The first to 7e $is(elle$ is the illusion of the HertB or electro9)agnetic .a-es0 The e'(ert alrea$y realiBes that (ractical .ireless telegra(hy an$ tele(hony are (ossi7le only 7y )ini)iBing this .asteful ra$iation0 The results recently attaine$ in this )anner .ith co)(arati-ely cru$e a((licances illustrate stri2ingly the (ossi7ilities of the genuine art0 3efore the close of the year .ireless trans)ission across the <acific an$ transatlantic .ireless tele(hony )ay 7e e'(ecte$ .ith (erfect confi$ence0 The use of the .ireless tele(hone in isolate$ $istricts .ill s(rea$ li2e fire0 The year .ill )ar2 the fall of the illusionary i$ea that action )ust $i)inish .ith $istance0 3y i)(ressing u(on the earth certain -i7rations to .hich it res(on$s resonantly8 the .hole (lanet is -irtually re$uce$ to the siBe of a little )ar7le8 thus ena7ling the re(ro$uction of any 2in$ of effect8 as hu)an s(eech8 )usic8 (icture or character .hate-er8 an$ e-en the trans)ission of (o.er in unli)ite$ a)ounts .ith e'actly the sa)e facility an$ econo)y at any $istance8 ho.e-er great0 The ne't t.el-e )onths .ill .itness a si)ilar re-olution of i$eas regar$ing ra$io9acti-ity0 That there is no such ele)ent as ra$iu)8 (olloniu) or roniu) is 7eco)ing )ore an$ )ore e-i$ent0 These are si)(ly $ece(ti-e a((earances of a )o$ern (hlogiston0 As , ha-e state$ in )y early announce)ent of these e)anations 7efore the $isco-ery of /)e0 Curie8 they are e)itte$ )ore or less 7y all 7o$ies8 an$ are all of the sa)e 2in$ 9 )erely effects of shattere$ )olecules8 $ifferentiate$ not 7y the nature of su7stance 7ut 7y siBe8 s(ee$ an$ electrification0 The co)ing year .ill $is(el another error .hich has greatly retar$e$ (rogress of aerial na-igation0 The aeronaut .ill soon satisfy hi)self that an aero(lane (ro(ortione$ accor$ing to $ata o7taine$ 7y #angley is altogether too hea-y to soar8 an$ that such a )achine8 .hile it .ill ha-e so)e uses8 can ne-er fly as fast as a $irigi7le 7alloon0 ;nce this is fully recogniBe$ the e'(ert .ill concentrate his efforts on the latter ty(e8 an$ 7efore )any )onths are (asse$ it .ill 7e a fa)iliar o7Hect in the s2y0 There is a7un$ant e-i$ence that $istinct i)(ro-e)ents .ill 7e )a$e in shi( (ro(ulsion0 The nu)erous theories are gi-ing (lace to the -ie. that .hat (ro(els the -essel is a reacti-e HetJ hence the (ro(eller is $oo)e$ in efficiency at high s(ee$0 A ne. (rinci(le .ill 7e intro$uce$0 The &orl$ is in-ite$ to test the accuracy of this forecast at the close of the year0 NI6'%A TE&%A
1-08-0/-"1: Mr& Tesla2s 6ision 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times Ho. the "lectrician's #a)( of Ala$$in /ay Construct 1e. &orl$s0 To the "$itor of the 1e. Dor2 Ti)esI Fro) a re(ort in your issue of /arch 118 .hich esca(e$ )y attention8 , notice that so)e re)ar2s , )a$e on the occasion referre$ to ha-e 7een )isun$erstoo$0 Allo. )e to )a2e a correction0 &hen , s(o2e of future .arfare , )eant that it shoul$ 7e con$ucte$ 7y $irect a((lication of electrical .a-es .ithout the use of aerial engines or other i)(le)ents of $estruction0 This )eans8 as , (ointe$ out8 .oul$ 7e i$eal8 for not only .oul$ the energy of .ar require no effort for the )aintenance of its (otentiality8 7ut it .oul$ 7e (ro$ucti-e in ti)es of (eace0 This is not a $rea)0 "-en no. .ireless (o.er (lants coul$ 7e constructe$ 7y .hich any region of the glo7e )ight 7e ren$ere$ uninha7ita7le .ithout su7Hecting the (o(ulation of other (arts to serious $anger or incon-enience0 &hat , sai$ in regar$ to the greatest achie-e)ent of the )an of science .hose )in$ is 7ent u(on the )astery of the (hysical uni-erse8 .as nothing )ore than .hat , state$ in one of )y un(u7lishe$ a$$resses8 fro) .hich , quoteI "Accor$ing to an a$o(te$ theory8 e-ery (on$era7le ato) is $ifferentiate$ fro) a tenuous flui$8 filling all s(ace )erely 7y s(inning )otion8 as a .hirl of .ater in a cal) la2e0 3y 7eing set in )o-e)ent this flui$8 the ether8 7eco)es gross )atter0 ,ts )o-e)ent arreste$8 the (ri)ary su7stance re-erts to its nor)al state0 ,t a((ears8 then8 (ossi7le for )an through harnesse$ energy of the )e$iu) an$ suita7le agencies for starting an$ sto((ing ether .hirls to cause )atter to for) an$ $isa((ear0 At his co))an$8 al)ost .ithout effort on his (art8 ol$ .orl$s .oul$ -anish an$ ne. ones .oul$ s(ring into 7eing0 He coul$ alter the siBe of this (lanet8 control its seasons8 a$Hust its $istance fro) the sun8 gui$e it on its eternal Hourney along any (ath he )ight choose8 through the $e(ths of the uni-erse0 He coul$ )a2e (lanets colli$e an$ (ro$uce his suns an$ stars8 his heat an$ lightJ he coul$ originate life in all its infinite for)s0 To cause at .ill the 7irth an$ $eath of )atter .oul$ 7e )an's gran$est $ee$8 .hich .oul$ gi-e hi) the )astery of (hysical creation8 )a2e hi) fulfil his ulti)ate $estiny0" 1othing coul$ 7e further fro) )y thought than to call .ireless tele(hony aroun$ the .orl$ "the greatest achie-e)ent of hu)anity" as re(orte$0 This is a feat .hich8 ho.e-er stu(efying8 can 7e rea$ily (erfor)e$ 7y any e'(ert0 , ha-e )yself constructe$ a (lant for this -ery (ur(ose0 The .ireless .on$ers are only see)ing8 not results of e'ce(tional s2ill8 as (o(ularly 7elie-e$0 The truth is the electrician has 7een (ut in (ossession of a -erita7le la)( of Ala$$in0 All he has to $o is to ru7 it0 1o.8 to ru7 the la)( of Ala$$in is no achie-e)ent0 ,f you are $esirous of hastening the acco)(lish)ent of still greater an$ further reaching .on$ers you can $o no 7etter than 7y e)(hatically o((osing any )easure ten$ing to interfere .ith the free co))ercial e'(loitation of .ater (o.er an$ the .ireless art0 >o a7solutely $oes hu)an (rogress $e(en$ on the $e-elo()ent of these that the s)allest i)(e$i)ent8 (articularly through the legislati-e 7o$ies of this country8 )ay set 7ac2 ci-iliBation an$ the cause of (eace for centuries0 1i2ola Tesla 1e. Dor28 A(ril 198 1958
1-08-06-08: 'ittle Aero$lane 5rogress 4y Nikola Tesla

The Ne" -ork Times &o &ays Nikola Tesla,4ut (e Is #orking on 'ne of (is '"n. To the Editor of The Ne" -ork Times$ ,t .as not a little a)using to rea$ a short ti)e ago ho. the "great secret" of the aero(lane .as re-eale$0 3y surroun$ing that ol$ $e-ice .ith an at)os(here of )ystery one gi-es life an$ interest to the re(ortJ 7ut the (lain fact is that all for)s of aerial a((aratus are .ell 2no.n to engineers8 an$ can 7e $esigne$ for any s(ecific $uty .ithout (re-ious trials an$ .ith a fair $egree of accuracy0 The flying )achine has )aterialiBe$9not through lea(s an$ 7oun$s of in-ention 7ut 7y (rogress slo. an$ i)(erce(ti7le8 not through original in$i-i$ual effort8 7ut 7y a co)7ination of the sa)e forces .hich 7rought forth the auto)o7ile an$ the )otor7oat0 ,t is $ue to the enter(rise of the steel8 oil8 electrical8 an$ other concerns8 .ho ha-e 7een instru)ental in the i)(ro-e)ent of )aterials of construction an$ in the (ro$uction of high9(o.er fuels8 as .ell as to the untiring la7ours of the ar)y of s2ille$ 7ut un2no.n )echanics .ho ha-e 7een for years (erfecting the internal co)7ustion engine0 There is no salient $ifference 7et.een the $irigi7le 7alloon of +enar$ O :re7s of thirty years ago an$ that of >antos =u)ont .ith .hich the 7ol$ 3raBilian (erfor)e$ his feats0 The #angley an$ /a'i) aero$ro)es8 .hich $i$ not soar8 .ere in )y o(inion 7etter (ieces of )echanis) than their -ery latest i)itations0 The (o.erful gasoline )otor .hich has since co)e into e'istence is (ractically the only ra$ical i)(ro-e)ent0 >o far8 ho.e-er8 only the self9(ro(elle$ )achine or aerial auto)o7ile is in sight0 &hile the $irigi7le 7alloon is ra(i$ly nearing the co))ercial stage8 nothing (ractical has as yet 7een achie-e$ .ith the hea-ier9than9air )achine0 &ithout e'ce(tion the a((aratus is fli)sy an$ unrelia7le0 The )otor8 too light for its (o.er8 gi-es out after a fe. )inutes' runJ the (ro(eller 7la$es fly offJ the ru$$er is 7ro2en8 an$8 after a series of such fa)iliar )isha(s8 there co)es the ine-ita7le an$ general s)ash9u(0 ,n strong contrast .ith these unnecessarily haBar$ous trials are the serious an$ $ignifie$ efforts of Count We((elin8 .ho is 7uil$ing a real flying )achine8 safe an$ relia7le8 to carry a $oBen )en an$ (ro-isions o-er $istances of thousan$s of )iles an$ .ith a s(ee$ far in e'cess of those o7taine$ .ith aero(lanes0 The li)its of i)(ro-e)ent in the flying )achine8 (ro(elle$ 7y its o.n (o.er8 .hether light or hea-y are alrea$y clearly $efine$0 &e ha-e -ery closely .hat .e )ay e'(ect fro) the ulti)ate (erfection of the internal co)7ustion engine8 the resistances .hich are to 7e o-erco)e8 an$ the li)itations of the scre. (ro(eller0 The )argin is not -ery great0 For )any reasons the .ireless trans)ission of (o.er is the only (erfect an$ lasting solution of the (ro7le) of aerial na-igation0 3ut e-en then it .ill scarcely 7e (ossi7le to reach -ery high s(ee$s0 ,n this res(ect )any e'(erts are )ista2en0 The (o(ular 7elief is that 7ecause the air has only one9hun$re$th the $ensity of .ater8 enor)ous -elocities shoul$ 7e (ractica7le0 3ut it is not so0 ,t shoul$ 7e 7orne in )in$ that the air is one hun$re$ ti)es )ore -iscous than .ater8 an$ 7ecause of this alone the s(ee$ of the flying )achine coul$ not 7e )uch in e'cess of a (ro(erty $esigne$ aqueous craft0 The aero(lane of the #angley ty(e8 such as .as use$ 7y Far)an an$ others .ith so)e success8 .ill har$ly e-er (ro-e a (ractical aerial )achine8 7ecause no (ro-ision is )a$e for )aintaining it in the air in a $o.n.ar$ current0 This an$ the (erfect 7alance in$e(en$ently of the na-igator's control is a7solutely essential to the success of the hea-ier9than9air )achine0 These t.o i)(ro-e)ents , a) )yself en$ea-ouring to e)7o$y in a )achine of )y o.n $esign0 1,:;#A T">#A
1-08-0--15: Tesla on Aero$lanes by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times >ays >uccessful Hea-ier9Than9Air Flier &ill 7e =ifferent0 To the "$itor of The 1e. Dor2 Ti)esI The chronicler of current e-ents is only too a(t to lose sight of the true (ers(ecti-e an$ real significance of the (hases of (rogress he recor$s0 1aturally enough8 his o(inions on su7Hects out of the s(here of his s(ecial training are frequently $efecti-e8 7ut this is inse(ara7le fro) the -ery i$ea of Hournalis)0 ,f an e$itor .ere to (roHect hi)self into the future an$ -ie. the ha((enings of the (resent or of the (ast in their (ro(er relations he .oul$ )a2e a $is)al failure of his (a(er0 The co))ents u(on the latest (erfor)ances .ith aero(lanes affor$ interesting e'a)(les in this res(ect0 &hat is there so -ery $ifferent 7et.een a )an flying half an hour an$ another8 using a )ore (o.erful )achine8 an hour8 or t.o8 or threeF To 7e sure8 in one instance the su((orting (lanes are larger an$ the gasoline tan2 7igger8 7ut there is nothing re-olutionary in these $e(artures0 1o one can $eny the )erit of the acco)(lish)ents0 The feats are certainly re)ar2a7le an$ of great e$ucational -alue0 The )aHority of hu)an 7eings are unrece(ti-e to no-el i$eas0 The (ractical $e)onstrator co)es .ith forceful argu)ents .hich enlighten an$ con-ince0 3ut they are nothing )ore than o7-ious consequences of .hat has (rece$e$8 ste(s in a$-ance .hich8 ta2en singly8 are of no (articular i)(ortance8 7ut .hich8 in their totality8 )a2e u( the conquest of the .orl$ 7y the ne. i$ea0 ,f any one stan$s out )ore strongly than the other it is )erely 7ecause it chances to occur at the (sychological )o)ent8 .hen incre$ulity an$ $ou7t are gi-ing .ay to confi$ence an$ e'(ectancy0 >uch .or2 is often 7rilliant8 ne-er great8 as so)e .oul$ )a2e 7elie-e0 To 7e great it )ust 7e original0 ;f such feature it is a7solutely $e-oi$0 <lace any of the later aero(lanes 7esi$e that of #angley8 their (rototy(e8 an$ you .ill not fin$ as )uch as one $eci$e$ i)(ro-e)ent0 There are the sa)e ol$ (ro(ellers8 the sa)e ol$ incline$ (lanes8 ru$$ers8 an$ -anes 9 not a single nota7le $ifference0 >o)e ha-e trie$ to hi$e their "$isco-eries0" ,t is li2e the hi$ing of an ostrich .ho 7uries his hea$ in the san$0 Half a $oBen aeronauts ha-e 7een in turn haile$ as conquerors an$ 2ings of the air0 ,t .oul$ ha-e 7een )uch )ore a((ro(riate to greet Eohn =0 +oc2efeller as such0 3ut for the a7un$ant su((ly of high9gra$e fuel .e .oul$ still ha-e to .ait for an engine ca(a7le of su((orting not only itself 7ut se-eral ti)es its o.n .eight against gra-ity0 The ca(a7ilities of the #angley aero$ro)e ha-e 7een )ost stri2ingly illustrate$0 1ot.ithstan$ing this8 it is not a (ractical )achine0 ,t has a lo. efficiency of (ro(ulsion8 an$ the starting8 7alancing8 an$ alighting are atten$e$ .ith $ifficulties0 The chief $efect8 ho.e-er8 is that it is $oo)e$ if it shoul$ encounter a $o.n.ar$ gust of .in$0 The helico(ter is in these res(ects )uch (refera7le8 7ut is o7Hectiona7le for other reasons0 The successful hea-ier9than9air flier .ill 7e 7ase$ on (rinci(les ra$ically no-el an$ .ill )eet all require)ents0 ,t .ill soon )aterialiBe8 an$ .hen it $oes it .ill gi-e an i)(etus to )anufacture an$ co))erce such as .as ne-er .itnesse$ 7efore8 (ro-i$e$ only that the Go-ern)ents $o not resort to the )etho$s of the >(anish ,nquisition8 .hich ha-e alrea$y (ro-e$ so $isastrous to the .ireless art8 the i$eal )eans for )a2ing )an a7solute )aster of the air0 1i2ola Tesla Ne" -ork+ &e*t. 1:+ 11=0
1-0--05-"9: 0ow to Signal to Mars 4y Nikola Tesla

The Ne" -ork Times To the Editor of the Ne" -ork Times$ ;f all the e-i$ence of narro. )in$e$ness an$ folly8 , 2no. of no greater than the stu(i$ 7elief that this little (lanet is single$ out to 7e the seat of life8 an$ that all other hea-enly 7o$ies are fiery )asses or lu)(s of ice0 /ost certainly8 so)e (lanets are not inha7ite$8 7ut others are8 an$ a)ong these there )ust e'ist life un$er all con$itions an$ (hases of $e-elo()ent0 ,n the solar syste) Genus8 the "arth8 an$ /ars re(resent res(ecti-ely8 youth8 full gro.th8 an$ ol$ age0 Genus8 .ith its )ountains rising $oBens of )iles into the at)os(here8 is (ro7a7ly as yet unfitte$ for such e'istence as ours8 7ut /ars )ust ha-e (asse$ through all terrestrial states an$ con$itions0 Ci-iliBe$ e'istence rests on the $e-elo()ent of the )echanical arts0 The force of gra-itation on /ars is only t.o9 thir$s of that on earth8 hence all )echanical (ro7le)s )ust ha-e 7een )uch easier of solution0 This is e-en )ore so of the electrical0 The (lanet 7eing )uch s)aller8 the contact 7et.een in$i-i$uals an$ the )utual e'change of i$eas )ust ha-e 7een )uch quic2er8 an$ there are )any other reasons .hy intellectual life shoul$ ha-e 7een on that (lanet8 (heno)enal in its e-olution0 To 7e sure8 .e ha-e no a7solute (roof that /ars is inha7ite$0 The straightness of the canals8 .hich has 7een hel$ out as a con-incing in$ication to this effect8 is not at all such0 &e can conclu$e .ith )athe)atical certitu$e that as a (lanet gro.s ol$er an$ the )ountains are le-ele$ $o.n8 ulti)ately e-ery ri-er )ust flo. in a geo$etically straight line0 >uch straightening is alrea$y noticea7le in so)e ri-ers of the earth0 0elieves 'ars ,ignaled 4im 3ut the .hole arrange)ent of the so9calle$ .ater.ays8 as (icture$ 7y #o.ell8 .oul$ see) to ha-e 7een $esigne$0 <ersonally , 7ase )y faith on the fee7le (lanetary electrical $istur7ances .hich , $isco-ere$ in the su))er of 18998 an$ .hich8 accor$ing to )y in-estigations8 coul$ not ha-e originate$ fro) the sun8 the )oon8 or Genus0 Further stu$y since has satisfie$ )e that they )ust ha-e e)anate$ fro) /ars0 All $ou7t in this regar$ .ill 7e soon $is(elle$0 To 7ring forth argu)ents .hy an atte)(t shoul$ 7e )a$e to esta7lish inter(lanetary co))unication .oul$ 7e a useless an$ ungrateful un$erta2ing0 ,f .e ha$ no other reason8 it .oul$ 7e Hustifie$ 7y the uni-ersal interest8 .hich it .ill co))an$8 an$ 7y the ins(iring ho(es an$ e'(ectations to .hich it .oul$ gi-e rise0 , shall rather concentrate )y efforts u(on the e'a)ination of the (lans (ro(ose$ an$ the $escri(tion of a )etho$ 7y .hich this see)ingly i)(ossi7le tas2 can 7e rea$ily acco)(lishe$0 The sche)e of signaling 7y rays of light is ol$8 an$ has 7een often $iscusse$8 (erha(s8 )ore 7y that eloquent an$ (icturesque French)an8 Ca)ille Fla))arion8 than any7o$y else0 Auite recently <rof0 &0 H0 <ic2ering8 as state$ in se-eral issues of TH" 1"& D;+: T,/">8 has )a$e a suggestion8 .hich $eser-es careful e'a)ination0 The total solar ra$iation falling on a terrestrial area (er(en$icular to the rays a)ounts to eighty9three foot9 (oun$s (er square foot (er secon$0 This acti-ity )easure$ 7y the a$o(te$ stan$ar$ is a little o-er fifteen one9 thousan$th of a horse(o.er0 3ut only a7out 15 (er cent of this .hole is $ue to .a-es of light0 These8 ho.e-er8 are of .i$ely $ifferent lengths8 )a2ing it i)(ossi7le to use all in the 7est a$-antage8 an$ there are s(ecific losses una-oi$a7le in the use of )irrors8 so that the (o.er of sunlight reflecte$ fro) the) can scarcely e'cee$ 404 foot (oun$s (er square foot (er secon$8 or a7out one one9hun$re$th of a horse9(o.er0 A #iant &eflector *eeded ,n -ie. of this s)all acti-ity8 a reflecting surface of at least one9quarter )illion square feet shoul$ 7e (ro-i$e$ for the e'(eri)ent0 This area8 of course8 shoul$ 7e circular to insure the greatest efficiency8 an$8 .ith $ue regar$ to econo)y8 it shoul$ 7e )a$e u( of )irrors rather s)all8 such as to )eet 7est the require)ents of chea( )anufacture0 The i$ea has 7een a$-ance$ 7y so)e e'(erts that a s)all reflector .oul$ 7e as efficient as a large one0 This is true in a $egree8 7ut hol$s goo$ only in helio9gra(hic trans)ission to s)all $istances .hen the area co-ere$ 7y the reflecte$ 7ea) is not -astly in e'cess of that of the )irror0 ,n signaling to /ars8 the effect .oul$ 7e e'actly (ro(ortionate to the aggregate surface of the reflections8 .ith an area of one9quarter )illion square feet the acti-ity of the reflecte$ sunlight8 at the origin .oul$ 7e a7out !8455 horse9(o.er0
,t scarcely nee$ 7e state$ that these )irrors .oul$ ha-e to 7e groun$ an$ (olishe$ )ost carefully0 To use or$inary co))ercial (lates8 as has 7een suggeste$8 .oul$ 7e entirely out of the question8 for at such an i))ense $istance the i)(erfections of surface .oul$ fatally interfere .ith efficiency0 Further)ore8 e'(ensi-e cloc2.or2 .oul$ ha-e to 7e e)(loye$ to rotate the reflectors in the )anner of heliostats8 an$ (ro-ision .oul$ ha-e to 7e )a$e for (rotection against $estructi-e at)os(heric influence0 ,t is e'tre)ely $ou7tful that so for)i$a7le an array of a((aratus coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ for ^15855585558 7ut this is a consi$eration of )inor i)(ortance to this argu)ent0 ,ight Unlimited in a 1acuum ,f the reflecte$ rays .ere (arallele$ an$ the hea-enly 7o$ies $e-oi$ of at)os(heres8 nothing .oul$ 7e si)(ler than signaling to /ars8 for it is a truth acce(te$ 7y (hysicists that a 7un$le of (arallel rays8 in -acuo8 .oul$ illu)inate$ an area .ith the sa)e intensity8 .hether it 7e near or infinitely re)ote0 ,n other .or$s8 there is no sensi7le loss in the trans(ortation of ra$iant energy through inter(lanetary or -acuous s(ace0 This 7eing the case8 coul$ .e 7ut (enetrate the (rison .ait of the at)os(here8 .e coul$ clearly (ercei-e the s)allest o7Hect on the )ost $istant star8 so inconcei-a7ly tenuous8 frictionless8 rigi$8 an$ elastic is the )e$iu) (er-a$ing the uni-erse0 The sun's rays are usually consi$ere$ to 7e (arallel8 an$ are -irtually so through a short traHectory8 7ecause of the i))ense $istance of the lu)inary0 3ut the ra$iations8 co)ing fro) a $istance of 9385558555 )iles8 e)anate fro) a s(here 8%48555 )iles in $ia)eter8 an$8 consequently8 )ost of the) .ill fall on the )irrors at an angle less than 95 $egrees8 .ith the result of causing a corres(on$ing $i-ergence of the reflecte$ rays0 ;.ing to the equality of the angles of inci$ence an$ reflection8 it follo.s that if /ars .ere at half the sun's $istance8 the rays reaching the (lanet .oul$ co-er an area of a7out one9quarter of that of the solar $isc8 or in roun$ nu)7ers8 16*855585558555 square )iles8 .hich is nearly 1%865585558 555 ti)es larger than that of the )irrors0 This )eans that the intensity of the ra$iation recei-e$ on /ars .oul$ 7e Hust that )any ti)es s)aller0 To con-ey a $efinite i$ea8 it )ay 7e state$ that the light .e get fro) the )oon is %558555 ti)es fee7ler that that of the sun0 Accor$ingly8 e-en un$er these (urely theoretical con$itions the <ic2ering a((aratus coul$ $o no )ore than (ro$uce an illu)ination !*86558555 ti)es fee7ler than that of the full )oon8 or 18555 ti)es .ea2er than that of Genus0 Atmosphere the Chief (bstacle The (rocee$ing is 7ase$ on the assu)(tion that there is nothing in the (ath of the reflecte$ rays e'ce(t the tenuous )e$iu) filling all s(ace0 3ut the (lanets ha-e at)os(heres8 .hich a7sor7 an$ refract0 &e see re)ote o7Hects less $istinctly8 .e (ercei-e stars long after they ha-e fallen 7elo. the horiBon0 This is $ue to a7sor(tion an$ refraction of the rays (assing through the air0 &hile these effects cannot 7e e'actly esti)ate$ it is certain that the at)os(here is the chief i)(e$i)ent to the stu$y of the hea-ens0 3y locating our o7ser-atories one )ite a7o-e sea le-el the quantity of )atter8 .hich the rays ha-e to tra-erse on their .ay to the (lanet8 is re$uce$ to one9thir$0 3ut8 as the air 7eco)es less $ense8 there is co)(arati-ely little gain to 7e $eri-e$ fro) greater ele-ation0 &hat chance .oul$ there 7e that the reflecte$ rays8 re$uce$ to an intensity far 7elo. that esti)ate$ a7o-e8 .oul$ (ro$uce a -isi7le signal on /arsF Though , $o not $eny this (ossi7ility8 all e-i$ence (oints to the contrary0 #o.ell8 a traine$ an$ restless o7ser-er8 .ho has )a$e the stu$y of /ars his s(ecialty8 an$ is .or2ing un$er i$eal con$itions8 has 7een so far una7le to (ercei-e a tight effect of the )agnitu$e such as the (ro(ose$ signalling a((aratus )ight (ro$uce there0 <ho7os8 the s)aller of the t.o satellites of /ars 9 fro) se-en to 15 )iles in $ia)eter 9 can only 7e seen at short inter-als .hen the (lanet is in o((osition0 The satellite (resents to us an area of a((ro'i)ately fifty square )iles8 reflecting sunlight at least as .ell as or$inary earth8 .hich has little o-er one9t.elfth of the (o.er of a )irror0 >tate$ other.ise8 an equi-alent effect at that $istance .oul$ 7e (ro$uce$ 7y )irrors co-ering four square )iles8 .hich )eans t.o square )iles of the sa)e reflectors if locate$ on earth8 as it recei-es sunlight of t.ice the intensity0 1o. this is an area !!! ti)es larger than that of the ten )illion $ollar reflector8 an$ yet <ho7os is har$ly (erce(ti7le0 ,t is true that the o7ser-ation of the satellite is ren$ere$ $ifficult 7y the glare of its )other (lanet0 3ut this is offset 7y the fact that it is in -acuu) an$ that its rays suffer little $i)inution through a7sor(tion an$ refraction of the earth's at)os(here0 'irror ,ignal Impossible *ow &hat has 7een state$ is thought sufficient to con-ince the rea$er that there is little to 7e e'(ecte$ fro) the (lan un$er $iscussion0 The i$ea naturally (resents itself that )irrors )ight 7e )anufacture$ .hich .ill reflect sunlight
in (arallel 7ea)s0 For the ti)e 7eing this is a tas2 7eyon$ hu)an (o.er8 7ut no one can set a li)it to the future achie-e)ent of )an0 >till )ore ineffecti-e .oul$ 7e the atte)(t of signalling in the )anner (ro(ose$ 7y =r0 &illia) +0 3roo2s an$ others8 7y artificial light8 as the electric arc0 ,n or$er to o7tain a reflecte$ tight acti-ity of !8455 horse(o.er it .oul$ 7e necessary to install a (o.er (lant of not less than *48555 horse(o.er8 .hich8 .ith its tur7ines8 $yna)os8 (ara7olic reflectors an$ other (ara(hernalia8 .oul$ (ro7a7ly cost )ore than ^15855585550 &hile this )etho$ .oul$ (er)it o(eration at fa-oura7le ti)es8 .hen the earth is nearer to8 an$ has its $ar2 si$e turne$ to.ar$ /ars8 it has the $isa$-antage of in-ol-ing the use of reflecte$ rays necessarily )ore $i-ergent than those of the sun8 it 7eing i)(ossi7le to construct )irrors of the require$ (erfection an$ .ithout their use the rays .oul$ 7e scattere$ to such an e'tent that the effect .oul$ 7e )uch s)aller0 +eflecting surfaces of great e'tent can 7e ha$ rea$ily0 <rof0 +0 &0 &oo$ )a2es the o$$ suggestion of using the .hite al2ali $esert of the south.est for the (ur(ose0 <rof0 "0 =oolittle a$-ises the e)(loy)ent of large geo)etric figures0 ,n )y o(inion none of these suggestions is feasi7le0 The trou7le is8 that the earth itself is a reflector8 not efficient8 it is true8 7ut .hat it lac2s in this res(ect is )ore than )a$e u( 7y the i))ensity of its area0 To con-ey a (erce(ti7le signal in this )anner it )ight require as )uch as 155 square )iles reflecting surface0 Wireless (ffers the 0est +lan 3ut there is one )etho$ of (utting oursel-es in touch .ith other (lanets0 Though not easy of e'ecution8 it is si)(le in (rinci(le0 A circuit (ro(erly $esigne$ an$ arrange$ is connecte$ .ith one of its en$s to an insulate$ ter)inal at so)e height an$ .ith the other to earth0 ,n$ucti-ely lin2e$ .ith it is another circuit in .hich electrical oscillations of great intensity are set u( 7y )eans no. fa)iliar to electricians0 This co)7ination of a((aratus is 2no.n as )y .ireless trans)itter0 3y careful attune)ent of the circuits the e'(ert can (ro$uce a -i7ration of e'traor$inary (o.er8 7ut .hen certain artifices8 .hich , ha-e not yet $escri7e$ are resorte$ to the oscillation reaches transcen$ing intensity0 3y this )eans8 as tol$ in )y (u7lishe$ technical recor$s8 , ha-e (asse$ a (o.erful current aroun$ the glo7e an$ attaine$ acti-ities of )any )illions of horse(o.er0 Assu)ing only a rate of 14855585558 rea$ily o7taina7le8 it is %8555 ti)es )ore than that (ro$uce$ 7y the <ic2ering )irrors0 3ut8 )y )etho$ has other an$ still greater a$-antages0 3y its e)(loy)ent the electrician on /ars8 instea$ of utiliBing the energy recei-e$ 7y a fe. thousan$ square feet of area8 as in a (ara7olic reflector8 is ena7le$ to concentrate in his instru)ent the energy recei-e$ 7y $oBens of square )iles8 thus )ulti(lying the effect )any thousan$s of ti)es0 1or is this all0 3y (ro(er )etho$s an$ $e-ices he can )agnify the recei-e$ effect as )any ti)es again0 ,t is e-i$ent8 then8 that in )y e'(eri)ents in 1899 an$ 1955 , ha-e alrea$y (ro$uce$ $istur7ances on /ars inco)(ara7ly )ore (o.erful than coul$ 7e attaine$ 7y any light reflectors8 ho.e-er large0 "lectrical science is no. so far a$-ance$ that our a7ility of flashing a signal to a (lanet is e'(eri)entally $e)onstrate$0 The question is8 .hen .ill hu)anity .itness that great triu)(h0 This is rea$ily ans.ere$0 The )o)ent .e o7tain a7solute e-i$ences that an intelligent effort is 7eing )a$e in so)e other .orl$ to this effect8 inter(lanetary trans)ission of intelligence can 7e consi$ere$ an acco)(lishe$ fact0 A (ri)iti-e un$erstan$ing can 7e reache$ quic2ly .ithout $ifficulty0 A co)(lete e'change of i$eas is a greater (ro7le)8 7ut susce(ti7le of solution0 1,:;#A T">#A
1-0--1"-"/: Ni.ola Tesla2s New Fireless 4y Nikola Tesla

The Electrical Engineer /r0 1i2ola Tesla has announce$ that as the result of e'(eri)ents con$ucte$ at >horeha)8 #ong ,slan$8 he has (erfecte$ a ne. syste) of .ireless telegra(hy an$ tele(hony in .hich the (rinci(les of trans)ission are the $irect o((osite of HertBian .a-e trans)ission0 ,n the latter8 he says8 the trans)ission is effecte$ 7y rays a2in to light8 .hich (ass through the air an$ cannot 7e trans)itte$ through the groun$8 .hile in the for)er the HertB .a-es are (ractically su((resse$ an$ the entire energy of the current is trans)itte$ through the groun$ e'actly as though a 7ig .ire0 /r0 Tesla a$$s that in his e'(eri)ents in Colora$o it .as sho.n that a -ery (o.erful current $e-elo(e$ 7y the trans)itter tra-erse$ the entire glo7e an$ returne$ to its origin in an inter-al of 86 one9 thousan$ths of a secon$8 this Hourney of !68555 )iles 7eing effecte$ al)ost .ithout loss of energy0
1-10-01-16: New Me(,ani(al 5rin(i$le for ConserEation of *nergy by Nikola Tesla

Denver !ocky /ountain Ne"s The s(rea$ of ci-iliBation )ay 7e li2ene$ to that of fireI First8 a fee7le s(ar28 ne't a flic2ering fla)e8 then a )ighty 7laBe8 e-er increasing in s(ee$ an$ (o.er0 &e are no. in this last (hase of $e-elo()ent0 Hu)an acti-ity has 7eco)e so .i$es(rea$ an$ intense that years count as centuries of (rogress0 There is no )ore gro(ing in the $ar2 or acci$entally stu)7ling u(on $isco-eries0 The results follo. one another li2e the lin2s of a chain0 '>uch is the force of the accu)ulate$ 2no.le$ge an$ the insight into natural la.s an$ (heno)ena that future e-ents are clearly (roHecte$ 7efore our -ision0 To foretell .hat is co)ing .oul$ 7e no )ore than to $ra. logical conclusions8 .ere it not for the $ifficulty in accurately fi'ing the ti)e of acco)(lish)ent0 The (ractical success of an i$ea8 irres(ecti-e of its inherent )erit8 is $e(en$ent on the attitu$e of the conte)(oraries0 ,f ti)ely it is quic2ly a$o(te$J if not8 it is a(t to fare li2e a s(rout lure$ out of the groun$ 7y .ar) sunshine8 only to 7e inHure$ an$ retar$e$ in its gro.th 7y the succee$ing frost0 Another $eter)ining factor is the a)ount of change in-ol-e$ in its intro$uction0 To )eet .ith instant success an in-ention or $isco-ery )ust co)e not only as a rational8 7ut a .elco)e solution0 The year 1915 .ill )ar2 the a$-ent of such an i$ea0 ,t is a ne. )echanical (rinci(le0 >ince the ti)e of Archi)e$es certain ele)entary $e-ices .ere 2no.n8 .hich .ere finally re$uce$ to t.o8 the le-er an$ the incline$ (lane0 Another ele)ent is to 7e a$$e$ to these8 .hich .ill gi-e rise to ne. conce(tions an$ (rofoun$ly affect 7oth the (ractical an$ theoretical science of )echanics0 This no-el (rinci(le is ca(a7le of e)7o$i)ent in all 2in$s of )achinery0 ,t .ill re-olutioniBe the (ro(ulsion a((aratus on -essels8 the loco)oti-e8 (assenger car an$ the auto)o7ile0 ,t .ill gi-e us a (ractical flying )achine entirely $ifferent fro) those )a$e heretofore in o(eration an$ control8 s.ift8 s)all an$ co)(act an$ so safe that a girl .ill 7e a7le to fly in it to school .ithout the go-erness0 3ut the greatest -alue of this i)(ro-e)ent .ill 7e in its a((lication in a fiel$ -irtually une'(lore$ an$ so -ast that it .ill ta2e $eca$es 7efore the groun$ is 7ro2en0 ,t is the fiel$ of .aste0 &e 7uil$ 7ut to tear $o.n0 /ost of our .or2 an$ resource is squan$ere$0 ;ur on.ar$ )arch is )ar2e$ 7y $e-astation0 "-ery.here there is an a((alling loss of ti)e8 effort an$ life0 A cheerless -ie.8 7ut true0 A single e'a)(le out of )any .ill suffice for illustration0 The energy necessary to our co)fort an$ safe e'istence is largely $eri-e$ fro) coal0 ,n this country alone nearly one )illion tons of the life9sustaining )aterial are $aily e'tracte$ fro) the 7o.els of the earth .ith (ain an$ sacrifice0 This is a7out se-en hun$re$ tons (er )inute8 re(resenting a theoretical acti-ity of8 say8 four hun$re$ an$ fifty9)illion horse(o.er0 3ut only a s)all (ercentage of this is usefully a((lie$0 ,n heating8 )ost of the (recious energy esca(es through the flue0 The chi)neys of 1e. Dor2 City (uff out into the air se-eral )illion horse(o.er0 ,n the use of coal for (o.er (ur(oses8 .e har$ly ca(ture )ore than 15 (ercent0 The e'haust of engines carries off )ore energy than o7taine$ fro) li-e stea)0 ,n )any )o$ern (lants the (o.er has 7een actually $ou7le$ 7y o7-iating this .aste8 7ut the )achinery e)(loye$ is cu)7erso)e an$ e'(ensi-e0 The )anufacture of light is in a 7ar7arous state of i)(erfection8 an$ this )ay also 7e sai$ of )any in$ustrial (rocesses0 Consi$er Hust one case8 the )anufacture of iron an$ steel0 A)erica (ro$uces a((ro'i)ately 3585558555 tons of (ig iron (er year0 "ach ton of iron requires a7out one an$ a half tons of coal8 hence8 in (ro-i$ing the iron )ar2et8 *585558555 tons of coal (er annu)8 or 133 tons (er )inute8 are consu)e$0 ,n the )anufacture of co2e a ton of coal yiel$s8 roughly8 158555 cu7ic feet of gas of a )ean heating ca(acity of %55 heat units (er cu7ic foot0 3earing in )in$ that 133 tons are use$ (er )inute8 the total heat units $e-elo(e$ in that ti)e .oul$ 7e *98855585558 the )echanical equi-alent of .hich is a7out 1985558555 horse(o.er0 3y the use of the ne. (rinci(le *85558555 horse(o.er )ight 7e ren$ere$ a-aila7le0 A furnace of !55 tons (ro$uces a((ro'i)ately 1*8555 cu7ic feet of gas (er )inute of heat -alue of 155 units8 corres(on$ing to a theoretical (erfor)ance of 658555 horse(o.er8 of .hich not less than 138555 )ight 7e utiliBe$ in the i)(ro-e$ a((aratus referre$ to0 The (o.er $eri-e$ 7y this )etho$ fro) all 7last furnaces in the Cnite$ >tates .oul$ 7e consi$era7ly a7o-e 485558555 horse(o.er0
The (rece$ing figures8 .hich are conser-ati-e8 sho. that it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le to o7tain 1!85558555 horse(o.er )erely fro) the .aste gasses in the iron an$ steel )anufacture0 The -alue of this (o.er8 fairly esti)ate$8 is ^18585558555 (er annu)8 an$ it )ust 7e )a$e .orth )uch )ore 7y syste)atic e'(loitation0 A (art of the (o.er coul$ 7e a$-antageously e)(loye$ for o(erating the 7lo.ers8 rollers an$ other in$is(ensa7le )achinery an$ su((lying electricity for s)elting8 steel )a2ing an$ other (ur(oses0 The 7ul2 )ight 7e use$ in the )anufacture of nitrates8 alu)iniu)8 car7i$es an$ ice0 The (ro$uction of nitrates .oul$ 7e (articularly -alua7le fro) the (oint of -ie. of national econo)y0 Assu)ing that 485558555 horse(o.er .ere a((ortione$ for that (ur(ose8 the annual yiel$ .oul$ 7e not less than 1585558555 tons of concentrate$ nitric co)(oun$8 a$equate to fertiliBing 658 5558555 acres of lan$0 A great encourage)ent .oul$ 7e gi-en to agriculture an$ the con$ition of the steel an$ iron .or2ers a)eliorate$ 7y offering to the) a fertiliBer at a re$uce$ rate8 thus ena7ling the) to culti-ate their far)s .ith e'ce(tional (rofit0 ;ther con-eniences an$ necessities8 as light8 (o.er8 ice an$ oBoniBe$ .ater coul$ 7e si)ilarly offere$ an$ nu)erous other i)(ro-e)ents8 7oth to the a$-antage of ca(ital an$ la7our8 carrie$ out0 To a((reciate the a7o-e it shoul$ 7e 7orne in )in$ that the iron an$ steel in$ustry is one of the 7est regulate$ in the .orl$0 ,n )any other fiel$s the .aste is e-en greater0 For e'a)(le8 in the o(eration of stea) railroa$s8 not less than 98 (er cent of the total energy of coal 7urne$ is lost0 An enor)ous sa-ing coul$ 7e effecte$ 7y re(lacing the (resent a((aratus .ith ne. gas tur7ines an$ other i)(ro-e$ $e-ices for trans)itting an$ storing )echanical energy0 A stu$y of this su7Hect .ill con-ince that for the ti)e 7eing8 at least8 there is )ore o((ortunity for in-ention in the utiliBation of .aste than in the o(ening u( of ne. resources0 N. Tesla
1-11-0--18: %r& Tesla Tal.s of Bas Tur1ines 4y Nikola Tesla

/otor #orld &o 2onfident+ (e 'ffers to 4uild Them for /otor 2ars 2onsiders Ne" 3o"er (is 5reatest Invention. Gas tur7ines of (ractical an$ efficient construction8 light8 fle'i7le an$ in e-ery .ay suita7le for auto)o7ile (ro(ulsion8 are not a $rea) of the future only 7ut a (ro7a7ility of only a -ery fe. years hence0 At least such is the con-iction of =r0 1i2ola Tesla8 .hose ne.ly $e-elo(e$ )etho$ of flui$ (ro(ulsion8 as he calls it8 an$ .hich .as illustrate$ an$ $escri7e$ in last .ee2's /otor #orld8 is attracting so )uch attention in scientific circles0 =r0 Tesla hi)self consi$ers it the greatest of all his in-entions0 3y his o.n state)ent the scientist alrea$y has 7uilt8 run an$ carefully teste$ internal co)7ustion engines o(erating on the ne. tur7ine (rinci(le an$ so confi$ent is he of the thorough (ractica7ility of the i$ea that on Fri$ay of last .ee2 he infor)e$ a /otor &orl$ )an that he .oul$ e-en 7e .illing to$ay to sign a contract to 7uil$ an$ install tur7ines for auto)o7iles0 He rea$ily a$)its8 ho.e-er8 that he .oul$ li2e to ha-e )ore ti)e8 consi$era7le )ore ti)e (ro7a7ly8 in .hich to $e-elo( a )etho$ of co)7ustion entirely suite$ to the tur7ine0 Auto)o7ile )otors8 as a )atter of fact8 (lay a $istinct (art in the in-entor's (lans for the future0 >o $o airshi( )otors8 (u)(s of -arious sorts8 stea) engines in e-ery concei-a7le siBe8 sha(e an$ ca(acity8 an$ a((aratus of other an$ -arie$ uses0 ,f in stea) engines an$ (u)(s .on$erful results alrea$y ha-e 7een o7taine$8 it is his e'(ectation later to acco)(lish equally .on$erful results .ith internal co)7ustion engines0 3earing in )in$ that a 115 horse(o.er stea) engine alrea$y has 7een 7uilt so $i)inuti-e that its rotor or acti-e (art .oul$ $ro( into an or$inary .ater 7uc2et8 it .oul$ see) that the (art of the (rogra) .hich )ight 7e su((ose$ to concern the auto)o7ile in$ustry .oul$ 7e .ell .orth in-estigating0 ,t .as the te)(ting (ros(ect of a (oc2et9siBe )otor8 therefore8 .hich le$ a re(resentati-e of the /otor &orl$ to see2 the fa)ous scientist in his offices high u( in the /etro(olitan To.er in 1e. Dor20 Contrary to (o(ular i)(ression8 not all great an$ fa)ous )en are inaccessi7le8 an$ Tesla (ro-e$ not only thoroughly a((roacha7le 7ut e'tre)ely rea$y to $iscuss the ne. tur7ine (rinci(le in )any of its 7earings0 His easy (re$ictions of the future $e-elo()ents of the syste) an$ his confi$ent 7earing .hen he $eclare$ it to 7e the greatest of his acco)(lish)ents8 )ight ha-e 7een )erely the -a(orings of an o-er enthusiastic in-entorJ 7ut the 7roa$ 7earing of the )an8 his recor$ an$ the $e(th of (erce(tion re-eale$ in so)e of his conclusions .oul$ ha-e lai$ at rest such $ou7ts0 The ne. (rinci(le unquestiona7ly is a great contri7ution to science an$ engineering8 great in its si)(licity an$ 7rea$th of a((lication0 Eust .hen its fullest realiBation .ill 7e gi-en to the )ar2ets of the .orl$ is another questionJ one that Tesla hi)self cannot ans.er8 though he e'(laine$ that he is "un$er great (ressure fro) all si$es" to co)(lete the $e-elo()ent of certain 2in$s of a((aratus8 stea) engines an$ (u)(s ha-ing recei-e$ a great $eal of attention u( to the (resent8 an$ that he e'(ects to ha-e so)e of the) rea$y for (ro$uction "7efore -ery long0" Tall8 erect8 al)ost angular8 .ith the 7roa$ 7ro. of the (hiloso(her an$ the shar(ly chisele$ features of the ha7itual stu$ent8 =r0 Tesla 7ears fe. of the ear)ar2s of the0 tra$itional genius0 He .ears his iron9gray hair a little lo. in the 7ac28 to 7e sure8 7ut not for an in-entor8 an$ .hen he .al2s there is Hust a 7are suggestion of histrionic attain)ents utterly at -ariance .ith the hurrie$ (reoccu(ation of the con-entional ty(e of )an .hose 7rains are store$ in the archi-es of the <atent ;ffice0 "&e un$erstan$ that you are $oing re)ar2a7le things .ith stea)8 7ut ho. far has your confi$ence 7een e'ten$e$ to the gas tur7ineF" the scientist .as as2e$0 He laughe$0 "&hy8 , a) .or2ing .ith the) all the ti)e8" he ans.ere$0 "Dou )ean to say that you alrea$y ha-e 7uilt an$ o(erate$ internal co)7ustion tur7ines e)(loying your (rinci(le of flui$ (ro(ulsionF" "Des0 3ut , a) not satisfie$Knot yet0 Dou see there are )any things to 7e consi$ere$0 The tur7ine8 that is one thingJ it is co)(lete in itself an$ there is no question of its a((lica7ility 03ut .hen you co)e to the co)7ustion of the gas you ha-e a ne. $ifficulty0 , a) not satisfie$ .ith the (resent )etho$s of gasification0 , ha-e trie$ one of )y tur7ines $ischarging the gas into a cha)7er an$ then s(raying .ater into it0 Dou see in that .ay you get an inter)ittent flo. through the noBBle8 7ut you also ha-e 7etter ther)al action 7ecause you get your a$ia7atic
e'(ansion8 ?)eaning that in .hich theoretically there is no loss of heat@0 An$ then8 , ha-e trie$ .ith gasoline using a constant Het8 in .hich you get less efficient ther)al action 7ut 7etter action for the tur7ine0 3ut , a) not yet satisfie$0 , thin2 that so)e $ay .e shall get 7etter (rocesses of co)7ustion that .ill ena7le )e to .or2 )ore a$-antage .ith )y tur7ine0 "Dou see8 that is one great trou7le8" continue$ =r0 Tesla0 "The hu)an )in$ thin2s 7ut to co)(licate0 As soon as one (ro7le) is sol-e$8 that solution intro$uces ne. co)(lications8 other (ro7le)s that (erha(s $i$ not e'ist 7efore0 That .as one of )y great trou7les .hen , .as younger8 , in-ente$ )any things that .ere -ery fine8 7ut al.ays , .as getting into co)(lications0 , ha-e ha$ to .or2 -ery har$ to o-erco)e that0 3ut here you see .hat , ha-e $one0 =o you see ho. -ery si)(le it isF Dou ta2e8 for instance8 the or$inary tur7ine8 a 7uc2et tur7ine0 Here you ha-e aroun$ the outsi$e of the .heel a ro. of little Hets8 an$ .ithin8 on the (eri(hery of a .heel8 a ro. of 7uc2etsK)any of the) an$ -ery s)all8 e-en on a large .heel0 3ut $on't you see that in that entire .heel you ha-e only a narro. stri(8 a ring (erha(s three or four inches .i$e8 that is really usefulKthat is really acti-eF ",n )y in-ention (ractically the .hole surface is acti-e0 ,n the 7uc2et tur7ine the action $oes not e-en e'ten$ all the .ay aroun$J you )ust ha-e a series of Hets0 3ut in )y tur7ine you ha-e the gas tra-eling all the .ay aroun$ in free s(iralsKal.ays see2ing the (ath of least resistanceKan$ e'(en$ing its full energy0" Here he lai$ asi$e the (encil .ith .hich he ha$ 7een illustrating the (oint8 an$ re-erte$ to the 7eginning of .hat he e-i$ently consi$ers his "7ig i$ea0" ", ha-e 7een .or2ing at this a long ti)e0 /any years ago , in-ente$ a (u)( for (u)(ing )ercury 0Eust a (lain $is28 li2e this8 an$ it .oul$ .or2 -ery .ell0 ' All right8' , sai$8 'that is friction0' 3ut one $ay , thought it out8 an$ , thought8 '1o8 that is not friction8 it is so)ething else0 The (articles are not al.ays sli$ing 7y the $is28 7ut so)e of the) at least are carrie$ along .ith it0 Therefore it cannot 7e friction0 ,t )ust 7e a$hesion0 ' An$ that8 you see8 .as the real 7eginning0 "For if you can i)agine a .heel rotating in a )e$iu)8 .hether the flui$ is recei-ing or i)(arting energy8 an$ )o-ing at nearly the sa)e -elocity as the flui$8 then you ha-e a )ini)u) of friction8 you get little or no 'sli(0' Then you are getting so)ething -ery $ifferent fro) frictionJ you are )a2ing use of a$hesion alone0 ,t's all so si)(le8 so -ery si)(le0 "This is the greatest of )y in-entions8" Tesla .ent on .ith great enthusias)0 "1o. ta2e )y 'rotating fiel$'K$o you 2no. )y rotating fiel$Kare you fa)iliar at all .ith electricityF There are )illions in-este$ in it alrea$y0 &ell8 that is a -ery useful thing8 7ut the fiel$ is li)ite$ to $yna)os an$ )otors0 3ut here you ha-e a ne. (o.er for (u)(s8 stea) engines8 gasoline )otors8 for auto)o7iles8 for airshi(s8 for )any other uses8 an$ all so si)(le0" "3ut is it really true that you ha-e (ro$uce$ 115 horse(o.er fro) a .heel only 9 3/6 inches in $ia)eter an$ t.o inches .i$e8 as has 7een re(orte$F" as2e$ the inter-ie.er incre$ulously0 ";h8 yesY" .as the re(ly0 "An$ )ore0 &e coul$ get )ore (o.er0 &e ha$ 1!4 (oun$s stea) (ressure an$ no -acuu)0 &e ran it that .ay for hours0" "&as it sustaine$ (o.erF" "Des8 sustaine$ (o.er0 An$ .e coul$ only use (art of the $ro( in (ressureJ .e .oul$ ha-e t.iste$ off the shaft8 it .as so light8 if .e ha$ 7een a7le to use all the energy of the stea)0 , ha$ to (ut in a s)aller noBBle on that account0" "An$ they are -ery light8 these stea) enginesF" ", can 7uil$ a stea) engine that .ill $e-elo( one horse(o.er for e-ery one tenth of a (oun$ of .eight8" .as the instant an$ a)aBing res(onse0 ", a) no. 7uil$ing a $ou7le tur7ine8 one .ith t.o .heels .hich )ust re-ol-e in o((osite $irections0 ,t is for a s(ecial (ur(ose8 an$ , cannot tal2 )uch a7out that8 7ut each .heel $e-elo(s !55 horse(o.er8 that is 655 horse(o.er8 an$ it .eighs 88 (oun$s0" A no less a)aBing clai) )a$e at another ti)e .as that the stea) tur7ine coul$ 7e )a$e to return in (o.er at the shaft no less than 9* (ercent of the energy of the stea)0 There see)s to 7e no li)it to .hat the in-entor thin2s the ne. syste) .ill acco)(lish8 though8 of course8 a .aiting .orl$ )ay 7e (ar$one$ for .ithhol$ing a full -er$ict of confi$ence until it has ha$ o((ortunity to .itness so)e of the (ro)ise$ )ar-els0 As far as $e)onstration of the 7asic (rinci(le is concerne$8 ho.e-er8 the success of the i$ea is unquestiona7le0 A s)all (u)(8 originally (ut together for (ur(oses of e'hi7ition 7efore a 7o$y of scientists8 to .ho) =r0Tesla first $isclose$ his in-ention8 .as o(erate$ for the 7enefit of the /otor &orl$ )anJ the in-entor hi)self o7ligingly s.itching on an$ off the current fro) the little electric )otor .hich $ro-e it8 an$ o(erating the -al-e 7y )eans of
.hich the $ischarge coul$ 7e regulate$ to increase the flo. an$ $ecrease the (ressure8 or -ice -ersa0 The rotor8 )ounte$ in a casing of -olute for) har$ly )ore than si' inches in $ia)eter8 containe$ fi-e $is2s of three inches $ia)eter0 Fro) a s)all tan28 .hich .as (art of the )o$el8 .ater .as $ra.n into the casing an$ force$ through a (i(e .ith a lift of 18 inches or so to a long strainer in a horiBontal (i(e8 .hence8 after (assing a 7affle (late8 to 7rea2 u( the flo. an$ (re-ent s(lashing8 it fell 7ac2 into the tan2 o-er a )iniature .eir in a 7eautiful clear sheet0 The han$ of a (ressure gauge in$icate$ four (oun$s .hen the -al-e .as close$8 7ut fell to a little un$er t.o (oun$s .hen the full $ischarge .as (er)itte$0 &ith the -al-e close$8 the action of the $is2s .as sho.n to goo$ a$-antage0 +a(i$ly sna((ing on an$ off the s.itch8 the in-entor gleefully (ointe$ out ho. the han$ of the gauge Hu)(e$ u( an$ fell 7ac2 again so closely in res(onse to the s(ee$ of the )otor8 as Hu$ge$ 7y the hu) of its co))utator8 that eye an$ ear faile$ to $etect the $ifference0 "An$ so you really 7elie-e that a (ractical for) of gas tur7ine can 7e $e-elo(e$ on this (rinci(le an$ in such sha(e that it coul$ 7e (rofita7ly a$a(te$ to auto)o7ile useF" as2e$ the /otor &orl$ )an0 ", a) so sure that , .oul$ )a2e a contract to$ay to 7uil$ gas tur7ines an$ equi( auto)o7iles .ith the)0"
1-11-10-15: Tesla2s New Monar(, of Ma(,ines 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald Su$$ose some one should discover a ne" mechanical *rinci*le,,something as fundamental as 8ames #attGs discovery of the ex*ansive *o"er of steamHby the use of "hich it became *ossible to build a motor that "ould give ten horse *o"er for every *ound of the engineGs "eight+ a motor so sim*le that the veriest novice in mechanics could construct it and so elemental that it could not *ossibly get out of re*air. Then su**ose that this motor could be run for"ard or back"ard at "ill+ that it could be used as either an engine or a *um*+ that it cost almost nothing to build as com*ared "ith any other kno"n form of engine+ that it utili;ed a larger *ercentage of the available *o"er than any existing machine+ and+ finally+ that it "ould o*erate "ith gas+ steam+ com*ressed air or "ater+ any one of them+ as its driving *o"er. ,t $oes not ta2e a )echanical e'(ert to i)agine the li)itless (ossi7ilities of such an engine0 ,t ta2es -ery little effort to conHure u( a (icture of a ne. .orl$ of in$ustry an$ trans(ortation )a$e (ossi7le 7y the in-ention of such a $e-ice0 _+e-olutionary` see)s a )il$ ter) to a((ly to it0 That8 ho.e-er8 is the .or$ the in-entor uses in $escri7ing itK1i2ola Tesla8 the scientist .hose electrical $isco-eries un$erlie all )o$ern electrical (o.er $e-elo()ent8 .hose e'(eri)ents an$ $e$uctions )a$e the .ireless telegra(h (ossi7le8 an$ .ho no.8 in the )echanical fiel$8 has achie-e$ a triu)(h e-en )ore far reaching than anything he acco)(lishe$ in electricity0 There is so)ething of the ro)antic in this $isco-ery of the fa)ous e'(lorer of the hi$$en real)s of 2no.le$ge0 The (ursuit of an i$eal is al.ays ro)antic8 an$ it .as in the (ursuit of an i$eal .hich he has 7een see2ing t.enty years that =r0 Tesla )a$e his great $isco-ery0 That i$eal is the (o.er to flyKto fly .ith certainty an$ a7solute safetyKnot )erely to go u( in an aero(lane an$ ta2e chances on .eather con$itions8 _holes in the air8` torna$oes8 lightning an$ the thousan$ other (erils the a-iator of to$ay faces8 7ut to fly .ith the s(ee$ an$ certainty of a cannon 7all8 .ith (o.er to o-erco)e any of natureNs aerial forces8 to start .hen one (leases8 go .hither one (leases an$ alight .here one (leases0 That has 7een the ai) of =r0 TeslaNs life for nearly a quarter of a century0 He 7elie-es that .ith the $isco-ery of the (rinci(le of his ne. )otor he has sol-e$ this (ro7le) an$ that inci$entally he has lai$ the foun$ations for the )ost startling ne. achie-e)ents in other )echanical lines0 There .as a ti)e .hen )en of science .ere s2e(ticalKa ti)e .hen they ri$icule$ the announce)ent of re-olutionary $isco-eries0 Those .ere the $ays .hen 1i2ola Tesla8 the young scientist fro) the 3al2ans8 .as laughe$ at .hen he urge$ his theories on the engineering .orl$0 Ti)es ha-e change$ since then8 an$ the _(ractical` engineer is not so incre$ulous a7out _scientific` $isco-eries0 The change ca)e a7out .hen young Tesla sho.e$ the .ay 7y .hich the (o.er of 1iagara Falls coul$ 7e utiliBe$0 The right to $i-ert a (ortion of the .aters of 1iagara ha$ 7een grante$J then arose the question of ho. 7est to utiliBe the tre)en$ous (o.er thus )a$e a-aila7leKho. to trans)it it to the (oints .here it coul$ 7e co))ercially utiliBe$0 An international co))ission sat in #on$on an$ listene$ to theories an$ (ractical (lans for )onths0 C( to that ti)e the only )eans of utiliBing electric (o.er .as the $irect current )otor8 an$ $irect current $yna)os 7ig enough to 7e of (ractical utility for such a gigantic (o.er $e-elo()ent .ere not feasi7le0 Then ca)e the announce)ent of young TeslaNs $isco-ery of the (rinci(le of the alternating current )otor0 <ractical tests sho.e$ that it coul$ 7e 7uiltKthat it .oul$ .or20 That $isco-ery8 at that o((ortune ti)e8 $eci$e$ the co))ission0 "lectricity .as $eter)ine$ u(on as the )eans for the trans)ission of 1iagaraNs (o.er to in$ustry an$ co))erce0 To$ay a )illion horse (o.er is $e-elo(e$ on the 7rin2 of the great cataract8 turning the .heels of 3uffalo8 +ochester8 >yracuse an$ the inter-ening cities an$ -illages o(erating close at han$ the great ne. electro9che)ical in$ustries that the e'istence of this i))ense source of (o.er has )a$e (ossi7le8 .hile all aroun$ the .orl$ a thousan$ .aterfalls are .or2ing in the ser-ice of )an2in$8 sen$ing the (o.er of their _.hite coal` into re)ote an$ al)ost inaccessi7le corners of the glo7e8 all 7ecause of 1i2ola TeslaNs first great e(och )a2ing $isco-ery0 To$ay the engineering .orl$ listens res(ectfully .hen =r0 Tesla s(ea2s0 The first announce)ent of the $isco-ery of his ne. )echanical (rinci(le .as )a$e in a technical (erio$ical in )i$9>e(te)7er8 19110 ,))e$iately it 7eca)e the (rinci(al to(ic of $iscussions .here-er engineers )et0
_,t is the greatest in-ention in a century8` .rote one of the fore)ost A)erican engineers8 a )an .hose na)e
stan$s close to the to( of the list of those .ho ha-e achie-e$ scientific fa)e an$ greatness0
_1o in-ention of such i)(ortance in the auto)o7ile tra$e has yet 7een )a$e8` $eclare$ the e$itor of one of the
lea$ing engineering (u7lications0 "'(erts in other engineering lines (ointe$ out other a((lications of the ne. (rinci(le an$ letters as2ing for further infor)ation (oure$ in on =r0 Tesla fro) the four quarters of the glo7e0
_;h8 ,'-e ha$ too )uch (u7licity8` he sai$8 .hen , tele(hone$ to hi) to as2 for an inter-ie. in or$er to e'(lain his
ne. $isco-ery to the non9technical (u7lic0 ,t too2 a goo$ $eal of (ersuasion 7efore he reluctantly fi'e$ an hour .hen he .oul$ see )e8 an$ a goo$ 7it )ore after that 7efore he tal2e$ at all freely0 &hen he $i$ s(ea28 ho.e-er8 he o(ene$ u( -istas of (ossi7le a((lications of the ne. engine that staggere$ the i)agination of the inter-ie.er0 #oo2ing out o-er the city fro) the .in$o.s of his office8 on the t.entieth floor of the /etro(olitan To.er8 his face lit u( as he tol$ of his life $rea) an$ its a((roaching realiBation8 an$ the listenerNs fancy coul$ al)ost see the air full of strange flying craft8 .hile huge stea)shi(s (ro(elle$ at unhear$ of s(ee$s (loughe$ the .aters of the 1orth +i-er8 auto)o7iles cli)7e$ the -ery face of the <alisa$es8 loco)oti-es of incre$i7le (o.er .his2e$ .heele$ (alaces )any )iles a )inute an$ all the $isco)forts of su))er heat -anishe$ as )ar-ellous refrigerating (lants re$uce$ the te)(erature of the .hole city to a co)forta7le )a'i)u)Kfor these .ere only a fe. of the suggestions of the li)itless (ossi7ilities of the latest Tesla $isco-ery0
_Eust .hat is your ne. in-entionF` , as2e$0 _, ha-e acco)(lishe$ .hat )echanical engineers ha-e 7een $rea)ing a7out e-er since the in-ention of stea)
(o.er8` re(lie$ =r0 Tesla0 _That is the (erfect rotary engine0 ,t ha((ens that , ha-e also (ro$uce$ an engine .hich .ill gi-e at least t.enty9fi-e ti)es as )uch (o.er to a (oun$ of .eight as the lightest .eight engine of any 2in$ that has yet 7een (ro$uce$0
_,n $oing this , ha-e )a$e use of t.o (ro(erties .hich ha-e al.ays 7een 2no.n to 7e (ossesse$ 7y all flui$s8
7ut .hich ha-e not heretofore 7een utiliBe$0 These (ro(erties are a$hesion an$ -iscosity0
_<ut a $ro( of .ater on a )etal (late0 The $ro( .ill roll off8 7ut a certain a)ount of the .ater .ill re)ain on the
(late until it e-a(orates or is re)o-e$ 7y so)e a7sor(ti-e )eans0 The )etal $oes not a7sor7 any of the .ater8 7ut the .ater a$heres to it0
_The $ro( of .ater )ay change its sha(e8 7ut until its (articles are se(arate$ 7y so)e e'ternal (o.er it re)ains
intact0 This ten$ency of all flui$s to resist )olecular se(aration is -iscosity0 ,t is es(ecially noticea7le in the hea-ier oils0
_,t is these (ro(erties of a$hesion an$ -iscosity that cause the _s2in friction` that i)(e$es a shi( in its (rogress
through the .ater or an aero(lane in going through the air0 All flui$s ha-e these qualitiesKan$ you )ust 2ee( in )in$ that air is a flui$8 all gases are flui$s8 stea) is flui$0 "-ery 2no.n )eans of trans)itting or $e-elo(ing )echanical (o.er is through a flui$ )e$iu)0
_1o.8 su((ose .e )a2e this )etal (late that , ha-e s(o2en of circular in sha(e an$ )ount it at its centre on a
shaft so that it can 7e re-ol-e$0 A((ly (o.er to rotate the shaft an$ .hat ha((ensF &hy8 .hate-er flui$ the $is2 ha((ens to 7e re-ol-ing in is agitate$ an$ $ragge$ along in the $irection of rotation8 7ecause the flui$ ten$s to a$here to the $is2 an$ the -iscosity causes the )otion gi-en to the a$hering (articles of the flui$ to 7e trans)itte$ to the .hole )ass0 Here8 , can sho. you 7etter than tell you0` =r0 Tesla le$ the .ay into an a$Hoining roo)0 ;n a $es2 .as a s)all electric )otor an$ )ounte$ on the shaft .ere half a $oBen flat $is2s8 se(arate$ 7y (erha(s a si'teenth of an inch fro) one another8 each $is2 7eing less than that in thic2ness0 He turne$ a s.itch an$ the )otor 7egan to 7uBB0 A .a-e of cool air .as i))e$iately felt0
_There .e ha-e a $is28 or rather a series of $is2s8 re-ol-ing in a flui$Kthe air8` sai$ the in-entor0 _Dou nee$ no
(roof to tell you that the air is 7eing agitate$ an$ (ro(elle$ -iolently0 ,f you .ill hol$ your han$ o-er the centre of these $is2sKyou see the centres ha-e 7een cut a.ayKyou .ill feel the suction as air is $ra.n in to 7e e'(elle$ fro) the (eri(heries of the $is2s0
_1o.8 su((ose these re-ol-ing $is2s .ere enclose$ in an air tight case8 so constructe$ that the air coul$ enter
only at one (oint an$ 7e e'(elle$ only at anotherK.hat .oul$ .e ha-eF"
_Dou'$ ha-e an air (u)(8` , suggeste$0
_"'actly99an air (u)( or 7lo.er8` sai$ =r0 Tesla0 _There is one no. in o(eration $eli-ering ten thousan$ cu7ic feet of air a )inute0 _1o.8 co)e o-er here0`
He ste((e$ across the hall an$ into another roo)8 .here three or four $raughts)en .ere at .or2 an$ -arious )echanical an$ electrical contri-ances .ere scattere$ a7out0 At one si$e of the roo) .as .hat a((eare$ to 7e a Binc or alu)inu) tan28 $i-i$e$ into t.o sections8 one a7o-e the other8 .hile a (i(e that ran along the .all a7o-e the u((er $i-ision of the tan2 .as connecte$ .ith a little alu)inu) case a7out the siBe an$ sha(e of a s)all alar) cloc20 A tiny electric )otor .as attache$ to a shaft that (rotru$e$ fro) one si$e of the alu)inu) case0 The lo.er $i-ision of the tan2 .as fille$ .ith .ater0
_,nsi$e of this alu)inu) case are se-eral $is2s )ounte$ on a shaft an$ i))erse$ in a flui$8 .ater8` sai$ =r0
Tesla0 _Fro) this lo.er tan2 the .ater has free access to the case enclosing the $is2s0 This (i(e lea$s fro) the (eri(hery of the case0 , turn the current on8 the )otor turns the $is2s an$ as , o(en this -al-e in the (i(e the .ater flo.s0` He turne$ the -al-e an$ the .ater certainly $i$ flo.0 ,nstantly a strea) that .oul$ ha-e fille$ a 7arrel in a -ery fe. )inutes 7egan to run out of the (i(e into the u((er (art of the tan2 an$ thence into the lo.er tan20
_This is only a toy8` sai$ =r0 Tesla0 _There are only half a $oBen $is2sK frunners8N , call the)Keach less than
three inches in $ia)eter8 insi$e of that case0 They are Hust li2e the $is2s you sa. on the first )otorKno -anes8 7la$es or attach)ents of any 2in$0 Eust (erfectly s)ooth8 flat $is2s re-ol-ing in their o.n (lanes an$ (u)(ing .ater 7ecause of the -iscosity an$ a$hesion of the flui$0 ;ne such (u)( no. in o(eration8 .ith eight $is2s8 eighteen inches in $ia)eter8 (u)(s four thousan$ gallons a )inute to a height of 3%5 feet0` &e .ent 7ac2 into the 7ig8 .ell lighte$ office0 , .as 7eginning to gras( the ne. Tesla (rinci(le0
_>u((ose no. .e re-erse$ the o(eration8` continue$ the in-entor0 _Dou ha-e seen the $is2s acting as a (u)(0
>u((ose .e ha$ .ater8 or air un$er (ressure8 or stea) un$er (ressure8 or gas un$er (ressure8 an$ let it run into the case in .hich the $is2s are containe$K.hat .oul$ ha((enF"
_The $is2s .oul$ re-ol-e an$ any )achinery attache$ to the shaft .oul$ 7e o(erate$Kyou .oul$ con-ert the
(u)( into an engine8` , suggeste$0
_That is e'actly .hat .oul$ ha((enK.hat $oes ha((en8` re(lie$ =r0 Tesla0 _,t is an engine that $oes all that
engineers ha-e e-er $rea)e$ of an engine $oing8 an$ )ore0 =o.n at the &atersi$e (o.er station of the 1e. Dor2 "$ison Co)(any8 through their courtesy8 , ha-e ha$ a nu)7er of such engines in o(eration0 ,n one of the) the $is2s are only nine inches in $ia)eter an$ the .hole .or2ing (art is t.o inches thic20 &ith stea) as the (ro(ulsi-e flui$ it $e-elo(s 1159horse (o.er8 an$ coul$ $o t.ice as )uch0`
_Dou ha-e got .hat <rofessor #angley .as trying to e-ol-e for his flying )achineKan engine that .ill gi-e a
horse (o.er for a (oun$ of .eight8` , suggeste$0 Ten 4orse +ower to the +ound
_, ha-e got )ore than that8` re(lie$ =r0 Tesla0 _, ha-e an engine that .ill gi-e ten horse (o.er to the (oun$ of
.eight0 That is t.enty9fi-e ti)es as (o.erful as the lightest .eight engine in use to$ay0 The lightest gas engine use$ on aero(lanes .eighs t.o an$ one9half (oun$s to the horse (o.er0 &ith t.o an$ one9half (oun$s of .eight , can $e-elo( t.enty9fi-e horse (o.er0`
_That )eans the solution of the (ro7le) of flying8` , suggeste$0 _Des8 an$ )any )ore8` .as the re(ly0 _The a((lications of this (rinci(le8 7oth for i)(arting (o.er to flui$s8 as in
(u)(s8 an$ for $eri-ing (o.er fro) flui$s8 as in tur7ine8 are 7oun$less0 ,t costs al)ost nothing to )a2e8 there is nothing a7out it to get out of or$er8 it is re-ersi7leKsi)(ly ha-e t.o (orts for the gas or stea)8 to enter 7y8 one on each si$e8 an$ let it into one si$e or other0 There are no 7la$es or -anes to get out of or$erKthe stea) tur7ine is a $elicate thing0` , re)e)7ere$ the 7ushels of 7ro2en 7la$es that .ere gathere$ out of the tur7ine casings of the first tur7ine equi((e$ stea)shi( to cross the ocean8 an$ realiBe$ the i)(ortance of this (hase of the ne. engine0
_Then8 too8` =r0 Tesla .ent on8 _there are no $elicate a$Hust)ents to 7e )a$e0 The $istance 7et.een the $is2s is
not a )atter of )icrosco(ic accuracy an$ there is no necessity for )inute clearances 7et.een the $is2s an$ the case0 All one nee$s is so)e $is2s )ounte$ on a shaft8 s(ace$ a little $istance a(art an$ case$ so that a flui$ can enter at one (oint an$ go out at another0 ,f the flui$ enters at the centre an$ goes out at the (eri(hery it is a (u)(0 ,f it enters at the (eri(hery an$ goes out at the centre it is a )otor0
_Cou(ling these engines in series8 one can $o a.ay .ith gearing in )achinery0 Factories can 7e equi((e$
.ithout shafting0 The )otor is es(ecially a$a(te$ to auto)o7iles8 for it .ill run on gas e'(losions as .ell as on stea)0 The gas or stea) can 7e let into a $oBen (orts all aroun$ the ri) of the case if $esire$0 ,t is (ossi7le to run it as a gas engine .ith a continuous flo. of gas8 gasoline an$ air 7eing )i'e$ an$ the continuous co)7ustion causing e'(ansion an$ (ressure to o(erate the )otor0 The e'(ansi-e (o.er of stea)8 as .ell as its (ro(ulsi-e (o.er8 can 7e utiliBe$ as in a tur7ine or a reci(rocating engine0 3y (er)itting the (ro(elling flui$ to )o-e along the lines of least resistance a consi$era7ly larger (ro(ortion of the a-aila7le (o.er is utiliBe$0
_As an air co)(ressor it is highly efficient0 There is a large engine of this ty(e no. in (ractical o(eration as an air
co)(ressor an$ gi-ing re)ar2a7le ser-ice0 +efrigeration on a scale hitherto ne-er atte)(te$ .ill 7e (ractical8 through the use of this engine in co)(ressing air8 an$ the )anufacture of liqui$ air co))ercially is no. entirely feasi7le0
_&ith a thousan$ horse (o.er engine8 .eighing only one hun$re$ (oun$s8 i)agine the (ossi7ilities in
auto)o7iles8 loco)oti-es an$ stea)shi(s0 ,n the s(ace no. occu(ie$ 7y the engines of the #usitania t.enty9fi-e ti)es her 858555 horse (o.er coul$ 7e $e-elo(e$8 .ere it (ossi7le to (ro-i$e 7oiler ca(acity sufficient to furnish the necessary stea)0`
_An$ it )a2es the aero(lane (ractical8` , suggeste$0 _1ot the aero(lane8 the flying )achine8` res(on$e$ =r0 Tesla0 _1o. you ha-e struc2 the (oint in .hich , a) )ost
$ee(ly intereste$Kthe o7Hect to.ar$ .hich , ha-e 7een $e-oting )y energies for )ore than t.enty yearsKthe $rea) of )y life0 ,t .as in see2ing the )eans of )a2ing the (erfect flying )achine that , $e-elo(e$ this engine0
_T.enty years ago , 7elie-e$ that , .oul$ 7e the first )an to flyJ that , .as on the trac2 of acco)(lishing .hat no
one else .as any.here near reaching0 , .as .or2ing entirely in electricity then an$ $i$ not realiBe that the gasoline engine .as a((roaching a (erfection that .as going to )a2e the aero(lane feasi7le0 There is nothing ne. a7out the aero(lane 7ut its engine8 you 2no.0
_&hat , .as .or2ing on t.enty years ago .as the .ireless trans)ission of electric (o.er0 /y i$ea .as a flying
)achine (ro(elle$ 7y an electric )otor8 .ith (o.er su((lie$ fro) stations on the earth0 , ha-e not acco)(lishe$ this as yet8 7ut a) confi$ent that , .ill in ti)e0
_&hen , foun$ that , ha$ 7een antici(ate$ as to the flying )achine8 7y )en .or2ing in a $ifferent fiel$8 , 7egan to
stu$y the (ro7le) fro) other angles8 to regar$ it as a )echanical rather than an electrical (ro7le)0 , felt certain there )ust 7e so)e )eans of o7taining (o.er that .as 7etter than any no. in use0 An$ 7y -igorous use of )y gray )atter for a nu)7er of years8 , gras(e$ the (ossi7ilities of the (rinci(le of the -iscosity an$ a$hesion of flui$s an$ concei-e$ the )echanis) of )y engine0 1o. that , ha-e it8 )y ne't ste( .ill 7e the (erfect flying )achine0`
_An aero(lane $ri-en 7y your engineF` , as2e$0 _1ot at all8` sai$ =r0 Tesla0 _The aero(lane is fatally $efecti-e0 ,t is )erely a toyKa s(orting (lay9thing0 ,t can
ne-er 7eco)e co))ercially (ractical0 ,t has fatal $efects0 ;ne is the fact that .hen it encounters a $o.n.ar$ current of air it is hel(less0 The _hole in the air` of .hich a-iators s(ea2 is si)(ly a $o.n.ar$ current8 an$ unless the aero(lane is high enough a7o-e the earth to )o-e laterally 7ut can $o nothing 7ut fall0
_There is no .ay of $etecting these $o.n.ar$ currents8 no .ay of a-oi$ing the)8 an$ therefore the aero(lane
)ust al.ays 7e su7Hect to chance an$ its o(erator to the ris2 of fatal acci$ent0 >(orts)en .ill al.ays ta2e these chances8 7ut as a 7usiness (ro(osition the ris2 is too great0
_The flying )achine of the futureK)y flying )achineK.ill 7e hea-ier than air8 7ut it .ill not 7e an aero(lane0 ,t
.ill ha-e no .ings0 ,t .ill 7e su7stantial8 soli$8 sta7le0 Dou cannot ha-e a sta7le air(lane0 The gyrosco(e can ne-er 7e successfully a((lie$ to the air(lane8 for it .oul$ gi-e a sta7ility that .oul$ result in the )achine 7eing
torn to (ieces 7y the .in$8 Hust as the un(rotecte$ aero(lane on the groun$ is torn to (ieces 7y a high .in$0
_/y flying )achine .ill ha-e neither .ings nor (ro(ellers0 Dou )ight see it on the groun$ an$ you .oul$ ne-er
guess that it .as a flying )achine0 Det it .ill 7e a7le to )o-e at .ill through the air in any $irection .ith (erfect safety8 higher s(ee$s than ha-e yet 7een reache$8 regar$less of .eather an$ o7li-ious of _holes in the air` or $o.n.ar$ currents0 ,t .ill ascen$ in such currents if $esire$0 ,t can re)ain a7solutely stationary in the air8 e-en in a .in$8 for great length of ti)e0 ,ts lifting (o.er .ill not $e(en$ u(on any such $elicate $e-ices as the 7ir$ has to e)(loy8 7ut u(on (ositi-e )echanical action0`
_Dou .ill get sta7ility through gyrosco(esF` , as2e$0 _Through gyrosco(ic action of )y engine8 assiste$ 7y so)e $e-ices , a) not yet (re(are$ to tal2 a7out8` he
re(lie$0
_<o.erful air currents that )ay 7e $eflecte$ at .ill8 if (ro$uce$ 7y engines an$ co)(ressors sufficiently light an$
(o.erful8 )ight lift a hea-y 7o$y off the groun$ an$ (ro(el it through the air8` , -enture$8 .on$ering if , ha$ gras(e$ the in-entorNs secret0 =r0 Tesla s)ile$ an inscruta7le s)ile0
_All , ha-e to say on that (oint is that )y airshi( .ill ha-e neither gas 7ag8 .ings nor (ro(ellers8` he sai$0 _,t is
the chil$ of )y $rea)s8 the (ro$uct of years of intense an$ (ainful toil an$ research0 , a) not going to tal2 a7out it any further0 3ut .hate-er )y airshi( )ay 7e8 here at least is an engine that .ill $o things that no other engine e-er has $one8 an$ that is so)ething tangi7le0`
1-1"-05-00: Mr& Tesla on t,e 7uture by Nikola Tesla

/odern Electrics ;n Tesla =ay8 at the 1orth.est "lectric >ho.8 hel$ at /innea(olis8 /inn08 /arch 1%th to !3r$8 /r0 Tesla sent8 through Arch7isho( ,relan$8 the follo.ing )essage to the (eo(le of the T.in Cities an$ the 1orth.estI 1e. Dor28 10 D08 /arch 188 191!0 His Grace8 The /ost +e-eren$ Arch7isho( ,relan$I , 7es(ea2 your Grace's far9fa)e$ eloquence in -oicing senti)ents an$ i$eas to .hich , can gi-e 7ut fee7le e'(ression0 /ay the e'(osition (ro-e a success 7efitting the cities of )agical gro.th8 the courage an$ energy of .estern enter(rise8 a cre$it to its organiBation8 a lasting 7enefit to the co))unities an$ the .orl$ through its lessons an$ sti)ulating influence as a 7e.il$ering8 unforgetta7le recor$ of the triu)(hant (rogress of the art0 Great as are the (ast achie-e)ents8 the future hol$s out )ore glorious (ro)ise0 &e are getting an insight into the essence of thingsJ our )eans an$ )etho$s are 7eing refine$8 a ne. an$ s(ecialiBe$ race is $e-elo(ing .ith 2no.le$ge $ee( an$ (recise8 .ith greater (o.ers an$ 2eener (erce(tions0 /ysterious as e-er 7efore8 nature yiel$s her (recious secrets )ore rea$ily an$ the s(irit of )an asserts its )astery o-er the (hysical uni-erse0 The $ay is not $istant .hen the -ery (lanet .hich ga-e hi) 7irth .ill tre)7le at the soun$ of his -oiceJ he .ill )a2e the sun his sla-e8 harness the ine'hausti7le an$ terri7ly intense energy of )icrocos)ic )o-e)entJ cause ato)s to co)7ine in (re$eter)ine$ for)sJ he .ill $ra. the )ighty ocean fro) its 7e$8 trans(ort it through the air an$ create la2es an$ ri-ers at .illJ he .ill co))an$ the .il$ ele)entsJ he .ill (ush on an$ on fro) great to greater $ee$s until .ith his intelligence an$ force he .ill reach out to s(heres 7eyon$ the terrestrial0 , a) your Grace's )ost o7e$ient ser-ant0 1i2ola Tesla
1-1"-0<-06: T,e %istur1ing :nfluen(e of Solar #adiation On t,e Fireless Transmission of *nergy by Nikola Tesla
Electrical !evie" and #estern Electrician
When Heinrich HertB announce$ the results of his fa)ous e'(eri)ents in confir)ation of the /a'.ellian
electro)agnetic theory of light8 the scientific )in$ at once lea(e$ to the conclusion that the ne.ly $isco-ere$ $ar2 rays )ight 7e use$ as a )eans for trans)itting intelligi7le )essages through s(ace0 ,t .as an o7-ious inference8 for heliogra(hy8 or signalling 7y 7ea)s of light8 .as a .ell recogniBe$ .ireless art0 There .as no $e(arture in (rinci(le8 7ut the actual $e)onstration of a cherishe$ scientific i$ea surroun$e$ the no-el suggestion .ith a ni)7us of originality an$ at)os(here of (otent achie-e)ent0 , also caught the fire of enthusias) 7ut .as not long $ecei-e$ in regar$ to the (ractical (ossi7ilities of this )etho$ of con-eying intelligence0 Grante$ e-en that all $ifficulties .ere successfully o-erco)e8 the fiel$ of a((lication .as )anifestly circu)scri7e$0 Heliogra(hic signals ha$ 7een flashe$ to a $istance of !55 )iles8 7ut to (ro$uce HertBian rays of such (enetrating (o.er as those of light a((eare$ ne't to i)(ossi7le8 the frequencies o7taina7le through electrical $ischarges 7eing necessarily of a )uch lo.er or$er0 The rectilinear (ro(agation .oul$ li)it the action on the recei-er to the e'tent of the horiBon an$ entail interference of o7stacles in a straight line Hoining the stations0 The trans)ission .oul$ 7e su7Hect to the ca(rices of the air an$8 chief of all $ra.7ac2s8 the intensity of $istur7ances of this character .oul$ ra(i$ly $i)inish .ith $istance0 3ut a fe. tests .ith a((aratus8 far ahea$ of the art of that ti)e8 satisfie$ )e that the solution lay in a $ifferent $irection8 an$ after a careful stu$y of the (ro7le) , e-ol-e$ a ne. (lan .hich .as fully $escri7e$ in )y a$$resses 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ 1ational "lectric #ight Association in Fe7ruary an$ /arch8 18930 ,t .as an e'tension of the trans)ission through a single .ire .ithout return8 the (ractica7ility of .hich , ha$ alrea$y $e)onstrate$0 ,f )y i$eas .ere rational8 $istance .as of no consequence an$ energy coul$ 7e con-eye$ fro) one to any (oint of the glo7e8 an$ in any $esire$ a)ount0 The tas2 .as 7egun un$er the ins(iration of these great (ossi7ilities0 &hile scientific in-estigation ha$ lai$ 7are all the essential facts relating to HertB9.a-e telegra(hy8 little 2no.le$ge .as a-aila7le 7earing on the syste) (ro(ose$ 7y )e0 The -ery first require)ent8 of course8 .as the (ro$uction of (o.erful electrical -i7rations0 To i)(art these to the earth in an efficient )anner8 to construct (ro(er recei-ing a((aratus8 an$ $e-elo( other technical $etails coul$ 7e confi$ently un$erta2en0 3ut the all i)(ortant question .as8 ho. .oul$ the (lanet 7e affecte$ 7y the oscillations i)(resse$ u(on itF &oul$ not the ca(acity of the terrestrial syste)8 co)(ose$ of the earth an$ its con$ucting en-elo(e8 7e too greatF As to this8 the theoretical (ros(ect .as for a long ti)e $iscouraging0 , foun$ that currents of high frequency an$ (otential8 such as ha$ to 7e necessarily e)(loye$ for the (ur(ose8 (asse$ freely through air )o$erately rarefie$0 Eu$ging fro) these e'(eriences8 the $ielectric stratu) se(arating the t.o con$ucting s(herical surfaces coul$ 7e scarcely )ore than !5 2ilo)etres thic2 an$8 consequently8 the ca(acity .oul$ 7e o-er !!58555 )icrofara$s8 altogether too great to (er)it econo)ic trans)ission of (o.er to $istances of co))ercial i)(ortance0 Another o7ser-ation .as that these currents cause consi$era7le loss of energy in the air aroun$ the .ire0 That such .aste )ight also occur in the earth's at)os(here .as 7ut a logical inference0 A nu)7er of years (asse$ in efforts to i)(ro-e the a((aratus an$ to stu$y the electrical (heno)ena (ro$uce$0 Finally )y la7ours .ere re.ar$e$ an$ the truth .as (ositi-ely esta7lishe$J the glo7e $i$ not act li2e a con$uctor of i))ense ca(acity an$ the loss of energy8 $ue to a7sor(tion in the air8 .as insignificant0 The e'act )o$e of (ro(agation of the currents fro) the source an$ the la.s go-erning the electrical )o-e)ent ha$ still to 7e ascertaine$0 Cntil this .as acco)(lishe$ the ne. art coul$ not 7e (lace$ on the (lane of scientific engineering0 ;ne coul$ 7ri$ge the greatest $istance 7y sheer force8 there 7eing -irtually no li)it to the intensity of the -i7rations $e-elo(e$ 7y such a trans)itter8 7ut the install)ent of econo)ic (lants an$ the (re$eter)ination of the effects8 as require$ in )ost (ractical a((lications8 .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7le0 >uch .as the state of things in 1899 .hen , $isco-ere$ a ne. $ifficulty .hich , ha$ ne-er thought of 7efore0 ,t .as an o7stacle .hich coul$ not 7e o-erco)e 7y any i)(ro-e)ent $e-ise$ 7y )an an$ of such nature as to fill )e .ith a((rehension that trans)ission of (o.er .ithout .ires )ight ne-er 7e quite (ractica7le0 , thin2 it useful8
in the (resent (hase of $e-elo()ent8 to acquaint the (rofession .ith )y in-estigations0 ,t is a .ell 2no. fact that the action on a .ireless recei-er is a((recia7ly .ea2er $uring the $ay than at night an$ this is attri7ute$ to the effect of sunlight on the ele-ate$ aerials8 an e'(lanation naturally suggeste$ through an early o7ser-ation of Heinrich HertB0 Another theory8 ingenious 7ut rather fine9s(un8 is that so)e of the energy of the .a-es is a7sor7e$ 7y ions or electrons8 free$ in sunlight an$ cause$ to )o-e in the $irection of (ro(agation0 The "lectrical +e-ie. an$ &estern "lectrician of Eune 18 191!8 contains a re(ort of a test8 $uring the recent solar ecli(se8 7et.een the station of the +oyal =oc2 Dar$ in Co(enhagen an$ the 3laa-an$shu2 station on the coast of Eutlan$8 in .hich it .as $e)onstrate$ that the signals in that region 7eca)e )ore $istinct an$ relia7le .hen the sunlight .as (artially cut off 7y the )oon0 The o7Hect of this co))unication is to sho. that in all the instances re(orte$ the .ea2ening of the i)(ulses .as $ue to an entirely $ifferent cause0 ,t is in$is(ensa7le to first $is(el a fe. errors un$er .hich electricians ha-e la7oure$ for years8 o.ing to the tre)en$ous )o)entu) i)(arte$ to the scientific )in$ through the .or2 of HertB .hich has ha)(ere$ in$e(en$ent thought an$ e'(eri)ent0 To facilitate un$erstan$ing8 attention is calle$ to the anne'e$ $iagra)s in .hich Fig0 1 an$ Fig0 ! re(resent8 res(ecti-ely8 the .ell 2no.n arrange)ents of circuits in the HertB9.a-e syste) an$ )y o.n0 ,n the for)er the trans)itting an$ recei-ing con$uctors are se(arate$ fro) the groun$ through s(ar2 ga(s8 cho2ing coils8 an$ high resistances0 This is necessary8 as a groun$ connection greatly re$uces the intensity of the ra$iation 7y cutting off half of the oscillator an$ also 7y increasing the length of the .a-es fro) 65 to 155 (ercent8 accor$ing to the $istri7ution of ca(acity an$ in$uctance0 ,n the syste) $e-ise$ 7y )e a connection to earth8 either $irectly or through a con$enser is essential0 The recei-er8 in the first case8 is affecte$ only 7y rays trans)itte$ through the air8 con$uction 7eing e'clu$e$J in the latter instance there is no a((recia7le ra$iation an$ the recei-er is energiBe$ through the earth .hile an equi-alent electrical $is(lace)ent occurs in the at)os(here0
!ig $ K 4ert@ Wave ,ystem
!ig 6 K ,ystem %evised by Tesla 1o.8 an error .hich shoul$ 7e the focus of in-estigation for e'(erts is8 that in the arrange)ent sho.n in Fig0 1 the HertBian effect has 7een gra$ually re$uce$ through the lo.ering of frequency8 so as to 7e negligi7le .hen the usual .a-elengths are e)(loye$0 That the energy is trans)itte$ chiefly8 if not .holly8 7y con$uction can 7e $e)onstrate$ in a nu)7er of .ays0 ;ne is to re(lace the -ertical trans)itting .ire 7y a horiBontal one of the sa)e effecti-e ca(acity8 .hen it .ill 7e foun$ that the action on the recei-er is as 7efore0 Another e-i$ence is affor$e$ 7y quantitati-e )easure)ent .hich (ro-es that the energy recei-e$ $oes not $i)inish .ith the square of the $istance8 as it shoul$8 since the HertBian ra$iation (ro(agates in a he)is(here0 ;ne )ore e'(eri)ent in su((ort of this -ie. )ay 7e suggeste$0 &hen trans)ission through the groun$ is (re-ente$ or i)(e$e$8 as 7y se-ering the connection or other.ise8 the recei-er fails to res(on$8 at least .hen the $istance is consi$era7le0 The (lain fact is that the HertB .a-es e)itte$ fro) the aerial are Hust as )uch of a loss of (o.er as the short ra$iations of heat $ue to frictional .aste in the .ire0 ,t has 7een conten$e$ that ra$iation an$ con$uction )ight 7oth 7e utiliBe$ in actuating the recei-er8 7ut this -ie. is untena7le in the light of )y $isco-ery of the .on$erful la. go-erning the )o-e)ent of electricity through the glo7e8 .hich )ay 7e con-eniently e'(resse$ 7y the state)ent that the (roHection of the .a-e9lengths ()easure$ along the surface on the earth's $ia)eter or a'is of sy))etry of )o-e)ent are all equal0 >ince the surfaces of the Bones so $efine$ are the sa)e the la. can also 7e e'(resse$ 7y stating that the current s.ee(s in equal ti)es o-er equal terrestrial areas0 (>ee a)ong others "Han$7oo2 of &ireless Telegra(h8" 7y Ea)es "rs2ine9/urray0 Thus the -elocity (ro(agation through the su(erficial layers is -aria7le8 $e(en$ent on the $istance fro) the trans)itter8 the )ean -alue 7eing n/! ti)es the -elocity of light8 .hile the i$eal flo. along the a'is of (ro(agation ta2es (lace .ith a s(ee$ of a((ro'i)ately 3558555 2ilo)etres (er secon$0 To illustrate8 the current fro) a trans)itter situate$ at the Atlantic Coast .ill tra-erse that oceanKa $istance of 68855 2ilo)etresKin less than 5055% secon$ .ith an a-erage s(ee$ of 8558555 2ilo)etres0 ,f the signalling .ere $one 7y HertB .a-es the ti)e require$ .oul$ 7e 5051% secon$0 3earing8 then8 in )in$8 that the recei-er is o(erate$ si)(ly 7y currents con$ucte$ along the earth as through a .ire8 energy ra$iate$ (laying no (art8 it .ill 7e at once e-i$ent that the .ea2ening of the i)(ulses coul$ not 7e $ue to any changes in the air8 )a2ing it tur7i$ or con$ucti-e8 7ut shoul$ 7e trace$ to an effect interfering .ith the trans)ission of the current through the su(erficial layers of the glo7e0 The solar ra$iations are the (ri)ary cause8 that is true8 not those of light8 7ut of heat0 The loss of energy8 , ha-e foun$8 is $ue to the e-a(oration of the .ater on that si$e of the earth .hich is turne$ to.ar$ the sun8 the con$ucting (articles carrying off )ore or less of the electrical charges i)(arte$ to the groun$0 This su7Hect has 7een in-estigate$ 7y )e for a nu)7er of years an$ on so)e future occasion , (ro(ose to $.ell on it )ore e'tensi-ely0 At (resent it )ay 7e sufficient8 for
the gui$ance of e'(erts8 to state that the .aste of energy is (ro(ortional to the (ro$uct of the square of the electric $ensity in$uce$ 7y the trans)itter at the earth's surface an$ the frequency of the currents0 "'(resse$ in this )anner it )ay not a((ear of -ery great (ractical significance0 3ut re)e)7ering that the surface $ensity increases .ith the frequency it )ay also 7e state$ that the loss is (ro(ortional to the cu7e of the frequency0 &ith .a-es 355 )eters ?1 /HB@ in length econo)ic trans)ission of energy is out of the question8 the loss 7eing too great0 &hen using .a-e9lengths of %8555 )eters ?45 2HB@ it is still noticea7le though not a serious $ra.7ac20 &ith .a-e9lengths of 1!8555 )eters ?!4 2HB@ it 7eco)es quite insignificant an$ on this fortunate fact rests the future of .ireless trans)ission of energy0 To assist in-estigation of this interesting an$ i)(ortant su7Hect8 Fig0 3 has 7een a$$e$8 sho.ing the earth in the (osition of su))er solstice .ith the trans)itter Hust e)erging fro) the sha$o.0 ;7ser-ation .ill 7ring out the fact that the .ea2ening is not noticea7le until the aerials ha-e reache$ a (osition8 .ith reference to the sun8 in .hich the e-a(oration of the .ater is $istinctly )ore ra(i$0 The )a'i)u) .ill not 7e e'actly .hen the angle of inci$ence of the suns rays is greatest8 7ut so)e ti)e after0 ,t is note.orthy that the e'(eri)enters .ho .atche$ the effect of the recent ecli(se8 a7o-e referre$ to8 ha-e o7ser-e$ the $elay0
!ig 7 K Illustrating %isturbing -ffect of the ,un on Wireless Transmission
1-19-11-0-: Ni.ola Tesla2s 5lan to !ee$ >Fireless T,um1> on S,i$s at Sea by Nikola Tesla
Ne" -ork 3ress >uggests Trans)itters <o.erful "nough to Cause the "arth to Gi7rate at the <oles an$ "quator0 He .oul$ =eter)ine Gessel's #atitu$e an$ #ongitu$e 7y /easuring the #ength of "lectric &a-es0 1i2ola Tesla has co)e for.ar$ to refute the clai)s of )en .ho recently e'cite$ the scientific .orl$ .ith announce)ents of $isco-ery an$ in-ention calculate$ to cro.$ the 7ug7ear of scientific .arfare 7ac2 into the (ri)er class8 an$ to safeguar$ the li-es of seafarers0 First he ta2es u( an$ $is(oses of the announce)ent of an in-ention sai$ to ena7le a recei-ing shi( equi((e$ .ith .ireless to tell the longitu$e an$ latitu$e of a sen$ing shi( .ithout the latter -essel offering its o.n calculations0 ",t hasn't 7een $one8 an$ it (ro7a7ly .ill 7e years 7efore the )eans for so $oing can 7e a((lie$ successfully8" he says0 As to the (o.er of ultra9-iolet rays to e'(lo$e the (o.$er )agaBine of a .arshi( fro) a $istance8 he insists it can't 7e $one through that )e$iu)0 ,f charges of (o.$er ha-e 7een so e'(lo$e$8 he conten$s8 the $etonation .as acco)(lishe$ .ith the fa)iliar .a-es no. utiliBe$ 7y the .ireless0 3ut /r0 Tesla a$)its that in all (ro7a7ility there .ill co)e a ti)e .hen science has so harnesse$ an$ $e-elo(e$ the )eans at han$ that such results )ay 7e o7taine$0 /r0 Tesla sets forth for rea$ers of The <ress his -ie.s on the t.o su7Hects as follo.sI 3y 1i2ola Tesla The first an$ inco)(lete announce)ents of technical a$-ances shoul$ al.ays 7e ta2en .ith a grain of salt0 ,t is true that the ne.s(a(ers are getting )ore an$ )ore accurate an$ relia7le in (utting forth such infor)ation8 7ut8 ne-ertheless8 the ne.s frequently is )islea$ing0 For instance8 not long ago re(orts .i$ely circulate$ that (o.$er ha$ 7een e'(lo$e$ at $istance 7y infra9re$ or ultra9-iolet rays8 an$ that a 3ritish 7attleshi( ha$ 7een use$ in a test of this 2in$8 .hich (ro-e$ successful0 The $is(atches ga-e great o((ortunity to sensational s(eculation8 7ut the truth is that there .as no no-elty .hate-er in .hat .as $one0 A )ine or )agaBine ')ay ha-e 7een 7lo.n u(8 7ut this .as acco)(lishe$ in a .ell92no.n )anner through the a((lication of a 2in$ of electrical .a-es .hich are no. generally a$o(te$ in the trans)ission of signals .ithout .ires0 >i)ilar e'(eri)ents .ere (erfor)e$ in this country )any years ago 7y )yself an$ others8 an$ quite recently Eohn Hays Ha))on$8 Er08 has $one cre$i7le .or2 in this $irection through the a((lication of an art .hich has 7een na)e$ "Telauto)atics8" or .ireless control of )o-ing )echanis) at a $istance0 3y )eans of such telauto)atic -essels8 surface8 an$ su7)arine or aerial8 a (erfect syste) of coast $efence can 7e esta7lishe$0 Tor(e$oes on this (lan also can 7e controlle$ fro) 7attleshi(s8 an$ there is no $ou7t they sooner or later .ill 7e a$o(te$ an$ their intro$uction .ill ha-e a re-olutionary effect on the )etho$s of .arfare0 The results $escri7e$ are8 ho.e-er8 not i)(ossi7le0 ,t is quite (ractica7le to e'(lo$e 7y rays of light a )ine at a $istance8 as 7y acting8 on a )i'ture of chlorine an$ hy$rogen0 Certain $ar2 rays also can 7e e)(loye$ to (ro$uce $estructi-e effects0 As far 7ac2 as 189*8 , $isclose$ 7efore the 1e. Dor2 Aca$e)y of >ciences the $isco-ery that +oentgen8 or ]9rays8 (roHecte$ fro) certain 7ul7s ha-e the (ro(erty of strongly charging an electrical con$enser at a $istance0 The energy so accu)ulate$ rea$ily can 7e $ischarge$ an$ cause the ignition of so)e e'(losi-e co)(oun$0 >ays They Can't <enetrate >teel0 3ut ultra9-iolet rays are of -ery short .a-e lengths an$ cannot (enetrate steel shells8 .hile the longer an$ )ore (enetrati-e .a-es of the infra9re$ rays are che)ically )uch less acti-e0 There is no $ou7t in )y )in$ that .e soon shall 7e a7le to (roHect energy at a $istance not only in s)all8 7ut in large a)ounts8 an$ .hat the effect of such an achie-e)ent .ill 7e on e'isting con$itions8 .or$s cannot e'(ress0 As regar$s the $eter)ination of latitu$e an$ longitu$e of a -essel at sea 7y .ireless8 there is nothing in use as yet .hich .oul$ )a2e such $irect o7ser-ation (ossi7le0 >o)e suggestions8 ho.e-er8 .hich , ha-e since )any years a$-ocate$8 ha-e 7een a$o(te$0 They are the flashing of ti)e signals o-er a .i$e area an$ the e)(loy)ent of an instru)ent 2no.n as a .ireless co)(ass0
<lan for Fin$ing #ocations0 These )eans ena7le an e'(ert on a -essel to ascertain the e'act hour at any sen$ing station .ithin reach8 an$ also8 in an i)(erfect )anner8 the $irection in .hich it is situate$8 an$ fro) these $ata it is (ossi7le to get a rough i$ea of the (osition of the shi( relati-e to the (oints of reference0 A (erfect )eans for $eter)ining not only such an$ other $ata i)(ortant to the na-igator alrea$y is a-aila7le8 7ut it )ay require years to a((ly it0 , refer to the use of the stationary .a-es8 .hich .ere $isco-ere$ 7y )e fourteen years ago0 The su7Hect is too technical to 7e e'(laine$ in $etail8 7ut the a-erage rea$er can 7e )a$e to un$erstan$ the general (rinci(le0 The earth is a con$uctor of electricity8 an$ as such has its o.n electrical (erio$ of -i7ration0 The ti)e of one co)(lete s.ing is a7out one9t.elfth of a secon$0 ,n other .or$s8 this is the inter-al the current requires in (assing to8 an$ returning fro)8 the $ia)etrically o((osite (oint of the glo7e0 1o.8 the .on$erful fact is8 that not.ithstan$ing its i))ense siBe8 the earth res(on$s to a great nu)7er of -i7rations an$ can 7e resonantly e'cite$ Hust li2e a .ire of li)ite$ $i)ensions0 &hen this ta2es (lace there are for)e$ on its surface stationary (arallel circles of equal electrical acti-ity8 .hich can 7e re-eale$ 7y (ro(erly attune$ instru)ents0 Trans)itter at ;ne of the <oles0 ,)agine that a trans)itter ca(a7le of e'citing the earth .ere (lace$ at one of the <oles0 Then the crests an$ hollo.s of the stationary .a-es .oul$ 7e in (arallel circles .ith their (lanes at right angles to the a'is of the earth8 an$ fro) rea$ings of a (ro(erly gra$uate$ instru)ent the $istance of a -essel carrying the sa)e fro) the <ole coul$ 7e at once rea$8 gi-ing accurately the geogra(hical latitu$e0 ,n li2e )anner8 if a trans)itter .ere (lace$ at a (oint on the "quator8 the longitu$e coul$ 7e (recisely $eter)ine$ 7y the sa)e )eans0 3ut the 7est (lan .oul$ 7e to (lace three trans)itters at (ro(erly chosen (oints on the glo7e so as to esta7lish three non9interfera7le syste)s of stationary .a-es at right angles to one another0 ,f this .ere $one8 innu)era7le results of the greatest (ractical -alue coul$ 7e realiBe$0
1-1/-09-"1: 7rom Ni.ola Tesla by Nikola Tesla

Electrical #orld , N. -.
The first i)(ressions are those to .hich .e cling )ost9in later life0 , li2e to thin2 of George &estinghouse as he a((eare$ to )e in 18888 .hen , sa. hi) for the first ti)e0 The tre)en$ous (otential energy of the )an ha$ only in (art ta2en 2inetic for)8 7ut e-en to a su(erficial o7ser-er the latent force .as )anifest0 A (o.erful fra)e8 .ell (ro(ortione$8 .ith e-ery Hoint in .or2ing or$er8 an eye as clear as a crystal8 a quic2 an$ s(ringy ste( 9 he (resente$ a rare e'a)(le of health an$ strength0 #i2e a lion in a forest8 he 7reathe$ $ee( an$ .ith $elight the s)o2y air of his factories0 Though (ast forty then8 he still ha$ the enthusias) of youth0 Al.ays s)iling8 affa7le an$ (olite8 he stoo$ in )ar2e$ contrast to the rough an$ rea$y )en , )et0 1ot one .or$ .hich .oul$ ha-e 7een o7Hectiona7le8 not a gesture .hich )ight ha-e offen$e$ 9 one coul$ i)agine hi) as )o-ing in the at)os(here of a court8 so (erfect .as his 7earing in )anner an$ s(eech0 An$ yet no fiercer a$-ersary than &estinghouse coul$ ha-e 7een foun$ .hen he .as arouse$0 An athlete in or$inary life8 he .as transfor)e$ into a giant .hen confronte$ .ith $ifficulties .hich see)e$ insur)ounta7le0 He enHoye$ the struggle an$ ne-er lost confi$ence0 &hen others .oul$ gi-e u( in $es(air he triu)(he$0 Ha$ he 7een transferre$ to another (lanet .ith e-erything against hi) he .oul$ ha-e .or2e$ out his sal-ation0 His equi()ent .as such as to )a2e hi) easily a (osition of ca(tain a)ong ca(tains8 lea$er a)ong lea$ers0 His .as a .on$erful career fille$ .ith re)ar2a7le achie-e)ents0 He ga-e to the .orl$ a nu)7er of -alua7le in-entions an$ i)(ro-e)ents8 create$ ne. in$ustries8 a$-ance$ the )echanical an$ electrical arts an$ i)(ro-e$ in )any .ays the con$itions of )o$ern life0 He .as a great (ioneer an$ 7uil$er .hose .or2 .as of far9reaching effect on his ti)e an$ .hose na)e .ill li-e long in the )e)ory of )en0 1i2ola Tesla
1-1/-05-"": Tesla And Mar(oni by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork &un The >er-ian "'(ert's Clai) to an$ "arlier <atent on >un$ry &ireless =e-ices0 To the "$itor of The >un 9 >irI The re(orts containe$ in The >un an$ other Hournals regar$ing the issue of a recent .ireless (atent suit are of a nature to create an erroneous i)(ression0 T.o of the (atents )entione$8 na)ely8 1os0 1189H3 an$ %5981468 grante$ res(ecti-ely to &illia) /arconi an$ >ir ;li-er #o$ge8 are of no i)(ortance8 7ut another (atent of the for)er e'(ert8 $ate$ Eune !88 19568 contains arrange)ents on .hich , o7taine$ full (rotection )ore than three years 7efore an$ .hich are essential to the successful (ractice of the .ireless art at any consi$era7le $istance0 /y (atents 7ear the nu)7ers %6484*% an$ %698%!1 an$ .ere secure$ through :err8 <age O Coo(er8 attorneys for the General "lectric an$ &estinghouse co)(anies0 The a((aratus $escri7e$ 7y )e co)(rises four circuits (eculiarly arrange$ an$ carefully attune$ so as to secure the greatest (ossi7le flo. of electrical energy through the)0 The generator is a transfor)er of )y in-ention an$ the oscillations e)(loye$ are of a 2in$ .hich are no. 2no.n in technical literature as the Tesla currents0 "-ery one of these ele)ents8 e-en to the last $etail8 is containe$ in the /arconi (atent .hich .as in-ol-e$ in the suit8 an$ its use constitutes an infringe)ent of all the fun$a)ental features of )y .ireless syste)0 1i2ola Tesla 1e. Dor28 /arch !18 19160
1-1/-1"-"0: Ni.ola Tesla loo.s to S(ien(e to end t,e Far by Nikola Tesla
The &un &hate-er future ages )ay ha-e in store for the hu)an race8 the $e-elo()ent so far .oul$ in$icate as its (ro7a7le fate (er(etual strife0 Ci-iliBation alone is e-i$ently insufficient for insuring (er)anent (eace on earth0 ,t 7ut retar$s the clash to a$$ to its intensity an$ )agnitu$e8 )a2ing it all the )ore $rea$ful an$ ruinous0 The (resent colossal struggle creates an i)(ression a(art8 a feeling of a.e8 a sense of sole)nity8 s(ringing fro) the 2no.le$ge that a terri7le cala)ity8 greater than any recor$e$ in the annals of history8 has 7efallen the .orl$0 >u$$enly a.a2ene$ fro) fancie$ security to the consciousness of insus(ecte$ an$ uni-ersal $anger8 the nations stan$ aghast0 ,t is as if so)e -ast terrestrial u(hea-al .ere ta2ing (lace8 as if gigantic forces .ere unchaine$8 threatening the entire glo7e0 1e-er 7efore .ere such i))ense ar)ies engage$ in 7attle an$ such frightfully $estructi-e i)(le)ents e)(loye$J ne-er .as so )uch $e(en$ent on a -ictory of ar)s0 Alrea$y the losses incurre$ a)ount to tens of 7illions of $ollarsJ )ore than three )illion )en ha-e 7een 2ille$ an$ $isa7le$8 an$ for each of these ten8 at least8 ha-e 7een turne$ into ner-ous .rec2s8 .hich .ill i)(ress their )iseries on the succee$ing generations an$ $ar2en their $ays0 All the .orl$ o-er countless sufferers8 torn 7y an'iety8 as2 the)sel-es ho. long is this a((alling slaughter an$ sacrilegious .aste to continue0 &ar is essentially a )anifestation of energy in-ol-ing the acceleration an$ retar$ation of a )ass 7y a force0 ,n such a case it is a uni-ersally esta7lishe$ truth that the ti)e necessary to i)(art a gi-en -elocity an$ )o)entu) is (ro(ortionate to the )ass0 The sa)e la. also a((lies to the annihilation of -elocity an$ )o)entu) 7y a resisting force0 Translate$ in (o(ular language this )eans that the (erio$ or $uration of an ar)e$ conflict is theoretically (ro(ortionate to the )agnitu$e of the ar)ies or nu)7er of co)7atants0 ,t is o7-iously assu)e$ that the resources are a)(le an$ all other con$itions equal0 Further)ore8 in )a2ing $e$uctions fro) (re-ious .ars a nu)7er of factors ha-e to 7e ta2en into consi$eration an$ all quantities esti)ate$ at their (ro(er -alue on the 7asis of statistical an$ other $ata0 >u((osing that8 as it a((ears8 1!85558555 )en are engage$ in the (resent struggle8 a co)(arison .ith so)e of the (ast .ars gi-es the follo.ing resultsI =uration &ars Ci-il .ar <resent .ar Franco9Ger)an .ar <resent .ar +usso9Ea(anese .ar <resent .ar First 3al2an .ar <resent .ar Hy(othetical a-erage .ar <resent .ar 1u)7er of Co)7atants 68%550555 1!85550555 18*550555 1!85550555 !8!550555 1!85550555 18!550555 1!85550555 !86!40555 1!85550555 4 1 8 9 % Garious causes affecting $uration'0 * 1 8 % ,n all res(ects u( to $ate0 D0 6 15 13 % % #engthene$ 7y $istance8 (oor co))unication an$ nature of ca)(aign0 "qui()ent not quite )o$ern0 /0 +e)ar2s <rotracte$ 7y $istance8 (oor co))unication an$ ineffecti-e ar)s0
/uch )ore concor$ant an$ shorter ter)s .oul$ 7e o7taine$ in these co)(arati-e esti)ates if the recor$s a-aila7le .ere correcte$ as in$icate$ an$ $ue allo.ances )a$e for the facilities8 of trans(ort an$ co))unication8 increase$ (o.er an$ $estructi-eness of ar)s an$ other factors ten$ing to )agnify the rate at .hich energy is $eli-ere$8 an$ so to hasten the ter)ination of the clash0 The 7est inference is certainly that $ra.n fro) the 3al2an .ar8 as the )ost )o$ern8 accor$ing to .hich the ter) shoul$ 7e fi-e years0 "-en though this 7e 7ut a rough a((ro'i)ation8 it is sufficient to sho. that8 7arring so)e e'traor$inary $e-elo()ent8 this .ar .ill 7e a long8 one0 ,n$ee$8 it see)s on (urely scientific groun$s that a conflict on such a -ast scale can only 7e en$e$ 7y e'haustion0 The enor)ous e'tent of the 7attle front8 o.ing to nu)7ers an$ atten$ant i)(ossi7ility of stri2ing a $ecisi-e 7lo.8 is in further su((ort of this theory0 ,t is also highly significant to o7ser-e in this connection ho. the original 7attle lines8 $eter)ine$ in a$-ance 7y strategy8 ha-e 7een gra$ually shifte$ an$ straightene$8 contact 7et.een the fighting )asses 7eing finally esta7lishe$ on lines fi'e$ 7y natural la. an$ 7rute force of (ush in $efiance of )ilitary $esign0 The li2elihoo$ of such ter)ination is increase$ 7y the fact that the $istur7ance e'ten$s o-er an i))ense area8 )a2ing the su((ly of necessities to so)e of the affecte$ regions e'ce(tionally $ifficult0 Acce(ting8 then8 this theory as correct8 .e are Hustifie$ in e'(ecting that8 con$itions re)aining nor)al8 the struggle .ill last )ore or less accor$ing to the for) the e'haustion )ay ta2e0 #ac2 of foo$8 $eterioration an$ shortage of equi()ent8 .ant of )etals8 che)icals an$ a))unition8 scarcity of rea$y ca(ital8 failing su((ly of traine$ )en or sheer gi-ing out of hu)an energy are so)e of the ele)ents to 7e rec2one$ .ith8 any8 one of .hich )ay co)(el an early cessation of hostilities0 That the .ar cannot 7e continue$ )uch longer .ith its (resent intensity can 7e easily sho.n0 The $aily cost of o(eration is )ore than forty )illions of $ollars8 an$ 8 Hu$ging fro)0 the casualties recor$e$ to $ate8 t.enty9fi-e thousan$ )en8 on the a-erage8 are 2ille$ an$ $isa7le$ in 7attle e-ery $ay0 At that rate only four )ore )onths of acti-e ca)(aign .oul$ result in an e'(en$iture of fi-e 7illions of $ollars an$ a loss of life of three )illions of )en0 This is8 )anifestly8 too great an a$$itional 7ur$en to 7e 7orne8 for e-en though the fighting )aterial )ight 7e a-aila7le8 ca(ital is sure to 7e lac2ing0 ,t coul$ 7e8 therefore8 conclu$e$ .ith certitu$e that (eace .oul$ 7e restore$ 7efore ne't .inter8 .ere it not for one (ossi7ility8 or rather (ro7a7ility8 that of a $ea$loc28 .hich .oul$ 7e the -ery .orst cala)ity8 for8 in -ie. of the real cause of 8the trou7le an$ the te)(er of nations in-ol-e$8 it coul$ not fail to (rotract the .ar for years0 <ro(hesying is an ungrateful occu(ation8 7ut scientific forecasting is a useful for) of 'en$ea-our an$ .oul$ 7e )uch )ore such if hu)an nature .ere not so (rone to lea-e a$-ice an$ lesson unhee$e$0 Ha-ing )a$e a careful stu$y of the situation8 an e'(ert can (re$ict certain ha((enings .ith (erfect confi$ence0 There are no. only three (ossi7le issues of this .arI first8 colla(se of AustriaJ secon$8 conquest of "nglan$ 7y the Ger)ans8 an$8 thir$8 Ger)any's e'haustion an$ $efeat0 The fall of Austria is ine-ita7le an$ )ust occur .ithin the ne't fe. )onths0 >he )ay $efy Ger)an influence an$ sue in$e(en$ently for (eace to sa-e herself8 7ut it is $ou7tful that she coul$ offer anything acce(ta7le to the Allies0 /uch )ore li2ely it is that the ol$ ")(eror8 tire$ of life an$ recogniBing the inHustice of Austria's cause8 .ill hi)self a7$icate an$ reco))en$ (artition0 This )ay not 7e un.elco)e to har$ (resse$ Ger)any8 for it .ill o(en u( a .ay of )a2ing (eace on ter)s .hich .ill not 7e hu)iliating an$ co)(ensate her for the (ro7a7le loss of Alsace9#orraine an$ "ast <russia0 The $ual )onarchy has )aintaine$ herself through $eca$es as if 7y a .on$er0 ,t .oul$ ha-e 7een $issol-e$ long ago ha$ it not 7een for the stu77orn a$herence of Hungarian )agnates to a (ro)ise gi-en to /aria Theresa an$ the e'traor$inary (o(ularity of the reigning $ynasty8 largely $ue to co)(assion of the su7Hects of all nationalities arouse$ 7y the )any strange )isfortunes .hich ha-e 7efallen the house of Ha(s7urg0 ,t is .ell recogniBe$ that the unnatural e'istence of this feu$al state has 7een a constant )enace to "uro(ean (eace an$ is the chief cause of the (resent u(hea-al0 A $i-ision of Austro9Hungarian territory along racial lines .ill satisfy all .arring nations on the "uro(ean continent0 This is sure to co)e0 ,t is a (rocess natural an$ una-oi$a7le as the falling of an o-erri(e a((le fro) the tree0 +egar$ing the secon$ (ossi7ility8 it is still unsafe to )a2e a (re$iction an$ further $e-elo()ents )ust 7e a.aite$ 7efore a conclusion can 7e $ra.n as to the outco)e0 There are )any in$ications that Ger)any is (re(aring for an attac2 on "nglan$ .ith all energy an$ s(ee$8 an$ (erha(s her o(erations in the east an$ .est ser-e9 the (ur(ose of )as2ing this )o-e0 The tension 7et.een the t.o countries is -ery great8 the causes of the quarrel (eculiar an$ a (eaceful solution of the $ifficulty is ne't to i)(ossi7le0
The thir$ of the issues )entione$ .oul$ )ean a -ery long .ar0 Ger)any cannot 7rea2 through the steel .all in France an$ 3elgiu)J her (artial -ictories in <olan$ can )a2e no i)(ression on the +ussian )asses0 Gra$ually she )ust settle on a $efensi-e0 >he has the greatest loa$ to carry an$ )ust gi-e out first8 accor$ing to financiers an$ statisticians0 3ut .ith a (eo(le so intelligent8 in$ustrious8 resourceful an$ soli$ly unite$ such forecasts are haBar$ous0 The Ger)ans are fully ca(a7le of ")a2ing t.o 7la$es of grass gro. .here one gre. 7efore" an$ it is (recisely 7ecause of this an$ their (erfect )ilitary organiBation that the $anger of a long conflict e'ists0 >uch a (ros(ect is enough to cause the gra-est a((rehensions an$ the u((er)ost thought in the )in$s of seers is ho. to (re-ent such (aralysis of (rogress an$ horri7le carnage an$ .aste0 Can it 7e $oneF There is a gri) $eter)ination of all $irectly concerne$ to fight the issues to the 7itter en$ on the groun$ that a (re)ature (eace8 lea-ing the -ital questions unsettle$8 .oul$ only )ean the continuance of the e'isting (ernicious regi)e an$ re(etition of the e-il0 A ne. an$ irresisti7le argu)ent )ust 7e 7rought for.ar$ to sto( the conflict0 The case is $es(erate8 7ut there is a ho(e0 This ho(e lies in science8 $isco-ery an$ in-ention0 8 /o$ern )achinery .rought 7y science is res(onsi7le for this cala)ityJ science .ill also un$o the Fran2enstein )onster it has create$0 Centuries ago an ingenious contri-ance of Archi)e$es is sai$ to ha-e $eci$e$ a 7attle an$ ter)inate$ a great .ar0 3e it a )yth or a fact8 this story affor$s an ins(iring lesson0 &hat is nee$e$ at this (sychological )o)ent is so)e such re-elation0 A ne. force8 a ne. agent8 a $e)onstration 7y any )eans8 ol$ or no-el8 7ut of a 2in$ to sur(rise an$ su$$enly8 illu)inate8 to 7ring the 7elligerents to their senses an$ furnish irrefuta7le (roof of the folly an$ uselessness of carrying on the 7rutal fight0 This i$ea8 to .hich , ha-e )yself $e-ote$ years of .or28 has no. ta2en hol$ of scientific )en an$ e'(erts all the .orl$ o-er0 Thousan$s of in-entors8 fire$ on 7y this unique o((ortunity8 are 7ent u(on $e-elo(ing so)e (rocess or a((aratus for acco)(lishing the (ur(ose8 an$ there0 is fe-erish0 acti-ity in France8 +ussia8 an$ es(ecially in Ger)any8 a)ong electricians8 che)ists an$ engineers0 &hat the genius of nations .ill 7ring forth none can tell8 7ut it is not too )uch to say that the results .ill 7e of such character as )aterially to affect the outco)e an$ $uration of the struggle0 ,t is on this account that i)(ortance attaches to -ague re(orts of )ysterious e'(eri)ents .ith We((elins8 e'(losi-e rays an$ )agic 7o)7s8 for though such ne.s ite)s cannot 7e acce(te$ as true8 they re-eal Hust so )any startling (ossi7ilities0 ,n the (ro$uction an$ a((lication of no-el )eans of .arfare Ger)any shoul$ 7e first8 no only 7y reason of su(erior facilities an$ e'cellent training of her e'(erts8 7ut 7ecause this has 7eco)e a $ire necessity8 a question of life an$ $eath in her (resent trying (osition0 The uncertain an$ often conflicting $es(atches of the $aily ha((enings recei-e$ fro) -arious sources ha-e )a$e it $ifficult to for) a $eci$e$ o(inion as to the actual state of things8 7ut in s(ite of rigi$ censorshi( the )ain facts ha-e gra$ually trans(ire$0 ;ne of these is that the Ger)ans .ere the only (eo(le rea$y for .ar0 1ot e-en the French8 .ho 7oaste$ of (re(are$nessJ .ere a7le to )o7iliBe on ti)e0 The in-asion of "ast <russia .as 7ut a $aring stro2e of the +ussians to $ra. the ene)y an$ relie-e the (ressure on France8 successful 7ut -ery costly to the)0 As to the co)(lacent 3ritons8 they .ere fast aslee(0 &hate-er )ay 7e sai$ against Great 3ritain8 her utter unrea$iness an$ the great $anger to .hich she .as e'(osing herself 7y her ulti)atu) to Ger)any .oul$ see) to 7e (roof (ositi-e that she $i$ not $esire to enter the conflict0 Another fact8 equally a((arent8 is that Ger)any8 not content .ith a (artial8 e-en if certain8 -ictory8 ha$ $eter)ine$ to $efeat all the Allies in quic2 succession0 Her (lan of $ictating ter)s of (eace first in <aris8 then in <etrogra$8 an$ finally in #on$on8 .as not a$o(te$ as a )ilitary necessity8 7ut as a $eli7erate (rogra))e 7ase$ on the a7solute confi$ence in the o-er.hel)ing (o.er of her ar)s0 1or $i$ she )ean to sto( at that0 Her ai) .as )uch higherJ she .ante$ nothing less than to rule all nations0 This is no. fran2ly a$)itte$ 7y )any of her lea$ing )en0 To )ost of us such an un$erta2ing is $u)7foun$ing in its 7ol$ness an$ )agnitu$e8 all the )ore as it is inten$e$ to 7e carrie$ through 7y force0 3ut it .oul$ 7e a )ista2e to accuse the Ger)ans of conceit an$ arrogance0 They are con-ince$ of their su(eriority8 an$ it )ust 7e a$)itte$ that there is so)e Hustification for their atte)(t0 The question has often 7een raise$ as to .hether our further $e-elo()ent .ill 7e in the $irection of the artistic an$ 7eautiful or the scientific an$ useful0 The ine-ita7le conclusion is that art )ust 7e sacrifice$ to science0 This 7eing so8 the rational Ger)ans re(resent the nearest a((roach of the hu)anity of the future0 The >la-s8 .ho are in the ascen$ency an$ .ill lea$ in their turn8 .ill gi-e a fresh i)(etus to creati-e an$ s(iritual effort8 7ut they too .ill ha-e to concentrate on the necessary an$ (ractical0 A .orl$ of 7ees .ill 7e the ulti)ate result0 Ger)any has 7een foile$ in her atte)(t0 Though still un$efeate$8 her ca)(aign is a failure0 /any state)ents
ha-e 7een )a$e in e'(lanation of the su$$en halt of her -ictorious ar)ies8 as if 7y a )iracle8 at the -ery gates of <aris8 7ut the -ie.s e'(resse$ are of s(eculati-e character an$ $o not $eal .ith the real (hysical causes0 These )ay 7e 7riefly eluci$ate$0 The Ger)an .ar )achine is an atte)(t to su7stitute for an asse)7lage of loosely lin2e$ te)(era)ental an$ (ro7le)atical units a co)(act an$ a(athetic )ass )o-ing at co))an$ .ith cloc2 (recision8 )achineli2e8 i)(assi-e8 in$ifferent to $anger an$ $eath8 in 7attle the sa)e as on (ara$e0 ,ts conce(tion rests on a $ee(ly scientific foun$ation0 "-ery hu)an 7eing is s.aye$ 7y courage an$ fear8 7ut the for)er (re$o)inates0 This is e-i$ent8 for life or e'istence itself is a struggle fraught .ith (erils an$ (ains .hich )ust 7e )et .ith $eter)ination an$ fortitu$e0 Fear co)es fro) the consciousness of ini)ical en-iron)ent an$ is accentuate$ 7y isolation0 &hen )any )en are (lace$ close together the frien$ly surroun$ing an$ sense of connecte$ness are (ro$ucti-e of a $istinct (sychological )ass effect8 cal)ing the ner-es an$ su7$uing the in7orn $rea$ an$ a((rehension0 ;n the other han$8 frequent an$ se-ere $rilling 2e(t u( for years8 7esi$es 7eing con$uci-e to (recision an$ synchrony of )o-e)ents8 is of $eci$e$ hy(notic influence8 still further eli)inating in$i-i$ual initiati-e an$ incertitu$e0 Thus results a strong an$ healthy 7o$y .hich )o-es an$ acts as a unit8 .hich is .ithout hu)an failings an$ shortco)ings an$ ca(a7le of )a'i)u) (erfor)ance through .ell $irecte$ an$ si)ultaneous a((lication of se(arate efforts0 >uch is the for)i$a7le engine Ger)any has (erfecte$ for the (rotection of her :ultur an$ conquest of the glo7e K an unfeeling auto)aton8 a $ia7olical contri-ance for scientific8 (itiless8 .holesale $estruction theI li2e of .hich .as not $rea)e$ of 7efore0 ,t is 7elie-e$ to e'(ress the highest efficiency8 7ut is $ece(ti-e in this res(ect8 to none )ore than the Ger)ans the)sel-es0 ,n reality this )o$ern .ar )achine8 consi$ere$ as a transfor)er of energy8 is 7ar7arously .asteful0 1ot only $oes it call for enor)ous e'(en$iture of )oney an$ effort .hen i$le8 7ut in-ol-es a fun$a)ental fallacy .hich )ilitary .riters ignore8 na)ely8 the con$itions $eter)ining its (erfor)ance8 an$ therefore its efficiency8 are largely8 if not .holly8 controlle$ 7y the ene)y0 ,n$ee$8 it is lac2 of a((reciation of this truth that is res(onsi7le for the <aris failure0 The first of the t.o chief causes of Ger)an unsuccess is foun$ in the a$)ira7le $efensi-e tactics of the French8 .ho refuse$ to )a2e a stan$ for a $ecisi-e 7attle8 thus (re-enting the Ger)an )achine fro) $e-elo(ing its full (o.er an$ co)(elling it to .or2 at lo. efficiency0 The secon$8 e-en )ore i)(ortant8 .as the result of un$ue hurry of the Ger)ans8 .ho $ro-e their engine too fast8there7y increasing greatly the losses .ithout a$equate gain in useful (erfor)ance0 Ha$ they ta2en )ore ti)e8 .hich8 as su7sequent $e-elo()ents ha-e sho.n8 they coul$ ha-e .ell affor$e$8 there .oul$ ha-e 7een )ore energy conser-e$ an$ the tas2 in all (ro7a7ility successfully acco)(lishe$0 The )ost sur(rising of the facts .hich ha-e trans(ire$ is that there ha-e 7een )a$e in $i(lo)atic transaction an$ con$uct of the Ger)an ca)(aign a nu)7er of grie-ous )ista2es8 so (atent no. that no re(resentations of the (ress can $isguise the)0 This is a re-elation for .hich the .orl$ .as least (re(are$ an$ .hich sho.s clearly that Ger)an eru$ition an$ technical (roficiency ha-e 7een o7taine$ at the e'(ense of intuition8 tact an$ goo$ Hu$ge)ent0 &hat a 7lun$er .as the -iolation of 3elgian neutrality8 .hat an error the e'(ectation that "nglan$ .oul$ tolerate an encroach)ent so $angerous to her e'istence8 that ,taly .oul$ sacrifice her fleet an$ co))erce to (lease the allianceY The Ger)ans ha$ .on$erful guns8 ren$ering fortifications useless8 an$ yet in attac2ing France8 instea$ of the shortest8 route8 they too2 a circuitous (ath through 3elgiu)8 thus losing ti)e an$ conHuring ne. (erils an$ co)(lications 7esi$es0 Tens of thousan$s of )en .ere $ri-en into certain $eath in -ain assaults in )ass for)ation .hen a fe. shots fro) these guns .oul$ ha-e 7een sufficient to le-el the forts0 Troo(s .ere .ith$ra.n fro) France to less i)(ortant (oints at the -ery )o)ent .hen their (resence )eant certain -ictory0 The Ger)ans coul$ ha-e )arche$ on &arsa. an$ <etrogra$ 7efore the ene)y .as rea$y to (ut u( an effecti-e resistance8 yet they $elaye$ the in-asion until the +ussians 7rought u( their )illions0 They coul$ ha-e ta2en =un2ir2 an$ Calais .ithout great effort an$ so a-oi$e$ the terri7le losses .hich this tas28 if at all realiBa7le8 )ust no. in-ol-e0 At (resent they are rec2lessly -enturing far into +ussian territory against o-er.hel)ing nu)7ers an$ in a season .hen sno.9stor)s )ay cut the co))unications an$ (ut the .hole ar)y at the )ercy of the ene)y0 &hat e'(lanation can 7e offere$ for these an$ other singular errors of a nation to .hich econo)y is religion8 .hich is a$)itte$ly the first in achie-ing successes in the )ost scientific )anner8 along lines of least resistanceF ;nly one reason can 7e gi-en an$ it is one .hich has8 cause$ the $o.nfall of )any an e)(ireY ,t is
o-erconfi$ence an$ conte)(tuous $isregar$ of the a$-ersaries0 Ger)any 7egan the .ar .ith a 7lin$ faith in an offensi-e .hich 2no.s no o((osition0 >he has learne$8 after a 'frightful an$ unnecessary sacrifice of life an$ (ro(erty8 that France can 7e strong .ithout 1a(oleon8 that the rights of li7erty lo-ing nations8 as the 3elgian an$ >er-ian8 cannot 7e tra)(le$ u(on .ith i)(unity8 that +ussia is no longer the clu)sy an$ hel(less 7east of the north0 >he has finally recogniBe$ .hat she shoul$ ha-e 2no.n fro) the first8 that "nglan$ is her )ost $angerous ene)y0 >he )ight )aintain herself against the ar)ies of the Continent8 7ut .ith Great 3ritain shutting her off fro) the sea an$ strangling her 7y $egrees the tas2 is ren$ere$ i)(ossi7le0 Gictory o-er the Allies in the .est8 if at all o7taina7le8 .oul$ .ea2en her to the (oint of $angerJ in the "ast the situation is 7eco)ing )ore ho(eless e-ery hour0 Ger)any is losing ten thousan$ )en an$ s(en$ing se-enty9fi-e )illions of )ar2s a $ay0 Her life 7loo$ is e77ing fastJ in the en$ she )ust lose0 The only .ay to .in is to crush "nglan$0 ,n $oing this she frees herself fro) the $ea$ly gri( at her throat an$ triu)(hs o-er all her ene)ies0 The Fatherlan$ is no. afla)e .ith this thought an$ has starte$8 .ith energy ne-er sho.n 7efore8 a ne. ca)(aign .hich if un$erta2en four )onths ago )ight ha-e ter)inate$ the .ar 7efore it .as fairly un$er .ay0 Ger)any enters this )ortal co)7at not .ith the col$ $eli7eration of a )ilitary (o.er 7ut .ith the (assionate resol-e of a nation ani)ate$ 7y that one $esire0 >he $e(en$s for success not only on her generals 7ut on her (hysicists8 engineers8 in-entors8 che)ists an$ artisans an$ on her -olunteers .ho .ill offer the)sel-es as )artyrs for her cause0 >he )ay )a2e rai$s an$ $e)onstrations to tra( the ene)y8 7ut she $oes not ha-e the re)otest intention to engage the 3ritish fleet in o(en 7attle0 &hat she (ro(oses to $o is to $estroy it 7y hellish )eans an$ artifices .ithout losing a single shi( of her o.n0 Cnless "nglan$ .a2es u( i))e$iately to this gra-e $anger an$ (re(ares to )eet science .ith science8 s2ill .ith s2ill an$ sacrifice .ith sacrifice8 the ne't fe. )onths )ay 7e critical for her reign as )istress of the seas0 That the rules set $o.n at The Hague are ineffecti-e in0 (re-enting the use of infernal $e-ices has 7een alrea$y sho.n0 ,nternational agree)ents are of t.o 2in$s an$ )ay 7e classifie$ un$er t.o ca(tions8 .hich areI "Cnite$ .e stan$8 $i-i$e$ .e fall" an$ "Circu)stances alter cases0" The (ro-isions of The Hague are of the latter 2in$0 Those .ho .oul$ 7rush asi$e the a7o-e suggestion as highly i)(ro7a7le if not (re(osterous shoul$ 7ear in )in$ that a great nation lea$ing in technical achie-e)ent is )a2ing a fight for its e'istence an$ that in-ention has alrea$y (ro-i$e$ )eans 7y .hich such $estruction can 7e acco)(lishe$8 .hile others are foresha$o.e$ in scientific in-estigations of recent years08 The question that .ill interest e-ery7o$y is .hat )etho$s an$ contri-ances is Ger)any li2ely to e)(loy in her cunning un$erta2ing an$ ho. can her efforts 7e )et an$ frustrate$F ,n her attac2 u(on "nglan$ four .ays are o(en to Ger)anyI First8 forceful in-asion in $isregar$ of the 3ritish fleetJ secon$8 engage)ent .ith the fleet in o(en 7attleJ thir$8 gra$ual $estruction an$ .ea2ening of the fleet 7y $e-ices other than guns8 an$ fourth8 aerial attac2s on lan$ an$ sea0 History is full of $aring conquests0 ,t )ay 7e that .e are to .itness the )ost re)ar2a7le of all0 The 3ritish ,sles ha-e 7een in-a$e$ 7efore8 7ut it .as in ti)es' of (ri)iti-e ar)s0 The )eans of $efence ha-e 7een 7rought to great (erfection8 it is true8 7ut this is largely offset 7y corres(on$ingly increase$8 (o.ers of offensi-e0 The feat is $ifficult 7ut not i)(ossi7le0 >trategy8 ho.e-er8 can (lay no i)(ortant (art in its consu))ation0 ,t is a case of Hanni7al crossing the Al(s8 a (ro7le) of o-erco)ing natural 7arriers0 "nglan$ has a s)all coast line on .hich lan$ing can 7e effecte$ an$ )any (laces are li2ely to 7e .ell guar$e$ an$ fortifie$0 ,f the Ger)ans conte)(late in-asion it .ill co)e li2e a lightning stro2e0 They .ill atte)(t it in 7roa$ $aylight an$ in their fa-oure$ )anner of hac2ing through the o7stacles regar$less of loss0 Their frantic efforts to get control of the coast .oul$ see) to in$icate that such is their intention0 /any e'(erts are of the o(inion that so long as there is a su(erior 3ritish fleet in e'istence an un$erta2ing of this nature is .holly out of the question8 7ut this is 8a )ista2e0 ,t is certainly (ossi7le for the Ger)ans to esta7lish an o(erating Bone in the Channel8 (rotecte$ on the si$es 7y i)(enetra7le )ine fiel$s an$ su7)arines0 &hat is )ore8 the (ossession of Calais8 .hile it .oul$ 7e of great a$-antage to the)8 is not a7solutely necessary to their (ur(ose0 &hate-er the (lan8 it .ill 7e a (iece of engineering .or2e$ out in all $etails .ith Ger)an thoroughness0 That is the reason .hy no cre$ence can 7e (lace$ in the fli)sy (ro(osals .hich ha-e 7een $escri7e$ in so)e (a(ers0 1o feasi7le sche)e has as yet 7een $isclose$8 7ut , thin2 that , a) guessing correctly .hen , say that the
Ger)ans conte)(late the use of s(ecially $esigne$ floating fortresses8 .hich .ill 7e in sections an$ trans(orta7le 7y rail0 They .ill 7e )a$e -irtually in-ulnera7le to tor(e$o an$ gun attac2 an$ .ill 7e equi((e$ .ith guns of great range an$ $estructi-e (o.er constructe$ .ith this -ery o7Hect in -ie.0 Cn$er the (rotection of these fortresses8 .hich .ill s.ee( the coast clear8 lan$ing of troo(s an$ artillery is to 7e effecte$ .hile 7o$ies of infantry are trans(orte$ through the air8 this latter o(eration 7eing (erfor)e$ un$er co-er of $ar2ness0 &ith guns of inferior cali7re8 an$ )ore or less un(re(are$8 it .ill 7e har$ for the 3ritons to frustrate the atte)(t0 There is so)e foun$ation to the 7elief that the Ger)ans )ay -enture a na-al engage)ent on a large scale0 They ha-e a s)aller nu)7er of -essels8 7ut they are )ostly of quite )o$ern ty(e an$ .ithout $ou7t e-ery unit is in (erfect or$er0 All re(orts agree that their guns are su(erior to those of the 3ritish8 7oth in range an$ $ura7ility0 The Ger)ans are )asters in the )anufacture an$ treat)ent of heat resisting )aterials an$ )any technical 7ranches in other countries are entirely $e(en$ent on their (ro$uct0 &hen .e a$$ to this a$-antage the (ossi7ilities offere$ 7y )ines8 tor(e$oes8 su7)arines8 We((elins an$ other )eans of $estruction8 s2ilful )anoeu-re an$ sur(rise the nu)erical inequality of the fleet assu)es secon$ary i)(ortance0 The )ar-ellous e'(loit of a s)all Ger)an su7)arine .hich san2 four 3ritish cruisers an$ esca(e$ un$a)age$ is in itself sufficient to Hustify the conclusion that the i)(en$ing $uel 7et.een the t.o countries .ill not 7e $eci$e$ 7y guns an$ ar)our alone8 consi$ere$ heretofore su(re)e on the ocean0 An$ yet the full ca(a7ilities of this 2in$ of craft re)ain to 7e sho.n0 Ger)any is a(t to go other nations one 7etter0 /ost in-entions originating else.here are i)(ro-e$ 7y the Ger)ans0 1ot only this8 7ut they .or2 for effect8 2no.ing that to sur(rise is to stri2e8 to stri2e is to .in0 ,t is highly (ro7a7le that they ha-e $e-elo(e$ ne. things in su7)arines an$ )ay ha-e sol-e$ the (articular (ro7le) confronting the) no.8 .hich is to $estroy 7attleshi(s in (rotecte$ har7ours0 This )ight 7e $one 7y )iniature -essels of si)(lifie$ construction .hich .oul$ 7e -irtually nothing 7ut tor(e$oes an$ )anne$ .ith one or t.o -olunteer o(erators0 The $is(lace)ent .oul$ not nee$ to 7e )ore than fi-e tons8 so that t.o or three8 if not )ore8 coul$ 7e lo.ere$ fro) a We((elin in con-enient localities at night0 >uch $e-ices controlle$ 7y resolute )en .oul$ 7e a ne. terror of the sea har$ to guar$ against0 ,n general it .ill 7e -ery $ifficult for the 3ritish to co)7at effecti-ely the su7)arine (eril0 An airshi( or aero(lane can 7e fought .ith a si)ilar )achine8 7ut un$er .ater this )etho$ is i)(ractica7le an$ s(ecial craft '.ill ha-e to 7e (erfecte$0 3attleshi(s )ight $iscourage su7)arine attac2s 7y s)all shells fille$ .ith e'(losi-es of -ery high -elocity so as to (ro$uce shoc2s of great intensity0 /inute )ines )ay also 7e e)(loye$8 so constructe$ as to float at a certain $e(th an$ to e'(lo$e on contact0 They .oul$ $o no har) to a large surface -essel 7ut .oul$ re-eal the (resence of an$ inHure a su7)arine8 the $elicate a((aratus of .hich is easily $erange$0 1e't to guns the We((elin for) of airshi( is the )ost -alua7le .ar asset of the Ger)ansJ at least they thin2 so0 /any $ifficulties ha$ to 7e o-erco)e in its $e-elo()ent0 A (rocess of )anufacturing chea(ly (ure hy$rogen .as (erfecte$8 a ne. alloy of re)ar2a7le strength an$ lightness (ro$uce$8 suita7le an$ highly econo)ical engines constructe$ an$ a nu)7er of other technical (ro7le)s successfully sol-e$0 &hile not in-ol-ing great originality it .as a nota7le a$-ance such as coul$ only 7e achie-e$ in Ger)any0 /uch has 7een sai$8 7oth in e'altation an$ $e(reciation8 of the We((elin8 )a2ing it necessary to se(arate the .heat fro) the chaff 7efore e'(ressing an o(inion as to its )erits0 A clai) has 7een a$-ance$ that a ne. non9infla))a7le gas .as recently $isco-ere$8 7y the use of .hich the carrying ca(acity of the -essel is increase$ t.o an$ a half ti)es0 The only foun$ation of this (ersistent re(ort is that accor$ing to the (erio$ic hy(othesis of ele)ents e-ol-e$ 7y the great +ussian /en$eleHeff8 .hich has (ro-e$ an unerring gui$e in che)ical research8 there shoul$ 7e a gas of an ato)ic .eight 560 ,n a .ay its e'istence is $e)onstrate$ in the solar corona K hence the na)e coroniu) K an$ also in the aurora 7orealis8 in .hich ease it is referre$ to as terrestrial8 or geocoroniu)0 ,n or$er to esti)ate .hat Ger)any )ight $o .ith her air fleet a correct guess )ust 7e )a$e as to its )agnitu$e0 <rior to the $eclaration of .ar she ha$ thirty9si' -essels of -arious siBes an$ actual facilities for turning out fro) eight to ten each )onth0 3ut un$er .ar (ressure this rate coul$ 7e greatly increase$0 The )achine has (asse$ the e'(eri)ental stage an$ it is si)(ly a question of re(ro$uction0 ,n -ie. of the situation it .oul$ not0 7e sur(rising to fin$ that a hun$re$ or )ore ha-e 7een )anufacture$ 7y this tune0 <ro$uce$ in such nu)7ers the cost of each .oul$ not 7e )ore than ^ 1!48555J .hich )eans that one hun$re$ coul$ 7e ha$ for the (rice of one single $rea$nought0 The carrying ca(acity has heretofore 7een gi-en on the 7asis of (assenger .eight8 7ut for .ar (ur(oses it coul$
7e consi$era7ly increase$8 an$ in the latest ty(e it )ight 7e as )uch as t.enty tons0 >uch a -essel coul$ trans(ort !55 )en .ith full equi()ent an$ a fleet of 155 coul$ lan$ !58555 )en in one o(eration0 3ut the (ossi7ilities of $a)age 7y e'(losi-es are )uch )ore i)(ressi-e8 es(ecially as it can 7e inflicte$ .ithout ris20 A We((elin fitte$ out .ith (ro(er instru)ents )ay sail in (erfect safety at great height8 fin$ the e'act (oint for attac2 7y reference to t.o .ireless (lants in a7solute $ar2ness8 $ro( )any tons of (icric co)(oun$ an$ $o this again an$ again0 >e-eral e'(erts ha-e e'(resse$ the)sel-es in a slighting )anner in regar$ to the $estructi-e effects8 7ut the fact is that the e'(losion of three tons of $yna)ite (ro$uces an earthqua2e (erce(ti7le at a $istance of thirty )iles0 ,f ten tons of (lastic e'(losi-e .ere $ro((e$ into the heart of a large city thousan$s .oul$ 7e 2ille$ an$ hun$re$s of )illions of (ro(erty annihilate$I >u((ose that a fleet of 155 such -essels .ere to (ass o-er "nglan$ at night $ro((ing 1558555 7o)7s of t.enty (oun$s0 &ho can Hu$ge of the $a)age an$ $e)oraliBation .hich .oul$ ensueF At the out7rea2 of the .ar it .as re(orte$ that the Ger)ans ha$ $e-ise$ a shell the (oisonous fu)es of .hich .ere of great $estructi-eness0 >hortly after a )ar-ellous ne. e'(losi-e .as sai$ to ha-e 7een (ro$uce$ in France na)e$ tur(inite0 The first inti)ation ca)e fro) )ilitary quarters an$ so)e .eight .as attache$ to the ne.s on this account an$ also 7ecause the $isco-ery .as attri7ute$ to "ugene Tur(in8 an ingenious an$ (rolific in-entor of che)icals0 The i$ea of e)(loying (oisonous or as(hy'iating 7o)7s is ol$0 ,t is authoritati-ely state$ that so)e .ere actually thro.n $uring the secon$ siege of <aris against the ar)y of Gersailles8 7ut .ith the only result of 2illing the e'(ert .ho .as filling the)0 There is a natural an$ $ee(ly roote$ (reHu$ice against the e)(loy)ent of (oisonous agents in .arfare8 an$ )any of those .ho tolerate the (resent )etho$s of $estroying life .oul$ shrin2 fro) such use0 Det $eath fro) )any of the to'ins 2no.n is less (ainful an$ $isfiguring0 ,n the a7sence of $e)onstrate$ facts , .ill en$ea-our to sho. in a fe. .or$s ho. the effecti-eness of such )eans can 7e enor)ously increase$0 Consi$er first a large shell .hich8 on stri2ing the groun$8 li7erates a (oisonous gas of at)os(heric $ensity s(rea$ing in half a s(here8 an$ let the effecti-e ra$ius 7e 18555 feet0 1o. i)agine that an equi-alent charge is su7$i-i$e$ in one )illion (arts8 gi-ing that )any little shells .hich can 7e scattere$ o-er a large area0 Then8 since the gas .ill 7e of the sa)e -olu)e as 7efore8 the ra$ius of action of each shell .ill 7e ten feet an$ their co)7ine$ $estructi-e effect .ill 7e 155 ti)es greater than that of the large shellJ in fact8 )uch )ore so8 for the $istri7ution of the gas .ill not 7e unifor)0 ,t .ill 7e seen the secret lies in the e)(loy)ent of e'tre)ely s)all charges in great nu)7ers0 The sa)e reasoning lea$s to the conclusion that 7y using )inute (roHectiles of tungsten $i((e$ in curare or si)ilar (oison8 (aralysing heart or loco)otor function8 a )eans for fighting 7attles .oul$ 7e (ro-i$e$ )ore hu)ane than the (resent an$ inco)(ara7ly )ore effecti-e0 A co)(lete re-olution in )etho$s of attac2 )ay 7e 7rought on through the use of to'ins or as(hy'iants hea-ier than air0 This )ay 7e illustrate$ 7y an e'a)(le0 #et us su((ose that ten tons of such liquefie$ gas are $ro((e$ on a 7attlefiel$ fro) an aerial -essel0 ;n e-a(orating a gas 7lan2et .ill 7e for)e$ o-er the earth's surface8 the effecti-e height of .hich )ay 7e assu)e$ to 7e ten feet0 ,f ten cu7ic feet of the gas .eigh one (oun$8 then ten 0tons .ill gi-e !558555 cu7ic feet of gas8 .hich )ay 7e )ore or less $ilute$8 accor$ing to its to'ic acti-ity0 Assu)e that it is not )ore (oisonous than car7on )ono'i$e8 .hich is fatal .hen its (ercentage in the at)os(here is one9half of one 0(er cent0 That )eans that the gas 7lan2et .ill contain 6585558555 cu7ic feet8 an$ 7eing ten feet high it .ill co-er 685558555 square feet8 or8 roughly8 155 acres0 ,n a (o(ulate$ city8 on account of structures an$ other o7Hects8 the $ea$ly Bone .oul$ 7e -ery )uch e'ten$e$0 This is $anger enough8 7ut if a gas .ere e)(loye$ of lethal (o.er equal to that of (russic aci$8 aconitine or of the strongest (oison 2no.n8 (seu$oaconitine8 the $estructi-e area .oul$ 7e a hun$re$ ti)es greater0 "-i$ently then there is a (ros(ect that the che)ist8 .ho is largely res(onsi7le for the .ar8 )ay also fin$ the )eans of co)(elling its s(ee$y ter)ination0 Telauto)atics is a na)e suggeste$ for the .ireless control of the organs an$ translatory )o-e)ents of self9 (ro(elle$ auto)ata0 Fifteen years ago , sho.e$ its first a((lications an$ the results .ere recei-e$ .ith an interest such as only fe. in-entions ha-e elicite$0 /y $e)onstrations .ere re(eate$ in Ger)any an$ other countries8 7ut 0on account of the fact that HertB .a-es an$ i)(erfectly tune$ circuits .ere e)(loye$ a 0general i)(ression .as create$ that such $istant control of a((aratus .as not a7solutely relia7le0 A further argu)ent .as a$-ance$ that if it .ere unfailing8 -olunteers coul$ al.ays 7e foun$ rea$y for sacrifice an$ )ore $e(en$a7le 7ecause of intelligence an$ Hu$ge)ent not (ossesse$ 7y an inani)ate )achine0 This
-ie. is hel$ 7y those .ho are no. a$-ocating the use of )anne$ aerial tor(e$oes8 7ut nothing coul$ 7e )ore erroneous0 A cre.less -essel controlle$ 7y (ro(er .ireless a((aratus is in e-ery .ay su(erior as a )eans of attac20 #arge guns are no. 7eing )anufacture$ in Ger)any so e'(ensi-e an$ short9li-e$ that a single shot fro) the) costs a s)all fortune0 ,t .oul$ 7e (ossi7le toy (ro$uce for less than the (rice of a shot a telauto)atic aerial tor(e$o of )uch longer range an$ greater $estructi-eness .hich .oul$ hit its )ar2 e-ery ti)e an$ $is(ense .ith the necessity of the gun altogether0 The ne. (rinci(le can also 7e a((lie$ to a su7)arine8 an$8 (articularly in connection .ith control fro) great ele-ation8 it .ill affor$ the )ost (erfect )eans for coast $efence so far $e-ise$0 3ut its full (ossi7ilities .ill only 7e a((reciate$ .hen the use of certain electrical .a-es to .hich the earth is resonantly res(onsi-e 7eco)es general0 ,t .ill then 7e (ractica7le to $es(atch a cre.less 7oat or 7alloon to $istances of hun$re$s of )iles8 gui$e it along any chart at .ill an$ release its (otential energy at any (oint $esire$0 Great )any of the (resent )eans an$ )etho$s .ill then87eco)e o7solete0 ,t is -ery li2ely that if this .ar is (rotracte$ this in-ention .ill (ro-e of i)(ortance0 +ecent re(orts .oul$ in$icate that e'(eri)ents are 7eing )a$e in Ger)any .ith telauto)atic tor(e$oes release$ fro) 7alloons0 ;ne goo$ effect of this $isastrous $istur7ance .ill 7e a long (erio$ of (eace0 This is a natural consequence of the la. that action an$ reaction are equal0 3ut in the (resent (hase of hu)an $e-elo()ent occasional con-ulsions are in the or$er of things0 A still greater struggle .ill (ro7a7ly co)e8 that 7et.een the unite$ races of the ;rient an$ ;cci$ent0 >o long as there are $ifferent nationalities there .ill 7e (atriotis)0 This feeling )ust 7e era$icate$ fro) our hearts 7efore (er)anent (eace can 7e esta7lishe$0 ,ts (lace )ust 7e fille$ 7y lo-e of nature an$ scientific i$eal0 >cience an$ $isco-ery are the great forces .hich .ill lea$ to that consu))ation0 , ha-e Hust )a$e 2no.n an in-ention .hich .ill sho. to electricians ho. to (ro$uce i))ense electrical (ressures an$ acti-ities0 3y their )eans )any .on$erful results .ill 7e achie-e$0 The hu)an -oice an$ li2eness .ill 7e flashe$ aroun$ the glo7e .ithout .ire8 energy (roHecte$ through s(ace8 the .astes of the ocean .ill 7e )a$e safe to na-igation8 trans(ort facilitate$8 rain (reci(itate$ at .ill an$8 (erha(s8 the ine'hausti7le store of ato)ic energy release$0 A$-ances of this 2in$ .ill8 in ti)es to co)e8 re)o-e the (hysical causes of .ar8 the chief of .hich is the -ast e'tent of this (lanet0 The gra$ual annihilationI of $istance .ill (ut hu)an 7eings in closer contact an$ har)oniBe their -ie.s an$ as(irations0 The harnessing of the forces of nature .ill 7anish )isery an$ .ant an$8 (ro-i$e a)(le0 )eans for safe an$ co)forta7le e'istence0 3ut one )ore acco)(lish)ent .ill still 7e lac2ing to )a2e the triu)(h of the )in$ of )an co)(lete A .ay )ust 7e foun$ to inter(ret thought an$ there7y ena7le the accurate re$uction of all for)s of hu)an effort0 to a co))on equi-alent0 The (ro7le) is susce(ti7le of solution0 The consequences of such an a$-ance are incalcula7le0 A ne. e(och in hu)an history .oul$ 7e inaugurate$ an$ a colossal re-olution in )oral8 social an$ other res(ects acco)(lishe$8 innu)era7le causes of trou7le .oul$ 7e re)o-e$8 our li-es (rofoun$ly )o$ifie$ for the 7etter8 an$ a ne. an$ fir) foun$ation lai$ to all that )a2es for (eace0
1-15-0"-0<: 0ow Cosmi( 7or(es S,a$e Our %estinies by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork American
--ery li-ing 7eing is an engine geare$ to the .heel.or2 of the uni-erse0 Though see)ingly affecte$ only 7y its
i))e$iate surroun$ing8 the s(here of e'ternal influence e'ten$s to infinite $istance0 There is no constellation or ne7ula8 no sun or (lanet8 in all the $e(ths of li)itless s(ace8 no (assing .an$erer of the starry hea-ens8 that $oes not e'ercise so)e control o-er its $estinyKnot in the -ague an$ $elusi-e sense of astrology8 7ut in the rigi$ an$ (ositi-e )eaning of (hysical science0 /ore than this can 7e sai$0 There is no thing en$o.e$ .ith lifeKfro) )an8 .ho is ensla-ing the ele)ents8 to the hu)7lest creatureKin all this .orl$ that $oes not s.ay it in turn0 &hene-er action is 7orn fro) force8 though it 7e infinitesi)al8 the cos)ic 7alance is u(set an$ uni-ersal )otion result0 Her7ert >(encer has inter(rete$ life as a continuous a$Hust)ent to the en-iron)ent8 a $efinition of this inconcei-a7ly co)(le' )anifestation quite in accor$ .ith a$-ance$ scientific thought8 7ut8 (erha(s8 not 7roa$ enough to e'(ress our (resent -ie.s0 &ith each ste( for.ar$ in the in-estigation of its la.s an$ )ysteries our conce(tions of nature an$ its (hases ha-e 7een gaining in $e(th an$ 7rea$th0 ,n the early stages of intellectual $e-elo()ent )an .as conscious of 7ut a s)all (art of the )acrocos)0 He 2ne. nothing of the .on$ers of the )icrosco(ic .orl$8 of the )olecules co)(osing it8 of the ato)s )a2ing u( the )olecules an$ of the $.in$lingly s)all .orl$ of electrons .ithin the ato)s0 To hi) life .as synony)ous .ith -oluntary )otion an$ action0 A (lant $i$ not suggest to hi) .hat it $oes to usKthat it li-es an$ feels8 fights for its e'istence8 that it suffers an$ enHoys0 1ot only ha-e .e foun$ this to 7e true8 7ut .e ha-e ascertaine$ that e-en )atter calle$ inorganic8 7elie-e$ to 7e $ea$8 res(on$s to irritants an$ gi-es un)ista2a7le e-i$ence of the (resence of a li-ing (rinci(le .ithin0 Thus8 e-erything that e'ists8 organic or inorganic8 ani)ate$ or inert8 is susce(ti7le to sti)ulus fro) the outsi$e0 There is no ga( 7et.een8 no 7rea2 of continuity8 no s(ecial an$ $istinguishing -ital agent0 The sa)e la. go-erns all )atter8 all the uni-erse is ali-e0 The )o)entous question of >(encer8 "&hat is it that causes inorganic )atter to run into organic for)sY" has 7een ans.ere$0 ,t is the sun's heat an$ light0 &here-er they are there is life0 ;nly in the 7oun$less .astes of interstellar s(ace8 in the eternal $ar2ness an$ col$8 is ani)ation sus(en$e$8 an$8 (ossi7ly8 at the te)(erature of a7solute Bero all )atter )ay $ie0 MAN AS A MAC0:N* This realistic as(ect of the (erce(ti7le uni-erse8 as a cloc2.or2 .oun$ u( an$ running $o.n8 $is(ensing .ith the necessity of a hy(er)echanical -ital (rinci(le8 nee$ not 7e in $iscor$ .ith our religious an$ artistic as(irationsK those undefinable an$ 7eautiful efforts through .hich the hu)an )in$ en$ea-ours to free itself fro) )aterial 7on$s0 ;n the contrary8 the 7etter un$erstan$ing of nature8 the consciousness that our 2no.le$ge is true8 can only 7e all the )ore ele-ating an$ ins(iring0 ,t .as =escartes8 the great French (hiloso(her8 .ho in the se-enteenth century8 lai$ the first foun$ation to the )echanistic theory of life8 not a little assiste$ 7y Har-ey's e(ochal $isco-ery of 7loo$ circulation0 He hel$ that ani)als .ere si)(ly auto)ata .ithout consciousness an$ recogniBe$ that )an8 though (ossesse$ of a higher an$ $istincti-e quality8 is inca(a7le of action other than those characteristic of a )achine0 He also )a$e the first atte)(t to e'(lain the (hysical )echanis) of )e)ory0 3ut in this ti)e )any functions of the hu)an 7o$y .ere not as yet un$erstoo$8 an$ in this res(ect so)e of his assu)(tions .ere erroneous0 Great stri$es ha-e since 7een )a$e in the art of anato)y8 (hysiology an$ all 7ranches of science8 an$ the .or2ings of the )an9)achine are no. (erfectly clear0 Det the -ery fe.est a)ong us are a7le to trace their actions to (ri)ary e'ternal causes0 ,t is in$is(ensa7le to the argu)ents , shall a$-ance to 2ee( in )in$ the )ain facts .hich , ha-e )yself esta7lishe$ in years of close reasoning an$ o7ser-ation an$ .hich )ay 7e su))e$ u( as follo.sI 10 The hu)an 7eing is a self9(ro(elle$ auto)aton entirely un$er the control of e'ternal influences0 &ilful an$ (re$eter)ine$ though they a((ear8 his actions are go-erne$ not fro) .ithin8 7ut fro) .ithout0 He is li2e a float tosse$ a7out 7y the .a-es of a tur7ulent sea0 !0 There is no )e)ory or retenti-e faculty 7ase$ on lasting i)(ression0 &hat .e $esignate as )e)ory is 7ut
increase$ res(onsi-eness to re(eate$ sti)uli0 30 ,t is not true8 as =escartes taught8 that the 7rain is an accu)ulator0 There is no (er)anent recor$ in the 7rain8 there is no store$ 2no.le$ge0 :no.le$ge is so)ething a2in to an echo that nee$s a $istur7ance to 7e calle$ into 7eing0 60 All 2no.le$ge or for) conce(tion is e-o2e$ through the )e$iu) of the eye8 either in res(onse to $istur7ances $irectly recei-e$ on the retina or to their fainter secon$ary effects an$ re-er7erations0 ;ther sense organs can only call forth feelings .hich ha-e no reality of e'istence an$ of .hich no conce(tion can 7e for)e$ 40 Contrary to the )ost i)(ortant tenet of Cartesian (hiloso(hy that the (erce(tions of the )in$ are illusionary8 the eye trans)its to it the true an$ accurate li2eness of e'ternal things0 This is 7ecause light (ro(agates in straight lines an$ the i)age cast on the retina is an e'act re(ro$uction of the e'ternal for) an$ one .hich8 o.ing to the )echanis) of the o(tic ner-e8 can not 7e $istorte$ in the trans)ission to the 7rain0 &hat is )ore8 the (rocess )ust 7e re-ersi7le8 that in to say8 a for) 7rought to consciousness can8 7y refle' action8 re(ro$uce the original i)age on the retina Hust as an echo can re(ro$uce the original $istur7ance ,f this -ie. is 7orne out 7y e'(eri)ent an i))ense re-olution in all hu)an relations an$ $e(art)ents of acti-ity .ill 7e the consequence0 NAT=#A' 7O#C*S :N7'=*NC* =S Acce(ting all this as true let us consi$er so)e of the forces an$ influences .hich act on such a .on$erfully co)(le' auto)atic engine .ith organs inconcei-a7ly sensiti-e an$ $elicate8 as it is carrie$ 7y the s(inning terrestrial glo7e in lightning flight through s(ace0 For the sa2e of si)(licity .e )ay assu)e that the earth's a'is is (er(en$icular to the ecli(tic an$ that the hu)an auto)aton is at the equator0 #et his .eight 7e one hun$re$ an$ si'ty (oun$s then8 at the rotational -elocity of a7out 184!5 feet (er secon$ .ith .hich he is .hirle$ aroun$8 the )echanical energy store$ in his 7o$y .ill 7e nearly 48*858555 foot (oun$s8 .hich is a7out the energy of a hun$re$9(oun$ cannon 7all0 This )o)entu) is constant as .ell as u(.ar$ centrifugal (ush8 a)ounting to a7out fifty9fi-e hun$re$th of a (oun$8 an$ 7oth .ill (ro7a7ly 7e .ithout )ar2e$ influence on his life functions0 The sun8 ha-ing a )ass 33!8555 ti)es that of the earth8 7ut 7eing !38555 ti)es farther8 .ill attract the auto)aton .ith a force of a7out one9tenth of one (oun$8 alternately increasing an$ $i)inishing his nor)al .eight 7y that a)ount Though not conscious of these (erio$ic changes8 he is surely affecte$ 7y the)0 The earth in its rotation aroun$ the sun carries hi) .ith the (ro$igious s(ee$ of nineteen )iles (er secon$ an$ the )echanical energy i)(arte$ to hi) is o-er !481%585558555 foot (oun$s0 The largest gun e-er )a$e in Ger)any hurls a (roHectile .eighing one ton .ith a )uBBle -elocity of 38*55 feet (er secon$8 the energy 7eing 6!985558555 foot (oun$s0 Hence the )o)entu) of the auto)aton's 7o$y is nearly si'ty ti)es greater0 ,t .oul$ 7e sufficient to $e-elo( *%!8655 horse9(o.er for one )inute8 an$ if the )otion .ere su$$enly arreste$ the 7o$y .oul$ 7e instantly e'(lo$e$ .ith a force sufficient to carry a (roHectile .eighing o-er si'ty tons to a $istance of t.enty9eight )iles0 This enor)ous energy is8 ho.e-er8 not constant8 7ut -aries .ith the (osition of the auto)aton in relation to the sun0 The circu)ference of the earth has a s(ee$ of 184!5 feet (er secon$8 .hich is either a$$e$ to or su7tracte$ fro) the translatory -elocity of nineteen )iles through s(ace0 ;.ing to this the energy .ill -ary fro) t.el-e to t.el-e hours 7y an a)ount a((ro'i)ately equal to 1843385558555 foot (oun$s8 .hich )eans that energy strea)s in so)e un2no.n .ay into an$ out of the 7o$y of the auto)aton at the rate of a7out si'ty9four horse9 (o.er0 3ut this is not all0 The .hole solar syste) is urge$ to.ar$s the re)ote constellation Hercules at a s(ee$ .hich so)e esti)ate at so)e t.enty )iles (er secon$ an$ o.ing to this there shoul$ 7e si)ilar annual changes in the flu' of energy8 .hich )ay reach the a((alling figure of o-er one hun$re$ 7illion foot (oun$s0 All these -arying an$ (urely )echanical effects are ren$ere$ )ore co)(le' through the inclination of the or7ital (lanes an$ )any other (er)anent or casual )ass actions0 This auto)aton8 is8 ho.e-er su7Hecte$ to other forces an$ influences0 His 7o$y is at the electric (otential of t.o 7illion -olts8 .hich fluctuates -iolently an$ incessantly0 The .hole earth is ali-e .ith electrical -i7rations in .hich he ta2es (art0 The at)os(here crushes hi) .ith a (ressure of fro) si'teen to t.enty tons8 accor$ing8 to 7aro)etric con$ition0 He recei-es the energy of the sun's rays in -arying inter-als at a )ean rate of a7out forty foot (oun$s (er secon$8 an$ is su7Hecte$ to (erio$ic 7o)7ar$)ent of the sun's (articles8 .hich (ass through his 7o$y as if it .ere tissue (a(er0 The air is rent .ith soun$s .hich 7eat on his ear$ru)s8 an$ he is sha2en 7y the unceasing tre)ors of the earth's crust0 He is e'(ose$ to great te)(erature changes8 to rain an$ .in$0
&hat .on$er then that in such a terri7le tur)oil8 in .hich cast iron e'istence .oul$ see) i)(ossi7le8 this $elicate hu)an engine shoul$ act in an e'ce(tional )annerF ,f all auto)ata .ere in e-ery res(ect ali2e they .oul$ react in e'actly the sa)e .ay8 7ut this is not the case0 There is concor$ance in res(onse to those $istur7ances only .hich are )ost frequently re(eate$8 not to all0 ,t is quite easy to (ro-i$e t.o electrical syste)s .hich8 .hen su7Hecte$ to the sa)e influence8 .ill 7eha-e in Hust the o((osite .ay0 >o also t.o hu)an 7eings8 an$ .hat is true of in$i-i$uals also hol$s goo$ for their large aggregations0 &e all slee( (erio$ically0 This is not an in$is(ensa7le (hysiological necessity any )ore than sto((age at inter-als is a require)ent for an engine0 ,t is )erely a con$ition gra$ually i)(ose$ u(on us 7y the $iurnal re-olution of the glo7e8 an$ this is one of the )any e-i$ences of the truth of the )echanistic theory0 &e note a rhyth) or e77 an$ ti$e8 in i$eas an$ o(inions8 in financial an$ (olitical )o-e)ents8 in e-ery $e(art)ent of our intellectual acti-ity0 0OF FA#S A#* STA#T*% ,t only sho.s that in all this a (hysical syste) of )ass inertia is in-ol-e$ .hich affor$s a further stri2ing (roof0 ,f .e acce(t the theory as a fun$a)ental truth an$8 further)ore8 e'ten$ the li)its of our sense (erce(tions 7eyon$ those .ithin .hich .e 7eco)e conscious of the e'ternal i)(ressions8 then all the states in hu)an life8 ho.e-er unusual8 can 7e (lausi7ly e'(laine$0 A fe. e'a)(les )ay 7e gi-en in illustration0 The eye res(on$s only to light -i7rations through a certain rather narro. range8 7ut the li)its are not shar(ly $efine$0 ,t is also affecte$ 7y -i7rations 7eyon$8 only in lesser $egree0 A (erson )ay thus 7eco)e a.are of the (resence of another in $ar2ness8 or through inter-ening o7stacles8 an$ (eo(le la7ouring un$er illusions ascri7e this to tele(athy0 >uch trans)ission of thought is a7sur$ly i)(ossi7le0 The traine$ o7ser-er notes .ithout $ifficulty that these (heno)ena are $ue to suggestion or coinci$ence0 The sa)e )ay 7e sai$ of oral i)(ressions8 to .hich )usical an$ i)itati-e (eo(le are es(ecially susce(ti7le0 A (erson (ossessing these qualities .ill often res(on$ to )echanical shoc2s or -i7rations .hich are inau$i7le0 To )ention another instance of )o)entary interest reference )ay 7e )a$e to $ancing8 .hich co)(rises certain har)onious )uscular contractions an$ contortions of the 7o$y in res(onse to a rhyth)0 Ho. they co)e to 7e in -ogue Hust no.8 can 7e satisfactorily e'(laine$ 7y su((osing the e'istence of so)e ne. (erio$ic $istur7ances in the en-iron)ent8 .hich are trans)itte$ through the air or the groun$ an$ )ay 7e of )echanical8 electrical or other character0 "'actly so it is .ith .ars8 re-olutions an$ si)ilar e'ce(tional states of society0 Though it )ay see) so8 a .ar can ne-er 7e cause$ 7y ar7itrary acts of )an0 ,t is in-aria7ly the )ore or less $irect result of cos)ic $istur7ance in .hich the sun is chiefly concerne$0 ,n )any international conflicts of historical recor$ .hich .ere (reci(itate$ 7y fa)ine8 (estilence or terrestrial catastro(hes the $irect $e(en$ence of the sun is un)ista2a7le0 3ut in )ost cases the un$erlying (ri)ary causes are nu)erous an$ har$ to trace0 ,n the (resent .ar it .oul$ 7e (articularly $ifficult to sho. that the a((arently .illful acts of a fe. in$i-i$uals .ere not causati-e0 3e it so8 the )echanistic theory8 7eing foun$e$ on truth $e)onstrate$ in e-ery$ay e'(erience8 a7solutely (reclu$es the (ossi7ility of such a state 7eing anything 7ut the ine-ita7le consequence of cos)ic $istur7ance0 The question naturally (resents itself as to .hether there is so)e inti)ate relation 7et.een .ars an$ terrestrial u(hea-als0 The latter are of $eci$e$ influence on te)(era)ent an$ $is(osition8 an$ )ight at ti)es 7e instru)ental in accelerating the clash 7ut asi$e fro) this there see)s to 7e no )utual $e(en$ence8 though 7oth )ay 7e $ue to the sa)e (ri)ary cause0 &hat can 7e asserte$ .ith (erfect confi$ence is that the earth )ay 7e thro.n into con-ulsions through )echanical effects such as are (ro$uce$ in )o$ern .arfare0 This state)ent )ay 7e startling8 7ut it a$)its of a si)(le e'(lanation0 "arthqua2es are (rinci(ally $ue to t.o causesKsu7terranean e'(losions or structural a$Hust)ents0 The for)er are calle$ -olcanic8 in-ol-e i))ense energy an$ are har$ to start0 The latter are na)e$ tectonicJ their energy is co)(arati-ely insignificant an$ they can 7e cause$ 7y the slightest shoc2 or tre)or0 The frequent sli$es in the Cule7ra are $is(lace)ents of this 2in$0
FA# AN% T0* *A#T0C=A!* Theoretically8 it )ay 7e sai$ that one )ight thin2 of a tectonic earthqua2e an$ cause it to occur as a result of the thought8 for Hust (rece$ing the release the )ass )ay 7e in the )ost $elicate 7alance0 There is a (o(ular error in regar$ to the energy of such $is(lace)ents0 ,n a case recently re(orte$ as quite e'traor$inary8 e'ten$ing as it $i$ o-er a -ast territory8 the energy .as esti)ate$ at %48555855585558555 foot tons0 Assu)ing e-en that the .hole .or2 .as (erfor)e$ in one )inute it .oul$ only 7e equi-alent to that of *84558555 horse9(o.er $uring one year8 .hich see)s )uch8 7ut is little for a terrestrial u(hea-al0 The energy of the sun's rays falling on the sa)e area is a thousan$ ti)es greater0 The e'(losions of )ines8 tor(e$oes8 )ortars an$ guns $e-elo( reacti-e forces on the groun$ .hich are )easure$ in hun$re$s or e-en thousan$s of tons an$ )a2e the)sel-es felt all o-er the glo7e0 Their effect8 ho.e-er8 )ay 7e enor)ously )agnifie$ 7y resonance0 The earth is a s(here of a rigi$ity slightly greater than that of steel an$ -i7rates once in a7out one hour an$ forty9nine )inutes0 ,f8 as )ight .ell 7e (ossi7le8 the concussions ha((en to 7e (ro(erly ti)e$ their co)7ine$ action coul$ start tectonic a$Hust)ents in any (art of the earth8 an$ the ,talian cala)ity )ay thus ha-e 7een the result of e'(losions in France0 That )an can (ro$uce such terrestrial con-ulsions is 7eyon$ any $ou7t8 an$ the ti)e )ay 7e near .hen it .ill 7e $one for (ur(oses goo$ or a(t0
1-15-06-05: Some 5ersonal #e(olle(tions by Nikola Tesla

&cientific American
I a) gla$ to 7e accor$e$ this o((ortunity for t.o reasons0 ,n the first (lace , ha-e long since $esire$ to e'(ress
)y great a((reciation of the >cientific A)erican an$ to ac2no.le$ge )y in$e7te$ness for the ti)ely an$ useful infor)ation .hich its colu)ns are (ouring out in a stea$y strea)0 ,t is a (u7lication re)ar2a7le for the high quality of s(ecial articles as .ell as for the accurate re-ie. of technical a$-ances0 The 2no.le$ge it con-eys is al.ays relia7le an$ ren$ere$ still )ore -alua7le through the scru(ulous o7ser-ance of literary courtesy in the quotation of the sources0 The ser-ices it has ren$ere$ in hel(ing in-ention an$ s(rea$ing enlighten)ent are inesti)a7le0 The >cientific A)erican is a (erio$ical a7ly an$ conscientiously con$ucte$8 )easure$ an$ $ignifie$ in tone to the (oint of ser-ing as a )o$el8 an$ in these features8 as )uch as in the .ealth an$ e'cellence of its contri7utions8 it reflects great cre$it8 not only on its staff an$ (u7lishers8 7ut on the .hole country0 This is not an i$le co)(li)ent8 7ut a genuine an$ .ell9$eser-e$ tri7ute to .hich , a$$ )y 7est .ishes for continue$ success on this )e)ora7le occasion0 The secon$ reason is one that concerns )e (ersonally0 /any erroneous state)ents ha-e a((eare$ in (rint relati-e to )y $isco-ery of the rotating )agnetic fiel$ an$ in-ention of the in$uction )otor .hich , .as co)(elle$ to (ass in silence0 Great interests ha-e .age$ a long an$ 7itter contest for )y (atent rightsJ co))ercial ani)osities an$ (rofessional Healousies .ere arouse$8 an$ , .as )a$e to suffer in )ore than one .ay0 3ut $es(ite of all (ressure an$ efforts of ingenious la.yers an$ e'(erts8 the rulings of the courts .ere in su((ort of )y clai)s for (riority in e-ery instance .ithout e'ce(tion0 The 7attles ha-e 7een fought an$ forgotten8 the thirty or forty (atents grante$ to )e on the alternating syste) ha-e e'(ire$8 , ha-e 7een release$ of 7ur$enso)e o7ligations an$ a) free to s(ea20 "-ery e'(erience .hich , ha-e li-e$ through 7earing on that early $isco-ery is -i-i$ly (resent in )y )e)ory0 , see the faces of the (ersons8 the scenes an$ o7Hects of )y attention8 .ith a shar(ness an$ $istinction an$ in a fullness of light .hich is astonishing8 an$ is a )easure of the intensity an$ $e(th of the original i)(ressions0 , ha-e al.ays 7een fortunate in i$eas8 7ut no other in-ention8 ho.e-er great8 coul$ 7e as $ear to )e as that first one0 This .ill 7e un$erstoo$ if , $.ell 7riefly on the circu)stances surroun$ing it an$ so)e of the (hases an$ inci$ents of )y young life0 Fro) )y chil$hoo$ , ha$ 7een inten$e$ for the clergy0 This (ros(ect hung li2e a $ar2 clou$ on )y )in$0 After (assing ele-en years at a (u7lic school an$ a higher institution8 , o7taine$ )y certificate of )aturity an$ foun$ )yself at the critical (oint of )y career0 >houl$ , $iso7ey )y father8 ignore the fon$est .ishes of )y )other8 or shoul$ , resign )yself to fate0 The thought o((resse$ )e8 an$ , loo2e$ to the future .ith $rea$0 Eust at that ti)e a terri7le e(i$e)ic of cholera 7ro2e out in )y nati-e lan$0 <eo(le 2ne. nothing of the character of the $isease an$ the )eans of sanitation .ere of the (oorest 2in$0 They 7urne$ huge (iles of o$orous shru77ery to (urify the air8 7ut $ran2 freely of the infecte$ .ater an$ $ie$ in cro.$s li2e shee(0 Contrary to (ere)(tory or$ers fro) )y father , rushe$ ho)e an$ .as stric2en $o.n0 1ine )onths in 7e$ .ith scarcely the a7ility to )o-e see)e$ to e'haust all )y -itality8 an$ , .as gi-en u( 7y the (hysicians0 ,t .as an agoniBing e'(erience8 not so )uch 7ecause of (hysical suffering as on account of )y intense $esire to li-e0 ;n the occasion of one of the fainting s(ells )y father cheere$ )e 7y a (ro)ise to let )e stu$y engineeringJ 7ut it .oul$ ha-e re)aine$ unfulfille$ ha$ it nor 7een for a )ar-ellous cure 7rought a7out 7y an ol$ la$y0 There .as no force of suggestion or )ysterious influence a7out it0 >uch )eans .oul$ ha-e ha$ no effect .hate-er on )e8 for , .as a fir) 7elie-er in natural la.s0 The re)e$y .as (urely )e$icinal8 heroic if not $es(erateJ 7ut it .or2e$ an$ in one year of )ountain cli)7ing an$ forest life , .as fit for the )ost ar$uous 7o$ily e'ertion0 /y father 2e(t his .or$8 an$ in 18** , entere$ the Eoanneu) in GratB8 >tyria8 one of the ol$est technical institutions of "uro(e0 , (ro(ose$ to sho. results .hich .oul$ re(ay )y (arents for their 7itter $isa((oint)ent $ue to )y change of -ocation0 ,t .as not a (assing $eter)ination of a light9hearte$ youthJ it .as iron resol-e0 As so)e young rea$er of the >cientific A)erican )ight $ra. (rofit fro) )y e'a)(le , .ill e'(lain0
Three rotors use$ .ith the early in$uction )otor sho.n 7elo. &hen , .as a 7oy of se-en or eight , rea$ a no-el untitle$ "A7afi"KThe >on of A7aKa >er-ian translation fro) the Hungarian of Eosi2a8 a .riter of reno.n0 The lessons it teaches are )uch li2e those of "3en Hur8" an$ in this res(ect it )ight 7e -ie.e$ as antici(atory of the .or2 of &allace0 The (ossi7ilities of .ill9(o.er an$ self9control a((eale$ tre)en$ously to )y -i-i$ i)agination8 an$ , 7egan to $isci(line )yself0 Ha$ , a s.eet ca2e or a Huicy a((le .hich , .as $ying to eat , .oul$ gi-e it to another 7oy an$ go through the tortures of Tantalus8 (aine$ 7ut satisfie$0 Ha$ , so)e $ifficult tas2 7efore )e .hich .as e'hausting , .oul$ attac2 it again an$ again until it .as $one0 >o , (ractise$ $ay 7y $ay fro) )orning till night0 At first it calle$ for a -igorous )ental effort $irecte$ against $is(osition an$ $esire8 7ut as years .ent 7y the conflict lessene$ an$ finally )y .ill an$ .ish 7eca)e i$entical0 They are so to9$ay8 an$ in this lies the secret of .hate-er success , ha-e achie-e$0 These e'(eriences are as inti)ately lin2e$ .ith )y $isco-ery of the rotating )agnetic fiel$ as if they for)e$ an essential (art of itJ 7ut for the) , .oul$ ne-er ha-e in-ente$ the in$uction )otor0 ,n the first year of )y stu$ies at the Eoanneu) , rose regularly at three o'cloc2 in the )orning an$ .or2e$ till ele-en at nightJ no >un$ays or holi$ays e'ce(te$0 /y success .as unusual an$ e'cite$ the interest of the (rofessors0 A)ong these .as =r0 AllU8 .ho lecture$ on $ifferential equations an$ other 7ranches of higher )athe)atics an$ .hose a$$resses .ere unforgetta7le intellectual treats8 an$ <rof0 <oeschl8 .ho hel$ the chair of <hysics8 theoretical an$ e'(eri)ental0 These )en , al.ays re)e)7er .ith a sense of gratitu$e0 <rof <oeschl .as (eculiarJ it .as sai$ of hi) that he .ore the sa)e coat for t.enty years0 3ut .hat he lac2e$ in (ersonal )agnetis) he )a$e u( in the (erfection of his e'(osition0 , ne-er sa. hi) )iss a .or$ or gesture8 an$ his $e)onstrations an$ e'(eri)ents al.ays .ent off .ith cloc2li2e (recision0 >o)e ti)e in the .inter of 18*8 a ne. a((aratus .as installe$ in the lecture roo)0 ,t .as a $yna)o .ith a la)inate$ (er)anent )agnet an$ a Gra))e ar)ature0 <rof0 <oeschi ha$ .oun$ so)e .ire aroun$ the fiel$ to sho. the (rinci(le of self9e'citation8 an$ (ro-i$e$ a 7attery for running the )achine as a )otor0 As he .as illustrating this latter feature there .as li-ely s(ar2ing at the co))utator an$ 7rushes8 an$ , -enture$ to re)ar2 that these $e-ices )ight 7e eli)inate$0 He sai$ that it .as quite i)(ossi7le an$ li2ene$ )y (ro(osal to a (er(etual )otion sche)e8 .hich a)use$ )y fello. stu$ents an$ e)7arrasse$ )e greatly0 For a ti)e , hesitate$8 i)(resse$ 7y his authority8 7ut )y con-iction gre. stronger an$ , $eci$e$ to .or2 out the solution0 At that ti)e )y resol-e )eant )ore to )e than the )ost sole)n -o.0
;ne of the earliest of in$uction )otors0 Although it .eighe$ only a little o-er !5 (oun$s8 it $e-elo(e$ 1/6 horse9 (o.er at a s(ee$ of 18855 re-olutions8 a (erfor)ance consi$ere$ re)ar2a7le at the ti)e0 , un$ertoo2 the tas2 .ith all the fire an$ 7oun$less confi$ence of youth0 To )y )in$ it .as si)(ly a test of .ill9 (o.er0 , 2ne. nothing of the technical $ifficulties0 All )y re)aining ter) in GratB .as (asse$ in intense 7ut fruitless effort8 an$ , al)ost con-ince$ )yself that the (ro7le) .as unsol-a7le0 ,n$ee$8 , thought8 .as it (ossi7le to transfor) the stea$y (ull of gra-itation into a .hirling forceY The ans.er .as an e)(hatic no0 An$ .as this not also true of )agnetic attractionF The t.o (ro(ositions a((eare$ -ery )uch the sa)e0 ,n 1885 , .ent to <rague8 3ohe)ia8 carrying out )y father's .ish to co)(lete )y school e$ucation at a uni-ersity0 The at)os(here of that ol$ an$ interesting city .as fa-oura7le to in-ention0 Hungry artists .ere (lentiful an$ intelligent co)(any coul$ 7e foun$ e-ery.here0 Here , )a$e the first $istinct ste( in a$-ance8 7y
$etaching the co))utators fro) the )achines an$ (lacing the) on $istant ar7ours0 "-ery $ay , i)agine$ arrange)ents on this (lan .ithout result8 7ut feeling that , .as nearing the solution0 ,n the follo.ing year there .as a su$$en change in )y -ie.s of life0 , realiBe$ that )y (arents .ere )a2ing too great sacrifices for )e an$ resol-e$ to relie-e the) of the 7ur$en0 The A)erican tele(hone .a-e ha$ reache$ the "uro(ean continent8 an$ the syste) .as to 7e installe$ in 3u$a(est0 ,t a((eare$ an i$eal o((ortunity8 an$ , too2 the train for that city0 3y an irony of fate )y first e)(loy)ent .as as a $raughts)an0 , hate$ $ra.ingJ it .as for )e the -ery .orst of annoyances0 Fortunately it .as not long 7efore , secure$ the (osition , sought8 that of chief electrician to the tele(hone co)(any0 /y $uties 7rought )e in contact .ith a nu)7er of young )en in .ho) , 7eca)e intereste$0 ;ne of these .as /r0 >Bigety8 .ho .as a re)ar2a7le s(eci)en of hu)anity0 A 7ig hea$ .ith an a.ful lu)( on one si$e an$ a sallo. co)(le'ion )a$e hi) $istinctly ugly8 7ut fro) the nec2 o.n his 7o$y )ight ha-e ser-e$ for a statue of A(ollo0 His strength .as (heno)enal0 At that ti)e , ha$ e'hauste$ )yself through har$ .or2 an$ incessant thin2ing0 He i)(resse$ )e .ith the necessity of syste)atic (hysical $e-elo()ent8 an$ , acce(te$ his offer to train )e in athletics0 &e e'ercise$ e-ery $ay an$ , gaine$ ra(i$ly in strength0 /y )in$ also see)e$ to gro. )ore -igorous an$ as )y thoughts turne$ to the su7Hect .hich a7sor7e$ )e , .as sur(rise$ at )y confi$ence of success0 ;n one occasion8 e-er (resent in )y recollection8 .e .ere enHoying oursel-es in the Garos9liget or City <ar20 , .as reciting (oetry8 of .hich , .as (assionately fon$0 At that age , 2ne. entire 7oo2s 7y heart an$ coul$ rea$ the) fro) )e)ory .or$ 7y .or$0 ;ne of these .as Faust0 ,t .as late in the afternoon8 the sun .as setting8 an$ , .as re)in$e$ of the (assageI A&ie rIckt und "eich+ der Tag ist Iberlebt+ Dort eilt sie bin und fJrdert neues %eben+ 'h+ das kein 9lIgel mich vom 4oden hebt Ihr nach und immer nach ;u strebenE Ach+ ;u des 5eistes 9lIgeln "ird so leicht 6ein kJr*erlicher 9lIgel sich gesellenEA AThe glo" retreats+ done is the day of toil It yonder hastes+ ne" fields of life ex*loring Ah+ that no "ing can lift me from the soil D*on its track to follo"+ follo" soaringE AAlasE the "ings that lift the mind no aid 'f "ings to lift the body can be)ueath me.A As , s(o2e the last .or$s8 (lunge$ in thought an$ )ar-elling at the (o.er of the (oet8 the i$ea ca)e li2e a lightning flash0 ,n an instant , sa. it all8 an$ , $re. .ith a stic2 on the san$ the $iagra)s .hich .ere illustrate$ in )y fun$a)ental (atents of /ay8 18888 an$ .hich >Bigety un$erstoo$ (erfectly0 ,t is e'tre)ely $ifficult for )e to (ut this e'(erience 7efore the rea$er in its true light an$ significance for it is so altogether e'traor$inary0 &hen an i$ea (resents itself it is8 as a rule8 cru$e an$ i)(erfect0 3irth8 gro.th an$ $e-elo()ent are (hases nor)al an$ natural0 ,t .as $ifferent .ith )y in-ention0 ,n the -ery )o)ent , 7eca)e conscious of it0 , sa. it fully $e-elo(e$ an$ (erfecte$0 Then again8 a theory8 ho.e-er (lausi7le8 )ust usually 7e confir)e$ 7y e'(eri)ent0 1ot so the one , ha$ for)ulate$0 ,t .as 7eing $aily $e)onstrate$ e-ery $yna)o an$ )otor .as a7solute (roof of its soun$ness0 The effect on )e .as in$escri7a7le0 /y i)aginings .ere equi-alent to realities0 , ha$ carrie$ out .hat , ha$ un$erta2en an$ (icture$ )yself achie-ing .ealth an$ fa)e0 3ut )ore than all this .as to )e the re-elation that , .as an in-entor0 This .as the one thing , .ante$ to 7e0 Archi)e$es .as )y i$eal0 , a$)ire$ the .or2s of artists8 7ut to )y )in$8 they .ere only sha$o.s an$ se)7lances0 The in-entor8 , thought8 gi-es to the .orl$ creations .hich are (al(a7le8 .hich li-e an$ .or20 The tele(hone installation .as no. co)(lete$ an$ in the s(ring of 188! an offer .as )a$e )e to go to <aris8 .hich , acce(te$ eagerly0 Here , )et a nu)7er of A)ericans .ho) , 7efrien$e$ an$ to .ho) , tal2e$ of )y in-ention8 an$ one of the)8 /r0 =0 Cunningha)8 (ro(ose$ to for) a co)(any for e'(loitation0 This )ight ha-e 7een $one ha$ not )y $uties calle$ )e to >tras7urg8 Alsace0 ,t .as in this city that , constructe$ )y first )otor0 , ha$ 7rought so)e )aterial fro) <aris8 an$ a $is2 of iron .ith 7earings .as )a$e for )e in a )echanical sho( close to the railroa$ station in .hich , .as installing the light an$ (o.er (lant0 ,t .as a cru$e a((aratus8 7ut affor$e$ )e the su(re)e satisfaction of seeing for the first ti)e8 rotation affecte$ 7y alternating currents .ithout co))utator0 , re(eate$ the e'(eri)ent .ith )y assistant t.ice in the su))er of 18830 /y intercourse .ith A)ericans ha$ $irecte$ )y attention to the (ractical intro$uction an$ , en$ea-oure$ to secure ca(ital8 7ut .as
unsuccessful in this atte)(t an$ returne$ to <aris early in 18860 Here8 too8 , )a$e se-eral ineffectual efforts8 an$ finally resol-e$ to go to A)erica8 .here , arri-e$ in the su))er of 18860 3y a (re-ious un$erstan$ing , entere$ the "$ison /achine &or2s8 .here , un$ertoo2 the $esign of $yna)os an$ )otors0 For nine )onths )y regular hours .ere fro) 15I35 A0 /0 till 4 A0 /0 the ne't $ay0 All this ti)e , .as getting )ore an$ )ore an'ious a7out the in-ention an$ .as )a2ing u( )y )in$ to (lace it 7efore "$ison0 , still re)e)7er an o$$ inci$ent in this connection0 ;ne $ay in the latter (art of 1886 /r0 3achelor8 the )anager of the .or2s8 too2 )e to Coney ,slan$8 .here .e )et "$ison in co)(any .ith his for)er .ife0 The )o)ent that , .as .aiting for .as (ro(itious8 , .as Hust a7out to s(ea2 .hen a horri7le loo2ing tra)( too2 hol$ of "$ison an$ $re. hi) a.ay8 (re-enting )e fro) carrying out )y intention0 "arly in 1884 (eo(le a((roache$ )e .ith a (ro(osition to $e-elo( an arc light syste) an$ to for) a co)(any un$er )y na)e0 , signe$ the contract8 an$ a year an$ a half later , .as free an$ in a (osition to $e-ote )yself to the (ractical $e-elo()ent of )y $isco-ery0 , foun$ financial su((ort8 an$ in A(ril8 188*8 a co)(any .as organiBe$ for the (ur(ose8 an$ .hat has follo.e$ since is .ell 2no.n0 A fe. .or$s shoul$ 7e sai$ in regar$ to the -arious clai)s for antici(ation .hich .ere )a$e u(on the issuance of )y (atents in 18888 an$ in nu)erous suits con$ucte$ su7sequently0 There .ere three contestants for the honour8 Ferraris8 >challen7erger an$ Ca7anellas0 All three succu)7e$ to grief0 The o((onents of )y (atents a$-ance$ the Ferraris clai) -ery strongly8 7ut any one .ho .ill (eruse his little ,talian (a)(hlet8 .hich a((eare$ in the s(ring of 18888 an$ co)(are it .ith the (atent recor$ file$ 7y )e se-en )onths 7efore8 an$ .ith )y (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 .ill ha-e no $ifficulty in reaching a conclusion0 ,rres(ecti-e of 7eing 7ehin$ )e in ti)e8 <rof0 Ferraris's (u7lication concerne$ only )y s(lit9(hase )otor8 an$ in an a((lication for a (atent 7y hi) (riority .as a.ar$e$ to )e0 He ne-er suggeste$ any of the essential (ractical features .hich constitute )y syste)8 an$ in regar$ to the s(lit9(hase )otor he .as -ery $eci$e$ in his o(inion that it .as of no -alue0 3oth Ferraris an$ >challen7erger $isco-ere$ the rotation acci$entally .hile .or2ing .ith a Gullar$ an$ Gi77s transfor)er8 an$ ha$ $ifficulty in e'(laining the actions0 1either of the) (ro$uce$ a rotating fiel$ )otor li2e )ine8 nor .ere their theories the sa)e as )y o.n0 As to Ca7anellas8 the only reason for his clai) is an a7an$one$ an$ $efecti-e technical $ocu)ent0 >o)e o-er9Bealous frien$s ha-e inter(rete$ a Cnite$ >tates (atent grante$ to 3ra$ley as a conte)(orary recor$8 7ut there is no foun$ation .hate-er for such a clai)0 The original a((lication only $escri7e$ a generator .ith t.o circuits .hich .ere (ro-i$e$ for the sole (ur(ose of increasing the out(ut0 There .as not )uch no-elty in the i$ea8 since a nu)7er of such )achines e'iste$ at that ti)e0 To say that these )achines .ere antici(ations of )y rotary transfor)er is .holly unHustifie$0 They )ight ha-e ser-e$ as one of the ele)ents in )y syste) of transfor)ation8 7ut .ere nothing )ore than $yna)os .ith t.o circuits constructe$ .ith other en$s in -ie. an$ in utter ignorance of the ne. an$ .on$erful (heno)ena re-eale$ through )y $isco-ery0
$;$=BA;BA;E The Wonder World to 0e Created 0y -lectricity by Nikola Tesla

/anufacturerCs !ecord
Whoe-er .ishes to get a true a((reciation of the greatness of our age shoul$ stu$y the history of electrical
$e-elo()ent0 There he .ill fin$ a story )ore .on$erful than any tale fro) Ara7ian 1ights0 ,t 7egins long 7efore the Christian era .hen Thales8 Theo(hrastus an$ <liny tell of the )agic (ro(erties of electronKthe (recious su7stance .e call a)7erKthat ca)e fro) the (ure tears of the Helia$es8 sisters of <haeton8 the unfortunate youth .ho atte)(te$ to run the 7laBing chariot of <hoe7us an$ nearly 7urne$ u( the earth0 ,t .as 7ut natural for the -i-i$ i)agination of the Gree2s to ascri7e the )ysterious )anifestations to a hy(er(hysical cause8 to en$o. the a)7er .ith life an$ .ith a soul0 &hether this .as actual 7elief or )erely (oetic inter(retation is still a question0 &hen at this -ery $ay )any of the )ost enlightene$ (eo(le thin2 that the (earl is ali-e8 that it gro.s )ore lustrous an$ 7eautiful in the .ar) contact of the hu)an 7o$y0 >o too8 it is the o(inion of )en of science that a crystal is a li-ing 7eing an$ this -ie. is 7eing e'ten$e$ to e)7race the entire (hysical uni-erse since <rof0 Eaga$is Chun$er 3ose has $e)onstrate$8 in a series of re)ar2a7le e'(eri)ents8 that inani)ate )atter res(on$s to sti)uli as (lant fi7er an$ ani)al tissue0 The su(erstitious 7elief of the ancients8 if it e'iste$ at all8 can therefore not 7e ta2en as a relia7le (roof of their ignorance8 7ut Hust ho. )uch they 2ne. a7out electricity can only 7e conHecture$0 A curious fact is that the ray or tor(e$o fish8 .as use$ 7y the) in electro9thera(y0 >o)e ol$ coins sho. t.in stars8 or s(ar2s8 such as )ight 7e (ro$uce$ 7y a gal-anic 7attery0 The recor$s8 though scanty8 are of a nature to fill us .ith con-iction that a fe. initiate$8 at least8 ha$ a $ee(er 2no.le$ge of a)7er9(heno)ena0 To )ention one8 /oses .as un$ou7te$ly a (ractical an$ s2ilful electrician far in a$-ance of his ti)e0 The 3i7le $escri7es (recisely an$ )inutely arrange)ents constituting a )achine in .hich electricity .as generate$ 7y friction of air against sil2 curtains an$ store$ in a 7o' constructe$ li2e a con$enser0 ,t is -ery (lausi7le to assu)e that the sons of Aaron .ere 2ille$ 7y a high tension $ischarge an$ that the -estal fires of the +o)ans .ere electrical0 The 7elt $ri-e )ust ha-e 7een 2no.n to engineers of that e(och an$ it is $ifficult to see ho. the a7un$ant e-olution of static electricity coul$ ha-e esca(e$ their notice0 Cn$er fa-oura7le at)os(heric con$itions a 7elt )ay 7e transfor)e$ into a $yna)ic generator ca(a7le of (ro$ucing )any stri2ing actions0 , ha-e lighte$ incan$escent la)(s8 o(erate$ )otors an$ (erfor)e$ nu)erous other equally interesting e'(eri)ents .ith electricity $ra.n fro) 7elts an$ store$ in tin cans0 That )any facts in regar$ to the su7tle force .ere 2no.n to the (hiloso(hers of ol$ can 7e safely conclu$e$8 the .on$er is8 .hy t.o thousan$ years ela(se$ 7efore ?&illia) Gil7ert@ in 1%55 (u7lishe$ his fa)ous .or28 the first scientific treatise on electricity an$ )agnetis)0 To an e'tent this long (erio$ of un(ro$ucti-eness can 7e e'(laine$0 #earning .as the (ri-ilege of a fe. an$ all infor)ation .as Healously guar$e$0 Co))unication .as $ifficult an$ slo. an$ a )utual un$erstan$ing 7et.een .i$ely se(arate$ in-estigators har$ to reach0 Then again8 )en of those ti)es ha$ no thought of the (ractical8 they li-e$ an$ fought for a7stract (rinci(les8 cree$s8 tra$itions an$ i$eals0 Hu)anity $i$ not change )uch in Gil7ert's ti)e 7ut his clear teachings ha$ a telling effect on the )in$s of the learne$0 Friction )achines .ere (ro$uce$ in ra(i$ succession an$ e'(eri)ents an$ o7ser-ations )ulti(lie$0 Gra$ually fear an$ su(erstition ga-e .ay to scientific in9sight an$ in 1*64 the .orl$ .as thrille$ .ith the ne.s that :leist an$ #ey$en ha$ succee$e$ in i)(risoning the uncanny agent in a (hial fro) .hich it esca(e$ .ith an angry sna( an$ $estructi-e force0 This .as the 7irth of the con$enser8 (erha(s the )ost )ar-ellous electrical $e-ice e-er in-ente$0 T.o tre)en$ous lea(s .ere )a$e in the succee$ing forty years0 ;ne .as .hen Fran2lin $e)onstrate$ the i$entity 7et.een the gentle soul of a)7er an$ the a.e9ins(iring 7elt of Eu(iterJ the other .hen Gal-any an$ Golta 7rought out the contact an$ che)ical 7attery8 fro) .hich the )agic flui$ coul$ 7e $ra.n in unli)ite$ quantities0 The succee$ing forty years 7ore still greater fruit0 ;erste$ )a$e a significant a$-ance in $eflecting a )agnetic nee$le 7y an electric current8 Arago (ro$uce$ the electro9)agnet8 >ee7ec2 the ther)o9(ile an$ in 18318 as the cro.ning achie-e)ent of all8 Fara$ay announce$ that he ha$ o7taine$ electricity fro) a )agnet8 thus $isco-ering the (rinci(le of that .on$erful engineKthe $yna)o8 an$ inaugurating a ne. era 7oth in scientific research an$ (ractical a((lication0 Fro) that ti)e on in-entions of inesti)a7le -alue ha-e follo.e$ one another at a 7e.il$ering rate0 The telegra(h8 tele(hone8 (honogra(h an$ incan$escent la)(8 the in$uction )otor8 oscillatory transfor)er8 +oentgen ray8 +a$iu)8 .ireless an$ nu)erous other re-olutionary a$-ances ha-e 7een )a$e an$ all con$itions of e'istence eighty9four years .hich ha-e since ela(se$8 the su7tle agents $.elling in the li-ing a)7er an$
loa$stone ha-e 7een transfor)e$ into cyclo(ean forces turning the .heels of hu)an (rogress .ith e-er increasing s(ee$0 This8 in 7rief8 is the fairy tale of electricity fro) Thales to the (resent $ay0 The i)(ossi7le has ha((ene$8 the .il$est $rea)s ha-e 7een sur(asse$ an$ the astoun$e$ .orl$ is as2ingI &hat is co)ing ne'tF *'*CT#:CA' 5OSS:;:':T:*S :N COA' AN% :#ON /any a .oul$97e $isco-erer8 failing in his efforts8 has felt the regret to ha-e 7een 7orn at a ti)e .hen e-erything has 7een alrea$y acco)(lishe$ an$ nothing is left to 7e $one0 This erroneous i)(ression that8 as .e are a$-ancing8 the (ossi7ilities of in-ention are 7eing e'hauste$8 is not unco))on0 ,n reality it is Hust the o((osite0 >(enser has con-eye$ the right i$ea .hen he li2ene$ ci-iliBation to the s(here of light .hich a la)( thro.s out in $ar2ness0 The 7righter the la)( an$ the larger the s(here the greater is its $ar2 7oun$ary0 ,t is (ara$o'ical8 yet true8 to say8 that the )ore .e 2no. the )ore ignorant .e 7eco)e in the a7solute sense8 for it is only through enlighten)ent that .e 7eco)e conscious of our li)itations0 <recisely one of the )ost gratifying results of intellectual e-olution is the continuous o(ening u( of ne. an$ greater (ros(ects0 &e are (rogressing at an a)aBing (ace8 7ut the truth is that8 e-en in fiel$s )ost successfully e'(loite$8 the groun$ has only 7een 7ro2en0 &hat has 7een so far $one 7y electricity is nothing co)(are$ .ith .hat the future has in store0 1ot only this8 7ut there are no. innu)era7le things $one in ol$9fashione$ .ays .hich are )uch inferior in econo)y8 con-enience an$ )any other res(ects to the ne. )etho$0 >o great are the a$-antages of the latter that .hene-er an o((ortunity (resents itself the engineer a$-ises his client to "$o it electrically0" Consi$er8 in illustration8 one of the largest in$ustries8 that of coal0 Fro) this -alua7le )ineral .e chiefly $ra. the sun's store$ energy .hich is require$ to )eet our in$ustrial an$ co))ercial nee$s0 Accor$ing to statistical recor$s8 the out(ut in the Cnite$ >tates $uring the (ast year .as 68585558555 tons0 ,n (erfect engines this fuel .oul$ ha-e 7een sufficient to $e-elo( 45585558555 horse9(o.er stea$ily for one year8 7ut the squan$ering is so rec2less that .e $o not get )ore than 4 (er cent of its heating -alue on the a-erage0 There is an a((alling .aste in )ining8 han$ling8 trans(ortation8 store an$ use of coal8 .hich coul$ 7e -ery )uch re$uce$ through the a$o(tion of a co)(rehensi-e electrical (lan in all these o(erations0 The )ar2et -alue of the yearly (ro$uct .oul$ 7e easily $ou7le$ an$ an i))ense su) a$$e$ to the re-enues of the country0 &hat is )ore8 inferior gra$es8 7illions of tons of .hich are 7eing thro.n a.ay8 )ight 7e turne$ to (rofita7le use0 >i)ilar consi$erations a((ly to natural gas an$ )ineral oil8 the annual loss of .hich a)ounts to hun$re$s of )illions of $ollars0 ,n the -ery near future such .aste .ill 7e loo2e$ u(on as cri)inal an$ the intro$uction of the ne. )etho$s .ill 7e force$ u(on the o.ners of such (ro(erties0 Here8 then8 is an i))ense fiel$ for the use of electricity in )any .ays8 -ast in$ustries .hich are 7oun$ to 7e re-olutioniBe$ through its e'tensi-e a((lication0 To gi-e another e'a)(le8 , )ay refer to the )anufacture of iron an$ steel8 .hich is carrie$ on in this country on a scale truly colossal0 =uring the last year8 not.ithstan$ing unfa-oura7le 7usiness con$itions8 3185558555 tons of steel ha-e 7een (ro$uce$0 ,t .oul$ lea$ too far to $.ell on the (ossi7ilities of electrical i)(ro-e)ents in the )anufacturing (rocesses the)sel-es8 an$ , .ill only in$icate .hat is li2ely to 7e acco)(lishe$ in using the .aste gases fro) the co2e o-ens an$ 7last furnaces to generate electricity for in$ustrial (ur(oses0 >ince in the (ro$uction of (ig9iron for e-ery ton a7out one ton of co2e is e)(loye$8 the yearly consu)(tion of co2e )ay 7e (ut at 3185558555 tons0 The co)7ustion in the 7last furnaces yiel$s8 (er )inute8 *85558555 cu7ic feet of gas of a heating -alue of 115 30 T0 units (er cu7ic foot0 ;f this total8 .ithout )a2ing s(ecial (ro-ision8 685558555 cu7ic feet )ay 7e )a$e a-aila7le for (o.er (ur(oses0 ,f all the heat energy of this gas coul$ 7e transfor)e$ into )echanical effort8 it .oul$ $e-elo( 1583898555 horse9(o.er0 This result is i)(ossi7le8 7ut it is (erfectly (ractica7le to o7tain !84558555 horse9(o.er electrical energy at the ter)inals of the $yna)os0 ,n the )anufacture of co2e a((ro'i)ately 9655 cu7ic feet of gas are e-ol-e$ (er ton of coal0 This gas is e'cellent for (o.er (ur(oses8 ha-ing an a-erage heating -alue of %55 30 T0 units8 7ut -ery little is no. use$ in engines8 largely 7ecause of their great cost an$ other i)(erfections0 A ton of co2e requires a7out 103! tons of A)erican coalJ hence the total coal consu)(tion (er annu) on the a7o-e 7asis is nearly 6185558555 tons8 .hich gi-e8 (er )inute8 *338555 cu7ic feet of gas0 Assu)ing the yiel$ of sur(lus or rich gas to 7e 3338555 cu7ic feet8 the 7alance of 6558555 cu7ic feet coul$ 7e use$ in gas engines0 The heat contents .oul$ 7e8 theoretically8 sufficient to $e-elo( 48%%58555 horse9(o.er8 of .hich 184558555 horse9(o.er coul$ 7e o7taine$ in the for) of electric energy0 , ha-e $e-ote$ )uch thought to this in$ustrial (ro(osition8 an$ fin$ that .ith ne.8 efficient8 e'tre)ely chea( an$ si)(le ther)o9$yna)ic transfor)ers not less than 685558555 horse9(o.er coul$ 7e $e-elo(e$ in electric generators 7y utiliBing the heat of these gases8 .hich8 if not entirely .aste$8 are only in (art an$ inefficiently e)(loye$0
&ith syste)atic i)(ro-e)ents an$ refine)ents )uch 7etter results coul$ 7e secure$ an$ an annual re-enue of ^4585558555 or )ore $eri-e$0 The electrical energy coul$ 7e a$-antageously use$ in the fi'ation of at)os(heric nitrogen an$ (ro$uction of fertiliBers8 for .hich there is an unli)ite$ $e)an$ an$ the )anufacture of .hich is restricte$ here on account of the high cost of (o.er0 , e'(ect confi$ently the (ractical realiBation of the (roHect in the -ery near future8 an$ loo2 to e'ce(tionally ra(i$ electrical $e-elo()ent in this $irection0 0@%#O-*'*CT#:C %*6*'O5M*NT &ater9(o.er offers great o((ortunities for no-el electrical a((lications8 (articularly in the $e(art)ent of electro9 che)istry0 The harness of .aterfalls is the )ost econo)ical )etho$ 2no.n for $ra.ing energy fro) the sun0 This is $ue to the fact that 7oth .ater an$ electricity are inco)(ressi7le0 The net efficiency of the hy$ro9electric (rocess can 7e as high as 84 (er cent0 The initial outlay is generally great8 7ut the cost of )aintenance is s)all an$ the con-enience offere$ i$eal0 /y alternating syste) is in-aria7ly e)(loye$ 8 an$ so far a7out *85558555 horse9(o.er ha-e 7een $e-elo(e$0 As generally use$ .e $o not get )ore than si'9hun$re$ths of a horse9(o.er (er ton of coal (er year0 This "ater energy is therefore e)uivalent to that obtainable from an annual su**ly of 1?=+===+=== tons of coal+ "hich is about ?K *er cent of the total out*ut in the Dnited &tates. The esti)ate is conser-ati-e8 an$ in -ie. of the i))ense .aste of coal 45 (er cent )ay 7e a closer guess0 &e get 7etter a((reciation of the tre)en$ous -alue of this (o.er in our econo)ic $e-elo()ent .hen .e re)e)7er that8 unli2e fuel8 .hich $e)an$s a terri7le sacrifice of hu)an energy an$ is consu)e$8 it is su((lie$ .ithout effort an$ $estruction of )aterial an$ equals the )echanical (erfor)ance of 14585558555 )enKone an$ one9half ti)es the entire (o(ulation of this country0 These figures are i)(osingJ ne-ertheless8 .e ha-e only 7egun the e'(loitation of this -ast national resource0 There are t.o chief li)itations at (resentKone in the a-aila7ility of the energy8 the other in its trans)ission to $istance0 The theoretical (o.er of the falling .ater is enor)ous0 ,f .e assu)e for the rain clou$s an a-erage height of 148555 feet an$ annual (reci(itation of 33 inches8 the !6 horse9(o.er (er square )ile is o-er 65558 an$ for the .hole area in the Cnite$ >tates )ore than 1!855585558555 horse9(o.er0 As a )atter of fact8 the larger (ortion of the (otential energy is use$ u( in air friction0 This8 .hile $isa((ointing to the econo)ist8 is a fortunate circu)stance8 for other.ise the $ro(s .oul$ reach the groun$ .ith a s(ee$ of 855 feet (er secon$K sufficient to raise 7listers on our 7o$ies8 .hile hail .oul$ 7e (ositi-ely $ea$ly0 /ost of the .ater8 .hich is a-aila7le for (o.er (ur(oses co)es fro) a height of a7out !555 feet an$ re(resents o-er one an$ one9half 7illion horse9(o.er8 7ut .e are only a7le to use an a-erage fall of8 say8 155 feet8 .hich )eans that if all the .ater9(o.er in this country .ere harnesse$ un$er the e'isting con$itions only 8585558555 horse9(o.er coul$ 7e o7taine$0 T0* N* T B#*AT AC0:*6*M*NTA*'*CT#:CA' CONT#O' O7 ATMOS50*#:C MO:ST=#* 4ut the time is very near "hen "e shall have the *reci*itation of the moisture of the atmos*here under com*lete control+ and then it "ill be *ossible to dra" unlimited )uantities of "ater from the oceans+ develo* any desired amount of energy+ and com*letely transform the globe by irrigation and intensive farming. A greater achie-e)ent of )an through the )e$iu) of electricity can har$ly 7e i)agine$0 The (resent li)itations in the trans)ission of (o.er to $istance .ill 7e o-erco)e in t.o .aysKthrough the a$o(tion of un$ergroun$ con$uctors insulate$ 7y (o.er8 an$ through the intro$uction of the .ireless art0 The first (lan , ha-e a$-ance$ years ago0 The un$erlying (rinci(le is to con-ey through a tu7ular con$uctor hy$rogen at a -ery lo. te)(erature8 freeBe the surroun$ing )aterial an$ thus secure a (erfect insulation 7y in$irect use of electric energy0 ,n this )anner the (o.er $eri-e$ fro) falls can 7e trans)itte$ to $istances of hun$re$s of )iles .ith the highest econo)y an$ at a s)all cost0 This inno-ation is sure to greatly e'ten$ the fiel$s of electrical a((lication0 As to the .ireless )etho$8 .e ha-e no. the )eans for econo)ic trans)ission of energy in any $esire$ a)ount an$ to $istances only li)ite$ 7y the $i)ensions of this (lanet0 ,n -ie. of assertions of so)e )isinfor)e$ e'(erts to the effect that in the .ireless syste) , ha-e (erfecte$ the (o.er of the trans)itter is $issi(ate$ in all $irections8 , .ish to 7e e)(hatic in )y state)ent that such is not the case0 The energy goes only to the (lace .here it is nee$e$ an$ to no other0 &hen these a$-ance$ i$eas are (ractically realiBe$ .e shall get the full 7enefit of .ater9(o.er8 an$ it .ill 7eco)e our chief $e(en$ence in the su((ly of electricity for $o)estic8 (u7lic an$ other uses in the arts of (eace an$ .ar0
*CONOM@ :N ':B0T AN% 5OF*#A*'*CT#:C 5#O5='S:ON ,n the great $e(art)ents of electric light an$ (o.er i))ense o((ortunities are offere$ through the intro$uction of all 2in$s of no-el $e-ices .hich can 7e attache$ to the circuits at con-enient hours for the (ur(ose of equaliBing the loa$s an$ increasing the re-enues fro) the (lants0 , ha-e )yself 2no.le$ge of a nu)7er of ne. a((liances of this 2in$0 The )ost i)(ortant a)ong the) is (ro7a7ly an electrical ice )achine .hich o7-iates entirely the use of $angerous an$ other.ise o7Hectiona7le che)icals0 The ne. )achine .ill also require a7solutely no attention an$ .ill 7e e'tre)ely econo)ical in o(eration8 so that the refrigeration .ill 7e effecte$ -ery chea(ly an$ con-eniently in e-ery househol$0 An interesting fountain8 electrically o(erate$8 has 7een 7rought out .hich is li2ely to 7e e'tensi-ely intro$uce$8 an$ .ill affor$ an unusual an$ (leasing sight in squares8 (ar2s8 hotels an$ resi$ences0 Coo2ing $e-ices for all $o)estic (ur(ose$ are 7eing (ro-i$es8 an$ there is great $e)an$ for (ractical $esigns an$ suggestions in this fiel$0 The sa)e )ay 7e state$ of electric signs an$ other attracti-e )eans of a$-ertising .hich can 7e electrically o(erate$0 >o)e of the effects .hich it is (ossi7le to (ro$uce 7y electric currents are .on$erful an$ len$ the)sel-es to e'hi7itions8 an$ there is no $ou7t that )uch can 7e $one in that $irection0 Theaters8 (u7lic halls an$ (ri-ate $.ellings are in nee$ of a great )any $e-ices an$ instru)ents for con-enience an$ offer a)(le o((ortunities to an ingenious an$ (ractical in-entor0 A -ast an$ a7solutely untouche$ fiel$ is the use of electricity for the (ro(ulsion of shi(s0 The lea$ing electrical co)(any in this country has Hust equi((e$ a large -essel .ith high9s(ee$ tur7ines an$ electric )otors an$ has achie-e$ a signal success0 A((lications of this 2in$ .ill )ulti(ly at a ra(i$ rate8 for the a$-antages of the electrical $ri-e are no. (atent to e-ery7o$y0 ,n this connection gyrosco(ic a((aratus .ill (ro7a7ly (lay an i)(ortant (art8 as its general a$o(tion on -essels is sure to co)e0 Gery little has yet 7een $one in the intro$uction of electrical $ri-e in the -arious 7ranches of in$ustry an$ )anufacture8 an$ the (ros(ects are unli)ite$0 A 7*F O7 T0* FON%*#S TO COM* 3oo2s ha-e alrea$y 7een .ritten on the agricultural uses of electricity8 7ut the fact is that har$ly anything has 7een (ractically $one0 The 7eneficial effects of electricity of high tension ha-e 7een un)ista2a7ly esta7lishe$8 an$ a re-olution .ill 7e 7rought a7out through the e'tensi-e a$o(tion of agricultural electrical a((aratus0 The safeguarding of forests against fires+ the destruction of microbes+ insects and rodents "ill+ in due course+ be accom*lished by electrical means. ,n the near future .e shall see a great )any ne. uses of electricity ai)ing at safety8 (articularly -essels at sea0 &e shall ha-e electrical instru)ents for (re-enting collisions8 an$ .e shall e-en 7e a7le to $is(erse fogs 7y electric force an$ (o.erful an$ (enetrati-e rays0 , a) ho(eful that .ithin the ne't fe. years .ireless (lants .ill 7e installe$ for the (ur(ose of illu)inating the oceans0 The (roHect is (erfectly feasi7le8 an$ if carrie$ out .ill contri7ute )ore than any other (ro-ision to the safety of (ro(erty an$ hu)an li-es at sea0 The sa)e (lant coul$ also (ro$uce stationary electrical .a-es an$ ena7le -essels to get at any ti)e accurate 7earings an$ other -alua7le (ractical $ata .ithout resorting to the (resent )eans0 ,t coul$ also 7e use$ for ti)e signalling an$ )any other (ur(oses of si)ilar nature0 "lectrothera(y is another great fiel$ in .hich there are unli)ite$ (ossi7ilities for electrical a((lications0 High9 frequency currents es(ecially ha-e a great future0 The ti)e .ill co)e .hen this for) of electrical energy .ill 7e a-aila7le in e-ery (ri-ate resi$ence0 , consi$er it quite (ossi7le that through their surface actions .e )ay $o a.ay .ith the custo)ary 7ath8 as the cleaning of the 7o$y can 7e instantaneously effecte$ si)(ly 7y connecting it to a source of currents or electric energy of -ery high (otential8 .hich results in the thro.ing off of $ust or any s)all (articles a$hering to the s2in0 >uch a $ry 7ath8 7esi$es 7eing con-enient an$ ti)e9sa-ing8 .oul$ also 7e of 7eneficial thera(eutic influence0 1e. electric $e-ices for use of the $eaf an$ 7lin$ are co)ing an$ .ill 7e a 7lessing to the afflicte$0 ,n the (re-ention of cri)e electrical instru)ents .ill soon 7eco)e an i)(ortant factor0 ,n court (rocee$ings electric e-i$ence .ill often 7e $ecisi-e0 In a time not distant it "ill be *ossible to flash any image formed in thought on a screen and render it visible at any *lace desired. The (erfection of this )eans of rea$ing thought .ill create a re-olution for the 7etter in all our social relations0 Cnfortunately8 it is true8 that cunning la.7rea2ers .ill a-ail the)sel-es of such a$-antages to further their nefarious 7usiness0
T*'*B#A50:C 50OTOB#A50@ AN% OT0*# A%6ANC*S Great i)(ro-e)ents are still (ossi7le in telegra(hy an$ tele(hony0 The use of a ne. recei-ing $e-ice .hich .ill 7e shortly $escri7e$8 an$ the sensiti-eness of .hich can 7e increase$ al)ost .ithout li)it8 .ill ena7le tele(honing through aerial lines or ca7les ho.e-er long 7y re$ucing the necessary .or2ing current to an infinitesi)al -alue0 This in-ention .ill $is(ense .ith the necessity of resorting to e'(ensi-e constructions8 .hich8 ho.e-er8 are of circu)scri7e$ usefulness0 ,t .ill also enor)ously e'ten$ the .ireless trans)ission of intelligence in all its $e(art)ents0 The ne't art to 7e inaugurate$ is that of (icture trans)ission 7y or$inary telegra(hic )etho$s an$ e'isting a((aratus0 This i$ea of telegra(hing or tele(honing (ictures is ol$8 7ut (ractical $ifficulties ha-e ha)(ere$ co))ercial realiBations0 A nu)7er of i)(ro-e)ents of great (ro)ise ha-e 7een )a$e8 an$ there is e-ery reason to e'(ect that success .ill soon 7e achie-e$0 Another valuable novelty "ill be a ty*e"riter electrically o*erated by the human voice. This a$-ance .ill fill a long9felt .ant8 as it .ill $o a.ay .ith the o(erator an$ sa-e a great $eal of la7our an$ ti)e in offices0 A ne. an$ e'tre)ely si)(le electric tacho)eter is 7eing (re(are$ for the )ar2et8 an$ it is e'(ecte$ that it .ill (ro-e useful in (o.er (lants an$ central stations8 on 7oats8 loco)oti-es an$ auto)o7iles0 /any )unici(al i)(ro-e)ents 7ase$ on the use of electricity are a7out to 7e intro$uce$0 #e have soon to have every"here smoke annihilators+ dust absorbers+ o;oni;ers+ sterili;ers of "ater+ air+ food and clothing+ and accident *reventers on streets+ elevated roads and in sub"ays. It "ill become next to im*ossible to contract disease germs or get hurt in the city+ and country folk "ill got to to"n to rest and get "ell. *'*CT#:C :N6*NT:ONS :N FA# The (resent international conflict is a (o.erful sti)ulus to in-ention of $e-ices an$ i)(le)ents of .arfare0 An electric gun .ill soon 7e 7rought out0 The .on$er is that it .as not (ro$uce$ long ago0 =irigi7les an$ aero(lanes .ill 7e equi((e$ .ith s)all electric generators of high tension8 fro) .hich the $ea$ly currents .ill 7e con-eye$ through the .ires to the groun$0 3attleshi(s an$ su7)arines .ill 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith electric an$ )agnetic feelers so $elicate that the a((roach of any 7o$y un$er.ater or in $ar2ness .ill 7e $etecte$0 Tor(e$oes an$ floating )ines are al)ost in sight .hich .ill $irect the)sel-es auto)atically an$ .ithout fail get in fatal contact .ith the o7Hect to 7e $estroye$0 The art of telauto)atics8 or .ireless control of auto)atic )achines at a $istance8 .ill (lay a -ery i)(ortant (art in future .ars an$8 (ossi7ly8 in the ne't (hases of the (resent one0 >uch contri-ances .hich act as if en$o.e$ .ith intelligence .ill 7e use$ in innu)era7le .ays for attac2 as .ell as $efence0 They )ay ta2e the sha(e of aero(lanes8 7alloons8 auto)o7iles8 surface or un$er9.ater 7oats8 or any other for) accor$ing to the require)ent in each s(ecial case8 an$ .ill 7e of greater range an$ $estructi-eness than the i)(le)ents no. e)(loye$0 I believe that the telautomatic aerial tor*edo "ill make the large siege gun+ on "hich so much de*endence is *laced at *resent+ obsolete. A -olu)e )ight 7e fille$ .ith such suggestions .ithout e'hausting the (ossi7ilities0 The a$-ance e-en un$er the con$itions e'isting is ra(i$ enough8 7ut .hen the .ireless trans)ission of energy for general use 7eco)es a (ractical fact the hu)an (rogress .ill assu)e the character of a hurricane0 >o all9sur(assing is the i)(ortance of this )ar-ellous art to the future e'istence an$ .elfare of the hu)an race that e-ery enlightene$ (erson shoul$ ha-e a clear i$ea of the chief factors 7earing on its $e-elo()ent0 T0* 5OF*# O7 T0* 7=T=#* &e ha-e at our $is(osal three )ain sources of life9sustaining energyKfuel8 .ater9(o.er an$ the heat of the sun's rays0 "ngineers often s(ea2 of harnessing the ti$es8 7ut the $iscouraging truth is that the ti$e.ater o-er one acre of groun$ .ill8 on the a-erage8 $e-elo( only one horse9(o.er0 Thousan$s of )echanics an$ in-entors ha-e s(ent their 7est efforts in trying to (erfect .a-e )otors8 not realiBing that the (o.er so o7taine$ coul$ ne-er co)(ete .ith that $eri-e$ fro) other sources0 The force of .in$ offers )uch 7etter chances an$ is -alua7le in s(ecial instances8 7ut is 7y far ina$equate0 /oreo-er8 the ti$es8 .a-es an$ .in$s furnish only (erio$ic an$ often uncertain (o.er an$ necessitate the e)(loy)ent of large an$ e'(ensi-e storage (lants0 ;f course8 there are other (ossi7ilities8 7ut they are re)ote8 an$ .e )ust $e(en$ on the first of three resources0 ,f .e use fuel to get our (o.er8 .e are li-ing on our ca(ital an$ e'hausting it ra(i$ly0 This )etho$ is 7ar7arous an$ .antonly .asteful8 an$ .ill ha-e to 7e sto((e$ in the interest of co)ing generations0 The heat of the sun's rays re(resents an i))ense a)ount of energy -astly in e'cess of .ater9(o.er0 The earth recei-es an equi-alent of 83 foot9(oun$s (er secon$ for each square foot on .hich the rays fall (er(en$icularly0 Fro) si)(le geo)etrical
rules a((lying to a s(herical 7o$y it follo.s that the )ean rate (er square foot of the earth's surface is one9 quarter of that8 or !5 3/6 foot9(oun$s0 This is to say o-er one )illion horse9(o.er (er square )ile8 or !45 ti)es the .ater9(o.er for the sa)e area0 3ut that is only true in theoryJ the (ractical facts (ut this in a $ifferent as(ect0 For instance8 consi$ering the Cnite$ >tates8 an$ ta2ing into account the )ean latitu$e8 the $aily -ariation8 the $iurnal changes8 the seasonal -ariations an$ casual changes8 this (o.er of the sun's rays re$uces to a7out one9 tenth8 or 1558555 horse9(o.er (er square )ile8 of .hich .e )ight 7e a7le to reco-er in high9s(ee$ lo.9(ressure tur7ines 158555 horse9(o.er0 To $o this .oul$ )ean the instal)ent of a((aratus an$ storage (lants so large an$ e'(ensi-e that such a (roHect is 7eyon$ the (ale of the (ractical0 The ine-ita7le conclusion is that .ater9(o.er is 7y far our )ost -alua7le resource0 ;n this hu)anity )ust 7uil$ its ho(es for the future0 &ith its full $e-elo()ent an$ a (erfect syste) of .ireless trans)ission of the energy to any $istance )an .ill 7e a7le to sol-e all the (ro7le)s of )aterial e'istence0 =istance8 .hich is the chief i)(e$i)ent to hu)an (rogress8 .ill 7e co)(letely annihilate$ in thought8 .or$ an$ action0 Hu)anity .ill 7e unite$8 .ars .ill 7e )a$e i)(ossi7le an$ (eace .ill reign su(re)e0
1-15-10-09: Ni.ola Tesla Sees A Fireless 6ision by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times Thinks (is A#orld &ystemA #ill Allo" (undreds To Talk At 'nce Through The Earth. Ends &tatic Disturbance. Inventor (o*es Also To Transmit 3ictures 4y The &ame /edium #hich 2arries The Boice.
*i2ola Tesla announce$ to The Times last night that he ha$ recei-e$ a (atent on an in-ention .hich .oul$ not
only eli)inate static interference8 the (resent 7uga7oo of .ireless tele(hony8 7ut .oul$ ena7le thousan$s of (ersons to tal2 at once 7et.een .ireless stations an$ )a2e it (ossi7le for those tal2ing to see one another 7y .ireless8 regar$less of the $istance se(arating the)0 He sai$ also that .ith his .ireless station no. in the (rocess of construction on #ong ,slan$ he ho(e$ to )a2e 1e. Dor2 one of the central e'changes in a .orl$ syste) of .ireless tele(hony0 /r0 Tesla has 7een .or2ing on .ireless (ro7le)s for )any years0 Dester$ay he e'hi7ite$ an article (u7lishe$ in the "lectrical &orl$ ele-en years ago8 in .hich he (re$icte$ not only .ireless tele(hony on a co))ercial 7asis 7ut that it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le to i$entify the -oice of an acquaintance o-er any $istance0 That its o(erator in Ha.aii .as a7le to $istinguish the -oice of an engineer frien$ at Arlington8 Ga08 .as announce$ 7y the A)erican Tele(hone an$ Telegra(h Co)(any as the )ost )ar2e$ triu)(h of its co))unication 7y .ireless tele(hone fro) the na-al ra$io station at Arlington to <earl Har7or8 Ha.aii8 a $istance of 68555 )iles0 The in-entor8 .ho has .on fa)e 7y his electrical in-entions8 $ictate$ this state)ent yester$ay0 "The e'(erts carrying out this 7rilliant e'(eri)ent are naturally $eser-ing of great cre$it for the s2ill they ha-e sho.n in (erfecting the $e-ices0 These are of t.o 2in$sI First8 those ser-ing to control trans)ission8 an$8 secon$8 those )agnifying the recei-e$ i)(ulse0 That the control of trans)ission is (erfect is (lain to e'(erts fro) the fact the Arlington8 /are ,slan$8 an$ <earl Har7or (lants are all inefficient an$ that the $istance of tele(honic trans)ission is equal to that of telegra(hic trans)ission0 ,t is also (erfectly a((arent that the chief )erit of the a((lication lies in the )agnification of the )icro(honic i)(ulse0 ,t )ust not 7e i)agine$ that .e $eal here .ith ne. $isco-eries0 The i)(ro-e)ent si)(ly concerns the control of the trans)itte$ an$ the )agnification of the recei-e$ i)(ulse8 7ut the .ireless 'syste) is the sa)e0 This can ne-er 7e change$0 "That it is (ractica7le to (roHect the hu)an -oice not only to a $istance of 48555 )iles8 7ut clear across the glo7e8 , $e)onstrate$ 7y e'(eri)ents in Colora$o in 18990 A)ong )y (u7lications , .oul$ refer to an article in the Electrical #orld of /arch 48 19568 7ut $escri7ing really tests , )a$e in 18990 The facts .hich , (ointe$ out in the article .ere of )uch greater significance than that of the e'(eri)ents re(orte$8 although this shoul$ 7e ta2en in a scientific sense8 as the e'(eri)ents .ere si)(ly scientific $e)onstrations0 , (ointe$ out then that the )o$ulations of the hu)an -oice can 7e re(ro$uce$ )ore clearly through the earth than through .ire0 ,t is $ifficult for the lay)an to un$erstan$8 7ut it is an a7solute fact that trans)ission through the earth .ith the (ro(er a((aratus is not )ore $ifficult than the sen$ing of a )essage on a .ire strung across a roo)0 This .on$erful (ro(erty of the (lanet8 that8 electrically s(ea2ing8 is through its -ery 7igness8 s)all8 is of incalcula7le significance for the future of )an2in$0 "These tests )a$e 7et.een &ashington an$ Honolulu .ill act as an i))ense sti)ulus to .ireless tele(hony an$ .oul$ 7e of )uch )ore -alue to the .orl$ if the (rinci(les of the trans)ission .ere un$erstoo$0 3ut they are not0 "-en no.8 fifteen years after the fun$a)ental (rinci(les ha-e 7een $e)onstrate$ an$ the (ossi7ilities sho.n8 there are )any e'(erts in the $ar20 "For instance8 it is clai)e$ that static $istur7ances .ill fatally interfere .ith the trans)ission8 .hile8 as a )atter of fact8 there is no static $istur7ance (ossi7le in (ro(erly $esigne$ trans)ission an$ recei-ing circuits0 Auite recently , ha-e $escri7e$ in a (atent8 circuits .hich are a7solutely i))une to static an$ other interferences Qso )uch so that .hen a tele(hone is attache$8 there is a7solute silence8 e-en lightning in the i))e$iate -icinity not (ro$ucing a clic2 of the $ia(hrag)8 .hile 'in the or$inary tele(honic con-ersation there are all 2in$s of noises0 Trans)ission .ithout static interference has )any .on$erful (ro(erties8 7esi$es8 first of .hich is that unli)ite$ a)ounts of (o.er can 7e trans)itte$ .ith -ery s)all loss0 "Another contention is that there can 7e no secrecy in .ireless tele(hone con-ersation0 , say it is a7sur$ to raise this contention .hen it is (ositi-ely $e)onstrate$ 7y e'(eri)ents that the earth is )ore suita7le for trans)ission
than any .ire coul$ e-er 7e0 A .ireless tele(hone con-ersation can 7e )a$e as secret as thought0 ", ha-e )yself erecte$ a (lant for the (ur(ose of connecting 7y .ireless tele(hone the chief centres of the .orl$8 an$ fro) this (lant as )any as a hun$re$ .ill 7e a7le to tal2 a7solutely .ithout interference an$ .ith a7solute secrecy0 This (lant .oul$ si)(ly 7e connecte$ .ith the tele(hone central e'change of 1e. Dor2 City8 an$ any su7scri7er .ill 7e a7le to tal2 to any other tele(hone su7scri7er in the .orl$8 an$ all this .ithout any change in his a((aratus0 This (lan has 7een calle$ )y ".orl$ syste)0" 3y the sa)e )eans , (ro(ose also to trans)it (ictures an$ (roHect i)ages8 so that the su7scri7er .ill not only hear the -oice8 7ut see the (erson to .ho) he is tal2ing0 <ictures trans)itte$ o-er .ires is a (erfectly si)(le art (ractise$ to$ay0 /any in-entors ha-e la7oure$ on it8 7ut the chief cre$it is $ue <rofessor :orn of /unich0 "His a((aratus can 7e attache$ to a .ireless (lant an$ at any other .ireless (lant can 7e re(ro$uce$0 , ha-e un$erta2en this in the ho(e of esta7lishing a ser-ice .hich .oul$ greatly facilitate the .or2 of the (ress0 A (icture coul$ 7e sent fro) a 7attlefiel$ in "uro(e to 1e. Dor2 in fi-e )inutes if the (ro(er instru)ents .ere a-aila7le0 "A further a$-antage .oul$ 7e that trans)ission is instant an$ free of the una-oi$a7le $elay e'(erience$ .ith the use of .ires an$ ca7les0 As , ha-e alrea$y )a$e 2no.n8 the current (asses through the earth8 starting fro) the trans)ission station .ith infinite s(ee$8 slo.ing $o.n to the s(ee$ of light at a $istance of %8555 )iles8 then increasing in s(ee$ fro) that region an$ reaching the recei-ing station again .ith infinite -elocity0 ",t's all a .on$erful thing0 &ireless is co)ing to )an2in$ in its full )eaning li2e a hurricane so)e of these $ays0 >o)e $ay there .ill 7e8 say8 si' great .ireless tele(hone stations in a .orl$ syste) connecting all the inha7itants on this earth to one another8 not only 7y -oice8 7ut 7y sight0 ,t's surely co)ing0
1-15-10-0/: CO##*CT:ON ;@ M#& T*S'A Of Fireless A$$aratus 0e meant to Say >:neffe(tiEe)> not >:neffi(ient&> Ne" -ork Times8 (0 68 col0 3 The Ti)es recei-e$ last night fro) 1i2ola Tesla a letter saying the in-entor .ishe$ to correct a state)ent in his forecast of the (ossi7ilities of .ireless8 (u7lishe$ in the Ti)es of yester$ay )orning8 .hen he .as quote$ as saying that the a((aratus use$ 7y the A)erican Tele(hone an$ Telegra(h Co0 to tal2 fro) Arlington to Ha.aii .as "inefficient0" The in-entor .rote that he .ishe$ to say that the a((aratus .as "ineffecti-e0" "Although , can guess the character of the a((aratus .hich .as e)(loye$ in (roHecting the hu)an -oice through 68%55 )iles of s(ace8" /r0 Tesla .rote8 ", a) una7le to Hu$ge of its efficiency8 7ut fro) the technical (articulars a-aila7le , 2no. that the (lants are ineffecti-e8 inas)uch as they .oul$ ha-e furnishe$ currents of )uch greater -olu)e an$ tension ha$ they 7een $ifferently $esigne$0 ,nci$entally8 they .oul$ then ha-e 7een i))une against static $istur7ances8 unfailing in their o(eration an$ a$a(te$ to secure secrecy of )essages0 ",n calling attention to this fact , ha-e )eant to gi-e testi)ony to the e'cellence of the )eans of control an$ )agnification resorte$ to 7y the e'(eri)enters0 Ha$ the sa)e $e-ices 7een use$ in connection .ith (lants $esigne$ for )a'i)u) effect the results .oul$ ha-e 7een such as to cause a )ost (rofoun$ sensation an$ to stir great co))ercial interests all the .orl$ o-er8 (erha(s to the (oint of (o.erfully affecting an$ hastening the finish of the a.ful struggle in .hich nations of the earth are no. engage$0"
1-15-1"-08: Tesla2s New %eEi(e 'i.e ;olts of T,or 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times He >ee2s to <atent &ireless "ngine for =estroying 1a-ies 7y <ulling a #e-er0 To >hatter Ar)ies Also0 ",)(ractical8" He says of &esterner's <lan to Circle Country .ith "lectric Fire0 *i2ola Tesla8 the in-entor8 .inner of the 1914 1o7el <hysics <riBe8 has file$ (atent a((lications on the essential (arts of a )achine the (ossi7ilities of .hich test a lay)an's i)agination an$ (ro)ise a (arallel of Thor's shouting thun$er7olts fro) the s2y to (unish those .ho angere$ the go$s0 =r0 Tesla insists there is nothing sensational a7out it8 that it is 7ut the fruition of )any years of .or2 an$ stu$y0 He is not yet rea$y to gi-e the $etails of the engine .hich he says .ill ren$er fruitless any )ilitary e'(e$ition against a country .hich (ossesses it0 >uffice to say that the $estructi-e in-ention .ill go through s(ace .ith a s(ee$ of 355 )iles a secon$8 an$ )anless airshi( .ithout (ro(elling engine or .ings8 sent 7y electricity to any $esire$ (oint on the glo7e on its erran$ of $estruction8 if $estruction its )ani(ulator .ishes to effect0 Ten )iles or a thousan$ )iles8 it .ill 7e all the sa)e to the )achine8 the in-entor says0 >traight to the (oint8 on lan$ or on sea8 it .ill 7e a7le to go .ith (recision8 $eli-ering a 7lo. that .ill (aralyBe or 2ill8 as is $esire$0 A )an in a to.er on #ong ,slan$ coul$ shiel$ 1e. Dor2 against shi(s or ar)y 7y .or2ing a le-er8 if the in-entor's antici(ations 7eco)e realiBations0 ",t is not the ti)e8" sai$ =r0 Tesla yester$ay8 "to go into the $etails of this thing0 ,t is foun$e$ on a (rinci(le that )eans great things in (eace8 it can 7e use$ for great things in .ar0 3ut , re(eat8 this is no ti)e to tal2 of such things0" ",t is (erfectly (ractica7le to trans)it electrical energy .ithout .ires an$ (ro$uce $estructi-e effects at a $istance0 , ha-e alrea$y constructe$ a .ireless trans)itter .hich )a2es this (ossi7le8 an$ ha-e $escri7e$ it in )y technical (u7lications8 a)ong .hich , )ay refer to )y (atent 181198*3! ! recently grante$0 &ith trans)itters of this 2in$ .e are ena7le$ to (roHect electrical energy in any a)ount to any $istance an$ a((ly it for innu)era7le (ur(oses8 7oth in (eace an$ .ar0 Through the uni-ersal a$o(tion of this syste)8 i$eal con$itions for the )aintenance of la. an$ or$er .ill 7e realiBe$8 for then the energy necessary to the enforce)ent of right an$ Hustice .ill 7e nor)ally (ro$ucti-e8 yet (otential8 an$ in any )o)ent a-aila7le8 for attac2 an$ $efence0 The (o.er trans)itte$ nee$ not 7e necessarily $estructi-e8 for8 if e'istence is )a$e to $e(en$ u(on it8 its .ith$ra.al or su((ly .ill 7ring a7out the sa)e results as those no. acco)(lishe$ 7y force of ar)s0 "3ut .hen una-oi$a7le8 the sa)e agent )ay 7e use$ to $estroy (ro(erty an$ life0 The art is alrea$y so far $e-elo(e$ that great $estructi-e effects can 7e (ro$uce$ at any (oint on the glo7e8 $eter)ine$ 7eforehan$ an$ .ith great accuracy0 ,n -ie. of this , ha-e not thought it haBar$ous to (re$ict a fe. years ago that the .ars of the future .ill not 7e .age$ .ith e'(losi-es 7ut .ith electrical )eans0" =r0 Tesla then sai$ that it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le .ith his .ireless )echanis) to $irect an or$inary aero(lane8 )anless8 to any (oint o-er a shi( or an ar)y8 an$ to $ischarge e'(losi-es of great strength fro) the 7ase of o(erations0 As2e$ to e'(ress an o(inion u(on the announce)ent last >un$ay of Charles H0 Harris8 an$ electrical engineer of #os Angeles8 that he .oul$ 7e a7le to surroun$ this country .ith an electrical .all of fire in ti)e of .ar8 =r0 Tesla ga-e it as his o(inion that /r0 Harris .as not (ractical0 ",t is har$ to sta)( as i)(ossi7le such results as those $escri7e$ in the (ress $is(atches to .hich you refer0 Grante$8 ho.e-er8 that the (roHect is feasi7le8 it .oul$ ta2e )ore than all the )oti-e (o.er o7taina7le in the Cnite$ >tates to thro. a .all of fire aroun$ the country0 ,n fact8 e-en the (assage of s)all currents at consi$era7le $istances through air consu)es a great $eal of energy on account of the i))ense (ressure require$0 >o8 for instance8 in lightening $ischarges8 energy )ay 7e $eli-ere$ at the rate$ of 7illions of horse(o.er8 though the currents are of s)aller -olu)e than those $e-elo(e$ 7y electrical generators in our (o.er houses0" ! A<<A+ATC> F;+ T+A1>/,TT,1G "#"CT+,CA# "1"+GD8 1o0 181198*3!8 =ec0 18 1916
1-16-00-00: 5re-0earing :nterEiew& 5refa(e

The surfacing of the transcri(t for this (re9hearing inter-ie. .ith 1i2ola Tesla 7y his legal counsel in 191% resulte$ fro) an intensi-e search in archi-es of legal fir)s8 so)e no. $efunct an$ others later acquire$ 7y conte)(orary interests0The inter-ie. .as (reci(itate$ 7y nu)erous (en$ing court cases as the fle$gling ra$io in$ustry entere$ a (erio$ of fierce co)(etition0 Tesla's counsel 7elie-e$ the inter-ie. necessary not only in or$er to (re(are for the (ressing of his o.n clai)s against the /arconi Co)(any8 7ut also to (rotect his o.n (atent interests .hen calle$ to gi-e e'(ert9.itness testi)ony in the u(co)ing litigation foray (itting as a$-ersaries a (lethora of ne. co))unication co)(anies an$ their ca(ti-e ra$io (ioneers0 A case (ro)(ting this inter-ie.8 one of $oBens to reach Hu$icial re-ie.8 .as "/arconi &ireless Telegra(h Co)(any of A)erica -0Atlantic Co))unication Co)(any8 et al0" Atlantic o.ne$ an$ o(erate$ the large ra$io station at >ay-ille8 #ong ,slan$0 The (rocee$ings o(ene$ in 1914 .ith the calling of e'(ert .itnesses inclu$ing Fer$inan$ 3raun an$ 1i2ola Tesla0 The s(ecter of .ar ha$ cast its sha$o. o-er "uro(e8 an$ Count George -on Arco8 .ho ha$ also 7een calle$8 .as $etaine$ 7ecause of ser-ices to the Ger)an Ar)y in the use of as(hy'iating gases an$ other $ea$ly in-entions (erfecte$ 7y hi)0 The te't of this inter-ie. .as8 of course8 ne-er inten$e$ for (u7lication0 Counsel8 concerne$ (ri)arily .ith the (rotection of Tesla's (atent interests8 as2 questions al)ost e'clusi-ely relating to the (riority of his (atents an$ their a((lication0 Tesla can$i$ly $iscusses his conten$ers .hile (resenting a thorough history of his .or2 .ith alternating currents as a((lie$ to .ireless trans)ission0 ,n this $ocu)ent8 he $escri7es e'(eri)ental )etho$s8 techniques8 an$ a((aratus use$ in his la7oratories at 1e. Dor2 City8 Colora$o >(rings8 an$ #ong ,slan$0 /ost of the (hotogra(hs acco)(anying this inter-ie. are in goo$ con$ition8 7ut those of sche)atic an$ )echanical $ra.ings ha-e suffere$ so)e $ecay .ith ti)e0 These )ay 7e the only for) of the $ra.ings e'tant an$ are re(ro$uce$ .ith as )uch fi$elity as (ossi7le0 For 7etter clarity8 fi-e illustrations are re(rinte$ fro) the Fe7ruary an$ /ay8 1913 issues of the "lectrical "'(eri)enter )agaBine8 Co(yright Gerns7ac2 <u7lications8 .here they su7sequently a((eare$0 These are Figures %%8 %*8 *98 81 an$ 8!0 Although the inter-ie. s(anne$ se-eral $ays8 it is (resente$ in this .or2 as though it .as gi-en at one ti)eJ all references to interru(tions an$ resu)(tions ha-e 7een re)o-e$0 The te't is (rinte$ in stan$ar$ ty(e.riter (ica ty(e8 unHustifie$8 in the style of hearing (rocee$ings of that (erio$0 1o alterations ha-e 7een )a$e in Tesla's re)ar2s e'ce(t for 'clean9u(' a$$itions8 ty(ically references to (hotogra(hs an$ $iagra)s8 an$ fill9in .or$s necessitate$ 7y occasional ra)7ling an$ inco)(lete sentence structure0 These a$$itions are (ro-i$e$ in 7rac2ets ? @0 Hel(ful notes ate also cue$ to the te't in 7rac2ets0
:NT#O%=CT:ON
Dou are hol$ing in your han$s one of the )ost re)ar2a7le $ocu)ents in the history of electrical science0 >el$o)8 in technical research8 has such a treasure of $escri(ti-e co))entary an$ historical $ocu)entation 7een $isco-ere$0 This 7oo2 is a -erita7le +osetta stone for $eci(hering an$ tracing the technical thoughts of one of the .orl$'s )ost $istinguishe$ engineering scientists since Archi)e$es0 ,t $escri7es electrical e'(eri)ents .hich too2 (lace nearly 155 years agoK7ut ha-e yet to 7e re(licate$0 >o astonishing are its contents that it ta2es one's 7reath a.ayY Here8 in Tesla's o.n .or$s8 are inter(retations (couche$ in the language of 19th century (hysics for electrical (heno)ena .hich e-en to$ay lac2 satisfactory e'(lanations in the language of )o$ern technical analysis0 ;h8 it .on't tell you ho. to .ire u( "the )agnifying trans)itter" (that arcane instru)ent for glo7al .ireless (o.er trans)ission 8Q 7ut it .ill tell you .hat instru)ents Tesla .as e)(loying8 .hat his thoughts .ere8 ho. he conce(tualiBe$ things8 ho. he (rocee$e$8 .here he (erfor)e$ his historic e'(eri)ents8 .hen 2ey results .ere o7taine$8 an$ ho. he reache$ his conclusions0 Q ,t )ay Hust 7e that there is enough infor)ation (resent to sol-e the (uBBle of the )agnifying trans)itter0 The rea$er .ill ha-e to $ig for hi)self0 Tesla8 hi)self8 .as a.e9struc2 .ith the results of his scientific en$ea-our0 He e'(resse$ astonish)ent then at
.hat he later asserts is e'(eri)entally $e)onstra7le0 #isten to the .or$s he uses in this inter-ie. to $escri7e the electrical (heno)ena to his attorneyI ")agnificent8" "it .as a )ar-elous sight8" "a .on$erful thing8" "(ractically the la)( of Ala$$in8" "a tre)en$ous $is(lay8" "glorious8" "so )ar-elous that one .oul$ 7e al)ost afrai$ to tal2 a7out the)0000" An "$)un$ >(encer or a Eohn /ilton coul$ 7e no )ore eloquent0 ;ne of >ha2es(eare's characters once sai$8 "3i$ )e $iscourse8 an$ , .ill enchant thine ear0" Tesla $oes no less8 e-en in a legal 7riefing0 He .ea-es the gossa)er .e7 of enchant)entK.hich yet thrills our technical i)agination an$ lures us in8 nearly 85 years after a stenogra(her recor$e$ these s(o2en .or$sY Who was *ikola TeslaF ,n 189%8 at the Fran2lin ,nstitute in <hila$el(hia8 #or$ :el-in sai$8 "Tesla has contri7ute$ )ore to electrical science than any )an u( to his ti)e0" After sho.ering .or$s of (raise u(on the in-entor 7efore a )eeting of the +oyal >ociety in #on$on in 189!8 #or$ +ayleigh $eclare$ that Tesla (ossesse$ a great gift for electrical $isco-ery0 Fortunately8 the te't of Tesla's s(eech has 7een (reser-e$ an$ re(u7lishe$0 18!83 He .as one of the earliest scientists to un$erstan$ the $istinction 7et.een lu)(e$ an$ $istri7ute$ resonance an$ the first to (atent -oltage )agnification 7y stan$ing .a-es0 The unit of )agnetic in$uction is na)e$ in honour of Tesla0 ,t is co))only un$erstoo$ 7y (o.er engineers that he .as the in-entor of the in$uction )otor utiliBing the rotating )agnetic fiel$ an$ the AC (oly(hase (o.er $istri7ution syste) currently use$ throughout the ci-iliBe$ .orl$0Q Ho.e-er8 )ost electrical engineers are una.are that8 as late as 19638 he (not /arconiQQ .as recogniBe$ 7y the C0>0>u(re)e Court as ha-ing (riority in the in-ention of "ra$io0" "-en fe.er co)(uter scientists are a.are that8 .hen certain co)(uter )anufacturers atte)(te$ to (atent $igital logic gates after &orl$ &ar ,,8 the C0>0<atent ;ffice asserte$ Tesla's turn9of9the9 century (riority in the electrical i)(le)entation of logic gates for secure co))unications8 control syste)s8 an$ ro7otics0 As a result8 a )ono(oly on $igital logic gates in general .as una7le to 7e secure$ in the 1945s0 Q Charles "0 >cott8 (ast (resi$ent of the A,"" has sai$8 "The e-olution of electric (o.er fro) the $isco-ery of Fara$ay in 1831 to the initial great installation of the Tesla (oly(hase syste) in 189% ?at 1iagara Falls@ is un$ou7te$ly the )ost tre)en$ous e-ent in all engineering history0 ?Electrical Engineering8 August8 1963 (Gol0%!8 1o08 8 ((034193440@ QQ Although it too2 the courts se-eral $eca$es to figure this out8 the facts .ere .ell un$erstoo$ 7y i)(artial technical )en of the $ay0 +o7ert H0/arriott8 the first (resi$ent of the ,+"8 once sai$ that /arconi ha$ "000(laye$ the (art of a $e)onstrator an$ sales engineer0 A )oney getting co)(any .as for)e$8 .hich in atte)(ting to o7tain a )ono(oly8 set out to a$-ertise to e-ery7o$y that /arconi .as the in-entor an$ that they o.ne$ that (atent on .ireless .hich entitle$ the) to a )ono(oly0" ?!adio 4roadcast8 =ece)7er8 19!4 (Gol088 1o0! 8 ((014991%!0@ Tesla ser-e$ the electrical engineering (rofession in its highest offices0 ,n the early 1895s8 he .as electe$ as -ice9(resi$ent of the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 no. the ,nstitute of "lectrical an$ "lectronics "ngineers0 At the ti)e of his election8 Ale'an$er Graha) 3ell .as its (resi$ent0 Tesla ser-e$ t.o years as -ice9 (resi$ent of the A,"" an$8 a $eca$e later8 one of his la7oratory technicians at the Colora$o >(rings e'(eri)ents ser-e$ as the first -ice9(resi$ent of the ,nstitute of +a$io "ngineers .hen it .as for)e$ in 19530 This .as the no.8 fa)ous consulting engineer FritB #o.enstein0 #o.enstein .as the in-entor of the gri$ 7iase$ Class A a)(lifier (for .hich he recei-e$ the su) of ^1458555 fro) ATOT in 1918 8 6 the sha(e$ (late ca(acitor8 an$ other electrical an$ )echanical $e-ices0 His t.o ,+" (a(ers8 .ith co))ents on the (ro(agation of groun$ .a-es 7y Wennec2 an$ s2y .a-es 7y Austin8 a((eare$ in Fe7ruary an$ Eune issues of the ,+" <rocee$ings8 the year of this inter-ie.0 ,t shoul$ also 7e note$ that Tesla .as a fello. of the A,""8 the A)erican Association for the A$-ance)ent of >cience8 an$ a $oBen other (rofessional societies0 He recei-e$ o-er 13 honourary $egrees fro) such $i-erse institutions as Colu)7ia8 Dale8 an$ the Cni-ersities of <aris8 Gienna8 <rague8 an$ >ofia0 +ecently8 another fascinating fact a7out Tesla has co)e to light0 After all these years8 it is no. 2no.n that he .as no)inate$ for an undivided 1o7el (riBe in (hysics in 193*04 Tesla's no)inator8 Feli' "hernhaft8 of Gienna8 ha$ (re-iously no)inate$ Al7ert "instein for the 1o7el (riBe0 Tesla ha$ the re)ar2a7le talent of char)ing an$ astonishing his a$)irers .hile at the sa)e ti)e enraging his ene)iesKthe (heno)enon continues to the (resent $ay0 ,t is unfortunate that8 $es(ite se-eral current (o(ular 7iogra(hies8 there still e'ists no $efiniti-e technical authority8 other than his o.n scattere$ (u7lications8 to consult on the scientific issues of his intriguing an$ colorful scientific career0 Consi$er the a$ulation 7esto.e$
u(on hi) 7y #or$ :el-in8 Her)ann -on Hel)holtB8 >ir &illia) Croo2es8 #or$ +ayleigh8 >ir Ea)es =e.er8 +o7ert /illi2an8 >ir Ea)es Fle)ing8 30A03ehren$8 A0"0:ennally8 #0&0 Austin8 &0H03ragg8 Fer$inan$ 3raun8 Eonathan Wennec28 "0&0" Ale'an$erson8 E0>0>tone8 Ganne-ar 3ush8 &0H0"ccles8 "$.in H0Ar)strong (.ho ser-e$ as a (all7earer at Tesla's funeral8 as $i$ Ale'an$erson 8 an$ nota7ly Al7ert "instein8 "rnest +utherfor$8 Arthur Co)(ton8 an$ 1eils 3ohr0 There are a nu)7er of 1o7el laureates8 +oyal >ociety fello.s8 ,""" (resi$ents an$ fello.s8 an$ uni-ersity (resi$ents in that collection0 1o one8 since Fran2lin8 ha$ so stirre$ the scientific an$ engineering .orl$0 ,n 18938 Tho)as Co))erfor$ /artin8 the thir$ (resi$ent of the A,"" (188891889 8 e$ite$ an$ (u7lishe$ a re)ar2a7le collection of Tesla's conte)(orary lectures0 ,t is in (rint to$ay8 an$ a century fro) no. it .ill still 7e consi$ere$ an un(arallele$ classic in scientific literature to 7e rea$ along .ith Fran2lin's letters8 <riestly's history8 Fara$ay's researches in electricity8 /a'.ell's treatise8 HertB's electric "aves8 an$ Hea-isi$e's electrical *a*ers0 ,n 19198 !% years after (u7lishing the .or2 on Tesla8 /artin .rote8 "Tesla's influence )ay truly 7e sai$ to ha-e )ar2e$ an e(och in the (rogress of electrical science0 Gery little $ata8 ho.e-er8 has 7een (rocura7le that is $escri(ti-e of his later researches8 an$ )ore is the (ity fro) the historical stan$(oint0 Tesla has not finishe$0 The .orl$ .aits e'(ectantly for each fresh touch of his -italiBing thought u(on the 7ig electrical (ro7le) of the age0" % Cnli2e )ost of the afore)entione$ scientists8 =r0TeslaKfor so it is a((ro(riate to call hi)Kha$ no financial su((ort to fall 7ac2 on fro) a faculty (osition or research institute0 His i$eas ha$ to su((ort the)sel-es an$ hi) in the technical )ar2et(lace0 ,t is not sur(rising8 therefore8 that he felt no co)(ulsion to share further technical $etails in the o(en scientific literature of his $ay0 For these you )ust $ig (an$ $ig8 an$ $ig through the (atent literature8 .here only enough is $isclose$ to )a2e it clear to one "s2ille$ in the art0 +ea$ers .ill also 7e struc2 .ith Tesla's lighter si$e0 His sense of hu)or an$ his quic2 .it shine through .hen he $escri7es his 1893 +F $e)onstration 7efore the (u7lic at the >i'teenth Con-ention of the 1ational "lectric #ight Association in >t0#ouis8 .here he .as $istinguishe$ as honourary )e)7erI "There .as a sta)(e$e in the t.o u((er galleries an$ they all rushe$ out0 They thought it .as so)e (art of the $e-il's .or20" ((08* His hu)or is also e-i$ent in his $escri(tion of the influence that his $e)onstrations ha$ u(on the +oyal ,nstitution in #on$on in 189!I "The scientists si)(ly $i$ not 2no. .here they .ere .hen they sa. it0" ((094 Tesla coul$ also 7e sarcasticI "The greatest )en of science ha-e tol$ )e ?the Tesla coil@ .as )y 7est achie-e)ent0000For instance8 a )an fills this s(ace .ith hy$rogenJ he e)(loys all )y instru)entalities8 e-erything that is necessary8 7ut calls it a ne. .ireless syste)KI cannot sto* it0 Another )an (uts in here a 2in$ of ga(0 (e gets a Nobel *ri;e for it0000The in-enti-e effort in-ol-e$ is a7out the sa)e as that of .hich a 359year ol$ )ule is ca(a7le0" ((068 -lectrical 4istory For those $ee(ly acti-e in the technical e-aluation of historic electrical research8 it is a source of intense frustration an$ shattering $isa((oint)ent to fin$ "a ne. 7oo2" (or e-en to ha-e a TG "$ocu)entary" a((ear8 only to $isco-er that the authors (a $i$n't (enetrate the technical as(ects of their su7Hect sufficiently to un$erstan$ .hat the real issues .ere8 an$ (7 continue to (er(etuate unsu7stantiate$ (o(ulariBe$ assertions8 )yths8 an$ historical errors 'generate$ at -ictory 7alls' an$ not at the scene of the 7attle0 This is es(ecially true of authors a$$ressing to(ics in the real) of +F8 antennas8 an$ $istri7ute$ circuits (i0e08 ra$io .here )erely an aca$e)ic 2no.le$ge of electronics or /a'.ell's theory is insufficient to guarantee (rofessional li-elihoo$ in those $isci(lines0 ,t lea$s one to conclu$e that no relia7le history of this research can 7e .ritten until those .ith a$equate technical training an$ e'(erience $e-ote their ti)e an$ effort to the su7Hect0 3ut this $ocu)ent is a 7reath of fresh air0 ,t sets straight a region of the ra$io history (uBBle .hich has 7een incongruous for o-er nine $eca$es0 &hen .e sa. these (ages8 our first i)(ulse .as to start an i))e$iate technical e-aluationI re(licate a((aratus8 search for (artially $isclose$ conce(ts an$ )issing (ieces8 clarify issues8 an$ e'ecute a technical analysis0 &e 7elie-e that this $ocu)ent .ill initiate consi$era7le acti-ity along these lines8 (erfor)e$ as .ell 7y a 7roa$ s(ectru) of in-estigators0 This intro$uction is not an a((ro(riate )e$iu) to $iscuss such (ursuits0 ,nstea$8 .e in-ite the rea$er to consi$er the .on$erful (ersonal narrati-e .hich .ill 7e (lace$ 7efore hi)0 Feel the (athos in Tesla's -oice as he $escri7es the fa)ous syste) of four9tune$ circuitsI "-ery .ireless )essage that has e-er 7een trans)itte$ to any $istance has 7een trans)itte$ 7y this a((aratusJ there is no
other .ay0 T.enty9se-en )ore years .oul$ (ass 7efore the highest courts of the lan$ .oul$ echo in agree)ent0 Fro) those legal (rocee$ings .oul$ e)erge the aci$ test for any ra$io syste)0 For this reason8 Tesla8 not HertB8 /arconi8 or =e Forest has 7een gi-en the title in-entor of ra$io0 The courts clearly e'ercise a $istinction 7et.een "inno-ate$' an$ "in-ention0" Ho. strange that8 e-en at this late $ate8 there are those that still $on't un$erstan$ .hat ha((ene$0 !resh ,urprises from Tesla Tesla has ne-er lost the )agical touch0 "-en to$ay8 e'actly 155 years after his lecture at the +oyal ,nstitution (#on$on 8 his careful engineering s2ill still has (o.er to sur(rise an$ $elight a technical au$ience0 3ut .hat .as une'(ecte$ fro) TeslaKto$ay8 in 199!8 is a fresh gli)(se of his life's .or20 Those of us that ha-e toile$ .ith +F technology8 an$ electro)agnetic ra$iation an$ (ro(agation o.e a great $e7t to An$erson8 one of the .orl$'s lea$ing authorities on Tesla8 for (u7lishing this re)ar2a7le $ocu)ent0 ,t is a7solutely unique0 &e ha-e no $ou7t that it is $estine$ to Hoin /y InventionsJ %ectures+ 3atents+ and ArticlesJ Dnd &ein #erkJ Inventions+ !esearches and #ritings8 an$ 2olorado &*rings Notes as a )e)7er of the historic "canonical Tesla (u7lications0" Anyone $oing a serious technical e-aluation of Tesla's research )ust turn to these .or2s0 &eturn to $;$> ,t is i)(ortant to gras( the (ulse of society at the ti)e of this inter-ie.0 ,n your )in$'s eye8 return to the era of 191%0 A <rinceton history (rofessor na)e$ &oo$ro. &ilson8 the sa)e age as Tesla8 .ill 7e re9electe$ to lea$ the country0 &ar has 7een raging in "uro(e for the (ast 18 )onths0 The #usitania has 7een sun20 &ithin a year8 the C0>0 .oul$ $eclare .ar on Ger)any an$ )ore than 1558555 young A)ericans .oul$ go "o-er there" ne-er to return ho)e to their lo-e$ ones0 ,r-ing 3erlin is .riting songs8 !6 states ha-e -ote$9in (rohi7ition8 an$ For$ has (ro$uce$ his )illionth auto)o7ile0 /otoriBe$ ta'ies ha-e Hust a((eare$ on the streets of 1e. Dor28 an$ electricity has )a$e (ossi7le the ne. s2yscra(ers that no. 7egin to $o)inate the city's s2yline0 ;n /ount &ilson8 in California8 the ne. 1559inch telesco(e is nearing co)(letion0 ,n "uro(e8 Al7ert "instein has Hust intro$uce$ the general theory of relati-ity8 an$ astrono)er Arthur >tanley "$$ington is quietly (re(aring e'(e$itions to islan$s off the coast of Africa an$ 3raBil to test the theory $uring a solar ecli(se0 Consultant Eohn >tone >tone has Hust co)(lete$ his ter) as (resi$ent of the ,+"8 an$ Har-ar$ <rofessor A0"0:ennelly has ste((e$ into the (ositionKhe ha$ (re-iously ser-e$ as (resi$ent of the A,"" in 18980 The ,+" no. has al)ost 18555 )e)7ers0 =r0Wennec2's treatise on .ireless telegra(hy has Hust a((eare$8 an$ he .ill soon 7e hel$ "un$er arrest" at "llis ,slan$ for the $uration of &&,0 Wennec2 .oul$ later ser-e as -ice9(resi$ent of the ,+" $uring 19330 At 3ell #a7s8 Eohn +0Carson has Hust sho.n that single9si$e7an$ trans)ission is )athe)atically (ossi7le0 The first transcontinental tele(hone lin2 has Hust 7een $e)onstrate$ 7et.een Ale'an$er Graha) 3ell in 1e. Dor2 an$ Tho)as A0&atson in >an Francisco8 an$ .ireless ser-ice 7et.een the C0>0an$ Ea(an has 7een inaugurate$0 ,n 191% the electro)agnetic s(ectru) is (o(ulate$ only 7y a)ateurs an$ co))ercial telegra(h stations0 There is yet no co))ercial A/ 7roa$casting8 although Fran2 Conra$8 .ho .oul$ 7e -ice9(resi$ent of the ,+" 11 years later8 has Hust 7uilt an a)ateur station0 ,t .oul$ 7eco)e &estinghouse's :=:A in 1o-e)7er8 19!50 Tesla has recently (u7lishe$ ">o)e <ersonal +ecollections" in the &cientific American0 He has (ro(ose$ that the >ecretary of =efense create a =efense >cience 3oar$0 #oo2ing to.ar$ the future8 he (u7lishes an essay calle$8 "The &on$er &orl$ to 7e Create$ 7y "lectricity0" "0Taylor Eones an$ &0/0Eones ha-e (u7lishe$8 in the 3hiloso*hical /aga;ine (#on$on 8 erroneous lu)(e$9circuit analyses of Tesla coils0 1ineteen years later8 one of "0;0 #a.rence's (roteges at 3er2eley .oul$ $eclare8 in (ages of the 3hysical !evie"8 that Tesla coils "cannot 7e treate$ usefully 7y )athe)atics0" Tesla (ro(hesies that ra$io9controlle$ tor(e$oes an$ )issiles .ill soon e'(ose the general (o(ulation8 not Hust the )ilitary8 to the horrors of .ar0 ,n 191%8 the &cientific American $iscusses Tesla's ne. auto)o7ile s(ee$o)eter8 the to.er at >horeha) (#ong ,slan$ .ill (ass fro) his han$s8 an$ Hugo Gerns7ac2's )agaBine8 the Electrical Ex*erimenter .ill conte)(late his Colora$o >(rings e'(eri)ents0 <rinces #.off9<arlaghy entertains Tesla a)ong 1e. Dor2 socialites8 an$ her (ainting of Tesla a((ears in The Ne" -ork Times0 ,t .ill later a((ear on the co-er of Time (Euly !58 1931 0 A 1isit to a .aw (ffice As an unseen guest8 you ha-e 7een ushere$ into an oa29$ecorate$ la. office in 1e. Dor2 City0 3efore you sits 1i2ola Tesla8 no. %5 years ol$8 still .ith 7ushy 7lac2 hair8 slight .rin2les 7eginning to for) aroun$ his (iercing
light 7lue9grey eyes0 He (ossesses a .inning s)ile an$ a fir) han$sha2e0 He .ears no He.elry or .atch fo70 He has a so)e.hat high9(itche$8 ree$y -oice8 an$ s(ea2s quic2ly an$ con-incingly0 He is still -ery )uch the cos)o(olitan 1e. Dor2er in his s(eech8 )anner8 an$ $e)eanor0 He has 7rought .ith hi) nu)erous $ra.ings8 (a(ers8 an$ (hotogra(hs for reference0 Across a .oo$en ta7le sits his attorney0 His $e)eanor is (rofessional an$ serious8 his questions are (enetrating8 his )anner is $eli7erate0 He is .ell a.are of the (rofessional re(utation an$ international regar$ of the estee)e$ gentle)an that sits 7efore hi)8 an$ he is intent u(on un$erstan$ing e-ery $etail that he can turn to his client's a$-antage in the $ra)atic contests at la. .hich .ill soon occur0 Also (resent is a stenogra(her8 intent u(on (ro-i$ing the attorney .ith an accurate .ritten transcri(tion of e-ery thought .hich .ill soon unfol$0 The for)alities 7eing o-er8 the counselor 7egins to s(ea20000 :0#0Coru)Q an$ E0F0Coru)8 <h0=0QQ A(ril 68 199!
::& *+$eriments wit, Fireless Telegra$,y and Tele$,ony

Tesla ?=iag0 1 of Fig0 4@ sho.s ho. , use$ this )achine .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ in )y first efforts to.ar$ .ireless0 These e'(eri)ents .ere all (erfor)e$ in )y la7oratory on Gran$ >treet8 7ut they .ere su7sequently -ery )uch refine$ an$ carrie$ on in a $ifferent .ay0 Counsel &hat $ate .as thatF Tesla That .as in 18918 (rior to )y going to "nglan$ to lecture 7efore the scientific societies there8 the +oyal ,nstitution an$ the ,nstitution of "lectrical "ngineers0 , ha$ a .ire run out through the .in$o.8 an$ (lace$ on the roof all sorts of $e-ices to constitute this ca(acity ?sho.n in the $iagra)s as an ele-ate$ square@0 The first ste( .as to connect this alternator ?sho.n in the $iagra)s as a circle@ .ith one ter)inal to the .ater (i(e syste) an$ the other en$ to the antenna0 , ha$ alrea$y (ro-e$ in )y lecture at Colu)7ia College that , coul$ trans)it energy through one .ireJ therefore8 , .as (re(are$ to fin$ that a current of consi$era7le strength coul$ 7e (asse$ through this .ire here ?connecting the alternator to the ele-ate$ ca(acitor@8 although it .as insulate$0 /y i$ea at that ti)e .as that , .oul$ $istur7 the electrical equili7riu) in the near7y (ortions of the earth8 an$ the equili7riu) 7eing $istur7e$8 this coul$ then 7e utiliBe$ to 7ring into o(eration in any .ay so)e instru)ent0 That .as .hat .e .oul$ no. call8 si)(ly8 i)(ressing force$ -i7rations of -ery high frequency on an antenna0 &e ha-e intro$uce$ the ter) "antenna" since that ti)e0 0 0 0
Figure 40 Illustrating various ways of using a high frequency alternator in the first e"periments at the #rand ,treet .aboratoryE $:;$B$:;7
000
Figure 130 Instrument to receive radio waves of $:;>B$:;; structure
;ne of the si)(lest $e-ices , use$ in )y e'(eri)ents 7et.een )y la7oratory on >outh Fifth A-enue an$ the Gerlach Hotel8 an$ other (laces in an$ outsi$e the city8 .as an instru)ent constructe$ in 189% .ith a )agnet .hich so)eti)es .as so $esigne$ as to gi-e )e a -ery intense )agnetic fiel$ u( to !58555 lines (er square centi)eter0 ,n this ?fiel$@ , (lace$ a con$uctor8 a .ire or a coil8 an$ then , .oul$ get a note .hich , a)(lifie$ an$ intensifie$ in )any .ays0 Fro) the characteristics of the au$i7le note8 , .oul$ i))e$iately Hu$ge the quality of )y a((aratus0 &hen , s(ea2 of an au$i7le note8 , )ean a note au$i7le in a tele(hone as (ro$uce$ 7y the $ia(hrag) of a tele(hone8 or 7y a -i7rating .ire .ithin the range of au$i7ility0 ?Fig0 13@ sho.s the general arrange)ent of the ?recei-ing@ a((aratus0 T.o con$ensers are the 7o'es at each en$8 an$ in the center a coil8 or t.o coils8 accor$ing to necessity8 .ith .hich , (ro$uce$ a strong )agnetic fiel$ an$ ?(lace$@ in it a .ire0 These con$ensers an$ the .ire for) a circuit .hich , tune0 The con$ensers are of co)(arati-ely large ca(acity 7ecause )y con$uctor is so short0 , usually .oul$ transfor) the current in the recei-ing circuit an$ )a2e as close a connection as (ossi7le an$ then tune the circuit to the -i7rations0 , .oul$ also )echanically tune the .ire8 accor$ing to the frequency8 to the sa)e note or to a fun$a)ental0 This )achine .as suita7le for trans(ortation0 , coul$ (ut it un$er )y ar) .ith a cou(le of 7atteries0 , ha$ relays8 .hich .ere -ery 7ig8 in .hich , (ro$uce$ (for stationary .or2 a -ery intense )agnetic fiel$ so as to affect the con$uctor 7y the fee7lest current0 Further)ore8 , use$ these relays (articularly in connection .ith 7eats0 &hen the frequencies .ere -ery high8 , co)7ine$ t.o frequencies -ery nearly ali2e0 That ga-e )e a lo. 7eat0 ;ne of the frequencies , so)eti)es (ro$uce$ at the recei-ing station8 an$ at other ti)es at 7oth the recei-ing an$ trans)itting stations0 This al.ays ga-e )e the )eans of (ro$ucing an au$i7le note0 , use$ )achines of this character fro) 189!8 7ut this s(ecific instru)ent in )y la7oratory on Houston >treet0 This instru)ent co)(rising a )agnet an$ chor$ or coil in the )agnetic fiel$ 99 , )ean a .ire or coil in the )agnetic fiel$ 99 is an ol$ aca$e)ic $e-ice8 use$ in all sorts of $e)onstrations at the schools an$ the uni-ersity .here , .as stu$ying0 /y (rofessor of (hysics has ha$ si)ilar instru)ents .ith an a$Husta7le s(ring an$ )agnet8 an$ , ha-e e)(loye$ the) in assisting hi)0 There is nothing no-el in the i$ea0 The only no-elty .as that , 2e(t )y alternation lo. an$ , )a$e this arrange)ent .ith con$uctors to tune0 ,t .as -ery con-enient for (ro$ucing au$i7le effects 7ecause8 if , use$ other for)s of a recei-er8 , ha$ a rea$ing .hich .as not at once translata7le0 ,f , listene$ to a note8 , coul$ i))e$iately tell the quality of the trans)ission0 For instance8 , .oul$ tune a circuit in )y la7oratory8 ta2e it out to another 7uil$ing8 an$ , .oul$ recei-e the signalsJ an$ fro) the quality of the signals , .oul$ see ho. , .as (rogressing0 Counsel ,n the e'(eri)ents that you ha-e s(o2en of .ith the instru)ent of .hich the (icture is sho.n ?as Fig0 13@8 .hat .ere the $istances 7et.een the trans)itting an$ recei-ing stationsF Tesla The $istance at that ti)e8 an$ , thin2 the greatest $istance at .hich , e-er recei-e$ signals fro) the Houston >treet la7oratory8 .as fro) the Houston la7oratory to &est <oint0 That is8 , thin28 a $istance of a7out 35 )iles0 This .as (rior to 189* .hen #or$ :el-in ca)e to )y la7oratory0 ,n 1898 , )a$e certain $e)onstrations 7efore the "'a)iner9in9Chief of the <atent ;ffice8 /r0 >eeley8 an$ it .as u(on sho.ing hi) the (ractica7ility of the trans)ission that (atents .ere grante$ to )e0 0 0 0
Figure !90 ,mall high frequency mechanical and electrical oscillator used in many investigations
That oscillator ?Fig0 !9@ .as one of high frequency for isochronous .or28 an$ , use$ it in )any .ays0 The )achine8 you see8 co)(rise$ a )agnetic fra)e0 The energiBing coil8 .hich is re)o-e$8 (ro$uce$ a strong )agnetic fiel$ in this region0 , calculate$ the $i)ensions of the fiel$ to )a2e it as intense as (ossi7le0 There .as a (o.erful tongue of steel .hich carrie$ a con$uctor at the e'tre)e en$0 &hen it .as -i7rate$8 it generate$ oscillations in the .ire0 The tongue .as so rigi$ that a s(ecial arrange)ent .as (ro-i$e$ for gi-ing it a 7lo.J then it .oul$ start8 an$ the air (ressure .oul$ 2ee( it going0 The -i7rating )echanical syste) .oul$ fall into synchronis) .ith the electrical8 an$ , .oul$ get isochronous currents fro) it0 That .as a )achine of high frequency that e)itte$ a note a7out li2e a )osquito0 ,t .as so)ething li2e 68555 or 485550 ,t ga-e a (itch nearly that of )y alternator of the ?first@ ty(e .hich , ha-e $escri7e$0 ;f course this $e-ice .as not inten$e$ for a 7ig out(ut8 7ut si)(ly to gi-e )e8 .hen o(erating in connection .ith recei-ing circuits8 isochronous currents0 The e'cursions of the tongue .ere so s)all that one coul$ not see it oscillate8 7ut .hen the finger .as (resse$ against it the -i7ration .as felt0 I1 Apparatus for Transformation by Condenser %ischargesG %amped Waves Tesla This .or2 ?Fig031@ .as 7egun alrea$y in 18890 This ty(e of a((aratus is i$entifie$ .ith )y na)e as certain as the la. of gra-itation is .ith that of 1e.ton0 , 2no. that so)e ha-e clai)e$ that <rofessor Tho)son also in-ente$ the so9calle$ Tesla coil8 7ut those fee7le chir(s ne'er .ent 7eyon$ >.a)(scott0 <rofessor Tho)son is an o$$ sort of )anJ -ery ingenious8 7ut he ne-er .as a .ireless e'(ertJ he ne-er coul$ 7e0 /oreo-er8 it is
i)(ortant to realiBe that this (rinci(le is uni-ersally e)(loye$ e-ery.here0 The greatest )en of science ha-e tol$ )e that this .as )y 7est achie-e)ent an$8 in connection .ith this a((aratus ?referring to sche)atics of Fig031@8 , )ay say that a lot of li7erties ha-e 7een ta2en0 For instance8 a )an fills this s(ace ?7rea2 =@ .ith hy$rogenJ he e)(loys all )y instru)entalities8 e-erything that is necessary8 7ut calls it a ne. .ireless syste)Kthe <oulsen arc0 , cannot sto( it0 Another )an (uts in here ?referring to s(ace 7et.een self9in$ucti-e lines # #@ a 2in$ of ga( Khe gets a 1o7el (riBe for $oing it0 /y na)e is not )entione$0 >till another )an inserts here ?con$uctor 3@ a )ercury?9arc@ rectifier0 That is )y frien$ Coo(er He.itt0 3ut8 as a )atter of fact8 those $e-ices ha-e nothing to $o .ith the (erfor)ance0
Figure 310 'ethod of Transformation of electrical energy by oscillatory condenser discharges described in U , +atent *o <>6,<$: of *ovember 7, $:;$ Application filed !ebruary <, $:;$ Announcement of this invention was made in TeslaHs lecture before the American Institute of -lectrical -ngineers at Columbia College, 'ay 6A, $:;$, where it was predicted that this apparatus afforded vast possibilities and would play an important part in the future Illustrated and described in T C 'artin book, !igs $6> and $6?, pp $;$B$;<
,f these )en 2ne. .hat , $o8 they .oul$ not touch )y arrange)entsJ they .oul$ lea-e )y a((aratus as it is0
/arconi (uts in here ?7rea2 =@ t.o .heels0 , sho.e$ only one .heelJ he sho.s t.o0 An$ he says8 ">ee .hat ha((ens .hen the .heels are rotate$J a .on$erful thing ha((ensY" &hat is the .on$erful thingF &hy8 .hen the teeth of the .heels (ass one another8 the currents are 7ro2en an$ interru(te$0 That is the .on$erful thing that ha((ensF The #or$ hi)self coul$ not )a2e anything else ha((en unless he 7ro2e his o.n la.s0 >o8 in this .ay8 in-ention has 7een $egra$e$8 $e7ase$8 (rostitute$8 )ore in connection .ith )y a((aratus than in anything else0 1ot a -estige of in-ention as a creati-e effort is in the thousan$s of arrange)ents that you see un$er the na)e of other (eo(leKnot a -estige of in-ention0 ,t is e'actly li2e in car cou(lings on .hich %8555 (atents ha-e 7een ta2en outJ 7ut all the cou(lings are constructe$ an$ o(erate$ e'actly the sa)e .ay0 The in-enti-e effort in-ol-e$ is a7out the sa)e as that of .hich a 359year9ol$ )ule is ca(a7le0 This is a fact0 This is one of )ost 7eautiful things e-er (ro$uce$ in the .ay of a((aratusI , ta2e a generator of any 2in$0 &ith the generator , charge a con$enser0 Then , $ischarge the con$enser un$er con$itions .hich result in the (ro$uction of -i7rations0 1o.8 it .as 2no.n since #or$ :el-in that the con$enser $ischarge .oul$ gi-e this -i7ration8 7ut , (erfecte$ )y a((aratus to such a $egree that it 7eca)e an instru)ent utiliBa7le in the arts8 in a )uch 7roa$er .ay than #or$ :el-in ha$ conte)(late$ as (ossi7le0 ,n fact8 years after.ar$s .hen #or$ :el-in honoure$ )e 7y (resenting to the 3ritish Association one of )y oscillators of a (erfecte$ for)8 he sai$ that it .as "a .on$erful $e-elo()ent an$ $estine$ to 7e of great i)(ortance0" ?+eturning to a $iscussion of Fig031@8 ?"@ is su((ose$ to 7e a con$enser0 That ?A@ is the generator0 1o. then8 su((osing that this is a generator of stea$y (ressure0 , can o7tain oscillations of any frequency , $esire0 , can )a2e the) $a)(e$ or un$a)(ene$0 , can )a2e the) of one $irection or alternating in $irection as , choose0 At G are $e-ices .hich o(erateKla)(s8 or anything else0 >o)e e'(eri)enters .ho ha-e gone after )e ha-e foun$ a $ifficulty0 They sai$8 "1o8 .e cannot (ro$uce a constant train of oscillations0" &ell8 it is not )y fault0 , ne-er ha-e ha$ the slightest $ifficulty0 , (ro$uce$ constant oscillations an$ , ha-e $escri7e$ ho. , (ro$uce$ the)0 Anyone .ho has no )ore than )y o.n s2ill can $o it0
Figure 3!0 Iuenched spark gap 2Tesla at that time pointed out the future of quenching and showed that oscillations can be maintained without a spark being visible to the naked eye between the knobs 5 Illustrated in T C 'artin book, !igs $7= and $7>, p 6$$
This ?Fig03!@ is another i)(ro-e)ent in that (articular $e-ice8 .hich .as the .ea2ness of the in-ention an$ .hich , trie$ to eli)inate0 This $e-ice incor(orate$ )any s(ar2 ga(s in series0 ,t ha$ a (eculiar featureJ na)ely8 through the great nu)7er of ga(s8 , .as a7le8 as , ha-e (ointe$ out in )y .ritings8 to (ro$uce oscillations .ithout e-en a s(ar2 7eing -isi7le 7et.een the 2no7s0 This $e-ice is no. 2no.n in the art as the "quenche$ s(ar2 ga(0" <rofessor &ein has for)ulate$ a 7eautiful theory a7out it8 .hich , un$erstan$ has nette$ hi) the 1o7el (riBe0 &ein's theories are a$)ira7le0 The only trou7le is that he has o-erloo2e$ one -ery i)(ortant fact0 ,t is thisI ,f the a((aratus is (ro(erly $esigne$ an$ o(erate$8 there is no use for the quenche$ ga(8 for the oscillations are continuous any.ay0 The ra$io )en .ho ca)e after )e ha$ the (ro7le) 7efore the) of )a2ing a 7ell soun$8 an$ they i))erse$ it in )ercury0 1o.8 you 2no. )ercury is hea-y0 &hen they struc2 their 7ell8 the
)ercury $i$ not (er)it it to -i7rate long 7ecause it too2 a.ay all the energy0 , (ut )y 7ell in a -acuu) an$ )a2e it -i7rate for hours0 , ha-e $esigne$ circuits in connection .ith an enter(rise in 1898 for trans)ission of energy .hich8 once starte$8 .oul$ -i7rate three years8 an$ e-en after that the oscillations coul$ still 7e $etecte$0 <rofessor &ein's theory is -ery 7eautiful8 7ut it really has no (ractical )eaning0 ,t .ill 7eco)e useless as soon as the inefficient a((aratus of the $ay8 .ith antennae that ra$iate energy ra(i$ly8 ?are@ re(lace$ 7y a scientifically $esigne$ oscillator .hich $oes not gi-e out energy e'ce(t .hen it gets u( to a tre)en$ous electro)agnetic )o)entu)0
Figure 330 The discharger working in an atmosphere, chiefly consisting of hydrogen, still further weakened by heat The use of hydrogen in this connection has been claimed as a discovery and patented +resented in TesIaHs lectures before the !ranklin Institute and the *ational -lectric .ight Association T C 'artin book, !ig $>? pp 7A?B7A:
,n this for) of 7rea2 ?Fig033@8 , change$ the at)os(here in .hich the arc .as o(erating0 The at)os(here .as )ostly hy$rogen8 an$ .ith this $e-ice , (erfor)e$ )y e'(eri)ents 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute in <hila$el(hia an$ the 1ational "lectric #ight Association in >t0#ouis0 This has 7een use$ 7y <oulsen an$ it is no. calle$ the "<oulsen arc" an$ "<oulsen syste)0" 3ut8 of course8 there is no in-ention in it0 , a) on recor$ .ith (rior (u7lications8 an$ 7esi$es8 the hy$rogen $oes not ha-e any other effect e'ce(t that it lo.ers the tension un$er .hich the $e-ice can o(erate0 ,t has the $isa$-antage of (ro$ucing asy))etrical or $istorte$ .a-es8 an$ the i)(ulses o7taine$ are not 7est suite$ for tuning0
Figure 360 (scillatory apparatus with interrupter in oil -"hibited in the Chicago -"position of $:;7 before 4elmholt@ %escribed in U , +atent *o =$<,$>: of !ebruary >, $:;< Application filed August 6, $:;7
This ?Fig036@ is the a((aratus use$ in the Chicago "'(osition of 18938 at .hich ti)e , e'(laine$ for the first ti)e to <rofessor Hel)holtB )y (lan for trans)itting energy0 After , ha$ sho.n <rofessor Hel)holtB an$ other scientific )en there certain (heno)ena8 he as2e$ )e8 "1o.8 .hat is all this inten$e$ forF" , tol$ hi) , .as trying to $e-elo( an a((aratus for trans)itting energy .ithout .ire for telegra(hy8 tele(hony8 an$ other (ur(oses0 &hen , e'(laine$ to <rofessor Hel)holtB the .hole i$ea8 , sai$8 ""'cellency8 $o you thin2 that )y (lan is realiBa7leF"
He re(lie$8 "&hy8 certainly it is8 7ut first you )ust (ro$uce the a((aratus0" , starte$ then an$ there to (ro$uce the a((aratus0 Counsel &as that con-ersation at the the Chicago "'(ositionF Tesla Des0 ,t too2 (lace in a (a-ilion .hich .as 7uilt es(ecially for e'hi7iting )y in-entions an$ $isco-eries0 , 7elie-e <rofessor &e$$ing .as there an$ so)e other scientists .ho) , cannot re)e)7er no.0 , sho.e$ <rofessor Hel)holtB )y -acuu) tu7es an$ (erfor)e$ )any other e'(eri)ents0 Counsel &ill you $escri7e this a((aratus in a little )ore $etailF Tesla The a((aratus ?Fig036@8 as you see8 co)(rise$ (ri)ary an$ secon$ary coils i))erse$ in a large tan2 of oil0 The 7rea2 .as auto)atically effecte$ 7y )eans of a tur7ine0 The oil .as circulate$ 7y a (u)(8 an$ the current ?i0e08 strea) flo.@ of oil $ro-e the tur7ine .hich effecte$ the )a2e an$ 7rea20 ;.ing to the fact that the oil use$ .as a -ery goo$ insulator8 ra(i$ly flo.ing an$ of great $ielectric strength8 these )a2e9an$97rea2 (oints .ere -ery close together8 an$ the arcs e'tre)ely short0 The effects .ere accor$ingly )ore intense0 Here ?T in =iag01 of Fig036@ is a cooler through .hich the oil .as circulate$0 The oil .as force$ through the ga(s at great s(ee$8 an$ as it flo.e$ out it .as su((lie$ again to the tan2 an$ the current $ri-ing the tur7ine0 Counsel That $e-ice ?=iag0! of Fig036@ you call a tur7ineF Tesla Des0 ,t ha$ -anes li2e those of a (ro(eller an$ constitute$ a rotary 7rea2 in the circuit0 Counsel &hat .as your (ri)e source ?of (o.er@F Tesla The (ri)ary source .as an alternator .ith a frequency of 133 cycles an$8 if , recollect rightly8 the (ressure ?at the secon$ary@ .as a7out !58555 -olts0 , )ay ha-e ha$ 158555 -olts0 , a) not sure .hat it .as8 7ut it )ust ha-e 7een certainly fro) 158555 to !58555 -oltsK.ithin that range0 Counsel , notice you ha-e t.o sets of transfor)ers in there )ar2e$ > an$ >'8 ha-e you notF Tesla This ?>'@ is )y oscillatory circuit0 That ?>@ is the transfor)er fro) .hich the con$enser .as charge$0 Here ?at >@ .e ha$ !58555 -olts8 or .hate-er it .as8 fro) the co))ercial transfor)er an$ here ?at >'@ is )y secon$ary .hich generate$ the high frequency currents0 The rotary ga( is sho.n in $etail ?=iag0 ! of Fig036@0 , ha$ a s(ecial reason for sho.ing this0 To )eet that great )an Hel)holtB an$ other scientific )en8 an$ to 7ring 7efore the) for the first ti)e the results of years of (re-ious la7or8 .as an i)(ortant )o)ent in )y lifeK (articularly 7ecause <rofessor Hel)holtB ga-e )e the assurance hi)self that .hat , e'(laine$ to hi) .as realiBa7le8 (ro-i$e$ that , coul$ (ro$uce the a((aratus0 , .as -ery )uch encourage$0
Figure 340 Apparatus with mechanical break as installed on a large scale in the laboratory at ,outh !ifth Avenue and subsequently at <> -ast 4ouston ,treet %escribed in U , +atent *o ><=,=?> of 'arch 6A, $;AA Application filed ,eptember 6, $:;?
This ?Fig034@ is the a((aratus , ha$ at 34 >outh Fifth A-enue an$ also Houston >treet0 ,t sho.s the .hole arrange)ent as , ha$ it for the $e)onstration of effects .hich , in-estigate$0?Q@ This ca7le you see ?square loo( in to( half of Fig034@ is stretche$ aroun$ the hall0 These are )y con$ensers0 There is the )echanically o(erate$ 7rea28 an$ that is a transfor)er charge$ fro) the generator0 That is the .ay , ha$ it for the (ro$uction of current effects .hich .ere rather of $a)(e$ character 7ecause8 at that (erio$8 , use$ circuits of great acti-ity .hich ra$iate$ ra(i$ly0 ,n the Houston >treet la7oratory8 , coul$ ta2e in )y han$s a coil tune$ to )y 7o$y an$ collect 3/6 horse(o.er any.here in the roo) .ithout tangi7le connection8 an$ , ha-e often $isillusione$ )y -isitors in regar$ to such .on$erful effects0 >o)eti)es8 , .oul$ (ro$uce fla)es shooting out fro) )y hea$ an$ run a )otor in )y han$s8 or light si' or eight la)(s0 They coul$ not un$erstan$ these )anifestations of energy an$ thought that it .as a genuine trans)ission of (o.er0 , tol$ the) that these (heno)ena .ere .on$erful8 7ut that a syste) of trans)ission8 7ase$ on the sa)e (rinci(le8 .as a7solutely .orthless0 ,t .as a trans)ission 7y electro)agnetic .a-es0 The solution lay in a $ifferent $irection0 , a) sho.ing you this ?$iagra)@ si)(ly as a ty(ical for) of a((aratus of that (erio$8 an$ if you go o-er the literature of the (resent $ay you .ill fin$ that the ne.est arrange)ents ha-e nothing 7etter to sho.0 Counsel &hat .as the )a2e an$ 7rea2 frequency that you got fro) that a((aratusF Tesla ,t .as 485558 %8555Kso)eti)es higher still0 , ha$ t.o o((ositely rotating $iscs .hich , .ill sho. you an$ .ith .hich , coul$ ha-e reache$8 (ro7a7ly8 148555 or 1885550 Counsel &hat .a-e frequencies $i$ you $e-elo(F Tesla , coul$ o(erate fro) a fe. thousan$ u( to a )illion (er secon$8 if , .ante$0 Counsel
&hat $i$ you actually useF Tesla ,n these $e)onstrations8 .hich , sho.e$ these effects8 these )ost (o.erful effects that .ere the sight of 1e. Dor2 at that ti)e8 , o(erate$ .ith frequencies fro) 358555 to 8585550 At that ti)e , coul$ (ic2 u( a .ire8 coil it u(8 an$ tell .hat the -i7ration .oul$ 7e8 .ithout any test8 7ecause , .as e'(eri)enting $ay an$ night0
Figure 3%0 Isochronous mechanical break used in the laboratory at 7= ,outh !ifth Avenue %escribed in U , +atent *os =>:,$?; and =>:,$:A of ,eptember 66, $:;> Applications filed 9uly > and ;, $:;> 2%iagram taken from +atent *o =>:,$:A 5
This ?Fig03%@ is a for) of 7rea2 .hich , $e-elo(e$ in .or2ing .ith alternators0 , recogniBe$ that it .as of
tre)en$ous a$-antage to 7rea2 at the (ea2 of the .a-e0 ,f , use$ Hust an or$inary 7rea28 it .oul$ )a2e an$ 7rea2 the current at lo. as .ell as high (oints of the .a-e0 ;f this a((aratus , ha$ t.o for)sJ one in .hich , $ro-e the 7rea2 right fro) the shaft of the $yna)o an$ the other in .hich , $ro-e it .ith an isochronous )otor0 Then8 7y a )o-e)ent of these 2no7s (: : 8 , .oul$ )a2e the a$Hust)ents so that the )a2es .oul$ occur e'actly at the to( of the .a-e0 That is a for) of 7rea2 .hich is e)7o$ie$ in hun$re$s of (atents an$ use$ no. e'tensi-ely0
Figure 3*0 'echanical break with two oppositely rotating discs used for the purpose of increasing the number of breaks and alternating oscillations practically undampened 2,ubsequently patented by others 5
Here ?Fig03*@ , sho. an a((aratus that .as installe$ in the Houston >treet la7oratory (rior to the other 7rea2 7ecause , .ante$ to get as high a nu)7er of i)(ulses as (ossi7le0 The $ra.ing $ates fro) the s(ring of 189%0 ,t is a 7rea2 .ith .hich , coul$ reach fro) 148555 to 188555 interru(tions (er secon$0 , use$ it -ery )uch until later , foun$ it .as not necessary0 That is the innocent $e-ice .hich /arconi thought a great in-ention0 Counsel This is also a rotary ga(F Tesla Des8 an$ it consists of t.o $iscs of alu)inu)8 .ith teeth of alu)inu) on the si$e0 They .ere rotate$ 7y t.o )otors in o((osite $irections8 an$ as they rotate$ they alternately close$ an$ o(ene$ the circuit0 ,n so)e instances , use$ an une-en nu)7er of teeth on one an$ an$ e-en nu)7er on the other so that , coul$ (ro$uce as )any 7rea2s as , $esire$0 , .ill sho. you later an a((aratus )ore (erfect than this one8 an$ of a $ifferent 2in$8 in .hich , ha-e !6 stationary contacts8 an$ !4 rotating ele)ents that esta7lishe$ the contact an$ 7ro2e it8 so that 7y one re-olution , o7taine$ !6 ti)es !48 or %55 interru(tions ?(er re-olution@0 Counsel &hene-er you say "the 7rea2"8 you )ean "a s(ar2 ga("F Tesla DesJ other.ise , use the ter) "circuit controller8" (refera7ly0
Figure 380 Use of multiBphase generator with mechanical break -"periments in the laboratory at 7= ,outh !ifth Avenue and subsequently
This ?Fig038@ illustrates another $e-elo()ent in a $ifferent $irection0 ,n or$er to increase the nu)7er of 7rea2s8 , e)(loye$ currents of $ifferent (hase0 , ha$ in )y la7oratory8 (er)anently8 a t.o9(hase $yna)o an$ coul$ get (hases 7et.eenJ that is8 fro) t.o (hases8 95 a(art8 , coul$ o7tain four (hases8 64 a(art0 Here is an arrange)ent sho.n as , ha$ it8 .or2ing .ith three (hases ?%5 a(art8 an$ coul$ o7tain si' (hases8 35 a(art@8 an$ later on , ha$ one .ith four (hases ?64 a(art8 an$ coul$ o7tain eight (hases !! 1/! a(art@0 Dou see8 as , )ulti(lie$ the nu)7er of the (hases8 , increase$ the nu)7er of the fun$a)ental $ischarges0 Counsel &hat is the $ate of this a((aratusF Tesla This , e)(loye$ alrea$y in the 34 >outh Fifth A-enue la7oratory8 7ecause , re)e)7er that , ga-e entertain)ents to se-eral scientific societies an$ it .as then (resent there0 , 2no. on one occasion there .as the >ociety of Architects8 an$ another8 the "lectrothera(eutic >ociety8 an$ then , ha$ $istinguishe$ )en li2e /ar2 T.ain an$ Eose(h EeffersonK, ga-e the) a $e)onstration .hich .as (u7lishe$ in /artin's article in the Century /agaBine of A(ril 18948 an$ , 2no. that on these occasions , use$ a t.o9(hase arrange)ent0 #ater on , )a$e it four (hase0 That a((aratus e'iste$8 therefore8 (rior to the $estruction of )y la7oratory in 18940 Counsel =o you recall any (u7lication in .hich this $iagra) .as illustrate$F Tesla , )a$e no (u7lication8 an$ , -i-i$ly re)e)7er that .hen , installe$ )y a((aratus on #ong ,slan$ , ha$ an arrange)ent .ith four transfor)ers an$ four (hases 64 a(art0 After , ha$ 7een using this a((aratus there8 se-eral years after.ar$s8 , ran across a (atent8 , 7elie-e hel$ 7y the General "lectric Co)(any8 $escri7ing (recisely the sa)e arrange)ent0?Q@ ,t .as a si)ilar e'(erience as .ith that (atent of Fessen$en on the co)(resse$ air con$enser0 Any ti)e , .ant to use these i)(ro-e)ents all , nee$ to $o is to (ro$uce )y recor$s an$ that .ill settle the (atents0 Counsel &hen .as that $ra.ing ?Fig038@F Tesla This is fro) an ol$ (atent $ra.ing .hich .as )a$e 7y /r0 1etter0
Counsel 3ut that $i$ not go to (atentF Tesla 1o0 , ha-e hun$re$s of in-entions that .ere to 7e (atente$ 7ut si$e9ste((e$0 The e'(ense .as too great an$ , coul$ not $o it0 This for) of a((aratus .ith t.o an$ four (hases .as use$ (rior to the $estruction of )y la7oratory in 18948 an$ it .as installe$ on a large scale .ith four (hases in )y (lant on #ong ,slan$ .ith .hich , .as to tele(hone aroun$ the .orl$8 7ut that is a long story0 Counsel ,n that use you )a$e of it at your la7oratory8 .as that connecte$ u( as sho.n there ?Fig038@8 to an antennaF Tesla , use$ the a((aratus8 yes8 in connection .ith the antenna too8 7ut this is fro) a (atent $ra.ing in .hich an antenna is sho.nJ , )ean8 , use$ it in e-ery connection0 ?Fig038@ illustrates an antenna .ith )y trans)itting circuit8 7ut the a((aratus .as use$ in all )y .or28 in all )y in-estigations0 Counsel An$ .hen this .as connecte$ in an$ use$ in an antenna8 $i$ you use it as in other instancesKgo off an$ listen to the notes .hich you recei-e$F Tesla ;h8 certainly0 3ut , re)e)7er that8 7esi$es this8 , ha$ $ifferent 2in$s of a((aratus0 Then , ha$ a sensi7ly $a)(e$ .a-e 7ecause at that ti)e , still .as la7ouring un$er the sa)e $ifficulties as so)e $o this $ayK, ha$ not learne$ ho. to (ro$uce a circuit .hich .oul$ gi-e )e8 .ith -ery fe. fun$a)ental i)(ulses8 a (erfectly continuous .a-e0 That ca)e .ith the (erfection of the $e-ices0 &hen , ca)e to )y e'(eri)ents in Colora$o8 , coul$ ta2e )y a((aratus li2e that an$ get a continuous or un$a)(ene$ .a-e8 al)ost .ithout e'ce(tion8 7et.een in$i-i$ual $ischarges0 Counsel >(ea2ing of your not ha-ing (erfectly un$a)(ene$ .a-es at that ti)e8 you .ere referring to that character of circuitF Tesla Des8 7ut .ith another 2in$ of circuit , coul$8 of course0 The a$-antage of this a((aratus .as the $eli-ering of energy at short inter-als .here7y one coul$ increase acti-ity8 an$ .ith this sche)e , .as a7le to (erfor) all of those .on$erful e'(eri)ents .hich ha-e 7een re(rinte$ fro) ti)e to ti)e in the technical (a(ers0 , .oul$ ta2e energy out of a circuit at rates of hun$re$s or thousan$s of horse(o.er0 ,n Colora$o8 , reache$ 18 )illion horse(o.er acti-ities8 7ut that .as al.ays 7y this $e-iceI "nergy store$ in the con$enser an$ $ischarge$ in an inconcei-a7ly s)all inter-al of ti)e0 Dou coul$ not (ro$uce that acti-ity .ith an un$a)(ene$ .a-e0 The $a)(e$ .a-e is of a$-antage 7ecause it gi-es you8 .ith a generator of 1 2ilo.att8 an acti-ity of !85558 385558 685558 or 48555 2ilo.attsJ .hereas8 if you ha-e a continuous or un$a)(ene$ .a-e8 1 2ilo.att gi-es you only .a-e energy at the rate of 1 2ilo.att an$ nothing )ore0 That is the reason .hy the syste) .ith a quenche$ ga( has 7eco)e (o(ular0 , ha-e refine$ this so that , ha-e 7een a7le to ta2e energy out of engines 7y $ra.ing on their )o)entu)0 For instance8 if the engine is of !55 horse(o.er8 , ta2e the energy out for a )inute inter-al of ti)e8 at a rate of 48555 or %8555 horse(o.er8 then , store ?it@ in a con$enser an$ $ischarge the sa)e at the rate of se-eral )illions of horse(o.er0 That is ho. these .on$erful effects are (ro$uce$0 The con$enser is the )ost .on$erful instru)ent8 as , ha-e state$ in )y .ritings8 7ecause it ena7les us to attain greater acti-ities than are (ractical .ith e'(losi-es0 There is no li)it to the energy .hich you can $e-elo( .ith a con$enser0 There is a li)it to the energy .hich you can $e-elo( .ith an e'(losi-e0 A co))on e'(eri)ent8 for instance8 in )y la7oratory on Houston >treet8 .as to (ass through a coil energy at a rate of se-eral thousan$ horse(o.er8 (ut a (iece of thic2 tinfoil on a stic28 an$ a((roach it to that coil0 The tinfoil .oul$ )elt8 an$ .oul$ not only )elt8 7ut .hile it .as still in that for)8 it .oul$ 7e e-a(orate$ an$ the .hole
(rocess too2 (lace in so s)all an inter-al of ti)e that it .as li2e a cannon shot0 ,nstantly , (ut it there8 there .as an e'(losion0 That .as a stri2ing e'(eri)ent0 ,t si)(ly sho.e$ the (o.er of the con$enser8 an$ at that ti)e , .as so rec2less that in or$er to $e)onstrate to )y -isitors that )y theories .ere correct8 , .oul$ stic2 )y hea$ into that coil an$ , .as not hurtJ 7ut8 , .oul$ not $o it no.0
Figure 39 Apparatus furnishing direct currents of high tension, producing undampened electrical oscillations of high frequency 2This is also shown in J!ig 6?K5 Apparatus built in $:;=
?Fig039@ sho.s a four9(hase )achine .hich .as furnishe$ )e 7y the &estinghouse "lectric Co)(any at the close of 18940 /y la7oratory 7urne$ out in /ay8 an$ , urge$ )y frien$8 /r0Al7ert >ch)i$t8 .ho .as the >u(erinten$ent8 to gi-e )e this alternator as soon as (ossi7le0 He .or2e$ $ay an$ night until he got it out8 an$ he certainly $i$ nota7le .or2 7ecause .hile the )achine .as rate$ at 35 horse(o.er8 , ha-e run it at 145 horse(o.er0 3y the .ay8 an$ this is a (ainful reflection8 it .as >ch)i$t an$ , .ho $e-elo(e$ this ty(e of fra)e an$ this general arrange)ent .hich is uni-ersally a$o(te$ no.Ka 7ase8 .ith the )agnets cast 7elo.8 s(lit at the centre line8 an$ a corres(on$ing u((er (art0 That is no. use$ e-ery.here0 , re)e)7er years ago8 so)e of )y frien$s8 /essrs0Croc2er an$ &heeler8 starte$ .ith those long )agnets an$ , tol$ the)8 "The sooner you thro. these a.ay an$ a$o(t this construction8 the 7etter it .ill 7e for you0" They ha-e got it no.J it is all right0 Counsel Ho. is this )achine ?Fig039@ sho.n in connection .ith thatF Tesla This $yna)o ?Fig039@8 you see8 is a t.o9(hase )achineJ that is8 , $e-elo( fro) it currents of t.o9(hase0 1o.8 there are four transfor)ers0 Dou see the) $o.n here ?lo.er left of Fig039@ that furnish the (ri)ary energy0 Fro) these t.o (hases , $e-elo( four (hases0 ?Ho.e-er8@ this in-ol-es so)ething else .hich , ha-e referre$ to 7eforeJ na)ely8 an arrange)ent .hich ena7les )e to (ro$uce fro) these alternating currents $irect currents an$ un$a)(ene$Ka7solutely un$a)(ene$Kisochronous oscillations of any (erio$ , li2e0 This is acco)(lishe$ in the follo.ing )annerI The secon$aries of the four transfor)ers coul$ each $e-elo(
668555 -olts0 They .ere s(ecially 7uilt for )e 7y the &estinghouse Co)(any0 They coul$8 ho.e-er8 7e connecte$ in such a .ay that each .oul$ gi-e 118555 -olts8 an$ then , .oul$ ta2e these 118555 -olts an$ these four (hases an$ co))utate the) 7y a co))utator consisting of alu)inu) (lates8 or alu)inu) seg)ents8 .hich .ere rotate$ in synchronis) .ith the alternator0 Then , o7taine$ a continuous (ressureJ that is8 $irect current of a tension of 668555 -olts8 an$ .ith these 668555 -olts , charge$ )y con$ensers0 Then 7y $ischarging the con$ensers8 either through a stationary ga( or through a ga( .ith a )echanical interru(ter8 , o7taine$ any frequency , $esire$8 an$ (erfectly un$a)(ene$ .a-es0 This arrange)ent .as installe$ in 1951 in )y .ireless (lant at #ong ,slan$8 .ith .hich , .as to tele(hone aroun$ the .orl$0 Counsel &ho 7uilt that )achineF Tesla The &estinghouse Co)(any8 ?un$er $irection of@ /r0 Al7ert >ch)i$t8 >u(erinten$ent0 ,t .as es(ecially 7uilt for )e an$ furnishe$ to )y la7oratory on Houston >treet0 &hile , .as .ith the &estinghouse Co)(any8 , $i$ t.o things in a$$ition to 7ringing )y )otors to the)0 , ha$ $isco-ere$ that 3esse)er steel .as a )uch 7etter )aterial for transfor)ers an$ )otors than the soft iron .hich .as (re-iously use$0 &hen , ca)e to <itts7urgh8 )y )otors ga-e results .hich their )otors coul$ not at first (ro$uce8 an$ , tol$ the) that , ha$ use$ 3esse)er steel0 , $isco-ere$8 in follo.ing u( the analysis of the steels .hich .ere use$8 that the 3esse)er .as not steel 7ut really soft iron0 The &estinghouse (eo(le then a$o(te$ )y suggestion0 At first8 /r0 >hallen7erger an$ other electricians there o7Hecte$ -ery )uch8 7ut , (ersua$e$ the) an$ .hen the transfor)ers .ere 7uilt .e foun$ that .e coul$ get ! 1/! ti)es the out(ut .e got 7efore0 The &estinghouse (eo(le 2e(t it a secret for a long ti)e an$ no one un$erstoo$ ho. they coul$ )a2e such fine transfor)ers8 7ut all they $i$ .as to use the 3esse)er steel8 on )y suggestion8 instea$ of the soft iron the General "lectric an$ other (eo(le use$0 /r0 &estinghouse es(ecially requeste$ )e to Hoin efforts .ith /r0 >ch)i$t an$ i)(ro-e the $esign of his )achines8 an$ .e $i$ so0 &e e-ol-e$ this $esign8 intro$uce$ the rea$y9 )a$e coils8 .hich are (resse$ on the ar)ature8 an$ other i)(ro-e)ents0 , too2 a cou(le of (atents out .ith /r0 >ch)i$t8 an$ /r0 &estinghouse .as -ery nice a7out it0 , thin2 he co)(ensate$ )e .ith ^1585558 or so)ething li2e that8 for )y suggestions0 Counsel Dou ha-e s(o2en of the use of that )achine at Houston >treet0 ,n .hat .ay .as it use$F Tesla , use$ this )achine8 as , sai$8 either to (ro$uce alternating currents an$ then interru(t the) .ith a )echanical 7rea2 at the high (ea2s of the .a-eJ or8 , use$ alternating currents an$ interru(te$ the) .ith an in$e(en$ent rotating 7rea2 ha-ing a great nu)7er of teeth0 ;r8 , generate$ continuous currents 7y co))utating the high tension alternating currents of the transfor)er0 At that ti)e , ha$ t.o transfor)ers fro) .hich , o7taine$ a constant (ressure8 charge$ the con$enser8 an$ (ro$uce$ un$a)(ene$ .a-es of any frequency , .ante$0 As to the )achine here ?Fig039@8 that is the .ay it .as arrange$0 ,t .as for the generation of continuous electro)oti-e force an$ (ro$uction of un$a)(ene$ .a-esKfro) 1894 an$ on0 Counsel &hat sort of a((aratus .as it connecte$ u( to for the (ur(ose of a7sor7ing these .a-esF Tesla ,t .as the sa)e as sho.n here ?Fig038@0 ,t .as connecte$ to the con$ensers8 an$ these con$ensers .ere $ischarge$ through a (ri)ary .hich e'cite$ the secon$aryJ the antenna .as inclu$e$ in the secon$ary0 At other ti)es .e $ischarge$ the con$ensers $irectly so that , coul$ use the antenna .ithout the secon$ary0 Counsel ,n the sa)e .ay $i$ you note the o(eration of these .a-esF Tesla
&e $i$8 of course8 only in )ost cases the instru)ent of rece(tion .as $ifferent0 &hen , o(erate$ .ith these continuous8 or un$a)(ene$8 .a-es8 generate$ in this .ay8 , usually .ent to high frequencies0 , $i$ o(erate ?at@ a -ery fe. thousan$8 7ut that ga-e )e a s)aller out(ut0 >uch a )achine you ha-e to o(erate at high frequencies to get (o.er0 Counsel &hat $o you )ean 7y high frequenciesF Tesla , )ean frequencies of 3585558 6585558 4585558 or so)ething li2e that0 Counsel An$ 7y )eans of that )achine8 you (ut un$a)(ene$ .a-es of frequency a7out 458555 into that antenna at Houston >treet in 1894F Tesla 1o8 not in 18940 #ate in 1894 the )achine .as furnishe$ an$ , 7egan to o(erate in early 189%0 That is .hen , 7egan to o(erate0 Counsel Then you $i$ this8 that , s(ea2 of8 in 189%F Tesla Des8 fro) 189% to 18998 right along0 Counsel &hen you use$ frequencies li2e that in your antenna8 .as your antenna tune$ or untune$F Tesla , coul$ not use it untune$0 That .oul$ 7e a7sur$0 Counsel &hat for) of $e-ice $i$ you use8 an$ .here $i$ you use it8 for noting the generation of these oscillations or .a-es in the antennaF Tesla , su((ose , ha$ hun$re$s of $e-ices8 7ut the first $e-ice that , use$8 an$ it .as -ery successful8 .as an i)(ro-e)ent on the 7olo)eter0 , )et <rofessor #angley in 189! at the +oyal ,nstitution0 He sai$ to )e8 after , ha$ $eli-ere$ a lecture8 that they .ere all (rou$ of )e0 , s(o2e to hi) of the 7olo)eter8 an$ re)ar2e$ that it .as a 7eautiful instru)ent0 , then sai$8 "<rofessor #angley8 , ha-e a suggestion for )a2ing an i)(ro-e)ent in the 7olo)eter8 if you .ill e)7o$y it in the (rinci(le0" , e'(laine$ to hi) ho. the 7olo)eter coul$ 7e i)(ro-e$0 <rofessor #angley .as -ery )uch intereste$ an$ .rote in his note7oo2 .hat , suggeste$0 , use$ .hat , ha-e ter)e$ a s)all9)ass resistance8 7ut of )uch s)aller )ass than in the 7olo)eter of #angley8 an$ of )uch s)aller )ass than that of any of the $e-ices .hich ha-e 7een recor$e$ in (atents issue$ since0 Those are clu)sy things0 , use$ )asses that .ere not a )illionth of the s)allest )ass $escri7e$ in any of the (atents8 or in the (u7lications0 &ith such an instru)ent8 , o(erate$8 for instance8 in &est <ointK, recei-e$ signals fro) )y la7oratory on Houston >treet in &est <oint0 Counsel This .as then the )achine that you use$ .hen .or2ing .ith &est <ointF
Tesla , o(erate$ once or t.ice .ith it at that $istance8 7ut usually as , .as in-estigating in the city0 /y .or2 at that ti)e .as to (re(are for the $e-elo()ent of a co))ercial (lant8 an$ .ith )e the question .as not to trans)it signals8 7ut to see .hat intensity , coul$ get to (ut )e in (osition to calculate out )y a((aratus8 the $i)ensions an$ the for)s8 7efore , 7egan the un$erta2ing0 ,t .as nothing 7ut (re(aratory .or2 for the construction of a co))ercial (lant8 an$ , $e)onstrate$ its (ractica7ility through )y e'(eri)ents8 a (lant .hich .as to acco)(lish )uch )ore than all others0 Counsel &hat .as the horse(o.er acti-ity in the oscillating circuits .hen you use$ this )achineF Tesla Csually so)ething li2e 45 horse(o.er8 an$ , .oul$ get8 , shoul$ say8 a((ro'i)ately 35 horse(o.er in the antennaJ that is8 , .oul$ get 35 horse(o.er in the oscillating circuit0 Counsel , un$erstoo$ a little .hile ago .hen you )a$e the state)ent of using se-eral thousan$ horse(o.er (ut into a con$enser8 you coul$ ta2e out of the con$enser a )illion horse(o.er0 , .on$ere$ if you got the sa)e con$ition .ith this )achine0 Tesla DesJ , charge$ the con$enser .ith 658555 -olts0 &hen it .as charge$ full8 , $ischarge$ it su$$enly8 through a short circuit .hich ga-e )e a -ery ra(i$ rate of oscillation0 #et us su((ose that , ha$ store$ in the con$enser 15 .atts0 Then8 for such a .a-e there is a flu' of energy of (6 ' 156 !8 an$ this is )ulti(lie$ 7y the frequency of 15585550 Dou see8 it )ay go into thousan$s or )illions of horse(o.er0 Counsel &hat , .ante$ to get at .as8 $i$ that $e(en$ u(on the su$$enness of the $ischargeF Tesla Des0 ,t is )erely the electrical analogue of a (ile $ri-er or a ha))er0 Dou accu)ulate energy through a long $istance an$ then you $eli-er it .ith a tre)en$ous su$$enness0 The $istance through .hich the )ass )o-es is s)allKthe (ressure i))ense0 Counsel =i$ you fin$ that that .as the 7est con$ition for trans)itting energy .ithout the use of .ireF Tesla 1o8 , $i$ not use that )etho$ .hen , .as trans)itting energy0 , use$ it only in the (ro$uction of those frea2s for .hich , ha-e 7een calle$ a )agician0 ,f , ha$ use$ )erely un$a)(ene$ .a-es8 , .oul$ ha-e 7een an or$inary electrician li2e e-ery7o$y else0 Counsel Dou ha-e referre$ to so)e $elicate recei-ing instru)ents0 =i$ you ha-e any trou7le .ith those 7urning out on account of staticF Tesla /y $ear sir8 , 7urne$ out so )any instru)ents 7efore , $isco-ere$ .hat .as the )atter .ith the)Y They 7urne$ out instantly until , learne$ ho. to )a2e the) so that they coul$ not 7urn out0 Des8 that .as a great trou7le in the 7eginning0 Counsel =i$ you succee$ in getting the) so they .oul$ not 7urn outF Tesla
Des0 ,f lightning struc2 close 7y8 it .oul$ not 7urn out )y instru)ent that has a )illionth of the s)allest )ass use$ in the instru)ents of others0
Figure 650 Apparatus and method of conversion by condenser discharges applicable to both alternating and direct currents %escribed in lectures before the !ranklin Institute and the *ational -lectric .ight Association early in $:;7 Illustrated in T C 'artin book, !ig $>=, pp 7A6B7$?
This ?Fig065@ is a syste)atic re(resentation of the -arious .ays .hich , ga-e in )y lecture 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ the 1ational "lectric #ight Association8 e)7o$ying the general arrange)ents for the o7tain)ent of continuous .a-es8 un$a)(ene$ or $a)(e$ .a-es8 fro) $irect an$ alternating current su((ly0 ;n the one si$e ?right@ you ha-e $irect8 on the other si$e alternating current su((ly0 >o)e electricians ha-e ha$ $ifficulties in o(erating so)e of this a((aratus0 , ha$ none0 , can ta2e an or$inary circuit of 45 -olts an$ (ro$uce fro) it a7solutely un$a)(ene$ oscillations an$ ne-er ha-e the slightest $ifficulty a7out it0
Figure 610 Illustrating one of the early e"periments with a tuned transformer in the laboratory at ,outh !ifth Avenue
1o. , co)e to a fe. (ieces of a((aratus .hich , use$ in the Houston >treet la7oratory an$ the >outh Fifth A-enue la7oratory0 , ha-e here ?Fig061@ .hat you )ight call a tuning coil0 , e)(loye$ usually another secon$ary an$ ha$ )y con$ensers on the ta7le0 Dou see one of the coils in action0 This is a tune$ circuit .hich res(on$s to electro)agnetic .a-es .hich are sent through the roo)0 Counsel This is 7eing use$ as a recei-er of .a-esF
Tesla Des0
Figure 6!0 Another illustration of one of the early e"periments with a tuned transformer in the laboratory at ,outh !ifth Avenue 2Article by T C 'artin JLTeslaHs (scillator and (ther InventionsLK, Century 'aga@ine, April $:;=, !ig ;, p ;6> 5
This ?instru)ent sho.n in Fig06!@ .as use$ in the la7oratory on >outh Fifth A-enue0 Here ?large circular $isc lying on to( of coil@ is the tuning ta7le .ith the con$ensers8 a thic2 (ri)ary8 an$ another secon$ary .ire0 >o)eti)es , .oul$ o(erate .ith t.o -i7rations an$ , .oul$ tune the first circuit to one an$ the secon$ to the other0 Here ?referring to ca7inets in 7ac2 of roo)@ you see so)e of )y historical a((aratus0 <rofessor Fairfiel$ ;s7orn?Q@ ca)e once to )y la7oratory an$ sai$ to )e8 "&hy on earth $o you 2ee( it in this la7oratoryF" , ha$ all of this a((aratus8 655 (ieces8 a7solutely (riceless8 an$ he offere$ to ta2e it o-er to the /useu)0 3ut , $i$ not hee$ his a$-ice8 an$ it is gone0 Counsel &here .ere the .a-es sent fro)F Tesla The .hole roo) .as energiBe$ 7y electro)agnetic .a-es an$ the recei-er res(on$e$ at any (lace in the hall0 The hall .as 7igger than this roo) ?sho.n in Fig06!@8 t.ice as long8 an$ any.here the intensity of action .as the sa)e0 These $iscs ?-ertical8 on to( of tuning ta7le@ .ere8 , thin28 a7out 16 or 14 inches in $ia)eter8 an$ you coul$ see the strea)ers ?sho.n as .hite 7et.een the $iscs@ any.here in the roo)0 ,n a hall t.ice as long as this8 .here-er , (lace$ the instru)ent8 it .oul$ res(on$ to the electro)agnetic .a-es0 Counsel ,n this (articular instance you are s(ea2ing of8 the .a-es .ere generate$ right there at 34 >outh Fifth A-enueF Tesla Des0
Counsel &as that the a((aratus in .hich you ha$ the (ri)aries running entirely aroun$ the roo)F Tesla Des0 This .as sho.n to )any (eo(le an$ societies0 This ?Fig063@ sho.s the first single ste( , )a$e to.ar$ the e-olution of an a((aratus .hich8 gi-en (ri)ary oscillations8 .ill transfor) the) into oscillations ca(a7le of (enetrating the )e$iu)0 That e'(eri)ent8 .hich .as )ar-ellous at the ti)e it .as (erfor)e$8 .as sho.n for the first ti)e in 18960 , re)e)7er the inci$ent (erfectly0 , calle$ /r0 "$.ar$ A$a)s8 the 7an2er8 to co)e an$ see it8 an$ he .as the first )an to o7ser-e it an$ to hear )y e'(lanation of .hat it )eant0
Figure 630 Apparatus in action illustrating the first step in the evolution of the magnifying transmitter in the laboratory at 7= ,outh !ifth Avenue 2Article by T C 'artin JLTeslaHs (scillator and (ther InventionsLK, Century 'aga@ine, April $:;=, !ig $=, p ;76 5
This coil8 .hich , ha-e su7sequently sho.n in )y (atents 1os0 %6484*% an$ %698%!18 in the for) of a s(iral8 .as8 as you see8 ?earlier@ in the for) of a cone0 The i$ea .as to (ut the coil8 .ith reference to the (ri)ary8 in an in$ucti-e connection .hich .as not closeK.e call it no. a loose cou(lingK7ut free to (er)it a great resonant rise0 That .as the first single ste(8 as , say8 to.ar$ the e-olution of an in-ention .hich , ha-e calle$ )y ")agnifying trans)itter0" That )eans8 a circuit connecte$ to groun$ an$ to the antenna8 of a tre)en$ous electro)agnetic )o)entu) an$ s)all $a)(ing factor8 .ith all the con$itions so $eter)ine$ that an i))ense accu)ulation of electrical energy can ta2e (lace0 ,t .as along this line that , finally arri-e$ at the results $escri7e$ in )y article in the Century /agaBine of Eune 19550 ?Fig063@ sho.s an alternatorJ not the alternator that .as furnishe$ for )y la7oratory on Houston >treetK
that .as another one8 ?7ut@ at 34 >outh Fifth A-enue ?an$@ o(erate$ on the sa)e (rinci(le0 Here ?lo.er left@ are the con$ensers8 (ri)ary8 an$ all the rest0 The $ischarge there .as 4 or % feet8 co)(arati-ely s)all to .hat , su7sequently o7taine$0 , ha-e (ro$uce$ $ischarges of 155 feet8 an$ coul$ (ro$uce so)e of 18555 feet if necessary8 .ith the greatest facility0 Counsel /r0Tesla8 at that (oint8 .hat $i$ you )ean 7y electro9)agnetic )o)entu)F Tesla , )ean that you ha-e to ha-e in the circuit8 inertia0Dou ha-e to ha-e a large self9in$uctance in or$er that you )ay acco)(lish t.o thingsI First8 a co)(arati-ely lo. frequency8 .hich .ill re$uce the ra$iation of the electro)agnetic .a-es to a co)(arati-ely s)all -alue8 an$ secon$8 a great resonant effect0 That is not (ossi7le in an antenna8 for instance8 of large ca(acity an$ s)all self9in$uctance0 A large ca(acity an$ s)all self9 in$uctance is the (oorest 2in$ of circuit .hich can 7e constructe$J it gi-es a -ery s)all resonant effect0 That .as the reason .hy in )y e'(eri)ents in Colora$o the energies .ere 18555 ti)es greater than in the (resent antennae0 Counsel Dou say the energy .as 18555 ti)es greater0 =o you )ean that the -oltage .as increase$8 or the current8 or 7othF Tesla Des ?7oth@0 To 7e )ore e'(licit8 , ta2e a -ery large self9in$uctance an$ a co)(arati-ely s)all ca(acity8 .hich , ha-e constructe$ in a certain .ay so that the electricity cannot lea2 out0 , thus o7tain a lo. frequencyJ 7ut8 as you 2no.8 the electro)agnetic ra$iation is (ro(ortionate to the square root of the ca(acity $i-i$e$ 7y the self9 in$uction0 , $o not (er)it the energy to go outJ , accu)ulate in that circuit a tre)en$ous energy0 &hen the high (otential is attaine$8 if , .ant to gi-e off electro)agnetic .a-es8 , $o so8 7ut , (refer to re$uce those .a-es in quantity an$ (ass a current into the earth8 7ecause electro)agnetic .a-e energy is not reco-era7le .hile that ?earth@ current is entirely reco-era7le8 7eing the energy store$ in an elastic syste)0 Counsel &hat elastic syste) $o you refer toF Tesla , )ean thisI ,f you (ass a current into a circuit .ith large self9in$uction8 an$ no ra$iation ta2es (lace8 an$ you ha-e a lo. resistance8 there is no (ossi7ility of this energy getting out into s(aceJ therefore8 the i)(resse$ i)(ulses accu)ulate0 Counsel #et's see if , un$erstan$ this correctly0 ,f you ha-e ra$iation or electro)agnetic .a-es going fro) your syste)8 the energy is .aste$F Tesla A7solutely .aste$0 Fro) )y circuit you can get either electro)agnetic .a-es8 95 (ercent of electro)agnetic .a-es if you li2e8 an$ 15 (ercent in the current energy that (asses through the earth0 ;r8 you can re-erse the (rocess an$ get 15 (ercent of the energy in electro)agnetic .a-es an$ 95 (ercent in energy of the current that (asses through the earth0 ,t is Hust li2e thisI , ha-e in-ente$ a 2nife0 The 2nife can cut .ith the shar( e$ge0 , tell the )an .ho a((lies )y in-ention8 you )ust cut .ith the shar( e$ge0 , 2no. (erfectly .ell you can cut 7utter .ith the 7lunt e$ge8 7ut )y 2nife is not inten$e$ for this0 Dou )ust not )a2e the antenna gi-e off 95 (ercent in electro)agnetic an$ 15 (ercent in current .a-es8 7ecause the electro)agnetic .a-es are lost 7y the ti)e you are a fe. arcs aroun$ the (lanet8 .hile the current tra-els to the utter)ost $istance of the glo7e an$ can 7e reco-ere$0 This -ie.8 7y the .ay8 is no. confir)e$0 1ote8 for instance8 the )athe)atical treatise of >o))erfel$8?Q@ .ho sho.s that )y theory is correct8 that , .as right in )y e'(lanations of the (heno)ena8 an$ that the (rofession .as co)(letely )isle$0 This is the reason .hy these follo.ers of )ine in high frequency currents ha-e )a$e a )ista2e0 They .ante$ to )a2e high frequency alternators of !558555 cycles .ith the i$ea that they .oul$ (ro$uce electro)agnetic .a-es8 95 (ercent in electro)agnetic .a-es an$ the rest in current energy0 , only use$
lo. alternations8 an$ , (ro$uce$ 95 (ercent in current energy an$ only 15 (ercent in electro)agnetic .a-es8 .hich are .aste$8 an$ that is .hy , got )y results0000 Dou see8 the a((aratus .hich , ha-e $e-ise$ .as an a((aratus ena7ling one to (ro$uce tre)en$ous $ifferences of (otential an$ currents in an antenna circuit0 These require)ents )ust 7e fulfille$8 .hether you trans)it 7y currents of con$uction8 or .hether you trans)it 7y electro)agnetic .a-es0 Dou .ant high (otential currents8 you .ant a great a)ount of -i7ratory energyJ 7ut you can gra$uate this -i7ratory energy0 3y (ro(er $esign an$ choice of .a-e lengths8 you can arrange it so that you get8 for instance8 4 (ercent in these electro)agnetic .a-es an$ 94 (ercent in the current that goes through the earth0 That is .hat , a) $oing0 ;r you can get8 as these ra$io )en8 94 (ercent in the energy of electro)agnetic .a-es an$ only 4 (ercent in the energy of the current0 0 0 0The a((aratus is suita7le for one or the other )etho$0 , a) not (ro$ucing ra$iation .ith )y syste)J , a) su((ressing electro)agnetic .a-es0 0 0 0,n )y syste)8 you shoul$ free yourself of the i$ea that there is ra$iation8 that the energy is ra$iate$0 ,t is not ra$iate$J it is conser-e$0 000 6::& T,eory and Te(,ni8ue of *nergy Transmission
Figure *80 -"perimental demonstration in the 4ouston ,treet laboratory, before # % ,eeley, -"aminer in Chief, U , +atent (ffice, 9anuary 67, $:;:, of the practicability of transmission of electrical energy in industrial amounts by the method and apparatus described in U , +atents *o ><=,=?> and *o ><;,>6$ Applications filed ,eptember 6, $:;?
Tesla This ?Fig0 *8@ is a $iagra) re(resenting the arrange)ent of a((aratus as in a (ractical e'(eri)ent .hich , (erfor)e$ 7efore G0=0 >eeley8 "'a)iner in Chief8 C0>0 <atent ;ffice8 on the !3r$ of Eanuary8 18980 This e'(eri)ent illustrates a great $e(arture , ha$ )a$e a little (rior to that $ate0 C( to the en$ of 189%8 , ha$ 7een $e-elo(ing the .ireless syste) along the lines set forth in )y lecture .hich is in the /artin 7oo28 (articularly in the cha(ter on "lectrical +esonance8 (ages 36593690 As , state$ then8 if that (lan of )ine .as (ractica7le8 $istance )eant a7solutely nothingJ $istance )erely ca)e into consi$eration .hen you flashe$ rays8 electro9 )agnetic or HertBian .a-es8 or so)e agency of that 2in$0 3y the (lan , ha$ concei-e$8 if it .as realiBa7le8 it .as Hust as easy to telegra(h or tele(hone across the entire glo7e as it is across this roo)0 =e-elo(ing along these lines8 )y effort .as first to ha-e the 7iggest (ossi7le ca(acity 7ecause , ha$ sho.n that8 theoretically8 the effect .oul$ 7e $e(en$ent u(on the quantity of electricity $is(lace$0 The quantity of electricity
$is(lace$ is (ro(ortionate to the ca(acity0 Therefore8 in or$er to realiBe )y sche)e8 it see)e$ necessary to e)(loy the 7iggest (ossi7le ca(acities that coul$ 7e (ractically constructe$J that .as )y i$ea at the 7eginning0 3ut , 2ne. also that e-en .ith a 7ig ca(acity8 if , connecte$ it to the groun$8 through a generator8 there still .oul$ 7e a frequency high enough to cause a consi$era7le loss of energy in the (ro$uction of the HertB or electro)agnetic .a-esJ consequently8 , ha$ to e)(loy also a -ery large in$uctance0 Thus8 )y syste) .as 7ase$ on the (ro(osition that , e)(loy a -ery large in$uctance an$ a -ery large ca(acity an$8 further)ore8 that , raise the (otential of the source so high8 7y resonance8 as to $is(lace a quantity of electricity 7ig enough to affect sensi7ly not only the near (ortions of the glo7e8 a $istance of 155 )iles or so8 7ut the .hole glo7e0 ,n ?)y@ Houston >treet la7oratory8 , ha$ alrea$y satisfie$ )yself that it coul$ 7e $one0 3ut in e'(eri)enting .ith these high (otential $ischarges .hich , .as al.ays (ro$ucing8 , $isco-ere$ a .on$erful thing0 , foun$8 na)ely8 that the air8 .hich ha$ 7een 7eha-ing 7efore li2e an insulator8 su$$enly 7eca)e li2e a con$uctorJ that is8 .hen su7Hecte$ to these great electrical stresses8 it 7ro2e $o.n an$ , o7taine$ $ischarges .hich .ere not accounta7le for 7y the theory that the air .as an insulator0 &hen , calculate$ the effects8 , conclu$e$ that this )ust 7e $ue to the (otential gra$ient at a $istance fro) the electrifie$ 7o$y8 an$ su7sequently , ca)e to the con-iction that it .oul$ 7e ulti)ately (ossi7le8 .ithout any ele-ate$ antenna 99 .ith -ery s)all ele-ation 99 to 7rea2 $o.n the u((er stratu) of the air an$ trans)it the current 7y con$uction0 Ha-ing $isco-ere$ that8 , esta7lishe$ con$itions un$er .hich , )ight o(erate in (utting u( a (ractical co))ercial (lant0 &hen the )atter ca)e u( in the (atents 7efore the "'a)iner8 , arrange$ this e'(eri)ent ?sho.n in Fig0 *8@ for hi) in )y Houston >treet la7oratory0 , too2 a tu7e 45 feet long8 in .hich , esta7lishe$ con$itions such as .oul$ e'ist in the at)os(here at a height of a7out 6 1/! )iles8 a height .hich coul$ 7e reache$ in a co))ercial enter(rise8 7ecause .e ha-e )ountains that are 4 )iles highJ an$8 further)ore8 in the )ountainous regions .e ha-e often great .ater (o.er8 so that the (roHect of trans)itting it8 if the (lan .as rational8 .oul$ 7e (ractica7le0 Then8 on the 7asis of the results , ha$ alrea$y o7taine$8 , esta7lishe$ those con$itions8 (ractically8 in )y la7oratory0 , use$ that coil .hich is sho.n in )y (atent a((lication of >e(te)7er !8 189* (<atent 1o0 %6484*% of /arch !58 1955 8 the (ri)ary as $escri7e$8 the recei-ing circuit8 an$ la)(s in the secon$ary transfor)ing circuit8 e'actly as illustrate$ there0 An$ .hen , turne$ on the current8 , sho.e$ that through a stratu) of air at a (ressure of 134 )illi)eters8 .hen )y four circuits .ere tune$8 se-eral incan$escent la)(s .ere lighte$0 Counsel &hat $i$ you use as the source of energy in your (ri)ary trans)itting circuit8 at the ti)e you $e)onstrate$ this a((aratus to "'a)iner >eeleyF Tesla , use$ a 7rea28 a )echanically rotating 7rea28 .hich .as charging a con$enser 48555 ti)es a secon$8 as , $escri7e$ in )y (atent 1u)7er %6484*% of /arch !58 19550 Counsel &hat .as the -oltage that .as generate$F Tesla The -oltage .as a7out 6 )illion -olts0 Counsel Dou say you use$ a 7rea28 .hich , un$erstan$ to 7e a rotary s(ar2 ga(0 &hat .as the original source of (o.erF Tesla The original source of (o.er .as an alternator .hich , e)(loye$ regularly there8 fro) .hich , coul$ get a7out 35 horse(o.er in or$inary e'(eri)entation0 ,t .as a )achine of a frequency of a7out %5 cycles0 Counsel An$ that .as connecte$ in circuit .ith the con$enser an$ a ga( in the .ell92no.n .ay of your oscillatorsF
Tesla Des0 Counsel Then you got fro) that8 7y )eans of a rotary ga(8 a7out 48555 s(ar2sF Tesla Des8 48555 (er secon$8 an$ , transferre$ ?these@ to a frequency of !558555 to !458555 (er secon$0 <ar$on )e for saying8 , ha$ arrange$ for the "'a)iner to )a2e this $e)onstration .ith a high frequency alternatorJ 7ut Hust as the .or2 .as (ressing , trie$ it an$ coul$ not get the necessary tension .ith it8 other.ise , .oul$ ha-e use$ the alternator0 3ut in this other .ay8 , coul$ get the 6 )illion -olts , nee$e$J that is the reason .hy the e'(eri)ent .as )a$e .ith this 2in$ of a((aratus0 Counsel An$ you ha$ a .a-e frequency of .hatF Tesla 3et.een !558555 an$ !4585550 That .as si)(ly .a-e frequencyJ that $i$ not )ean anything here 7ecause , .as trans)itting through a con$uctor0 , .as not ra$iating energy into s(ace0 Counsel &as that a glass tu7eF Tesla Des8 ! or 3 inches in $ia)eter8 an$ Hoine$ .ith ru77er0 Then there .as a (i(e that le$ to the (u)(8 an$ , ha$ a )ano)eter to sho. accurately the (ressure in the tu7e0 , calculate$ it so that it corres(on$e$ to a $efinite height of a7out 4 )iles0 3ecause , ha$ )entione$ in )y (atent 4 )iles8 , $i$ not .ant to retract that state)ent0 ,t .as si)(ly to sho. that this .as (ractica7le0 &e shall co)e i))e$iately to so)ething .hich .ill (ut all this in a $ifferent light0 Here ?referring to Fig0 *9@ is the earth0 +a$io engineers $o not realiBe this truth8 7ut .hen they $o they .ill i))e$iately get a $ifferent -ie. of the .hole ra$io trans)ission an$ .ill $esign their a((aratus accor$ingly0 ?,@n fact8 they .ill $o e'actly .hat , $i$0 ,t .as a re-elation to )e0 The earth is 68555 )iles ra$ius0 Aroun$ this con$ucting earth is an at)os(here0 The earth is a con$uctorJ the at)os(here a7o-e is a con$uctor8 only there is a little stratu) 7et.een the con$ucting at)os(here an$ the con$ucting earth .hich is insulating0 1o.8 on the 7asis of )y e'(eri)ents in )y la7oratory on Houston >treet8 the insulating layer of air8 .hich se(arates the con$ucting layer of air fro) the con$ucting surface of the earth8 is sho.n to scale as you see it here0 Those ?ra$ii lines@ are %5 of the circu)ference of the earth8 an$ you )ay notice that faint .hite line8 a little 7it of a crac28 that e'ten$s 7et.een those t.o con$uctors0 1o.8 you realiBe right a.ay that if you set u( $ifferences of (otential at one (oint8 say8 you .ill create in the )e$ia corres(on$ing fluctuations of (otential0 3ut8 since the $istance fro) the earth's surface to the con$ucting at)os(here is )inute8 as co)(are$ .ith the $istance of the recei-er at 68555 )iles8 say8 you can rea$ily see that the energy cannot tra-el along this cur-e an$ get there8 7ut .ill 7e i))e$iately transfor)e$ into con$uction currents8 an$ these currents .ill tra-el li2e currents o-er a .ire .ith a return0 The energy .ill 7e reco-ere$ in the circuit8 not 7y a 7ea) that (asses along this cur-e an$ is reflecte$ an$ a7sor7e$8 7ecause such a thing is i)(ossi7le8 7ut it .ill tra-el 7y con$uction an$ .ill 7e reco-ere$ in this ?e)(hasis in original@ .ay0 Ha$ , $ra.n this .hite line to scale on the 7asis of )y Colora$o e'(eri)ents8 it .oul$ 7e so thin that you .oul$ ha-e to use a )agnifying glass to see it0
Figure *90 %iagram e"planatory of the transmission of electrical energy by the method described !irst put before .ord )elvin in the 4ouston ,treet laboratory, ,eptember $:;?
Counsel &ill you (ar$on )e for interru(ting again0 Dou s(o2e so)e ti)e ago a7out getting all of the energy fro) your trans)itting into your recei-ing station 7y this )etho$ of yours0 , $o not un$erstan$ ho. you can get all of it0 Tesla ;h8 that is har$ly trueJ , a) s(ea2ing as a )atter of (rinci(le0 Dou ne-er can get all the energy8 7ecause there is no such thing as (erfect a((aratus0 Counsel , $i$ not )ean it in that sense0 , un$erstan$ that there is8 of course8 al.ays so)e loss8 7ut )y conce(tion .as that .hen you create$ the $istur7ance in the electrical con$ition of the earth at your trans)itting station8 that that e'ten$e$ out in all ra$ial $irections0 Tesla Des8 it $i$0 Counsel An$ therefore ho.8 at any gi-en station8 can you get )ore than a -ery s)all fraction of that energyF Tesla <ar$on )e8 you are )ista2en0
Counsel That is .hat , .ant you to e'(lain0 , )ust 7e )ista2en8 7ecause )y conce(tion $oes not fit in .ith your state)ents0 Tesla All right8 , .ill e'(lain that0 ,n )y first efforts8 of course , si)(ly conte)(late$ to $istur7 effecti-ely the earth8 sufficiently to o(erate instru)ents0 &ell8 you 2no. you )ust first learn ho. to .al2 7efore you can fly0 As , (erfecte$ )y a((aratus8 , sa. clearly that , can reco-er8 of that energy .hich goes in all $irections8 a large a)ount8 for the si)(le reason that in the syste) , ha-e $e-ise$8 once that current got into the earth it ha$ no chance of esca(ing8 7ecause )y frequency .as lo.J hence8 the electro9)agnetic ra$iation .as lo.0 The (otential8 the electric (otential8 is li2e te)(erature0 &e )ight as .ell call (otential electric te)(erature0 The earth is a -ast 7o$y0 The (otential $ifferences in the earth are s)all8 ra$iation is -ery s)all0 Therefore8 if , (ass )y current into the earth8 the energy of the current is store$ there as electro)agnetic )o)entu) of the -i7rations an$ is not consu)e$ until , (ut a recei-er at a $istance8 .hen it .ill 7egin to $ra. the energy an$ it .ill go to that (oint an$ no.here else0 Counsel &hy is that8 on your theoryF Tesla , .ill e'(lain it 7y an analogue0 >u((ose that the earth .ere an elastic 7ag fille$ .ith .ater0 /y trans)itter is equi-alent to a (u)(0 , (ut it on a (oint of the glo7e8 an$ .or2 )y little (iston so as to create a $istur7ance of that .ater0 ,f the (iston )o-es slo.ly8 so that the ti)e is long enough for the $istur7ance to s(rea$ o-er the glo7e8 then .hat .ill 7e the result of )y .or2ing this (u)(F The result .ill 7e that the 7ag .ill e'(an$ an$ contract rhyth)ically .ith the )otions of the (iston8 you see0 >o that8 at any (oint of that 7ag8 there .ill 7e a rhyth)ical )o-e)ent $ue to the (ulsations of the (u)(0 That is only8 ho.e-er8 .hen the (erio$ is long0 ,f , .ere to .or2 this (u)( -ery ra(i$ly8 then , .oul$ create i)(ulses8 an$ the ri((les .oul$ s(rea$ in circles o-er the surface of the glo7e0 The glo7e .ill no longer e'(an$ an$ contract in its entirety8 7ut it .ill 7e su7Hect to these outgoing8 ri((ling .a-es0 +e)e)7er8 no.8 that the .ater is inco)(ressi7le8 that the 7ag is (erfectly elastic8 that there are no hysteresis losses in the 7ag $ue to these e'(ansions an$ contractionsJ an$ re)e)7er also8 that there is a -acuu)8 in infinite s(ace8 so that the energy cannot 7e lost in .a-es of soun$0 Then8 if , (ut at a $istant (oint another little (u)(8 an$ tune it to the rhyth)ical (ulses of the (u)( at the central (lant8 , .ill e'cite strong -i7rations an$ .ill reco-er (o.er fro) the)8 sufficient to o(erate a recei-er0 3ut8 if , ha-e no (u)( there to recei-e these oscillations8 if there is no.here a (lace .here this elastic energy is transferre$ into frictional energy (.e al.ays use in our $e-ices frictional energy 99 e-erything is lost through friction 8 then there is no loss8 an$ if , ha-e a (lant of 18555 horse(o.er an$ , o(erate it to full ca(acity8 that (lant $oes not ta2e (o.er8 it runs i$le8 e'actly as the (lant at 1iagara0 ,f , $o not (ut any )otors or any la)(s on the circuit8 the (lant runs i$le0 There is a 48555 horse(o.er tur7ine going8 7ut no (o.er is su((lie$ to the tur7ine e'ce(t such (o.er as is necessary to o-erco)e the frictional losses0 1o. the -ast $ifference 7et.een the sche)e of ra$io engineers an$ )y sche)e is this0 ,f you generate electro)agnetic .a-es .ith a (lant of 18555 horse(o.er8 you are using 18555 horse(o.er right along 99 .hether there is any recei-ing 7eing $one or not0 Dou ha-e to su((ly this 18555 horse(o.er8 e'actly as you ha-e to su((ly coal to 2ee( your sto-e going8 or else no heat goes out0 That is the -ast $ifference0 ,n )y case8 , conser-e the energyJ in the other case8 the energy is all lost0 Counsel /r0 Tesla8 $oes that not (resu((ose that the flui$ )ust 7e inco)(ressi7leF Tesla , shoul$ say so8 an$ electricity8 .hate-er it is8 certainly it is inco)(ressi7le 7ecause all our e'(eri)ents sho. that0 Counsel
1o.8 if you .ere gi-ing that a na)e8 .hat (rinci(le .oul$ you say .as in-ol-e$ 7y .hich the ra$iation loss8 .here there is no recei-er8 7eco)es a gain or a conser-ation .here there is a recei-erF Tesla There is no ra$iation in this case0 Dou see8 the a((aratus .hich , $e-ise$ .as an a((aratus ena7ling one to (ro$uce tre)en$ous $ifferences of (otential an$ currents in an antenna circuit0 These require)ents )ust 7e fulfille$8 .hether you trans)it 7y currents of con$uction8 or .hether you trans)it 7y electro)agnetic .a-es0 Dou .ant high (otential currents8 you .ant a great a)ount of -i7ratory energyJ 7ut you can gra$uate this -i7ratory energy0 3y (ro(er $esign an$ choice of .a-e lengths8 you can arrange it so that you get8 for instance8 4 (ercent in these electro)agnetic .a-es an$ 94 (ercent in the current that goes through the earth0 That is .hat , a) $oing0 ;r8 you can get8 as these ra$io )en8 94 (ercent in the energy of electro)agnetic .a-es an$ only 4 (ercent in the energy of the current0 Then you are .on$ering .hy you $o not get goo$ results0 , 2no. .hy , $o not get goo$ results in that .ay0 The a((aratus is suita7le for one or the other )etho$0 , a) not (ro$ucing ra$iation in )y syste)J , a) su((ressing electro)agnetic .a-es0 3ut8 on the other han$8 )y a((aratus can 7e use$ effecti-ely .ith electro)agnetic .a-es0 The a((aratus has nothing to $o .ith this ne. )etho$ e'ce(t that it is the only )eans to (ractice it0 >o that in )y syste)8 you shoul$ free yourself of the i$ea that there is ra$iation8 that energy is ra$iate$0 ,t is not ra$iate$J it is conser-e$0 Counsel +ight in that connection8 an$ to illustrate your theory8 , .oul$ li2e to 2no. .hether you consi$er that the ra$iation fro) any .ireless station is .aste$ or conser-e$8 or .hether the effect (ro$uce$ 7y any of the) to$ay is $ue to this con$ucti-e action8 so far as it is effecti-e0 Tesla A7solutely 99 the effect at a $istance is $ue to the current energy that flo.s through the surface layers of the earth0 That has alrea$y 7een )athe)atically sho.n8 really8 7y >o))erfel$0 ?>ee e$itorial note (0 *40@ He agrees on this theoryJ 7ut as far as , a) concerne$8 that is (ositi-ely $e)onstrate$0 For instance8 ta2e the >ay-ille antenna0 <rofessor Wennec2 too2 )e out an$ ga-e )e the (articulars0 , .ent o-er the calculations an$ foun$ that at 3% 2ilo.atts they .ere ra$iating 9 2ilo.atts in electro)agnetic .a-e energy0 They ha$8 therefore8 only !4 (ercent of the .hole energy in these .a-es8 an$ , tol$ <rofessor Wennec2 that this energy is of no effect 99 that they (ro$uce8 7y the current8 $ifferences of (otential in the earth8 an$ these $ifferences of (otential are felt in Ger)any an$ affect the recei-erJ 7ut the electro)agnetic .a-es get a little 7eyon$ #ong ,slan$ an$ are lost0 , ha-e an i$ea that ?you@ .ill get the 7est (icture of the (rocess in )y syste) of trans)ission if you .ill i)agine that the earth is a reser-oir8 say8 of flui$ un$er (ressure 99 that is the (otential energy 99 an$ at )y (lant8 o(erating a $istant tune$ circuit8 , )ust o(en a -al-e an$ ena7le that energy to flo. in0 ,t is e'actly that .ay0 The energy is all conser-e$8 .hether it is -i7rating or (urely (otential0 &hate-er the trans)itter $oes in the recei-er8 the effect is si)(ly to o(en a -al-e8 as it .ere8 an$ (er)it energy to flo. in0 1o.8 of course8 the har$est thing to un$erstan$8 if one is not a s(ecialist in that line an$ has not s(ent years8 as , ha-e8 in e'(eri)ents an$ thought in that $irection8 is ho. can a (lant li2e that 7e econo)ically o(erate$ .hen .e 2no. that there are )ountain (ea2s e-ery.hereF Those (ea2s are antennaeJ they are li2e.ise charge$0 &ell8 it too2 )e a long ti)e to fin$ that out0 To gi-e you an i$ea8 let us ta2e a 7ig8 enor)ous )ountain li2e the (ea2 of Tenerife0 That is a 7ig )ountain that rises out of the sea an$ goes u( to 1*8555 or 188555 feet0 1aturally8 that is a tre)en$ous antenna8 e-ery7o$y .ill thin20 &ithout calculating8 .ithout (assing through the e'(erience , ha-e gone through8 you .ill say that (ea2 alone .ill ta2e a.ay )ore energy than all the antennae you can (ut u( all o-er the .orl$0 That is not so0 The (ea2 of Tenerife has no )ore ca(acity than so)ething li2e 155 centi)eters ?115 (icofara$s@8 an$ it .ill 7e charge$ to a -ery lo. (otential8 .hereas )y antenna coul$ 7e charge$ to a -ery high (otential0 , can sho. that the )ountain .oul$ not a7sor7 )uch energy8 not 505551 (ercent of that )y antenna .oul$0 , coul$ (ut )y antenna right close to the (ea28 an$ it .ill ta2e 158555 ti)es )ore energy0 Dou )ust si)(ly realiBe that the earth is8 so far as it is )echanically loo2e$ u(on8 li2e a rough 7allJ 7ut .hen you loo2 at it electrically8 it is a (olishe$ 7all0 #or$ :el-in has alrea$y8 in his (a(ers on at)os(heric electricity8 of .hich he 2in$ly sent )e t.o co(ies 99 he $i$ not sto( at sen$ing )e one 99 gras(e$ thatJ he consi$ere$ the $istri7ution of electricity on the glo7e8 an$ ca)e to the conclusion that the ca(acity of $efinite terrestrial areas $oes not increase sensi7ly .ith ele-ation0 Dou see8 the electrical surface $ensity on the highest (ea2s is not any )ore than Hust a fraction of 1 (ercent greater than on the sea0 >o that the .hole thing8 to )y )in$8 a((ears as a .on$erfully (ro-i$ential arrange)ent8
an$ .e can 7y this )eans realiBe things so )ar-ellous that one .oul$ 7e al)ost afrai$ to tal2 a7out the)J an$ the a((aratus 99 , $o not say that 7ecause , a) the in-entor 99 the a((aratus is (ractically the #a)( of Ala$$in0 Counsel ,s it 7ecause the earth is this inelastic )ass of electricity that it is the 7asis for your state)ent that $istance is of no consequenceF That is the .ay , -isualiBe that it is8 that if the earth is an inelastic )ass or 7o$y of electricity8 an$ you set that )ass into -i7ration at any one (oint8 that -i7ration .ill e'ten$ to the anti(o$es equally as .ell as it .ill to a $istance of !55 )iles0 ,s that .hat you ha$ in )in$F Tesla , )ust first clear a.ay so)e illusionary i$eas0 Dou )ust first un$erstan$ certain things0 Consi$er8 for instance8 the ter) "resistance0" &hen you thin2 of resistance you i)agine8 naturally8 that you ha-e a long8 thin con$uctorJ 7ut re)e)7er that .hile resistance is $irectly (ro(ortionate to length8 it is in-ersely (ro(ortionate to the section0 ,t is a quality that $e(en$s on a ratio0 ,f you ta2e a s)all s(here of the sa)e siBe of a (ea8 an$ co)(are its length .ith its section8 you .oul$ fin$ a certain resistance0 1o. you e'ten$ this (ea to the siBe of the earth8 an$ .hat is going to ha((enF &hile the length increases8 say a thousan$ ti)es or a )illion ti)es8 the section increases .ith the square of the linear $i)ensions8 so that the 7igger this thing is the less resistance it has0 ,n$ee$8 if the earth .ere as 7ig as the sun .e .oul$ still 7e 7etter off than .e areJ .e coul$ rea$ily tele(hone fro) one en$ of the sun to the other 7y the syste)8 an$ the larger the (lanet the 7etter it .oul$ 7e0 Counsel Then $o , get your i$ea correctly8 that $istance is of no i)(ortance 7ecause of the lo. resistance $ue to the large section of the earthF Tesla 1o8 (ar$on )e0 Counsel , cannot quite get that0 &hy is it that .ith your syste) $istance cuts no figureF Tesla =istance cuts no figure for the reason that there is no fall of (otential0 1o. i)agine thisI >u((ose that the earth8 in reality8 .ere a 7ig )ain8 a )ain of co((er8 say8 that all the co((er of the earth .oul$ 7e fuse$ into a 7ig )ain8 an$ then you .ill rea$ily see it .oul$ not )a2e any $ifference .here you ta((e$ that energy8 .hether you $o it near7y or .hether you go 155 )iles further8 7ecause the resistance of the )ain is nothing0 The resistance of the earth $oes not co)e in in this .ay8 7ut in another .ay0 These questions are -ery co)(le'0 The resistance is only at the (oint .here you get into the earth .ith your current0 The rest is nothing0 Those things .ill 7e -ery $ifficult to e'(lain .ithout a lot of theoretical stuff8 .hich .oul$ 7e un(rofita7le8 .hen it is here the o7Hect to gi-e a clear i$ea of the (rinci(le an$ nothing else0
Figure 850 %iagram illustrating one of the many wireless fallacies, taken from a U , +atent of #uglielmo 'arconi, *o >?>,776, 9une $$, $;A$
This ?Fig0 85@ illustrates one of the fallacies .hich the questioning has alrea$y 7rought out0 Here is8 for instance8 an atte)(t to (ro$uce a large ca(acity8 an antenna of -ery large ca(acity8 7y using t.o concentric cylin$ers0 ,
ha-e alrea$y eluci$ate$ this error8 7ut in a $ifferent (hase0 The ca(acity 7et.een those t.o con$uctors has a7solutely nothing to $o .ith the ca(acity .hich enters into the trans)ission of the energy to a $istance0 That is (urely an$ entirely a local flu'8 si)(ly a )eans of .asting energy0 >uch errors as this you .ill fin$ throughout all the technical literature8 7ut this has alrea$y 7een e'(laine$ in another .ay0 ?>u))ariBing8@ , ha-e alrea$y e'(laine$ the -arious ste(s , ha-e set forth in the intro$uction to this long tal20 , ha-e e'(laine$ ho. , (ro$uce$ the a((aratus gi-ing the requisite oscillationsJ the secon$ ste( ho. , transfor)e$ those oscillations into -i7ratory energy ca(a7le of going to a $istanceJ an$8 further)ore8 ho. , sol-e$ another (ro7le)8 na)ely8 that of the right .a-elengths .hich are effecti-e in the con$uction of energy to a $istance0 3efore , .ent to Colora$o8 the one thing .hich , nee$e$ to fin$ out .as8 ho. $oes the current flo. through the earthF ,n )y e'(eri)ents fro) Houston >treet an$ aroun$ 1e. Dor28 , ha$ alrea$y learne$ that the effect is (ro(ortionate to the quantity of electricity $is(lace$8 an$ , .as in the (osition to accurately calculate a (lant for trans)ission8 for instance8 across the <acific or Atlantic0 Those .ere si)(le (ro7le)sJ 7ut , coul$ not yet tell ho. the current (asses through the earth8 an$ until , coul$ $o that , coul$ not un$erta2e the $esign of a (lant in all these (articulars so that it coul$ 7e a (iece of engineering0 , s(ent 35 years of )y .or2 in the $esign of )achinery of all 2in$s8 an$ ha-e ne-er yet $esigne$ a )achine .hich $i$ not $o as , e'(ecte$8 an$ , cannot i)agine .hy it shoul$ not 7ecause .hen one calculates the things out on the 7asis of e'(eri)ental $ata8 the )achine has to .or2 as inten$e$0 This is engineering0 Therefore8 .hen )y frien$s offere$ to 7ac2 )e u( for a (lant un$er )y (atents8 , though it .as 7est to $e-ote so)e ti)e to an in-estigation8 to fin$ out .hat , nee$e$8 in or$er to ha-e all )y $ata accurately an$ guarantee that the (lant .oul$ .or20 The la. .hich , $isco-ere$ in Colora$o is .on$erful8 an$ it sho.s that results un$rea)e$ of 7efore an$ of incalcula7le )o)ent .ill 7e o7taine$ as soon as a (lant8 e)7o$ying these (rinci(les8 is esta7lishe$ on a large scale0
Figure 810 %iagram illustrating the mode of propagation of the current from the transmitter over the earthHs surface
To gi-e you an i$ea8 , ha-e (re(are$ a $iagra) ?Fig0 81@ illustrating an analogue .hich .ill clearly sho. ho. the current (asses through the glo7e0 Dou 2no. that in a solar ecli(se the )oon co)es 7et.een the sun an$ the earth8 an$ that its sha$o. is (roHecte$ u(on the earth's surface0 "-i$ently8 in a gi-en )o)ent8 the sha$o. .ill Hust touch at a )athe)atical (oint8 the earth8 assu)ing it to 7e a s(here0 #et us i)agine that )y trans)itter is locate$ at this (oint8 an$ that the current generate$ 7y it no. (asses through the earth0 ,t $oes not (ass through the earth in the or$inary acce(tance of the ter)8 it only (enetrates to a certain $e(th accor$ing to the frequency0 /ost of it goes on the surface8 7ut .ith frequencies such as , e)(loy8 it .ill $i-e a fe. )iles 7elo.0 ,t can 7e )athe)atically sho.n that it is i))aterial ho. it (assesJ the aggregate effect of these currents is as if the .hole current (asses fro) the trans)itter8 .hich , call the (ole8 to the o((osite (oint8 .hich , call the anti(o$e0 Assu)e8 then8 that here is the trans)itter8 an$ i)agine that this is the surface of the sea8 an$ that no. co)es the sha$o. of the )oon an$ touches8 on a )athe)atical (oint8 the cal) ocean0 Dou can rea$ily see that as the surface of the .ater8 o.ing to the enor)ous ra$ius of the earth8 is nearly a (lane8 that (oint .here the sha$o. falls .ill i))e$iately8 on the slightest )otion of the sha$o. $o.n.ar$8 enlarge the circle at a terrific rate8 an$ it can 7e sho.n )athe)atically that this rate is infinite0 ,n other .or$s8 this half9circle on this si$e .ill fly o-er the glo7e as the sha$o. goes $o.nJ .ill first start at infinite -elocity to enlarge8 an$ then slo.er an$ slo.er an$ slo.er8 an$ as the )oon's sha$o. goes further an$ further an$ further8 it .ill get slo.er an$ slo.er until8 finally8 .hen the three 7o$ies are on the (lane of the ecli(tic8 right in line one .ith the other in the sa)e (lane8 then that
sha$o. .ill (ass o-er the glo7e .ith its true -elocity in s(ace0 "'actly that sa)e thing ha((ens in the a((lication of )y syste)8 an$ , .ill sho. this ne't0
Figure 8!0 %iagram illustrating the law governing the passage of the current from the transmitter through the earth, first announced in U , +atent *o ?:?,<$6 of April $:, $;A= Application filed 'ay $>, $;AA ,ee also 9 -rskineB'urray, A 4andbook of Wireless Telegraphy, Chapt $?, pp 7$6B77A, $;$7 edition, published by Crosby .ockwood and ,on, .ondon, and Appleton M Company, *ew /ork
This ?Fig0 8!@ illustrates8 on a larger scale8 the earth0 Here is )y trans)itter 99 )ine or any7o$y's trans)itter 99 7ecause )y syste) is the syste) of the $ay0 The only $ifference is in the .ay , a((ly it0 They8 the ra$io engineers8 .ant to a((ly )y syste) one .ayJ , .ant to a((ly it in another .ay0 This is the circuit energiBing the antenna0 As the -i7ratory energy flo.s8 t.o things ha((enI There is electro)agnetic energy ra$iate$ an$ a current (asses into the earth0 The first goes out in the for) of rays8 .hich ha-e $efinite (ro(erties0 These rays (ro(agate .ith the -elocity of light8 3558555 2ilo)eters (er secon$0 This energy is e'actly li2e a hot sto-e0 ,f you .ill i)agine that the cylin$er antenna is hot 99 an$ in$ee$ it is heate$ 7y the current 99 it .oul$ ra$iate out energy of e'actly the sa)e 2in$ as it $oes no.0 ,f the syste) is a((lie$ in the sense , .ant to a((ly it8 this energy is a7solutely lost8 in all cases )ost of it is lost0 &hile this electro)agnetic
energy thro7s8 a current (asses into the glo7e0 1o.8 there is a -ast $ifference 7et.een these t.o8 the electro)agnetic an$ current energies0 That energy .hich goes out in the for) of rays8 is8 as , ha-e in$icate$ here ?on the $iagra) of Fig0 8!@8 unreco-era7le8 ho(elessly lost0 Dou can o(erate a little instru)ent 7y catching a 7illionth (art of it 7ut8 e'ce(t this8 all goes out into s(ace ne-er to return0 This other energy8 ho.e-er8 of the current in the glo7e8 is store$ an$ co)(letely reco-era7le0 Theoretically8 it $oes not ta2e )uch effort to )aintain the earth in electrical -i7ration0 , ha-e8 in fact8 .or2e$ out a (lant of 158555 horse9(o.er .hich .oul$ o(erate .ith no 7igger loss than 1 (ercent of the .hole (o.er a((lie$J that is8 .ith the e'ce(tion of the frictional energy that is consu)e$ in the rotation of the engines an$ the heating of the con$uctors8 , .oul$ not lose )ore than 1 (ercent0 ,n other .or$s8 if , ha-e a 158555 horse(o.er (lant8 it .oul$ ta2e only 155 horse(o.er to 2ee( the earth -i7rating so long as there is no energy ta2en out at any other (lace0 There is another $ifference0 The electro)agnetic energy tra-els .ith the s(ee$ of light8 7ut see ho. the current flo.s0 At the first )o)ent8 this current (ro(agates e'actly li2e the sha$o. of the )oon at the earth's surface0 ,t starts .ith infinite -elocity fro) that (oint8 7ut its s(ee$ ra(i$ly $i)inishesJ it flo.s slo.er an$ slo.er until it reaches the equator8 %8555 )iles fro) the trans)itter0 At that (oint8 the current flo.s .ith the s(ee$ of light 99 that is8 3558555 2ilo)eters (er secon$0 3ut8 if you consi$er the resultant current through the glo7e along the a'is of sy))etry of (ro(agation8 the resultant current flo.s continuously .ith the sa)e -elocity of light0 &hether this current (assing through the center of the earth to the o((osite si$e is real8 or .hether it is )erely an effect of these surface currents8 )a2es a7solutely no $ifference0 To un$erstan$ the conce(t8 one )ust i)agine that the current fro) the trans)itter flo.s straight to the o((osite (oint of the glo7e0 There is .here , ans.er the attac2s .hich ha-e 7een )a$e on )e0 For instance8 =r0 <u(in has ri$icule$ the Tesla syste)0 He says8 "The energy goes only in all $irections0" ,t $oes not0 ,t goes only in one $irection0 He is $ecei-e$ 7y the siBe an$ sha(e of the earth0 #oo2ing at the horiBon8 he i)agines ho. the currents flo. in all $irections8 7ut if he .oul$ only for a )o)ent thin2 that this earth is li2e a co((er .ire an$ the trans)itter on the to( of the sa)e8 he .oul$ i))e$iately realiBe that the current only flo.s along the a'is of the (ro(agation0 The )o$e of (ro(agation can 7e e'(resse$ 7y a -ery si)(le )athe)atical la.8 .hich is8 the current at any (oint flo.s .ith a -elocity (ro(ortionate to the cosecant of the angle .hich a ra$ius fro) that (oint inclu$es .ith the a'is of sy))etry of .a-e (ro(agation0 At the trans)itter8 the cosecant is infiniteJ therefore8 the -elocity is infinite0 At a $istance of %8555 )iles8 the cosecant is unityJ therefore8 the -elocity is equal to that of light0 This la. , ha-e e'(resse$ in a (atent 7y the state)ent that the (roHections of all Bones on the a'is of sy))etry are of the sa)e length8 .hich )eans8 in other .or$s8 as is 2no.n fro) rules of trigono)etry8 that the areas of all the Bones )ust also 7e equal0 ,t says that although the .a-es tra-el .ith $ifferent -elocities fro) (oint to (oint8 ne-ertheless each half .a-e al.ays inclu$es the sa)e area0 This is a si)(le la.8 not unli2e the one .hich has 7een e'(resse$ 7y :e(ler .ith reference to the areas s.e(t o-er 7y the ra$ii -ectors0 , ho(e that , ha-e 7een clear in this e'(osition P in 7ringing to your attention that .hat , sho. here is the syste) of the $ay8 an$ is )y syste) 99 only the ra$io engineers use )y a((aratus to (ro$uce too )uch of this electro)agnetic energy here8 instea$ of concentrating all their attention on $esigning an a((aratus .hich .ill i)(ress a current u(on the earth an$ not .aste the (o.er of the (lant in an unecono)ical (rocess0 Counsel Dou say ra$io engineers (ut too )uch energy into the ra$iating (art0 &hat8 as a )atter of fact8 accor$ing to your conce(tion8 is the (art of the energy that is recei-e$ in the recei-ers in the (resent syste)F Tesla That has 7een in-estigate$0 Gery -alua7le e'(eri)ents ha-e 7een )a$e 7y =r0 Austin8 .ho has )easure$ the effects at a $istance0 He has e-ol-e$ a for)ula in agree)ent .ith the HertB .a-e theory8 an$ the energy collecte$ is an a7solutely -anishing quantity0 ,t is Hust enough to o(erate a -ery $elicate recei-er0 ,f it .ere not for such $e-ices as are no. in use8 the au$ion8 for instance8 nothing coul$ 7e $one0 3ut .ith the au$ion8 they )agnify so that this infinitesi)al energy they get is sufficient to o(erate the recei-er0 &ith )y syste)8 , can con-ey to a $istant (oint )illions of ti)es the energy they trans)it0 Counsel
To illustrate )y question8 ta2e for instance the energy use$ at >ay-ille an$ the rece(tion of that at 1auen0 , .ant to 2no. .hether it is your i$ea that the rece(tion there is $ue to the earth currents that you ha-e $escri7e$ or to the ra$iate$ energy0 Tesla ,t is far )ore $ue to the earth currents than to the ra$iate$ energy0 , 7elie-e8 in$ee$8 that the ra$iate$ energy alone coul$ not (ossi7ly (ro$uce the effect across the Atlantic0 ,t is si)(ly 7ecause they are inci$entally sen$ing a current through the glo7e 99 .hich they thin2 is their current 99 that the recei-er is affecte$0 The current (ro$uces -ariations of (otential at the earth's surface in Ger)anyJ these fluctuations of (otential energiBe the circuit8 an$ 7y resonance they increase the (otential there an$ o(erate the recei-er0 3ut , $o not )ean that it is a7solutely i)(ossi7le to use )y a((aratus an$ o(erate .ith electro)agnetic .a-es across the Atlantic or <acific0 , only say that accor$ing to calculations8 for instance8 .hich , ha-e )a$e of the >ay-ille (lant8 the ra$iate$ energy is -ery s)all an$ cannot 7e o(erati-e0 , ha-e also calculate$ the $istri7ution of the charge on the antenna0 , a) tol$ that the >ay-ille antenna is .ithout a7ru(t changes of ca(acity0 ,t is i)(ossi7le0 There are changes e-en in a cylin$rical antennaJ 7ut (articularly in that for) at >ay-ille 99 there are -ery a7ru(t changes0 Counsel &hat .oul$ an engineer ha-e to $o to the .ireless syste)s of to$ay in or$er to (ro$uce -ery little ra$iation of electro)agnetic .a-es an$ (ro$uce a large a)ount of these earth currentsF &hat changes .oul$ he ha-e to )a2e in the syste)F Tesla He .oul$ ha-e to construct an$ o(erate the a((aratus $escri7e$ in )y (atents an$ in )y lectures0 Counsel He .oul$ ha-e to get -ery )uch )ore in$uctance in the syste) than he has to$ay8 relati-elyF Tesla ,t is Hust li2e thisI ,n an enter(rise of this 2in$8 you ha-e to start .ith certain fun$a)ental (ro(ositions0 ,f you are to 7uil$ a co))ercial (lant8 the question co)es u( ho. )uch )oney is it to cost0 1o.8 you go to s(ecify 7efore your ca(italists the -arious (arts of the (lant8 an$ you .ill fin$ that your )achinery an$ the aerial structure .ill cost so )uch0 ,f your ca(italists are .illing to go $ee( into their (oc2ets8 you can (ut u( a tre)en$ous antenna 7ecause8 as you 2no.8 as , (ointe$ out in 18938 that the effects .ill 7e (ro(ortionate to the ca(ital in-este$ in that (artJ 7ut you .ill fin$ great li)its there0 , $esigne$ a (lant ?&ar$enclyffe8 referring to Fig0 83@ years ago .ith a large ca(acity an$ (ut it 7efore certain architects0 They figure$ that the antenna .oul$ cost ^6458555 an$ , ha$ to )o$ify )y (lans0 As you see8 you are li)ite$ 7y cost as to the siBe of the antennaJ that is8 you are li)ite$ as to the ca(acity an$8 further)ore8 you ha-e selecte$ the frequency0 ,n or$er to lo.er the frequency so that there .oul$ 7e no .asteful ra$iation of energy8 you ha-e to e)(loy a large in$uctance0 Dou ha-e to e)(loy a ca(acity as large as (er)issi7le8 an$ you )ust use a large in$uctance in or$er that you )ay reach the lo. frequency .hich is econo)ical0 Counsel &hat lo. frequency is it that is econo)icalF Tesla ,n a (atent .hich a((eare$ in A(ril 19548 the a((lication of .hich .as file$ on /ay 148 19558 , ha-e enunciate$ the la. of (ro(agation8 .hich , ha-e e'(laine$8 an$ ha-e state$ that the frequencies shoul$ not 7e )ore than 358555 or 348555 cycles at )ost8 in or$er to o(erate econo)ically0
Figure 830 Improved transmitter described in U , +atent *o $,$$;,?76 of %ecember $, $;$< Application filed 9anuary $:, $;A6
Counsel An$ .oul$ it also 7e necessary to (ro-i$e for the high (otentials of the or$er of .hich you ha-e na)e$ in or$er to insure )a'i)u) $irect currents an$ )ini)u) electro)agnetic .a-e ra$iationF Tesla 1o sir0 The currents are (ro(ortionate to the (otentials .hich are $e-elo(e$ un$er other.ise equal con$itions0 ,f
you ha-e an antenna of a certain ca(acity charge$ to 1558555 -olts8 you .ill get a certain currentJ charge$ to !558555 -olts8 t.ice the current0 &hen , s(o2e of these enor)ous (otentials8 , .as $escri7ing an in$ustrial (lant on a large scale 7ecause that .as the )ost i)(ortant a((lication of these (rinci(les8 7ut , ha-e also (ointe$ out in )y (atents that the sa)e (rinci(les can 7e a((lie$ to telegra(hy an$ other (ur(oses0 That is si)(ly a question of ho. )uch (o.er you .ant to trans)it0 Counsel ,n Colora$o8 .hich $i$ you useF Tesla , use$ the so9calle$ Tesla transfor)er0 , $i$ not ha-e the high frequency )achine .ith ?)e@ .hich , coul$ $e-elo( as )uch energy for the e'(eri)ents8 7ut .ith )y transfor)er , coul$ get any a)ount of energy , nee$e$0 That is .hy , use$ the transfor)er0 Counsel Tell )e .hat = < stan$s for ?in Fig0 83@F Tesla That is a cur-e$ (late0 The (late has a large ra$ius of cur-ature0 Dou see8 it is to 7e 7orne in )in$ that8 in a general .ay8 electricity .ill accu)ulate in the sa)e .ay as the cur-ature of the surface has a s)aller ra$ius0 This is an ol$ truth .hich has 7een recogniBe$ !55 years ago0 The $esign conte)(lates an arrange)ent .here7y no.here is electricity accu)ulate$ in e'cess0 , a) at a su7stantially unifor) $istri7ution of electricity in this structure8 not only in the structure8 7ut along the .hole circuit .here there is a high (otential0 This8 of course8 is si)(ly to illustrate the (rinci(les0 ,f you $esign a )achine li2e that ?referring to Fig0 83@8 it .ill 7e -ery )uch su(erior to those no. in e'istence8 7ut , ha-e since that ti)e intro$uce$ refine)ents an$ can (ro$uce -ery )uch 7etter results than it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le .ith Hust e'actly that construction0 Counsel Dou ha-e s(o2en of the fact that you coul$ use either the alternator or the transfor)er8 an$ you ha-e illustrate$ in this $iagra) ?Fig0 83@ a con$enser at GF Tesla Des0 Counsel An$ stating8 , 7elie-e8 that that re(resents to your )in$ any )etho$ of getting continuous .a-es0 , thin2 you sai$8 (re-iously8 that you actually use$ either of these )etho$s at Colora$o an$ still ha$ continuous generation0 Tesla Des0 Counsel &as the )etho$ you use$ there ?in Colora$o@8 a s(ar2F 99 an arcF 99 or .hat .as the )etho$ .here you got continuous generationF Tesla The )etho$ .as thisI , ha$ a 4459-olt current .ith .hich , charge$ the con$ensers0 These con$ensers , $ischarge$ through a (ri)ary in the for) of an arc8 so)eti)es , also intro$uce$ in this arc a )echanical 7rea2 of se-eral thousan$ (er secon$0 An$ , o7taine$ a (erfectly continuous train of .a-es as has 7een $escri7e$ in )y (atents0 The reason .hy , sho. the con$enser here ?Fig0 83@ is that that is synony)ous .ith un$a)(ene$ .a-es0 ,f , ha$ sho.n the .hole a((aratus as arrange$ there8 then , )ight still ha-e $a)(e$ .a-esJ 7ut .hether , use an alternator or so)e other .ay of getting energy to that con$enser8 the con$enser is usually there0 For instance8 if , use an alternator8 , shunt its ter)inals .ith a con$enser in or$er to )agnify the current in the (ri)ary0 , then tune this circuit to the alternator8 an$ )agnify the current in the (ri)ary in the ratio of the in$uctance to the resistance0 Therefore8 this con$enser here stan$s for either )etho$8 an$ si)(ly )eans that in this syste)8 as is o7-ious fro) the $escri(tion in the (atent8 the .a-es are un$a)(ene$ 7ecause high rises of (otential .oul$ not 7e o7taine$ other.ise0 &hene-er , .ante$ to o7tain a high (otential8 , ha$ to o7ser-e these rules in or$er to force the (otential u( to that -alue0
1-16-1"-0": Fonders of t,e 7uture by Nikola Tesla

2ollierCs #eekly 1i2ola Tesla is an in-entor8 electrical .iBar$8 an$ seer0 He is the $isco-erer of alternating9current (o.er trans)ission8 the syste) of electrical con-ersion an$ $istri7ution 7y oscillatory $ischarges8 trans)ission of energy through a single .ire .ithout return8 a syste) of .ireless trans)ission of intelligence8 transfor)er8 etc0 His la7oratory is at >horeha)8 #0 ,0 /any a .oul$97e $isco-erer8 failing in his efforts8 has felt regret at ha-ing 7een 7orn at a ti)e .hen8 as he thin2s8 e-erything has 7een alrea$y acco)(lishe$ an$ nothing is left to 7e $one0 This erroneous i)(ression that8 as .e are a$-ancing8 the (ossi7ilities of in-ention are 7eing e'hauste$ is not unco))on0 ,n reality it is Hust the o((osite0 &hat has 7een so far $one 7y electricity is nothing as co)(are$ .ith .hat the future has in store0 1ot only this8 7ut there are no. innu)era7le things $one in ol$9fashione$ .ays .hich are )uch inferior in econo)y8 con-enience8 an$ )any other res(ects to the ne. )etho$0 >o great are the a$-antages of the latter that .hene-er an o((ortunity (resents itself the engineer a$-ises his client to "$o it electrically0" &ater (o.er offers great o((ortunities for no-el electrical a((lications8 (articularly in the $e(art)ent of electroche)istry0 The harnessing of .aterfalls is the )ost econo)ical )etho$ 2no.n for $ra.ing energy fro) the sun0 This is $ue to the fact that 7oth .ater an$ electricity are inco)(ressi7le0 The net efficiency of the hy$roelectric (rocess can 7e as high as 84 (er cent0 The initial outlay is generally great8 7ut the cost of )aintenance is s)all an$ the con-enience offere$ i$eal0 /y alternating syste) is in-aria7ly e)(loye$8 an$ so far a7out *85558555 horse(o.er as 7een $e-elo(e$0 As generally use$8 .e $o not get )ore than si'9hun$re$ths of a horse(o.er (er ton of coal (er year0 This .ater energy is therefore equi-alent to that o7taina7le fro) an annual su((ly of 1!585558555 tons of coal8 .hich is fro) !4 to 45 (er cent of the total out(ut of the Cnite$ >tates0 Great (ossi7ilities also lie in the use of coal0 Fro) this -alua7le )ineral .e chiefly $ra. the sun's store$ energy8 .hich is require$ to )eet our in$ustrial an$ co))ercial nee$s0 Accor$ing to statistical recor$s the out(ut in the Cnite$ >tates $uring an a-erage year is 68585558555 tons0 ,n (erfect engines this fuel .oul$ 7e sufficient to $e-elo( 45585558555 horse(o.er stea$ily for one year8 7ut the squan$ering is so rec2less that .e $o not get )ore than 4 (er cent of its heating -alue on the a-erage0 A co)(rehensi-e electrical (lan for )ining8 trans(orting8 an$ using coal coul$ )uch re$uce this a((alling .aste0 &hat is )ore8 inferior gra$es8 7illions of tons of .hich are 7eing thro.n a.ay8 )ight 7e turne$ to (rofita7le use0 >i)ilar consi$erations a((ly to natural gas an$ )ineral oil8 the annual loss of .hich a)ounts to hun$re$s of )illions of $ollars0 ,n the -ery near future such .aste .ill 7e loo2e$ u(on as cri)inal an$ the intro$uction of the ne. )etho$s .ill 7e force$ u(on the o.ners of such (ro(erties0 Here8 then8 is an i))ense fiel$ for the use of electricity in )any .ays0 The )anufacture of iron an$ steel offers another large o((ortunity for the effecti-e a((lication of electricity0 ,n the (ro$uction of (ig iron a7out one ton of co2e is e)(loye$ for e-ery ton0 Thus 3185558555 tons of co2e are use$ a year0 There are 685558555 cu7ic feet of gases fro) the 7last furnaces .hich )ay 7e use$ for (o.er (ur(oses0 ,t is (ractica7le to o7tain !84558555 horse(o.er electrical energy in this .ay0 ,n the )anufacture of co2e so)e 6185558555 tons of coal are e)(loye$ in this country0 Fro) the gases (ro$uce$ in this (rocess so)e 184558555 horse(o.er coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ in the for) of electrical energy0 , ha-e $e-ote$ )uch thought to this in$ustrial (ro(osition8 an$ fin$ that .ith ne.8 efficient8 e'tre)ely chea(8 an$ si)(le ther)o$yna)ic transfor)ers not less than 685558555 horse(o.er coul$ 7e $e-elo(e$ in electric generators 7y utiliBing the heat of these gases8 .hich8 if not entirely .aste$8 are only in (art an$ inefficiently e)(loye$0 &ith syste)atic i)(ro-e)ents an$ refine)ents )uch 7etter results coul$ 7e secure$ an$ an annual re-enue of ^4585558555 or )ore $eri-e$0 The electrical energy coul$ 7e a$-antageously use$ in the fi'ation of at)os(heric nitrogen an$ (ro$uction of fertiliBers8 for .hich there is an unli)ite$ $e)an$ an$ the )anufacture of .hich is restricte$ here on account of the high cost of (o.er0 , e'(ect confi$ently the (ractical realiBation of this (roHect in the -ery near future8 an$ loo2 to e'ce(tionally ra(i$ electrical $e-elo()ent in this $irection0
3ut the ti)e is -ery near .hen .e shall ha-e the (reci(itation of the )oisture of the at)os(here un$er co)(lete control8 an$ then it .ill 7e (ossi7le to $ra. unli)ite$ quantities of .ater fro) the oceans8 $e-elo( any $esire$ a)ount of energy8 an$ co)(letely transfor) the glo7e 7y irrigation an$ intensi-e far)ing0 A greater achie-e)ent of )an through the )e$iu) of electricity can har$ly 7e i)agine$0 The (resent li)itations in the trans)ission of (o.er to $istance .ill 7e o-erco)e in t.o .aysI through the a$o(tion of un$ergroun$ con$uctors insulate$ 7y (o.er8 an$ through the intro$uction of the .ireless art0 &hen these a$-ance$ i$eas are (ractically realiBe$ .e shall get the full 7enefit of .ater (o.er8 an$ it .ill 7eco)e our chief $e(en$ence in the su((ly of electricity for $o)estic8 (u7lic8 an$ other uses in the arts of (eace an$ .ar0 A -ast an$ a7solutely untouche$ fiel$ is the use of electricity for the (ro(ulsion of shi(s0 The lea$ing electrical co)(any in this country equi((e$ a large -essel .ith high9s(ee$ tur7ines an$ electric )otors0 The ne. equi()ent .as a signal success0 A((lications of this 2in$ .ill )ulti(ly at a ra(i$ rate8 for the a$-antages of the electrical $ri-e are not (atent to e-ery7o$y0 Gyrosco(ic a((aratus .ill (ro7a7ly (lay an i)(ortant (art8 as its general a$o(tion on -essels is sure to co)e8 Gery little has yet 7een $one in the intro$uction of electrical $ri-e in the -arious 7ranches of in$ustry an$ )anufacture8 7ut the (ros(ects here are unli)ite$0 3oo2s ha-e alrea$y8 7een .ritten on the uses of electricity in agriculture8 7ut the fact is that -ery little has 7een (ractically $one0 The 7eneficial effects of electricity of high tension ha-e 7een un)ista2a7ly esta7lishe$8 so that .e are .arrante$ in 7elie-ing that a re-olution .ill 7e 7rought a7out through the e'tensi-e a$o(tion of agricultural electrical a((aratus0 The safeguar$ing of forests against fires8 the $estruction of )icro7es8 insects8 an$ ro$ents .ill8 in $ue course8 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y electricity0 ,n the not far $istant future .e shall see a great )any ne. uses of electricity that .ill ai) at safety0 The safety of -essels at sea .ill 7e (articularly affecte$0 &e shall ha-e electrical instru)ents .hich .ill (re-ent collisions8 an$ .e shall e-en 7e a7le to $is(erse fogs 7y electric force an$ (o.erful an$ (enetrati-e rays0 , a) ho(eful that .ithin the ne't fe. years .ireless (lants .ill 7e installe$ for the (ur(ose of illu)inating the oceans0 The (roHect is (erfectly feasi7leJ if carrie$ out it .ill contri7ute )ore than any other (ro-ision to the safety of (ro(erty an$ hu)an li-es at sea0 The sa)e (lant coul$ also (ro$uce stationary electrical .a-es an$ ena7le shi(s to 0get any ti)e accurate 7earings an$ other -alua7le (ractical $ata8 thus )a2ing the (resent )eans unnecessary0 ,t coul$ also 7e use$ for ti)e signalling an$ )any other such (ur(oses0 ,n the great $e(art)ents of electric light an$ (o.er great o((ortunities are offere$ through the intro$uction of )any 2in$s of no-el $e-ices .hich can 7e attache$ to the circuits at con-enient hours to equaliBe the loa$s an$ increase the re-enues fro) the (lants0 , )yself ha-e 2no.le$ge of a nu)7er of ne. a((liances of this 2in$0 The )ost i)(ortant of the) is (ro7a7ly an electrical ice )achine .hich o7-iates entirely the use of $angerous an$ other.ise o7Hectional che)icals0 The ne. )achine .ill also require no attention an$ .ill 7e -ery econo)ical in o(eration0 ,n this .ay refrigeration .ill 7e effecte$ -ery chea(ly an$ con-eniently in e-ery househol$0 An interesting fountain8 electrically o(erate$8 has alrea$y 7een 7rought out0 ,t .ill -ery li2ely 7e e'tensi-ely intro$uce$8 an$ .ill affor$ an unusual an$ (leasing sight in squares8 (ar2s8 an$ hotels0 Coo2ing $e-ices for all $o)estic (ur(oses are no. 7eing )a$e8 an$ there is a large $e)an$ for (ractical $esigns an$ suggestions in this fiel$8 an$ for electric signs an$ other attracti-e )eans of a$-ertising .hich can 7e electrically o(erate$0 >o)e of the effects .hich it is (ossi7le to (ro$uce 7y electric currents are .on$erful an$ len$ the)sel-es to e'hi7itions0 There is no $ou7t that )uch can 7e $one in this $irection0 Theatres8 (u7lic halls8 an$ (ri-ate $.ellings are in nee$ of a great )any $e-ices an$ instru)ents for con-enience8 an$ offer a)(le o((ortunities to ingenious an$ (ractical in-entors0 Great i)(ro-e)ents are also still (ossi7le in telegra(hy an$ tele(hony0 The use of a ne. recei-ing $e-ice8 the sensiti-eness of .hich can 7e increase$ al)ost .ithout li)it8 .ill ena7le us to tele(hone through aerial lines or ca7les of any length 7y re$ucing the necessary .or2ing current to an infinitesi)al -alue0 This in-ention .ill enor)ously e'ten$ the .ireless trans)ission of intelligence in all its $e(art)ents0 The ne't art to 7e intro$uce$ is that of (icture trans)ission telegra(hically0 "'isting a((aratus .ill 7e use$0 This i$ea of telegra(hing or tele(honing (ictures .as arri-e$ at long ago8 7ut (ractical $ifficulties ha-e ha)(ere$ co))ercial realiBation0 There ha-e 7een (ro)ising e'(eri)ents8 an$ there is e-ery reason to 7elie-e that success .ill soon 7e achie-e$0 Another -alua7le in-ention .ill 7e a ty(e.riter electrically o(erate$ 7y the hu)an -oice0 This a$-ance .ill 7e of the ut)ost -alue8 as it .ill $o a.ay .ith the o(erator an$ sa-e a great $eal of
la7our an$ ti)e in 7usiness offices0 /any )unici(al i)(ro-e)ents 7ase$ on the use of electricity are soon to 7e intro$uce$0 There .ill 7e s)o2e annihilators8 $ust a7sor7ers8 oBoniBers8 steriliBers of .ater8 air8 foo$8 an$ clothing8 an$ acci$ent (re-enters on streets8 ele-ate$ roa$s8 an$ in su7.ays0 ,t .ill 7eco)e ne't to i)(ossi7le to contract $iseases fro) ger)s or get hurt in the city0 Country fol2 .ill go to to.n to rest an$ get .ell0 "lectrothera(y is another great fiel$ in .hich there are unli)ite$ (ossi7ilities for the a((lication of electricity0 High9frequency currents es(ecially ha-e a great future0 The ti)e is 7oun$ to co)e .hen this for) of electrical energy .ill 7e on ta( in e-ery (ri-ate resi$ence0 ,t is (ossi7le that .e )ay 7e a7le to $o a.ay .ith the custo)ary 7ath0 The cleaning of the 7o$y can 7e instantaneously effecte$ si)(ly 7y connecting it to a source of electric energy of -ery high (otential8 .hich .ill result in the thro.ing off of $ust or any s)all (articles a$hering to the s2in0 >uch a 7ath8 7esi$es 7eing $ry an$ ti)e9sa-ing .oul$ also 7e of 7eneficial thera(eutic influence0 1e. electric $e-ices that .ill 7e a 7lessing to the $eaf an$ 7lin$ are co)ing0 "lectrical instru)ents .ill soon 7eco)e an i)(ortant factor in the (re-ention of cri)e0 ,n court (rocee$ings electric e-i$ence can 7e )a$e $ecisi-e0 ,t .ill8 no $ou7t8 7e (ossi7le 7efore -ery long to flash any i)age for)e$ in the )in$ on a screen an$ )a2e it -isi7le to a s(ectator at any (lace $esire$0 The (erfection of this sort of rea$ing thought .ill create a re-olution for the 7etter in all our social relations0 ,t is true that cunning la.7rea2ers .ill a-ail the)sel-es of the sa)e )eans to further their nefarious 7usiness0 The (resent international conflict is a (o.erful sti)ulus to in-ention of $estructi-e $e-ices an$ i)(le)ents0 An electric gun .ill soon 7e 7rought out0 The .on$er is that it .as not in-ente$ long ago0 =irigi7les an$ aero(lanes .ill 7e furnishe$ .ith s)all electric generators of high tension8 fro) .hich the $ea$ly currents .ill 7e con-eye$ through thin .ires to the groun$0 3attleshi(s an$ su7)arines .ill 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith electric an$ )agnetic feelers so $elicate that the a((roach of any 7o$y un$er .ater or in $ar2ness )ay 7e easily $etecte$0 Tor(e$oes an$ floating )ines .ill $irect the)sel-es auto)atically an$ .ithout fail get in fatal contact .ith the o7Hect to 7e $estroye$ 9 in fact8 these are al)ost in sight0 The art of telauto)atics8 or .ireless control of auto)atic )achines at a $istance8 .ill (lay a -ery i)(ortant role in future .ars an$8 (ossi7ly8 in the later (hases of the (resent one0 >uch contri-ances8 .hich act as if en$o.e$ .ith intelligence8 )ay ta2e the sha(e of aero(lanes8 7alloons8 auto)o7iles8 surface8 or un$er.ater 7oats8 or any other for) accor$ing to the require)ent in each s(ecial case0 They .ill ha-e far greater ranges an$ .ill 7e )uch )ore $estructi-e than the i)(le)ents no. e)(loye$0 , 7elie-e that the telauto)atic aerial tor(e$o .ill )a2e the large siege gun8 on .hich so )uch $e(en$ence is no. (lace$8 utterly o7solete0
1-1<-0"-00: %r& Ni.ola Tesla and 0is A(,ieEements by &amuel D. 2ohen

The Electrical Ex*erimenter 3E!(A3& the ever,broadening field of invention has never kno"n a genius more successful in develo*ing far, reaching and original inventions than Dr. Nikola Tesla+ "hose name is kno"n in every corner of the globe for his scientific achievements. =r0 Tesla .as 7orn in 184* in >)ilHan8 #i2a8 7or$er country of Austria9Hungary0 His early e$ucation .as o7taine$ in the ele)entary school of his nati-e (lace0 He continue$ his stu$ies in the (u7lic school in Gos(ic8 #i2a8 an$ after s(en$ing a (erio$ of four years in the #o.er +eal >chool in Croatia8 he gra$uate$ in 18*30 His (arents originally $esire$ hi) to stu$y for the clergy8 .hich can 7e rea$ily un$erstoo$ .hen one consi$ers that =r0 Tesla's father .as hi)self a -ery note$ clergy)an an$ orator0 Ho.e-er8 young Tesla ha$ his )in$ set on )athe)atics an$ (hysics8 an$ after (re-ailing u(on his (arents for (er)ission to stu$y engineering8 he entere$ the <olytechnic >chool at GratB8 .here for four years he stu$ie$ )athe)atics8 (hysics an$ )echanics8 after .hich follo.e$ a t.o year course in (hiloso(hic stu$ies at the Cni-ersity of <rague8 3ohe)ia0 His (ractical career starte$ in 1881 in 3u$a(est8 Hungary8 .here he )a$e his first electrical in-ention8 a tele*hone re*eaterK an$ concei-e$ the i$ea of the rotating magnetic field+ .hich later )a$e hi) .orl$ fa)ous0 ,t )ay not 7e a)iss to $e-ote a fe. )o)ents here to the )anner in .hich this (rince of sa-ants a((roache$ the i$ea of the rotating fiel$ an$ induction motor. ;ne $ay .hile atten$ing the Cni-ersity8 one of the <rofessors .as $e)onstrating an e'(eri)ent .ith the Gra))e ar)ature ty(e of $yna)o8 .hen the i$ea occurre$ to the young (hysicist that the s(ar2ing at the co))utator8 .hich he alone ha$ )inutely o7ser-e$8 coul$ 7e eli)inate$0 The (rofessor i))e$iately $enie$ that this .as (ossi7le8 7ut .ith a stea$y )in$ an$ self con-iction8 young Tesla $eter)ine$ to .or2 out his i$eas8 .ith the result that the )o$ern in$uction )otor .as $e-elo(e$8 .hich o(erates solely fro) alternating current an$ requires no co))utator of any 2in$8 thus o-erco)ing the nuisance of s(ar2ing inherent in for)er ty(e $irect current )achines0 +ealiBing the -alue of his in-ention he left for France in an effort to interest so)e one in his $e-ice8 7ut his efforts (ro-e$ fruitless0 At the ti)e he .as e)(loye$ 7y a (ro)inent "uro(ean engineering concern8 7ut hearing of the ra(i$ gro.th of the electrical in$ustry in A)erica8 he (ro)(tly $eci$e$ to co)e to this country8 .hich he $i$ in 18868 an$ since then has 7een a naturaliBe$ citiBen of the Cnite$ >tates0 To this country he 7rought .ith hi) the -arious )o$els of the first in$uction )otors8 .hich .ere e-entually sho.n to George &estinghouse8 the great A)erican in-entor8 an$ it .as in the &estinghouse sho(s that the in$uction )otor .as (erfecte$ 7y 1i2ola Tesla0 1u)erous (atents .ere ta2en out on this (heno)enal (ri)e9)o-er8 all of .hich are un$er =r0 Tesla's na)e8 an$ he .as therefore the first (erson8 7eyon$ the sha$o. of a $ou7t8 to intro$uce the rotating fiel$ (rinci(le8 in (erfecting the in$uction )otor8 .hich is to9$ay uni-ersally use$0
Fig0 10 >ho.s the First Alternating Current ,n$uction /otor0 <erfecte$ 7y =r0 Tesla <rior to the Dear 18868 in &hich Dear He Ca)e to A)erica to Ta2e C( His #ife &or20
Fig0 1 sho.s the first in$uction )otor8 an$ altho unique in construction8 it $e-elo(e$ g horse (o.er at 1855 re-olutions (er )inute an$ .eighe$ 7ut !5 (oun$s0 #arge su)s of )oney .ere e'(en$e$ 7y =r0 Tesla to (rotect his (atents on this (ri)e9)o-er8 an$ he .as at the ti)e not (er)itte$ to e'(ress hi)self in (rint or gi-e the history of his in-entionJ thus )any erroneous i)(ressions .ere entertaine$ regar$ing his in-entions0 He .as far ahea$ of Ferraris8 >challen7erger an$ )any other early8 a7le in-estigators0 #ater another ty(e of )achine .as 7rought out 7y hi)8 in connection .ith his .or2 in electric (o.er trans)ission0 This one ha$ a fiel$ energiBe$ 7y currents of $ifferent (hase relation (i0e0 .hile one current .as at Bero a)(litu$e the other .oul$ 7e at )a'i)u)8 etc0 8 (ro$ucing a rotating fiel$ in .hich con$uctors .ere e)(loye$8 an$ in this .ay the high frequency current .as o7taine$0 This ty(e of )achine .as su7sequently $e-elo(e$ 7y Gol$sch)i$t an$ is no. 2no.n un$er that na)e8 altho Tesla $escri7e$ this (rinci(le in a (atent $ate$ 18890
Fig0 !0 An "arly _Tesla` High Frequency ;scillator =e-elo(ing ! >q0 Ft0 of >trea)ers &ith !4 &atts ,n(ut0 First Cse$ in "uro(e 7y the #ate #or$ :el-in in His #ectures 3efore the 3ritish Association for the A$-ance)ent of >cience0
His ne't .or2 .hich attracte$ uni-ersal attention .as the (ro$uction of high frequency currents at high (otentials0 ;ur rea$ers are no $ou7t fa)iliar .ith the tre)en$ous electrical $ischarges .hich ha-e 7een illustrate$ in se-eral of the (re-ious issues of The "lectrical "'(eri)enter0 All these e'(eri)ents .ere first (erfor)e$ 7y this genius an$ ne-er $u(licate$0 ;ne of the first high tension a((aratus 7uilt 7y =r0 Tesla is
sho.n in Fig0 !0 ,nci$entally .e )ight )ention that this instru)ent .as first use$ in "uro(e 7y #or$ :el-in8 the note$ "nglish )athe)atician an$ scientist8 .ho use$ it for his lecture $e)onstrations at the +oyal >ociety0 The a((aratus consists of a ste(9u( transfor)er8 an$ a s(ecially 7uilt 2ic29coil8 .hich 7ooste$ the secon$ary transfor)er -oltage to an enor)ous -alue0 This coil is seen resting horiBontally at the 7ac20 The ter)inals of this coil are connecte$ to the large s(ar2 ga(8 .hich8 .hen the a((aratus .as e'cite$8 .as fille$ .ith a s(ar2 t.o feet long0 The high tension con$enser is inclose$ .ithin the ca7inet0 The large coil is use$ as 2ic29coil for increasing the -oltage0 &ith this $e-ice =r0 Tesla .as a7le to o7tain a (otential of one )illion -olts8 .hich is quite e'traor$inary .ith such s)all a((aratus0 =r0 Tesla can rightfully clai) (riority in e)(loying conical coils for high frequency .or28 as Fig0 3 sho.s the first conical coil e-er e)(loye$ for such .or28 as early as 189!0 This coil .as e'cite$ 7y )eans of a (o.erful transfor)er0 The $ischarger consiste$ of a )ulti(le ga(8 co))only calle$ to9$ay the quenche$ ga(8 .hich .ill 7e note$ at the left of the huge coil0 An interesting feature of this coil is that a finer .ire .in$ing is use$ at the u((er en$ so as to increase the -oltage at that (oint0
Fig0 30 A _Tesla` Conical High Frequency8 High <otential oscillator Coil =eli-ering a Gery <o.erful =ischarge >e-eral Feet in =ia)eter0 The Con$ensers /ay 3e >een at +ight an$ #eft of Coil8 as &ell as 458555 Golt =0 C0 =yna)o in Foregroun$0
The )achine in the foregroun$ is a K=+=== volt direct current dynamo+ .hich .as e)(loye$ in )any of his e'(eri)ents on high (otential electricity0 ,n conHunction .ith the e'(eri)ents on high -oltage direct current+ =r0 Tesla $e-elo(e$ nu)erous interru(ters for 7rea2ing these tre)en$ous currents8 the largest one e-er 7uilt 7eing that sho.n in Fig0 60 This )assi-e circuit97rea2er han$le$ .ith great ease 45 horse9(o.er of electrical energy at an interru(tion rate of 1558555 7rea2s (er secon$0 The interru(ter consiste$ of a large cha)7er in .hich a circular suction cog .as (lace$8 $ri-en at tre)en$ous s(ee$ 7y a )otor statione$ on to(0 The rotor or cog
o(erate$ in a colu)n of )ercury in such a )anner that each stu$ of the cog )a$e contact .ith the (ool of )ercury8 thus )a2ing an$ 7rea2ing the electrical circuit0 =r0 Tesla e)(loye$ this interru(ter for his .ireless researches in 19550
Fig0 60 A /assi-e /ercury ,nterru(ter =e-ise$ 7y Tesla for Han$ling 45 H0 <0 of "lectrical "nergy at a +ate of 1558555 3rea2s <er >econ$0
=r0 Tesla's )ost i)(ortant .or2 at the en$ of the nineteenth century .as his original syste) of transmission of energy by "ireless. ,n 1955 Tesla o7taine$ his t.o fun$a)ental (atents on the trans)ission of true .ireless energy co-ering 7oth )etho$s an$ a((aratus an$ in-ol-ing the use of four tune$ circuits0 He also o7taine$ a nu)7er of other (atents at the sa)e ti)e8 $escri7ing )any other i)(ro-e)ents0 A)ong these )ay 7e )entione$ his a((lication of refrigeration an$ the oscillatory syste)s .ith .hich he o7taine$ re)ar2a7le results in his .ell equi(t la7oratory on Houston >treet8 1e. Dor2 City0 ,n 1951 an$ 195! se-eral (atents .ere grante$ to hi) $escri7ing a nu)7er of i)(ro-e)ents8 a)ong .hich t.o ha-e assu)e$ great i)(ortance in the ra$io artJ one of these is 2no.n un$er the na)e of the _tone .heel` an$ the other the _ti22er0` ;thers are )a2ing clai) to these in-entions8 7ut Tesla .as far ahea$ of any of the)0
Fig0 40 The First _3eat` +ece(tor for +a$io9Telegra(hy ,n-ente$ 7y Tesla8 &hich Foresha$o.e$ the _Hetero$yne0`
At a little later $ate Tesla secure$ t.o (atents on .hat he ter)e$ the *rinci*le of individuali;ation+ in-ol-ing the use of )ore than one oscillation for the o(eration of the recei-er0 This (ro(erty is no. 2no.n un$er the co))ercial na)e of 7eat rece*tors. ,n long (rotracte$ interference (rocee$ings carrie$ on in 19538 ho.e-er8 Tesla has 7een accor$e$ full an$ un$is(ute$ (riority o-er Fessen$en an$ other clai)ants0 His first 7eat recei-er is sho.n in Fig0 48 .hich consiste$ of a steel 7an$ stretche$ a7o-e a (o.erful electro9)agnet e'cite$ 7y a high frequency current8 causing the steel 7an$ to -i7rate at an enor)ous rate0 A s)all sensiti-e electro9)agnet is (lace$ in (ro'i)ity to the 7an$8 in .hich is (ro$uce$ an alternating e0)0f08 an$ this is acte$ u(on 7y the recei-e$ .a-e0 The a((aratus is ti)e$ 7y a$Husting the (erio$icity of the 7an$ until the recei-e$ .a-e is )a$e au$i7le0 The large electro)agnet .as usually e'cite$ 7y )eans of an alternating current generator8 an$ this is illustrate$ in Fig0 %0 #i2e all Tesla in-entions8 the construction of this oscillator is -ery unique8 consisting of t.o cha)7ers in the center of .hich is (lace$ a -i7rating )e)7rane0 This is inclose$ in a )agnetic fiel$8 consisting of a (o.erful coil encircling the $e-ice as seen an$ .hich .as e'cite$ 7y a $irect current0 The )e)7rane .as cause$ to -i7rate 7y (assing interru(te$8 co)(rest air through the t.o cha)7ers 7y the inlet (i(es as in$icate$0 ,n the (rocess of -i7ration8 an "0/0F0 is (ro$uce$ in a coil secure$ to the -i7rating $isc0
Fig0 %0 Cnique Alternating Current Generator for "'citing Tesla's "arly _3eat` +ece(tor0 Actuate$ 7y Co)(rest Air or >tea) &hich Gi7rates a >(ecial =iafra)9Coil0
A (atent .as grante$ to =r0 Tesla in 1916 on an i)(ro-e)ent of far9reaching i)(ortance in .ireless .or20 The a((lication .as file$ in 195!0 ,t $escri7es a ne. for) of trans)itter .ith .hich8 accor$ing to Tesla's state)ent8 an unli)ite$ quantity of energy can 7e trans)itte$ fro) a s)all an$ co)(act (lant0 This trans)itter (ossesses the .on$erful feature .here7y static9the one nuisance of the ra$io art8 an$ any other interference can 7e co)(letely eli)inate$8 7ecause of the s(ee$ .ith .hich the recei-ers can 7e o(erate$J it 7eing (ossi7le to thro. the) in an$ out of tune 7y a -ariation of not )ore than one thousan$th of one (er cent of the .a-e length0 He has also e-ol-e$ a static *reventer .hich has 7een successfully teste$ se-eral years ago0 He is at (resent engage$ in (re(aring these instru)ents for the )ar2et0
Fig0 *0 The &on$erful _Tesla` >tea) Tur7ineJ the >tea) Flo.s +a$ially C( 3et.een the Ganes8 1ot Against The)0
This great scholar an$ (hiloso(her has not $e-ote$ his ti)e to electrical $e-ices alone8 7ut recently turne$ his attention to a ne. for) of (ri)e9)o-er8 .hich .ill $e-elo( )ore (o.er than any other )otor or engine8 an$ he has state$ that it is .ithin the li)its of (ractica7ility to $e-elo( !5 horse9(o.er for each (oun$ of engine .eight0 The Tesla tur7ine is sho.n in Fig0 *0 ,t consists si)(ly of a nu)7er of flat steel $iscs (ro(erly 7alance$0 At the lo.er en$ of the case an inlet is situate$ through .hich stea) or co)(resse$ air is force$ at a (ressure of 155 to !55 (oun$s (er square inch0 The stea) $oes not e'ert (ressure against the rotor 7la$es si$e.ise as in other ty(es8 7ut shoots through 7et.een the 7la$es e$ge.ise0 The -elocity of the )o-ing stea) Het an$ the (eculiar frictional effect resulting is sufficient to rotate the tur7ine s(in$le an$ 7la$es at high s(ee$ an$ .ith un(rece$ente$ torsion or turning effort in foot9(oun$s0 This )achine here.ith illustrate$ $e-elo(s !55 horse9 (o.er8 an$ there is no reason .hy such a )achine coul$ not 7e e)(loye$ for $ra.ing auto)o7iles8 aero(lanes an$ other -ehicles8 $ue to its )ar-ellous si)(licity an$ e'tre)e lightness of construction0 ,t is further un$erstoo$ that he is (erfecting a tur7o9$ri-en generator for high frequency currents to 7e use$ chiefly in ra$io9tele(honic .or20 ,t .ill 7e -ery s)all8 co)(act an$ entirely relia7le8 an$ .ill no $ou7t re-olutioniBe .ireless tele(hony0 This )aster )agician of )o$ern electrical science has s(ent a fa7ulous a)ount of ti)e an$ )oney in (erfecting his in-entions8 an$ .e are 7oun$ to a.ait .ith great e'(ectancy the ne't great stri$e in scientific $e-elo()ent .hich .ill )ar2 another e(ochal in-ention of =r0 1i2ola Tesla0
1-1<-0"-"5: *le(tri( %riEe for ;attle S,i$s by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald
The ideal sim*licity of the induction motor+ its *erfect reversibility and other uni)ue )ualities render it eminently
suitable for shi* *ro*ulsion+ and ever since I brought my system of *o"er transmission to the attention of the *rofession through the American Institute of Electrical Engineers I have vigourously insisted on its a**lication for that *ur*ose. During many years the scheme "as declared to be im*racticable and I "as assailed in a manner as vicious as incom*etent. In 11==+ "hen an article from me advocating the electric drive a**eared in the 2entury /aga;ine+ /arine Engineering *ronounced the *lan to be the Aclimax of asininity+A and such "as the fury aroused by my *ro*osals that the editor of another technical *eriodical resigned and severed his connection rather than to allo" the *ublication of some attacks. A si)ilar rece(tion .as accor$e$ to )y .ireless 7oat re(eate$ly $escri7e$ in the Heral$ of 18980 The (atents on these in-entions ha-e since e'(ire$ an$ they are no. co))on (ro(erty0 /ean.hile insane antagonis) an$ ignorance ha-e 7een re(lace$ 7y hel(ful interest an$ a((reciation of their -alue0 +ecently the 1a-y =e(art)ent has let contracts aggregating ^15585558555 for the construction of se-en .ar -essels .ith the in$uction )otor $ri-e8 an$ an equal su) is a((ro(riate$ to co-er the cost of four huge 7attle cruisers .hich are to 7e fitte$ out in the sa)e .ay0 This latter (roHect is resiste$ 7y so)e shi(7uil$ers8 tur7ine )a2ers8 electrical )anufacturers an$ engineers .ho8 in fear of a fatal )ista2e 7y the go-ern)ent an$ un$er the s.ay of (atriotic )oti-es8 urge$ u(on the authorities the e)(loy)ent of the geare$ tur7ine0 CONT#O6*#S:A' CO##*S5ON%*NC* 1u)erous letters of (rotest ha-e 7een .ritten to C0 A0 >.anson8 of the >enate 1a-al Co))ittee8 7ut .hat has so far co)e out of this corres(on$ence is (urely contro-ersial an$ of no (rofit .hate-er to those .ho see2 infor)ation0 ,t is regretta7le that the question shoul$ ha-e 7een raise$ at this critical )o)ent8 .hen s(ee$y (re(aration against threatening national (erils is recogniBe$ as i)(erati-e8 an$ in -ie. of this no $ou7t shoul$ 7e (er)itte$ to re)ain in the (u7lic )in$ as to the su(eriority of the equi()ent reco))en$e$ 7y the na-al e'(erts0 ,n the follo.ing , shall en$ea-our to )a2e this clear to the general rea$er0 The )ost efficient )eans of (ro(ulsion is a Het of .ater e'(elle$ astern fro) the 7o$y of the -essel0 Though the theoretical la.s go-erning its action .ere (recisely e'(resse$ fifty years ago 7y +an2ine8 a singular an$ ine'(lica7le (reHu$ice against this $e-ice still (re-ails a)ong engineers an$ .riters of te't 7oo2s on hy$raulics0 3ut the far sighte$ are 2eenly ali-e to its (ossi7ilities0 &hile our (resent )oti-e resources $o not a$)it of an a$-antageous use of the Het8 it can 7e confi$ently (re$icte$ that it .ill soon 7e instru)ental in a )ore co)(lete conquest of the $ee(0 , fir)ly 7elie-e that at this .riting it is 7eing a((lie$ to the su7)arines $e-astating the oceans8 for their silence alone can e'(lain .hy they esca(e so easily $etection 7y )icro(honic instru)ents0 The soun$ e)itte$ is the Achilles talon of the un$ersea 7oat0 ,ts su((ression )aterially increases the $estructi-eness of the ne. .ea(on0 T0* 0*':CA' 5#O5*''*# Ho.e-er8 un$er the e'isting con$itions the 7est results are o7taine$ in all 2in$s of surface craft .ith a helical (ro(eller8 .hich is o(erate$ in four $ifferent .ays0 First8 straight fro) the shaft of the (ri)e )o-erJ secon$8 7y )eans of a gear .heelJ thir$8 through a hy$raulic transfor)er8 an$8 fourth8 7y an electric trans)itter of (o.er0 As the scre. in or$er to sa-e energy )ust 7e re-ol-e$ at a )o$erate rate8 the first )entione$8 or "$irect $ri-e8" len$s itself 7est to a reci(rocating or rotary engine0 The for)er is clu)sy8 the latter i)(ossi7le8 an$ co)(etition has force$ the tur7ine on the )ar2et0 3ut8 e'cessi-e s(ee$ 7eing in$is(ensa7le to its goo$ (erfor)ance8 it ha$ to 7e a$a(te$ to the (ro(eller0 This .as8 in a )easure8 acco)(lishe$ 7y "staging" 9 that is8 (assing the stea) through a nu)7er of tur7ines in succession 9 a (lan o7-iously entailing great $ra.7ac2s8 financial an$ other.ise0 1ee$ of re$ucing the 7ul2 an$ cost of the )achinery an$ insuring 7etter .or2ing then co)(elle$ the a$o(tion of the secon$ arrange)ent 9 "geare$ tur7ine $ri-e" 9 in .hich a (eculiar (inione$ .heel8 first intro$uce$ 7y =e #a-al8 trans)its )otion to the scre.0 1e't8 efforts to $o a.ay .ith certain li)itations of this co)7ination resulte$ in the thir$8 or "hy$raulic $ri-e8" the tur7ine actuating the (ro(eller through a centrifugal (u)( an$ .ater )otor0 Finally8 as the furthest ste( to.ar$ (erfection8 the last na)e$ $is(osition 9 "electric $ri-e" 9 .as resorte$ to0 ,n this case the tur7ine i)(arts rotation to a $yna)o8 .hich in turn runs a )otor carrying the scre. on its shaft0
A%6ANTAB*S O7 T@5*S "ach of these for)s has its su((orters an$ cha)(ions0 ,n (rinci(le the first .oul$ 7e the (refera7le .ere it not han$ica((e$ in )any res(ects0 The secon$ ty(e is chea(8 7ut the gear is a serious o7Hection0 Though less econo)ical8 the thir$ co))en$s itself 7y a nu)7er of (ractical an$ -alua7le features0 As to the last8 it is not only -ery efficient 7ut o7tains results i)(ossi7le .ith other for)s0 The la. of sur-i-al of the fittest is asserting itself8 an$ the struggle for su(re)acy is no. on 7et.een the geare$ tur7ine an$ the electric $ri-e0 Through gra$ual i)(ro-e)ent of the cutting tools8 scientific $esign8 )etallurgical a$-ances an$ refine)ent of lu7ricants8 the so9calle$ herring7one gear has 7een 7rought to great (erfection0 =e #a-al attaine$ an efficiency of ninety9se-en (er cent an$ /acAl(ine8 /el-ille an$ &estinghouse ninety9eight an$ one9half (er cent in the trans)ission fro) the $ri-ing to the $ri-en shaft0 ;n the other han$8 ninety9three an$ three9quarters (er cent )ay 7e consi$ere$ as the )a'i)u) .ith electrical a((aratus0 This )eans that .ith the gear the sa)e tur7ine .oul$ i)(art fi-e (er cent )ore (o.er to the (ro(eller8 .hich shoul$ increase the s(ee$ of the cruiser fro) thirty9fi-e to a little )ore than thirty9fi-e an$ one9half 2nots0 As it also a((ears at first sight that the electric $ri-e requires a$$itional s(ace8 is hea-ier an$ )ore costly8 it is only natural for those .ho ha-e not )a$e a thorough stu$y of all its (hases to $eci$e in fa-our of the gear0 SOM* 7ATA' M:STA!*S 3ut a careful inquiry into the su7Hect .oul$ in$uce the) to re-erse their o(inion0 ,n esti)ating the relati-e )erits of these essentially $ifferent (ro(elling )eans they )a2e t.o fatal )ista2es0 The first is to ta2e the (o.er trans)itte$ un$er a7nor)al con$itions as a criterionJ the secon$ to $ra. a (arallel 7et.een install)ents entirely unli2e8 one (ri)iti-e8 the other ela7orate8 the for)er 7eing inca(a7le of fulfilling i)(ortant functions of the latter0 &hen (re)ises arc erroneous $e$uctions therefro) )ust nee$s 7e faulty0 Thus the o((onents of the electric $ri-e ha-e 7een le$ to the conclusion that it is less efficient than9 the gear8 of greater .eight8 )ore e'(ensi-e an$ uncertain of success0 Ho. )uch truth there is in these contentions .ill 7e a((arent fro) an e'a)ination of .ell esta7lishe$ facts0 The electric $ri-e is of co)(le' influence on results in shi( o(eration0 For the sa2e of 7re-ity it .ill 7e -ie.e$ only in the follo.ing (rinci(al as(ectsI 9 (1 tur7ine (erfor)ance8 (! (o.er trans)itte$ to the (ro(eller8 (3 efficiency of the scre.8 (6 lo. (o.er cruising8 (4 high (o.er action8 (% fuel consu)(tion 7y au'iliaries an$ a((aratus for shi( use8 (* general econo)y an$ (8 (ro)(tness an$ (recision of control of all effects8 internal an$ e'ternal0 The (resent tur7ines are e'tre)ely unsuita7le for shi( (ro(ulsion0 They offer a stri2ing e'a)(le of an antiquate$ in-ention of s)all -alue ele-ate$ to a (osition of e'traor$inary co))ercial utility through (rofoun$ research an$ astonishing )echanical s2ill0 &ith hun$re$s of thousan$s of thin 7la$es easily $estroye$8 7uc2ets that through corrosion an$ erosion soon 7eco)e .asteful an$ s)all clearances 7et.een surfaces rotating at terrific rates8 they are a cause of constant $anger an$ haBar$0 :##*6*#S:;'* T=#;:N*S 3ut their car$inal $efect is that they are irre-ersi7le8 .hich necessitates the e)(loy)ent of se(arate tur7ines for 7ac2ing0 These8 7esi$es in-ol-ing great e'(ense an$ consi$era7le friction loss8 i)(ose narro. li)its on the te)(erature of the .or2ing )e$iu)0 Gery high su(erheat8 so $esira7le in ther)o9$yna)ic con-ersion8 is out of the question in such8 (erisha7le structures8 7ut fro) !55 to 355 $egrees F0 are (er)issi7le0 To that e'tent8 then8 the tur7ine is at an a$-antage .hen $ri-ing a $yna)o0 T.o hun$re$ $egrees su(erheat .ill usually effect a sa-ing of a7out t.enty9three (er cent of stea) an$ ten (er cent of fuel0 This8 ho.e-er8 is not the only gain0 The tur7ine8 free$ fro) all the i)(e$i)ents of the gear $ri-e8 is ca(a7le of 7eing safely run at a higher (eri(heral s(ee$ .ith a corres(on$ingly increase$ efficiency an$ out(ut0 Thus8 7y )o$erate su(erheat an$ other si)(le an$ allo.a7le e'(e$ients8 it 7eco)es (ractica7le to $e-elo( t.enty9fi-e (er cent )ore (o.er fro) the sa)e fuel8 an$ this alone .oul$ )a2e the electric $ri-e $eci$e$ly su(erior to its co)(etitor0 A M*C0AN:CA' TO=# %* 7O#C* As regar$s the (o.er trans)itte$ fro) the tur7ine to the (ro(eller8 it .ill see) in the light of the (rece$ing that the gear is 7etter 7y fi-e (er cent0 That )ay 7e the case in e'ce(tional tests8 7ut it is quite $ifferent in actual ser-ice0 To this is to 7e trace$ the error of those .ho are ta2ing results o7taine$ at constant loa$ as stan$ar$ of co)(arison0 The (erfection of the )o$ern high s(ee$ gear .as a -erita7le tour $e force of the scientific
)achinist0 ,t is a .on$erful $e-ice8 7ut it also has its inse(ara7le .ea2nesses an$ shortco)ings0 >ince the friction loss in it is sensi7ly constant through a .i$e range of (erfor)ance8 a relati-ely great a)ount of energy is a7sor7e$ at s)all loa$0 The gear is li2e.ise -ery sensiti-e to shoc2s an$ -i7rations8 .hich 7rea2 $o.n the ca(illary oil fil)8 -ital to s)ooth running0 ,n consequence8 there is great .aste of (o.er .hen the resisting force is su7Hect to frequent an$ su$$en fluctuations8 /easure)ents , )a$e .ith tur7ine gears ha-e sho.n that .hile the efficiency .ith stea$y an$ nor)al effort .as ninety9si' (er cent8 not )ore than ninety (er cent .as realiBe$ .ith a ra(i$ly -arying loa$0 This is .hat )ight 7e e'(ecte$ in (ractice0 Any one .ho has listene$ to the torture$ engines of a stea)shi( in hea-y sea coul$ not ha-e faile$ to o7ser-e ho. the turning effort -aries as the -essel rolls8 (itches an$ (loughs through 7illo.s an$ conflicting un$ercurrents0 A si)ilar state of things is a(t to confront a .ar shi( in action8 as .as e-i$ence$ in recent na-al engage)ents8 .hen )ountains of .ater .ere raise$ 7y the e'(lo$ing shells0 Cn$er such circu)stances the gear is at a great $isa$-antage8 as the electric $ri-e is susce(ti7le to these $ra.7ac2s in a )uch s)aller $egree0 The i$ea that the gear trans)its )ore of the (ri)ary (o.er to the (ro(eller than the co)7ination of $yna)o an$ )otor is8 therefore8 largely illusionary0 There is a)(le e-i$ence8 e'(eri)ental an$ inferential8 that rather the o((osite is true0 S=5*#:O#:T@ O7 *'*CT#:C %#:6* Consi$ering the efficiency of the scre. as $istinct fro) that attaine$ in the trans)ission of (o.er8 it is a$)itte$ly 7etter .ith the electric $ri-e8 this conclusion 7eing entirely 7ase$ on the su(erior a$a(ta7ility an$ fle'i7ility of the syste)0 3ut there are $ee(er causes .hich shoul$ 7e ta2en into account0 The inter(osition of electro)agnetic )eans 7et.een the tur7ine an$ (ro(eller )aterially re$uces the loss $ue to shoc2s8 -i7rations8 racing an$ other $istur7ances o.ing to inherent elastic resilience an$ equaliBing ten$ency0 The sa-ing of energy thus effecte$ at high s(ee$ an$ in a hea-y sea is consi$era7le0 "cono)y in cruising is one of the )ost $esira7le qualities of a .ar -essel0 This is its or$inary use8 for the chance of e-er 7eing engage$ in 7attle is re)ote0 The 7itterest o((onents of the electric $ri-e $o not $eny that it e'cels in this feature8 u(on .hich the )anufacturer chiefly relies in guaranteeing a fuel consu)(tion fro) 15 to 1! (er cent s)aller than .ith the gear0 The latter is ho(elessly con$e)ne$ 7y ina7ility of a$Hust)ent to -arying s(ee$ an$ .asteful in cruising o(erations8 .hile the for)er is rea$ily a$a(ta7le an$ econo)ical un$er all con$itions0 Another quality of the electric $ri-e8 .hich )ay (ro-e es(ecially -alua7le in action8 is its ca(acity of carrying great o-erloa$ .ithout $anger8 o.ing to the nature of the connection 7et.een the tur7ine an$ (ro(eller8 as e'(laine$0 The gear is rigi$ an$ unyiel$ing an$ any increase of effort8 (articularly if su$$en8 )ay cause a 7rea2$o.n0 SA6:NB O7 5OF*# +eferring to the au'iliaries (ro(er an$ other a((aratus for shi( use8 to .hich are chargea7le a((ro'i)ately !5 (er cent of the fuel consu)e$8 a -ery su7stantial sa-ing of (o.er .ill 7e achie-e$ through the intro$uction of the electrical )etho$0 Auite a(art fro) this central station su((ly .ill 7e o(erati-e in re$ucing other .aste8 )any accessories .ill 7e $is(ense$ .ith an$ general econo)y )aterially increase$0 3ut fro) the )ilitary (oint of -ie. the quic2ness8 ease an$ (recision of control .ill (erha(s 7e the )ost significant of the a$-antages gaine$0 "-erything )ay 7e )a$e to res(on$ instantly to the (ressure of a 7utton0 3y re-ersing the )otors the -essel )ay 7e 7rought fro) full s(ee$ to a sto( .ithin its length0 ,t .ill 7e (ossi7le to )a2e it go through all e-olutions .ith e'traor$inary ra(i$ity an$ a (erfection of )anoeu-re8 un$rea)e$ of 7efore8 .ill 7e attaine$0 A curious )ista2e is )a$e 7y the a$-ocates of the tur7ine gear in esti)ating relati-e .eight0 ,t har$ly nee$s 7e state$ that it is unfair8 if not a7sur$8 to co)(are arrange)ents of .i$ely $ifferent character an$ sco(e0 ;nly such as are ca(a7le of acco)(lishing the sa)e results shoul$ 7e consi$ere$0 1o.8 a gear $ri-e corres(on$ing to the electric .oul$ consist of four )ain tur7ines .ith gears8 four re-ersing tur7ines of the sa)e ca(acity8 an$ eight s)aller $ri-ing an$ re-ersing tur7ines for cruising0 This agglo)eration of co)(le' an$ not all too rugge$ )achinery8 .ith its net.or2 of .ater8 air an$ oil (i(es8 -al-es8 (u)(s an$ attach)ents8 .oul$ 7y far e'cee$ in .eight the (ro(ose$ electric $ri-e8 an$ .oul$ also require 7etter structural (rotection8 not to s(ea2 of other $efects an$ shortco)ings0
C=*ST:ON O7 F*:B0T ,t shoul$ 7e o7ser-e$8 ho.e-er8 that the .eights )ust 7e ta2en in their relation to that of the shi(0 ;ne equi()ent )ay 7e hea-ier than another8 7ut if it is )ore efficient an$ there7y re$uces the .eight of fuel an$ other cargo8 it is for all (ur(oses the lighter of the t.o0 The sa)e is true of the cost0 Co)(arati-e figures )ean nothing0 The question is .hether the in-est)ent of ca(ital is Hustifie$ 7y .hat is to 7e acco)(lishe$0 3ut enough has 7een sai$ to sho. that for results in all res(ects equi-alent8 assu)ing the) to 7e (ossi7le8 the gear ty(e8 not.ithstan$ing all clai)s to the contrary8 .oul$ 7e )ore e'(ensi-e0 That the electric $ri-e is e'(eri)ental an$ uncertain of (erfor)ance is the least tena7le of a$-erse assertions0 ,n the first (lace8 it has 7een successfully e)(loye$ on a nu)7er of -essels an$ a great )any )ore are 7eing 7uilt0 ,t also .as foun$ to 7e ca(a7le of an efficiency higher than that of any other for)0 3ut this is quite i))aterial0 The confi$ence that in the (resent instance all e'(ectations .ill 7e realiBe$ is not 7ase$ on a fe. $e)onstrations8 7ut on years of e'(erience .ith (o.er (lants e-er since )y syste) .as co))ercially inaugurate$0 Tens of )illions of horse (o.er of in$uction )otors are no. in use the .orl$ o-er an$ no failure is recor$e$0 N*F C#=:S*#S2 #*C=:#*M*NTS The ne. cruisers .ill require 1858555 horse (o.er each8 .hich8 if necessary can 7e $e-elo(e$ 7y four units of 648555 horse (o.er0 Tur7ines of that ca(acity ha-e 7een constructe$ an$ are in o(eration to$ay0 =yna)os of corres(on$ing out(ut ha-e 7een installe$ at se-eral (laces an$ are su((lying light an$ (o.er to large cities an$ $istricts0 ,n$uction )otors of 148555 horse (o.er are 7eing turne$ out 7y the )anufacturers an$ can 7e (ro$uce$ in any siBe that )ay 7e $esire$8 for of all 2in$s of )otors this is the si)(lest an$ )ost $e(en$a7le0 #ong since the .hole syste) has 7een .or2e$ out an$ (erfecte$ to the least $etail0 The (roHect is colossal8 7ut it can 7e rea$ily carrie$ out 7y any of the fe. concerns .ho are (ossesse$ of the (ro(er facilities0 1ot e-en a ne. tool has to 7e )a$e0 There is nothing .hate-er untrie$ or haBar$ous a7out the electric $ri-e0 /uch stress is lai$ on re(orts8 still to 7e -erifie$8 that it .as reHecte$ 7y "nglan$ an$ Ger)any0 3ut this is of no consequence0 ,t has 7een reHecte$ here )ore than once0 3esi$es8 there .as .ar in the air of "uro(e an$ the ti)e for ra$ical inno-ations un(ro(itious0 /oreo-er8 the =iesel engine .as loo)ing u( .ith large (ossi7ilities an$ =r0 FRttinger's hy$raulic $ri-e .as 7eing trie$0 The 7eginning )ust 7e )a$e so)e.here an$ it .oul$ 7e $e(lora7le in$ee$ if the Cnite$ >tates8 .here the in-ention .as first announce$ an$ intro$uce$ on a gigantic scale8 .ere the last to recogniBe it0 >uch )ista2es ha-e ha((ene$ only too often0 The foreign na-ies are not in the ha7it of 2ee(ing the (ress infor)e$ of their $oings an$ it is safe to (re$ict that if (rogress in this country is )uch retar$e$ there .ill 7e a re(etition of (re-ious $isa((oint)ents0 ,t is unnecessary to $.ell on other o7Hections .hich are of )inor i)(ortance an$ of no 7earing on the (rinci(le0 &ithout going into te$ious technical $iscussion8 it )ay 7e state$ that the electric $ri-e8 if Hu$iciously $esigne$8 .ill sa-e not less than t.enty9fi-e (er cent of fuel an$8 .ith $ue regar$ to this an$ certain s(ecific an$ in-alua7le a$-antages8 .ill 7e lighter8 chea(er an$ in e-ery res(ect )ore $e(en$a7le than the gear0 ,n fact8 , 7elie-e that a sche)e can 7e $e-ise$ (er)itting the (lacing of all -ital (arts 7elo. the .ater line0 ,n -ie. of this8 it is to 7e ho(e$ that the >ecretary of the 1a-y .ill not (ay attention to the (rotests of ri-als8 ho.e-er (atriotic8 7ut .ill cause the goo$ .or2 to 7e (ushe$ to co)(letion .ith all the (o.er at his co))an$0 These state)ents are to 7e un$erstoo$ as reflecting the (resent state of the art0 The a$-ent of a re-ersi7le tur7ine .ill (rofoun$ly affect the situation in fa-or of the gear0 >uch a )achine has 7een (erfecte$ an$ .as $escri7e$ in the Heral$ of ;cto7er 148 19110 ,t is the lightest (ri)e )o-er e-er (ro$uce$ an$ can 7e o(erate$ .ithout trou7le at re$ heat8 there7y o7taining a -ery high econo)y in the transfor)ation of heat energy00 , antici(ate its s(ee$y an$ e'tensi-e a((lication to shi( (ro(ulsion0 3ut although an i$eally si)(le an$ -ery ine'(ensi-e $ri-e .ill 7e thus (ro-i$e$8 there .ill still 7e .eighty reasons for a$o(ting the electric )etho$ on .ar shi(s0 ,n or$er to $issi(ate all $ou7t create$ in the )in$ 7y $i-ersifie$ engineering o(inion8 , .ill )a2e 2no.n 7ut ;ne of the)8 .hich in itself is sufficiently consequential an$ con-incing to $is(ense .ith further argu)ents0 %:SA#MAM*NT :M5OSS:;'* ,t is i$le to $rea) of $isar)a)ent an$ uni-ersal (eace in the face of the terri7le e-ents .hich are no. unfol$ing0 They (ro-e conclusi-ely that no country .ill 7e allo.e$ to control all others 7y any )eans0 3efore all (eo(les can feel secure of their national e'istence an$ .orl$.i$e har)ony esta7lishe$ certain o7stacles .ill ha-e to 7e
re)o-e$8 the chief of .hich are Ger)an )ilitaris)8 3ritish $o)ination of the seas8 the rising ti$e of +ussian )illions8 the yello. (eril an$ the )oney (o.er of A)erica0 These a$Hust)ents .ill 7e slo. an$ (enni7le in confor)ity .ith natural la.s0 ,nternational friction an$ ar)e$ conflict .ill not 7e 7anishe$ fro) the earth for a long (erio$ to co)e0 The $rag on hu)an (rogress .oul$ not 7e so great if .ar energy coul$ 7e )aintaine$ in (urely (otential for)0 This can an$ .ill 7e $one through the uni-ersal intro$uction of .ireless (o.er0 Then all $estructi-e energy .ill 7e o7taine$ .ithout effort )erely 7y controlling the life sustaining forces of (eace0 The )aintenance of .ar shi(s an$ other )ilitary i)(le)ents in-ol-es an a((alling .aste0 A -essel costing t.enty )illions of $ollars is ren$ere$ -irtually .orthless in the short s(an of ten years8 $eteriorating at the )ean rate of t.o )illion $ollars a year8 interest not consi$ere$0 Har$ly )ore than one out of fifty ser-es its real (ur(ose0 To lessen this ruinous loss an$ e'(loit certain in-entions , ela7orate$ a sche)e so)e years ago0 ,t .as recogniBe$ as rational 7ur financially an$ in other .ays $ifficult of realiBation0 1o.8 .hen national econo)y an$ (re(are$ness ha-e 7eco)e 7urning questions8 it assu)es s(ecial i)(ort an$ significance0 TO =S* FA# S0:5S :N 5*AC* The un$erlying i$ea is to )a2e .ar shi(s a-aila7le for (ur(oses of (eace in a (rofita7le )anner8 at the sa)e ti)e i)(ro-ing the) in a nu)7er of features0 , a) a.are of the (ro(osal lately a$-ance$ to e)(loy the) as carriers of co))erce8 7ut this is not feasi7le an$ .oul$ 7e an i)(e$i)ent to further (erfection0 /y (roHect (ri)arily conte)(late$ the install)ent of the electric $ri-e an$ the use of the tur7o9$yna)os for light an$ (o.er su((ly an$ )anufacture of -arious -alua7le (ro$ucts an$ articles a7oar$ or on lan$0 This .oul$ 7e a ste( in the $irection of (resent $e-elo()ent )eeting the o7Hects of 7oth )ilitary an$ in$ustrial (re(are$ness0 , further inten$e$ the creation of a ty(e of -essel on ra$ically $ifferent (rinci(les8 .hich .oul$ 7e a (recious asset in (eace an$ e-er so )uch )ore $estructi-e in .ar0 The ne. cruisers8 if equi((e$ as (lanne$ 7y the 1a-y =e(art)ent8 .ill constitute four floating central stations of 1858555 horse (o.er each0 The tur7ines an$ $yna)os are $esigne$ for highest efficiency an$ o(erate un$er )ost fa-ora7le con$itions0 The (o.er they are ca(a7le of $e-elo(ing re(resents a )ar2et -alue of se-eral )illion $ollars a year an$ coul$ 7e a$-antageously utiliBe$ at (laces .here fuel can 7e rea$ily o7taine$ an$ trans(ort is con-enient0 The (lants .oul$ also (ro-e of great -alue in cases of e)ergency0 They coul$ 7e quic2ly sent to any (oint along the coast of the Cnite$ >tates or else.here an$ .oul$ ena7le the go-ern)ent to len$ s(ee$y assistance .hene-er necessary0 3ut this is not all0 There is another an$ still )ore (otent reason for a$o(ting the electric )etho$0 ,t is foun$e$ on the 2no.le$ge that at a ti)e not $istant the (resent )eans an$ )etho$s of .arfare .ill 7e re-olutioniBe$ through no-el a((lications of electric force0
1-1<-0/-15: Ni.ola Tesla Tells of Country2s Far 5ro1lems by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald Needs in Aerial and Naval &*heres and /eans for 2ombating (ostile Attack Described H Numerous Devices of American Invention Already Exist H 'thers !e)uired The conquest of ele)ents8 annihilation of $istance in the trans)ission of force an$ nu)erous other re-olutionary a$-ances ha-e 7rought us face to face .ith (ro7le)s ne. an$ unforeseen0 To )eet these is an i)(erati-e necessity ren$ere$ es(ecially (ressing through the struggle .hich is no. 7eing .age$ 7et.een nations on a stu(en$ous scale un(rece$ente$ in history0 This country8 fin$ing it i)(ossi7le to re)ain an inacti-e .itness of )e$ie-al 7ar7aris) an$ $isregar$ of sacre$ rights8 has ta2en u( ar)s in a s(irit 7roa$ an$ i)(artial an$ in the interest of hu)anity an$ (eace0 ,ts (artici(ation .ill 7e a7solutely $ecisi-e as regar$s the final result8 7ut those .ho e'(ect a s(ee$y ter)ination of the conflict shoul$ un$ecei-e the)sel-es0 &ar8 ho.e-er co)(le'8 is essentially a )echanical (rocess8 an$8 in confor)ity .ith a uni-ersal (rinci(le8 its $uration )ust 7e (ro(ortionate to the )asses set in )otion0 The truth of this la. is 7orne out 7y (re-ious recor$s8 fro) .hich it )ay 7e calculate$ that8 7arring con$itions entirely out of the or$inary8 the (erio$ shoul$ 7e fro) fi-e to si' years0 Great free$o) of institutions8 such as .e are (ri-ilege$ to enHoy8 is not con$uci-e to safety0 /ilitaris) is o7Hectiona7le8 7ut a certain a)ount of organiBe$ $isci(line is in$is(ensa7le to a healthy national 7o$y0 Fortunately8 the recognition of this fact has not co)e too late8 for there is no i))e$iate $anger8 as alar)ists .oul$ )a2e us 7elie-e0 The geogra(hical (osition of this country8 its -ast resources an$ .ealth8 the energy an$ su(erior intelligence of its (eo(le8 )a2e it -irtually unconquera7le0 &e &oul$ &in in the "n$0 There is no nation to attac2 us that .oul$ not 7e ulti)ately $efeate$ in the atte)(t0 3ut e-ents of the last three years ha-e sho.n that a co)7ination of )any ini)ical (o.ers is (ossi7le8 an$ for such an e)ergency the Cnite$ >tates is .holly un(re(are$0 The first efforts )ust therefore 7e $e-ote$ to the (erfection of the 7est (lea for national (rotection0 This i$ea has ta2en hol$ of the )in$s of (eo(le an$ great results )ay 7e e'(ecte$ fro) its creati-e i)agination fire$ 7y this occasion8 such as )ay in a larger )easure reco)(ense for the a.ful .astage of .ar0 &hile the chief reliance in this (erilous situation )ust 7e (lace$ on the ar)y an$ na-y8 it is of the greatest i)(ortance to (ro-i$e a 7ig fleet of aero(lanes an$ $irigi7les for quic2 )o-e)ent an$ o7ser-ationJ also a great nu)7er of s)all high s(ee$ craft ca(a7le of fulfilling -arious -ital $uties as carriers an$ instru)ents of $efence0 These8 together .ith the .ireless8 .ill 7e -ery effecti-e against the C97oat8 of .hich the cunning an$ scientific ene)y has )a$e a for)i$a7le .ea(on8 threatening to (aralyse the co))erce of the .orl$0 As the first e'(e$ient for 7rea2ing the su7)arine 7loc2a$e8 the sche)e of e)(loying hun$re$s of s)all -essels8 a$-ance$ 7y /r0 &0 =en)an8 chair)an of the Cnite$ >tates >hi((ing 3oar$8 is a )ost e'cellent one8 .hich cannot fail to succee$0 Another )easure .hich .ill consi$era7ly re$uce the toll is to use e-ery (ossi7le )eans for $ri-ing the lur2ing ene)y far out into the sea8 thus e'ten$ing the $istance at .hich he )ust o(erate an$ there7y lessening his chances0 3ut a (erfect a((aratus for re-ealing his (resence is .hat is )ost nee$e$ at this )o)ent0 >e-eral =e-ices :no.n0 A nu)7er of $e-ices8 )agnetic8 electric8 electro9)agnetic or )echanical8 )ore or less 2no.n8 are a-aila7le for this (ur(ose0 ,n )y o.n e'(erience it .as $e)onstrate$ that the s)all (ac2et 7oat is ca(a7le of affecting a sensiti-e )agnetic in$icator at a $istance of a fe. )iles0 3ut this effect can 7e nullifie$ in se-eral .ays0 &ith a $ifferent for) of .ireless instru)ent $e-ise$ 7y )e so)e years ago it .as foun$ (ractica7le to locate a 7o$y of )etallic ore 7elo. the groun$8 an$ it see)s that a su7)arine coul$ 7e si)ilarly $etecte$0 >oun$ .a-es )ay also 7e resorte$ to8 7ut they cannot 7e $e(en$e$ u(on0 Another )etho$ is that of reflection8 .hich )ight 7e ren$ere$ (ractica7le8 though it is han$ica((e$ 7y e'(eri)ental $ifficulties .ell nigh insu(era7le0 ,n the (resent state of the art the .ireless (rinci(le is the )ost (ro)ising of all8 an$ there is no $ou7t that it .ill
7e a((lie$ .ith telling effect0 3ut .e )ust 7e (re(are$ for the a$-ent of a large ar)oure$ su7)arine of great cruising ra$ius8 s(ee$ an$ $estructi-e (o.er .hich .ill ha-e to 7e co)7ate$ in other .ays0 For the ti)e 7eing no effort shoul$ 7e s(are$ to $e-elo( aerial )achines an$ )otor 7oats0 The effecti-eness of these can 7e largely increase$ 7y the use of a tur7ine8 .hich has 7een re(eate$ly referre$ to in the H"+A#= an$ is i$eally suite$ for such (ur(oses on account of its e'tre)e lightness8 re-ersi7ility an$ other )echanical features0
1-1<-05-18: Minutes of t,e Annual Meeting of t,e Ameri(an :nstitute of *le(tri(al *ngineers) 0eld at t,e *ngineering So(ieties ;uilding) 7riday *Eening
The Engineering &ocieties 4uilding , 1e. Dor2 City <+">"1TAT,;1 ;F TH" "=,>;1 /"=A# T; 1,:;#A T">#A0 <resi$ent 3uc2 calle$ the )eeting to or$er at 8I35 o'cloc20 TH" <+">,="1TI As you 2no.8 gentle)en8 this is the Annual /eeting of the ,nstitute8 an$ the first thing on the (rogra) .ill 7e the (resentation of the +e(ort of the 3oar$ of =irectors 7y our >ecretary8 /r0 Hutchinson0 >"C+"TA+D HCTCH,1>;1I The annual re(ort of the ,nstitute for the year has 7een (rinte$ an$ $istri7ute$8 an$ it is not )y intention to ta2e the ti)e to rea$ it0 ,t consists of a 7rief resu)e of the acti-ities of the institute for the entire year8 an$ inclu$es a7stracts of the re(orts of the -arious co))ittees0 (>ecretary Hutchinson then a7stracte$ the +e(ort of the 3oar$ of =irectors0 TH" <+">,="1TI Gentle)en8 the ne't or$er of 7usiness of the e-ening .ill 7e the announce)ent of the election of officers an$ )anagers for the co)ing year0 The re(ort of the Tellers .ill 7e (resente$ 7y the >ecretary8 /r0 Hutchinson0 >ecretary Hutchinson then (resente$ the re(ort of the Tellers8 .hich sho.e$ elections as follo.sI <resi$entI Gice9<resi$entsI &0 &0 +ice8 Er0 Fre$erich 3e$ell8 Eohn H0 Finney8 A0 >0 /cAllister &alter A0 Hall (Ter) e'(iring Euly 318 19!1 8 "0 H0 /artin$ale8 &illia) A0 =el/ar8 &ilfre$ >y2es George A0 Ha)ilton
/anagersI
TreasurerI
(The (resi$ent then $eclare$ the foregoing9na)e$ gentle)en as $uly electe$ officers an$ )anagers of the ,nstitute as in$icate$0 TH" <+">,="1TI ,t is our (ri-ilege fro) ti)e to ti)e to honour those in the electrical (rofession .ho ha-e ren$ere$ cons(icuous ser-ice to.ar$s this a$-ance0 &e ha-e the (leasure this e-ening of so honouring /r0 1i2ola Tesla0 =r0 :ennelly8 .ho is Chair)an of the "$ison /e$al Co))ittee8 .ill tell us .hat the "$ison /e$al is an$ .hat it stan$s for0 , ta2e (leasure in intro$ucing =r0 A0 "0 :ennelly0 =r0 A0 "0 :"11"##DI /r0 <resi$ent8 #a$ies an$ Gentle)enI ,t is )y (ri-ilege to say a fe. .or$s to you u(on the origin an$ (ur(ose of the "$ison /e$al0 First of all8 )any (eo(le su((ose that the "$ison /e$al is a )e$al (resente$ 7y /r0 "$ison0 That is a )ista2e0 /r0 "$ison has 7een so 7usy $uring his life recei-ing )e$als that he has not ti)e for the $eli-ery of any0 The "$ison /e$al o.es its e'istence to the action of a grou( of his a$)irers .ho in a -ery re)ar2a7le =ee$ of Gift8 a (rinte$ co(y of .hich , ha-e here8 ha-e set a(art a fun$ for the (ur(ose of the annual a.ar$ of a )e$al for )eritorious achie-e)ent in the electrical science an$ art0 This $ee$ of gift originally recite$8 in 19568 that the )e$al shoul$ 7e annually a.ar$e$ for 'the 7est gra$uating thesis 7y the stu$ents of electrical engineering in the Cnite$ >tates an$ Cana$a8 7ut in the years that ela(se$ 7et.een 1956 an$ 19588 , thin2 , a) correct in saying that there .ere no successful can$i$ates8 at least for the )e$al un$er those ter)s8 although there )ay ha-e 7een )any as(irants0 ,t is su((ose$ that the $ignity of the )e$al an$ the Hunior character of the tyros restraine$ the) in their )o$esty fro) )a2ing (ro(er a((lication0 3e that as it )ay8 fin$ing that the a((licants hel$ 7ac2 un$er the original ter)s of the $ee$ of gift8 the )atter .as ta2en u( further an$ the original 7o$y of )en re$rafte$ the $ee$ an$ (lace$ it in the han$s of the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers to a.ar$ the )e$al8 un$er the choice of a Co))ittee8 annually8 for )eritorious achie-e)ent8 as in$icate$8 to any resi$ent of the Cnite$ >tates8 its $e(en$encies8 or Cana$a8 $uring each a$)inistration year0 The )onu)ent .hich they raise$ to /r0 "$ison 7y their act is8 , thin2 you .ill a$)it8 one of the )ost .on$erful that has e-er 7een raise$ to any scientist0
The =ee$ of Gift says that there shall 7e t.enty9four )e)7ers a((ointe$ 7y the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 si'teen fro) the )e)7ershi( at large8 three e' officio )e)7ers8 the <resi$ent8 >ecretary an$ Treasurer8 an$ the 7alance fro) the 3oar$ of =irectors0 "-ery year the )e$al is $ue to 7e a.ar$e$0 There ha-e 7een alrea$y si' )e$als a.ar$e$8 not counting the )e$al .hich is to 7e a.ar$e$ to9night8 an$ the reci(ients of these )e$als ha-e 7een "lihu Tho)son8 Fran2 E0 >(rague8 George &estinghouse8 &illia) >tanley8 Charles F0 3rush8 Ale'an$er Graha) 3ell0 , thin2 you .ill say that is a fitting selection for the gala'y of na)es that .e loo2 for.ar$ to in the future8 all of the)8 in honouring /r0 "$ison's achie-e)ents8 .hich ha-e 7een so note.orthy8 that e-ery househol$ in the lan$ hol$s his na)e as a cherishe$ househol$ .or$0 &e )ay loo2 for.ar$ to a ti)e say a thousan$ years hence8 .hen8 li2e this e-ening8 the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 or its successors or assigns8 shall 7e con-o2e$8 an$ at .hich the )e$al of the year .ill 7e a.ar$e$ to its ;ne Thousan$ an$ >e-enth reci(ient8 an$ all that long gala'y of na)es .ill re(resent those in$i-i$uals .ho ha-e contri7ute$ to the recognition of the achie-e)ents of /r0 "$ison an$ his gift to hu)anity0 ,n a$$ition to .hat this $ee$ of gift sho.s in honour of /r0 "$ison hi)self8 there is8 of course8 the -ery great honour that it 7esto.s u(on the reci(ient0 The =ee$ of Gift says there shall 7e t.enty9four Hurors8 .hich you see is t.ice the nu)7er of Hurors that is allo.e$ in the (alla$iu) of our li7erties8 7ut .hereas the Hurors of or$inary life con-ict 7y unani)ous -ote8 the t.enty9four Hurors of the "$ison /e$al con-ict8 at least8 7y a t.o9thir$s -ote8 so , thin2 , a) correct in saying that their con-ictions ha-e hitherto 7een entirely unani)ous8 an$ in this (articular case , can certainly $eclare that it has 7een unani)ous0 The gala'y of na)es that .ill 7e (ro$uce$ an$ has alrea$y 7een (ro$uce$ un$er this $ee$ of gift .ill 7e great an$ note.orthy0 ,t .ill not 7e necessary to loo2 into a "&ho's &ho" to see .ho has 7een great an$ notorious an$ .orthy of )erit in electrical science an$ art0 The historian of the future .ill si)(ly say 9 "Gi-e )e the list of the "$ison /e$allists0" This $ee$ of gift is also .on$erful in other res(ects0 ,t has )ar-ellous fle'i7ility an$ )ar-ellous rigi$ity in certain $irections0 ,t (ro-i$es for the (ossi7ility of a change of (ersonnel8 a change of (roce$ure an$ a change of a$)inistration as ti)e an$ things )ay change0 ,t only )a2es one rigi$ restriction8 an$ that is that the na)e ""$ison /e$al" shall ne-er 7e change$0 Ti)es )ay change an$ (ersons an$ institutions8 the ,nstitute itself )ay go out of e'istence8 an$ there is (ro-i$e$ )achinery .here7y if the ,nstitute shoul$ say it is tire$8 or it has gone out of e'istence8 or can no longer a$)inister the )e$al8 that the fi-e ol$est uni-ersities of the country8 )aintaining a course in electrical engineering8 shall 7e a7le to (lace the a$)inistration of the )e$al 7y their -ote in the han$s of so)e ne. institution8 so you see that this is a -ery .on$erful =ee$ of Gift that , ha-e the honour of 7ringing to your notice here this e-ening in connection .ith the 7esto.al of this )e$al0 Another great a$-antage that the )e$al (resents is that its reci(ient shall 7e ali-e8 that is to say he )ust not only ha-e 7een con-icte$ of great )erit an$ )eritorious achie-e)ent8 7ut he )ust also ha-e esca(e$ 7eing run o-er 7y auto)o7iles u( to the ti)e of the (resentation0 That re(resents a great a$-ance o-er those )etho$s of a.ar$ing $istinction .hich $e(en$ u(on the $e)ise of the in$i-i$ual0 Dou 2no. so)e7o$y has sai$ that a great states)an is a successful (olitician .ho is $ea$8 7ut .e )ay say that the "$ison /e$allist is a great electrician .ho is ali-e8 an$ you 2no. it is .on$erful ho. little is 2no.n so)eti)es a7out a )an's $e)ise8 ho.e-er )uch )ay 7e 2no.n a7out his .or20 The other $ay , )et a 1egro in the >outh8 an$ , ha((ene$ to )ention &ashington8 an$ .hat .as $one 7y George &ashington .ho $ie$ so )any years ago8 an$ he sai$8 "For $e #a.$'s sa2e8 , $oant e-en hear$ the )an .as sic20" >o you see that e-en George &ashington8 no )atter ho. )eritorious he )ight ha-e 7een in electrical )atters8 coul$ not (ossi7ly 7e the reci(ient of an "$ison )e$al0 &e ha-e recently recei-e$ the sa$ ne.s in this country of the $e)ise of the great "nglish electrical engineer >il-anus <0 Tho)son8 a )an .ho ha$ )any a$)irers an$ )any frien$s in this country8 )any stu$ents here8 a )an .hose na)e an$ .or2 is $ear to so )any of us8 an$ efforts are no. 7eing )a$e to contri7ute to a fitting )e)orial for hi) 7y the (urchase of his li7rary as an a((en$i' to the great li7rary of the 3ritish ,nstitution of "lectrical "ngineers8 an$ a notice is gi-en on (age 1!% of the /ay <rocee$ings of the ,nstitute regar$ing that )o-e)ent8 an$ you .ill fin$ it a -ery .orthy )o-e)ent0 >u7scri(tion lists are o(en to the )e)7ers of this ,nstitute8 as a )atter of courtesy8 an$ a )atter of recognition8 that so )any of his frien$s in this country coul$ 7e allo.e$ to gi-e so)e contri7ution to this great Tho)son /e)orial0 ,t is a fact8 as , $are say )any of you 2no.8 that the fun$s for #or$ :el-in's /e)orial &in$o. in &est)inster A77ey .ere largely raise$ in A)erica8 )ore largely8 , 7elie-e8 than they .ere in "nglan$ itself0 ,n this case , a) le$ to 7elie-e that they $o not .ant the fun$s so )uch8 as they .ant the na)es of sy)(athiBers .ith the (roHect8 the su((ort of those .ho recogniBe the .or2 an$ )erit of >il-anus <0 Tho)son0 3ut ho. )uch 7etter it .oul$ 7e if .e .ere (resenting a )e)orial to >il-anus <0 Tho)son li-ing8 as .e are a7le to $o in the case of the "$ison /e$al8 than (resenting a )e)orial to >il-anus <0 Tho)son (asse$ a.ay0
Then one thing )oreI This $ee$ of gift 7et.een its lines suggests a thir$ an$ 7y no )eans least i)(ortant (ur(ose8 an$ that is a safeguar$8 lest .e forget0 &e in this ti)e an$ of this continent8 (articularly .e of the electrical (rofession8 .ith our faces e-er turne$ to the rising sun8 are so a(t to forget that there has 7een a (rece$ing night of trou7le8 $ifficulty an$ $is)ay8 an$ that the tools of our tra$e .hich lie to our han$ .ere only secure$ 7y har$ .or2 an$ toil against all sorts of $istress an$ $iscourage)ents0 The "$ison /e$al is our )eans for re-i-ing your )e)ories of the (ast an$ (ointing out that the things .e loo2 u(on as the sunshine of hea-en no. ha-e 7een arri-e$ at 7y the har$ .or28 the ins(iration8 or8 as "$ison hi)self .oul$ say8 the (ers(iration of those .ho ha-e .or2e$ in the (ast0 &e re)e)7er that 7eautiful 7oo28 "The T.ins"8 .here 3u$ge an$ To$$y the chil$ren al.ays insiste$ at all ti)es of the $ay an$ night to see the .heels go 'roun$ an$ ha-e their father's .atch o(ene$ for the)0 The )e$allist to9 night .as a )an .ho sa. in his )in$ .heels going aroun$ .hen there .as no )eans of getting alternating current )otors to rotate8 .hen the alternating current .oul$ $o e-erything 7ut )a2e .heels go 'roun$8 an$ he $e-ise$ the rotating )agnetic fiel$ so (ro(hetically in his )in$'s eye that the rotating )agnetic .heel .oul$ set .heels going 'roun$ all o-er the lan$ an$ all o-er the .orl$8 an$ the -ision is carrie$ out8 an$ .e recogniBe that -ision here8 an$ the /e$al is (artly as a re)in$er that .e shoul$ not forget the fact8 that the )e$allist also )a$e the (heno)enon of high frequency 2no.n to us all (ractically for the first ti)e8 an$ that .hat he sho.e$ .as a re-elation to science an$ art unto all ti)e0 For this thir$ (ur(ose the "$ison /e$al has 7een create$8 an$ .e )ay loo2 far for.ar$ into the future an$ see it gi-en year after year for8 let us ho(e8 a thousan$ years fro) no.8 in the year !91*8 to .itness the cere)ony .hich .e )ay .ell e'(ect .ill 7e furnishe$ at that ti)e0 (A((lause TH" <+">,="1TI =r0 :ennelly has referre$ to the struggles of the (ast8 an$ .e are -ery fortunate in ha-ing .ith us to9night one .ho .as associate$ .ith /r0 Tesla in 0his struggles of the (ast0 Gentle)en8 , .ant to intro$uce to you /r0 Charles A0 Terry8 .ho .ill tell us so)ething a7out these struggles an$ the early .or2 of /r0 Tesla8 for .hich .e assign to hi) the /e$al to9night0 CHA+#"> A0 T"++DI /r0 :ennelly s(o2e of the thousan$th a.ar$ of the /e$al0 , thin2 there is a (eculiar significance in the fact that /r0 Tesla is to recei-e the se-enth )e$al 9 the se-enth in )ost calculations is consi$ere$ a )ost e'cellent nu)7er to ha-e0 The con-olutions of the 7rain of one )an i)(el hi) to (aint u(on can-as the -isions of his soulJ another concei-es 7eauty of for) .hich he )ust e'(ress in (lastic art or in architectural structureJ others are $ri-en 7y an inner force to $e-ote their li-es to the $isco-ery of the secrets of une'(lore$ regions of the earth8 or to search out the )ysteries of the starsJ so)e fin$ the)sel-es co)(elle$ 7y an irresisti7le $esire to learn through archeological research the forgotten achie-e)ents of ancient racesJ still others see2 to ascertain an$ for)ulate the (hysical la.s .hich go-ern the (rocesses of nature8 an$ )en .ith other talents fin$ the)sel-es urge$ 7y a li2e (ersistent force to $e-ise an$ $isclose ne. )eans .here7y those la.s )ay 7e utiliBe$ for the further 7enefit of )an2in$0 ,t is this Go$9gi-en $esire to acco)(lish an$ to gi-e8 that has (ro$uce$ the /ichelangelos8 the Galileos8 the >ir Christo(her &rens8 the #i-ingstons8 1e.tons8 Fran2lins8 &estinghouses8 "$isons an$ scores of other )a2ers of historyJ )en .hose na)es .e retain in affectionate re)e)7rance8 7ecause they earnestly res(on$e$ to the call fro) .ithin an$ 7y (atient toil concei-e$ thoughts an$ $isco-ere$ things of -alue .hich they (ro)ulgate$ for the 7enefit of their fello. )en0 Although ho(e of re.ar$ )ay an$ (ro(erly shoul$ e'ist as an a$$e$ i)(ulse to such en$ea-ours8 the chiefly effecti-e force co)(elling to the long hours of har$ .or2 an$ (ersonal sacrifices of such )en is the ", )ust" .hich s(ea2s fro) .ithin the soul8 an$ .ith our truly great )en the $esire for re.ar$ is 7etter satisfie$ 7y a consciousness of achie-ing their ai)s an$ 7y the Hust co))en$ation of their fello.s than 7y )aterial gain8 e'ce(t insofar as the latter )ay ai$ in the further a$-ance)ent of their tas2s0 Fortunately8 )en generally are not Healous nor en-ious of the $oers of great $ee$s an$ the gi-ers of large 7enefits8 7ut fro) the $e(ths of their hearts are grateful an$ they are satisfie$ only .hen e-i$ence of their gratitu$e can 7e 7rought ho)e to the gi-er0 ,t is 7ecause of this $esire to sho. gratitu$e to8 an$ a((reciation of8 one of our fello. )e)7ers8 .hose na)e history .ill rightly recor$ in the sa)e $istinguishe$ class .ith those .e ha-e )entione$ that .e are gathere$ to9 night0 T.enty9nine years ago this )onth8 there .as (resente$ 7efore this ,nstitute8 a (a(er of unusual i)(ort0 ,t is entitle$ "A 1e. >yste) of Alternate Current /otors an$ Transfor)ers"0 The author8 1i2ola Tesla8 .as then only
31 years of age8 an$ 7ut four years a resi$ent of this country0 His early life .as s(ent near his 7irth(lace not far fro) the "astern A$riatic Coast0 His father a Gree2 Clergy)an an$ his )other8 herself of an in-enti-e )in$8 secure$ for their young son a co)(rehensi-e training in )athe)atics8 (hysics an$ (hiloso(hy0 At the age of !! he ha$ co)(lete$ his stu$ies in engineering at the <olytechnic >chool in GratB an$ also a course in the Cni-ersity of <ragueJ an$ in 1881 7egan his (ractical .or2 at 3u$a(est0 ,n 1883 he .as locate$ in >tras7ourg8 engage$ in co)(leting the lighting of a ne.ly erecte$ rail.ay station0 >hortly after finishing this tas2 he ca)e to the Cnite$ >tates0 /r0 Tesla's first .or2 in this country .as u(on ne. $esigns of $irect current arc an$ incan$escent lighting syste)s for the "$ison Co)(any0 Throughout all these years his $esire ha$ 7een to fin$ an o((ortunity to $e)onstrate the truth of a con-iction .hich97eca)e fi'e$ in his )in$ .hile stu$ying $irect current )otors in school at GratB in 18*8J the con-iction .as that it shoul$ 7e (ossi7le to create a rotating )agnetic fiel$ .ithout the use of co))utators0 &hile at >tras7ourg8 Tesla ha$ succee$e$ in (ro$ucing the rotation of a (i-ote$ iron $isc (lace$ in a coil tra-erse$ 7y alternating currents8 a steel 7ar 7eing (roHecte$ into the coil in the neigh7ourhoo$ of the $isc0 His conce(tion of the reason for this rotation at that ti)e .as that a lag occurre$ in the su7si$ence of the )agnetis) of 7oth the $isc an$ the steel 7ar 7et.een successi-e current .a-es8 an$ that the )utual re(ulsions cause$ the $isc to re-ol-e0 3y so)e fortunate (rocess of reasoning he concei-e$ .hile in 3u$a(est (in 188! that 7y using t.o or )ore out9of9(hase alternating currents res(ecti-ely (assing through geo)etrically $is(lace$ coils it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le to $e-elo( his long sought (rogressi-ely shifting )agnetic fiel$0 #ac2 of fun$s an$ facilities for .or2ing out his theory co)(elle$ still further (ost(one)ent8 7ut in 1884 Tesla ha$ the goo$ fortune to interest )en of )eans in a $irect current arc light .hich he ha$ $e-ise$8 an$ su7sequently a la7oratory .as equi((e$ for hi) in #i7erty >treet8 1e. Dor28 an$ here at last he foun$ o((ortunity to $e)onstrate the correctness of his long cherishe$ theory0 ,n 188* he .as a7le to e'hi7it to his 7usiness associates an$ to <rofessor &illia) A0 Anthony8 .hose e'(ert o(inion they sought8 )otors ha-ing such (rogressi-ely shifting fiel$s .ithout the use of co))utators8 as he ha$ foreseen nine years 7efore0 Ha-ing thus $e)onstrate$ the correctness of his theory an$ the feasi7ility of its a((lication8 it re)aine$ for Tesla to .or2 out -arious (ractical )etho$s of a((lying the (rinci(le8 an$ the ra(i$ity an$ .on$erful .ay in .hich he surroun$e$ the entire fiel$ of constant s(ee$8 synchronous8 in$uction an$ s(lit9(hase )otors is 7eautifully set forth in his (a(er of /ay 18th8 an$ in the nu)erous (atents issue$ /ay 1st8 18888 an$ succee$ing years8 co-ering the for)s of electric )otors .hich ha-e since 7eco)e the al)ost uni-ersal )eans for transfor)ing the energy of alternating currents into )echanical energy0 ,t is so)e.hat $ifficult to eli)inate fro) our )in$s the $e-elo()ents of the (ast thirty years .hich ha-e no. 7eco)e e-ery $ay features of the electrical in$ustry8 an$ to realiBe the )eagreness of the then e'isting 2no.le$ge of alternating current (heno)ena0 The co))ercial use of alternating current syste)s of $istri7utions .as then scarcely t.o years ol$0 The Gaular$ O Gi77s syste) of series transfor)ers ha$ 7een use$ a7roa$ in a li)ite$ .ay for a slightly longer (erio$ 7ut the )ulti(le arc syste) 7ase$ u(on the so9calle$ ">tanley +ule" .hich initiate$ the great $e-elo()ent of the (resent syste)8 .as not (ut in (ractical o(eration in the (ioneer Great 3arrington (lant until /arch 188%0 ,t .as then recogniBe$ that .hile the alternating current (ossesse$ .on$erful (ossi7ilities for electrical $istri7ution for lighting (ur(oses8 t.o al)ost necessary $e-ices .ere lac2ing to ren$er it a co)(lete success8 one a )eter8 the other a (o.er )otor0 <rofessor "lihu Tho)son (ro)(tly $e-ise$ a successful for) of )eter8 the )oti-e (ortion of .hich co)(rise$ a la)inate$ fiel$ an$ ar)ature8 the coils of the latter 7eing (erio$ically close9circuite$ $uring re-olution 7y a co))utator0 To fill the $e)an$ for a (o.er )otor8 ho.e-er8 the )ost (ro)ising $e-ice then suggeste$ .as a series co))utator )otor .ith la)inate$ fiel$ an$ ar)ature cores8 7ut no satisfactory results ha$ 7een o7taine$0 >uch .as the situation .hen Tesla's achie-e)ent .as announce$ in the ,nstitute (a(er to .hich reference has 7een )a$e0 His Honour Eu$ge To.nsen$ of the Cnite$ >tates Circuit Court8 in an o(inion ren$ere$ in August8 19558 as the outgro.th of so)e (atent litigation on the Tesla in-entions8 concisely $efines the un$erlying characteristic of the Tesla )otor as follo.sI "Tesla's in-ention8 consi$ere$ in it essence8 .as the (ro$uction of a continuously rotating or .hirling fiel$ of )agnetic forces for (o.er (ur(oses 7y generating t.o or )ore $is(lace$ or $iffering (hases of the alternating current8 trans)itting such (hases8 .ith their in$e(en$ence (reser-e$8 to the )otor8 an$ utiliBing the $is(lace$ (hases as such in the )otor0" A)ong the first to recogniBe the i))ense i)(ortance of /r0 Tesla's )otors .ere /r0 &estinghouse an$ his a$-isors8 /r0 T0 30 :err8 /r0 3ylles7y8 /r0 >hallen7erger an$ /r0 >ch)i$8 an$ in Eune /r0 &estinghouse secure$ an o(tion .hich shortly resulte$ in the (urchase of the (atents8 thus 7ringing un$er one o.nershi( the alternating current transfor)er syste) of $istri7ution8 an$ the Tesla )otor0 ,t is interesting to here note that /r0
>hallen7erger ha$ a7out t.o .ee2s 7efore the (u7lication of the Tesla (atents in$e(en$ently $e-ise$ an alternating current )eter8 the (rinci(le of o(eration of .hich .as that of the Tesla )otor8 an$ .hate-er )ight ha-e 7een /r0 >hallen7erger's natural $isa((oint)ent u(on fin$ing hi)self thus antici(ate$8 he at once recogniBe$ that to /r0 Tesla 7elonge$ the honour of 7eing the first to sol-e the great fun$a)ental (ro7le) of an alternating current )otor0 A .ar) frien$shi( 7et.een these t.o )en 7egan at once an$ continue$ throughout /r0 >hallen7erger's life8 an$ /r0 Tesla reHoice$ to accor$ to /r0 >hallen7erger full cre$it for the latter's 7rilliant .or2 in (ro$ucing .hat is no. the stan$ar$ )eter for alternating currents0 As illustrating the generous gentleness of Tesla's character8 , .ish to here quote fro) testi)ony gi-en 7y hi) in 19530 +eferring to >hallen7erger8 Tesla sai$I ", clearly re)e)7er that in the first $ays .hen , ca)e to <itts7urgh he too2 )e to lunch at the =uquesne 1otel8 an$ .hen , tol$ hi) that , .as sorry that , ha$ antici(ate$ hi)8 , sa. tears in his eyes0 That inci$ent , re)e)7er -i-i$lyJ 7ut .hat has (rece$e$ it , cannot re)e)7er no.0 <erha(s it is 7ecause this i)(ression .as so -i-i$ that it has $estroye$ the (rece$ing ones8 .hich .ere .ea2er0"' ,t is characteristic of Tesla that he shoul$ so $ee(ly regret the $isa((oint)ents of another0 ;.ing in a )easure to the circu)stance that the then (re-ailing rate of alternation of the alternating current syste) .as 1%85558 the co))ercial intro$uction of Tesla )otors .as so)e.hat retar$e$ $uring the first fe. years8 that rate 7eing foun$ less a$a(te$ to the )otor .or2 than a lo.er rate0 To$ay8 ho.e-er8 .here-er alternating current syste)s are use$ Tesla )otors a7oun$0 &ithout such )otors the alternating current syste) .oul$ ha-e re)aine$ seriously restricte$ in its use0 3efore (assing to a consi$eration of other of Tesla's acti-ities8 it .ill 7e a((ro(riate to refer again to the o(inion of Eu$ge To.nsen$8 fro) .hich , quote the follo.ingI "The Tesla $isco-ery for .hich these (atents .ere grante$ re-olutioniBe$ the art of electrical (o.er trans)ission8 as .ell $e)onstrate$ in the recor$ fro) 7oth Hu$icial an$ scientific stan$(oints0" ,n the closing (assage of the o(inion8 Eu$ge To.nsen$ (ays further tri7ute to Tesla in the follo.ing .or$sI ",t re)aine$ to the genius of Tesla to ca(ture the unruly8 unrestraine$8 an$ hitherto o((osing ele)ents in the fiel$ of nature an$ art an$ to harness the) to $ra. the )achines of )an0 ,t .as he .ho first sho.e$ ho. to transfor) the toy of Arago into an engine of (o.er8 the "#a7oratory e'(eri)ent" of 3aily into a (ractically successful )otorJ the in$icator into a $ri-er0 He first concei-e$ the i$ea that the -ery i)(e$i)ents of re-ersal in $irection8 the contra$ictions of alternations8 )ight 7e transfor)e$ into (o.er9(ro$ucing rotation8 a .hirling fiel$ of force0 &hat others loo2e$ u(on as only in-inci7le 7arriers8 i)(assa7le currents8 an$ contra$ictory forces8 he 7rought un$er control an$ 7y har)oniBing their $irections taught ho. to utiliBe in (ractical )otors in $istant cities the (o.er of 1iagara0" ,)agination $e-elo(e$ to a high $egree is a )ar2e$ characteristic of all great in-entors8 so it is of our great (oets8 artists8 (hiloso(hers8 generals8 an$8 in fact8 of all great originators of thought an$ )otionI The (o.er to (icture in the )in$ things not yet e'istent is an un$erlying characteristic of )ost great )en0 3ut i)agination to 7e effecti-e )ust 7e co)7ine$ .ith a Hust sense of (ro(ortion8 a logical a((reciation of li)itations8 an$ a ca(acity for unre)itting a((lication0 /r0 Tesla co)7ines these qualities in a )ar2e$ $egree8 an$ (articularly $oes he (ossess the faculty of (roHecting his thought far into une'(lore$ regions8 not only of science 7ut of (hiloso(hy0 His (assion for searching out the ulti)ate is char)ingly e-i$ence$ 7y the follo.ing e'tract fro) his lecture 7efore this ,nstitute at Colu)7ia College8 /ay !5th8 1891J ",n ho. far .e can un$erstan$ the .orl$ 0aroun$ us is the ulti)ate thought of e-ery stu$ent of nature0 The coarseness of our senses (re-ents us fro) recogniBing the ulterior construction of )atter8 an$ astrono)y8 this gran$est an$ )ost (ositi-e of natural sciences8 can only teach us so)ething that ha((ens8 as it .ere8 in our i))e$iate neigh7ourhoo$J of the re)oter (ortions of the 7oun$less uni-erse8 .ith its nu)7erless stars an$ suns8 .e 2no. nothing0 3ut far 7eyon$ the li)it of (erce(tion of our senses the s(irit still can gui$e us8 an$ so .e )ay ho(e that e-en these un2no.n .orl$s K infinitely s)all an$ great K )ay in a )easure 7eco)e 2no.n to us0 >till8 e-en if this 2no.le$ge shoul$ reach us8 the searching )in$ .ill fin$ a 7arrier8 (erha(s fore-er unsur(assa7le8 to the true recognition of that .hich see)s to 7e8 the )ere a((earance of .hich is the only an$ slen$er 7asis of all our (hiloso(hy0 ;f all the for)s of nature's i))easura7le8 all9(er-a$ing energy8 .hich8 e-er an$ e-er changing an$ )o-ing8 li2e a soul ani)ates the inert uni-erse8 those of electricity an$ )agnetis) are (erha(s the )ost fascinating0" The i)(ress )a$e u(on the .orl$ 7y the $ee$s of a great in-entor cannot 7e )easure$ 7y the nu)7er of
(atents .hich he has recei-e$ nor 7y the )onetary re.ar$ secure$ nor 7y the )ere e'(loitation of his na)e0 ;ften his greatest gifts are in the for) of ins(iring contri7utions to the literature8 fille$ .ith suggestions of lines of thought .hich lea$ others to .or2 in untrie$ fiel$s0 This is es(ecially true of a series of lectures $eli-ere$ 7y /r0 Tesla u(on the su7Hect of high frequency8 high (otential currents0 The first of the series .as gi-en at Colu)7ia College in 18918 7efore this ,nstitute0 =uring 189! an$ 1893 this lecture .ith a$$itional $ata an$ e'(eri)ents .as re(eate$ in #on$on8 <aris8 <hila$el(hia an$ >t0 #ouis0 +eferring to an interesting inter-ie. .ith /r0 Tesla a((earing in a 1e. Dor2 $aily in 1893 regar$ing the >t0 #ouis lecture the "$itor of the "lectrical &orl$ saysI "/r0 Tesla8 in his o.n graceful .ay8 tells the story of his life an$ the history of so)e of his )ore i)(ortant in-entions0 <erha(s there is no li-ing scientist in .hose life an$ .or2 the general (u7lic ta2es a $ee(er interest8 es(ecially in this country0" Tesla's fun$a)ental (ur(ose .as to (u7lish the results of an e'ten$e$ research an$ of a series of e'(eri)ents (atiently con$ucte$ at his la7oratory an$ else.here through )any years0 =uring these lectures he e'hi7ite$ to the au$ience nu)erous e'(eri)ents $is(laying stri2ing an$ instructi-e (heno)ena0 He also $escri7e$ )any no-el (ieces of a((aratus such8 for instance8 as his high9frequency generator an$ in$uction coils an$ his )agnetically quenche$ arc0 /r0 "rs2ine /urray in his treatise u(on &ireless Telegra(hy8 referring to certain of these early in-entions of Tesla saysI "A)ong )any other in-entions8 )a$e as early as 18938 (erha(s the )ost i)(ortant to .ireless telegra(hists is his )etho$ of (ro$ucing long trains of .a-es of high frequency8 an$ of transfor)ing the) to higher -oltage0 After se-eral unsuccessful atte)(ts he co)(lete$ an alternator .hich coul$ 7e run at 358555 (erio$s (er secon$8 an$ $esigne$ a for) of transfor)er ca(a7le of transfor)ing these currents to -ery high -oltage0 He also sho.e$ that his transfor)er8 or "Tesla coil" as it is usually calle$ no.a$ays8 coul$ transfor) currents of )uch higher frequencies than .ere o7taina7le fro) his alternator8 e-en currents of 1558555 or 185558555 (erio$s (er secon$8 such as are (ro$uce$ 7y the oscillatory $ischarge of a #ey$en Har0" The #on$on lecture .as gi-en un$er the aus(ices of the 3ritish ,nstitution of "lectrical "ngineers an$ 7ecause of the intense (u7lic interest )anifeste$ after its announce)ent the a)(le ca(acity of the Theatre of the +oyal ,nstitution .as require$ to acco))o$ate the au$ience0 At the co)(letion of the lecture <rof0 Aytron s(o2e as follo.sI ",t is )y )ost (leasing $uty to (ro(ose a -ery hearty -ote of than2s to our lecturer8 .ho has entertaine$ us8 it is true8 for t.o hours8 7ut .e .oul$ .illingly .ait for another hour's si)ilar entertain)ent0" /r0 Fle)ing in his authoritati-e 7oo2 on .ireless telegra(hy an$ tele(hony (ays the follo.ing tri7uteI ",n 189! 1i2ola Tesla ca(ture$ the attention of the .hole scientific .orl$ 7y his fascinating e'(eri)ents on high frequency electric currents0 He sti)ulate$ the scientific i)agination of others us .ell as $is(laye$ his o.n8 an$ create$ a .i$es(rea$ interest in his 7rilliant $e)onstrations0 A)ongst those .ho .itnesse$ these things no one .as )ore a7le to a((reciate their inner )eaning than >ir &illia) Croo2es0" An article 7y "0 +a-erot a((earing in the "lectrical &orl$ of /arch !%8 189!8 closes a re-ie. of the Tesla <aris lecture .ith the follo.ing a((reciati-e co))entI ";ne sees fro) this lecture the $ee( interest .hich the .or2s an$ $isco-eries of /r0 Tesla ha-e ins(ire$ a)ong (hysicists since the first a((earance of his (u7lication8 an$ it is .ith great satisfaction that .e are a7le to e'(ress the feeling of a$)iration .hich his e'(eri)ents ha-e ins(ire$ in us0" ,n his #on$on lecture $eli-ere$ in Fe7ruary8 189!8 Tesla ha$ occasion to $escri7e a s(ecial construction of insulate$ ca7le $esigne$ to guar$ against electro9static $istur7ances8 7ut i))e$iately a$$e$ the follo.ing significant (re$ictionI "3ut such ca7les .ill not 7e constructe$8 for ere long intelligence K trans)itte$ .ithout .ires K .ill thro7 through the earth li2e a (ulse through a li-ing organis)0 The .on$er is that8 .ith the (resent state of 2no.le$ge an$ e'(eriences gaine$8 no atte)(t is 7eing )a$e to $istur7 the electrostatic or )agnetic con$ition of the earth an$ trans)it8 if nothing else8 intelligence0" This .as Tesla's (ro(hecy t.enty9fi-e years ago0 ,n his lecture 7efore the 1ational "lectric #ight Association at >t0 #ouis in /arch8 18938 /r0 Tesla ela7orate$
certain -ie.s regar$ing the i)(ortance of resonance effects in this fiel$ an$ state$I ", .oul$ say a fe. .or$s on a su7Hect .hich constantly fills )y thoughts an$ .hich concerns the .elfare of all0 , )ean the trans)ission of intelligi7le signals or (erha(s e-en (o.er to any $istance .ithout the use of .ires0" He then announce$ that his con-iction ha$ gro.n so strong that he no longer loo2e$ u(on the (lan of trans)itting intelligence as a )ere theoretical (ossi7ility8 an$ referring to the e'isting 7elief of so)e that tele(hony to any $istance )ight 7e acco)(lishe$ "7y in$uction through the air"8 concisely set forth his theory as follo.sI ", cannot stretch )y i)agination so far8 7ut , $o fir)ly 7elie-e that it is (ractical to $istur7 7y )eans of (o.erful )achines the electro9static con$ition of the earth an$ thus trans)it intelligi7le signals an$ (erha(s (o.er0" "nlarging u(on this theory8 he states that8 although .e ha-e no (ossi7le e-i$ence of a charge$ 7o$y e'isting in s(ace .ithout other o((ositely electrifie$ 7o$ies 7eing near8 there is a fair (ro7a7ility that the earth is such a 7o$y8 for 7y .hate-er (rocess it .as se(arate$ fro) other 7o$ies it )ust ha-e retaine$ a charge an$ that the u((er strata of the air )ay 7e con$ucting an$ contain this o((osite charge0 He further e'(an$e$ the theory that .ith (ro(er )eans for (ro$ucing electrical oscillations it )ight 7e (ossi7le to (ro$uce electrical $istur7ances sufficiently (o.erful to 7e (erce(ti7le 7y suita7le instru)ents at any (oint on the "arth's surface0 He thus forecast the theory at (resent acce(te$ 7y lea$ing scientists as the true 7asis of .ireless telegra(hy0 Continuing the sa)e line of thought /r0 Tesla in an inter-ie. .hich a((eare$ in the 1e. Dor2 Heral$ in 1893 sai$I ";ne result of )y in-estigations8 the (ossi7ility of .hich has 7een (ro-en 7y e'(eri)ent8 is the trans)ission of energy through the air0 , a$-ance$ that i$ea so)e ti)e ago8 an$ , a) ha((y to say it is no. recei-ing so)e attention fro) scientific )en0 The (lan , ha-e suggeste$ is to $istur7 7y (o.erful )achinery the electricity of the earth8 thus setting it in -i7ration0 <ro(er a((liances .ill 7e constructe$ to ta2e u( the energy trans)itte$ 7y these -i7rations8 transfor)ing the) into suita7le for) of (o.er to 7e )a$e a-aila7le for the (ractical .ants of life0" Testifying in a (atent suit regar$ing these early (re$ictions /r0 Eohn >tone >tone8 the .ell92no.n authority on .ireless telegra(hy has 7ut recently )a$e the follo.ing stri2ing co))entI ", )isun$erstoo$ Tesla0 , thin2 .e all )isun$erstoo$ Tesla0 &e thought he .as a $rea)er an$ -isionary0 He $i$ $rea) an$ his $rea)s ca)e true8 he $i$ ha-e -isions 7ut they .ere of a real future8 not an i)aginary one0 Tesla .as the first )an to lift his eyes high enough to see that the rarefie$ stratu) of at)os(here a7o-e our earth .as $estine$ to (lay an i)(ortant role in the ra$io telegra(hy of the future8 a fact .hich ha$ to o7tru$e itself on the attention of )ost of us 7efore .e sa. it0 3ut Tesla also (ercei-e$ .hat )any of us $i$ not in those $ays8 na)ely8 the currents .hich flo.e$ a.ay fro) the 7ase of the antenna o-er the surface of the earth an$ in the earth itself0" >el$o) is it that an art s(rings into 7eing through the efforts of one )an alone8 7ut rather as a gro.th to .hich )any ha-e contri7ute$0 This is (eculiarly true of the .ireless art8 an$ .ithout $etracting in the slightest fro) the honour .hich is Hustly $ue to those .ho ha-e 7rought the syste) to its (resent .on$erful efficiency8 it is Hust to accor$ to Tesla highest (raise not alone for his e'(osition of (rinci(les as set forth in his lectures 7ut also for the )ore $efiniti-e .or2 .hich follo.e$8 )uch of .hich is e-i$ence$ 7y his )any (atents $ealing .ith the .ireless art0 3efore lea-ing this 7ranch of Tesla's .or28 , .ish to quote again fro) the testi)ony of /r0 >tone8 (resenting his -ie. of the in$e7te$ness of the .ireless art to TeslaI ">o)e of those .hose .or2 or .hose .ritings $uring that early (erio$ )ust 7e note$ are 1i2ola Tesla8 <rof0 "lihu Tho)son8 <rof0 /0 ,0 <u(in8 <rof0 #o$ge8 <rof0 1orthru(8 <rof0 <ierce8 Hutin O #e7lanc8 /r0 /arconi an$ )yself0 A)ong all these8 the na)e of 1i2ola Tesla stan$s out )ost (ro)inently0 Tesla8 .ith his al)ost (reternatural insight into alternating current (heno)ena that ha$ ena7le$ hi) so)e years 7efore to re-olutioniBe the art of electric (o.er trans)ission through the in-ention of the rotary fiel$ )otor8 2ne. ho. to )a2e resonance ser-e8 not )erely the role of )icrosco(e to )a2e -isi7le the electric oscillations8 as HertB ha$ $one8 7ut he )a$e it ser-e the role of a stereo(ticon to ren$er s(ectacular to large au$iences the (heno)ena of electric oscillations an$ high frequency currents0QQQQQHe $i$ )ore to e'cite interest an$ create an intelligent un$erstan$ing of these (heno)ena in the years 189199!993 than any one else8 an$ the )ore .e learn a7out high frequency (heno)ena8 resonance an$ ra$iation to$ay8 the nearer .e fin$ oursel-es a((roaching .hat .e at one ti)e .ere incline$8 through a s(ecies of intellectual )yo(ia8 to regar$ as the fascinating 7ut fantastical
s(eculations of a )an .ho .e are no. co)(elle$8 in the light of )o$ern e'(erience an$ 2no.le$ge8 to a$)it .as a (ro(het0 He sa. to the fulfil)ent of his (ro(hesies an$ it has 7een $ifficult to )a2e any 7ut uni)(ortant i)(ro-e)ents in the art of ra$io9telegra(h .ithout tra-elling (art of the .ay at least8 along a trail 7laBe$ 7y this (ioneer .ho8 though e)inently ingenious8 (ractical an$ successful in the a((aratus he $e-ise$ an$ constructe$8 .as so far ahea$ of his ti)e that the 7est of us then )istoo2 hi) for a $rea)er0" Another .ell recogniBe$ .ireless authority8 <rofessor >la7y in a (ersonal letter to Tesla too2 occasion to sayI ", a) $e-oting )yself since so)e ti)e to in-estigations in .ireless telegra(h8 .hich you ha-e first foun$e$ in such a clear an$ (recise )anner0 ,t .ill interest you8 as father of this telegra(h8 to 2no.8 etc0" Throughout Tesla's .or2 .ith high (otential currents he ha$ (ersistently in )in$ the .ireless trans)ission of (o.er in large quantities0 ,t .as in the furtherance of this line of in-estigation that he e'(en$e$ large a)ounts of )oney an$ years of la7or at &ar$enclyffe8 #ong ,slan$8 an$ at Telluri$e8 Colora$o0 #ate in 1916 he secure$ a (atent u(on an a((lication file$ t.el-e years 7efore u(on an a((aratus for trans)itting electric energy .ith .hich he ho(es to 7e a7le to trans)it unli)ite$ (o.er .ith high econo)y to any $istance .ithout .ires0 &hile as yet these efforts ha-e not resulte$ in co))ercial e'(loitation8 the future )ay (ro-e that his $rea) of thus trans)itting energy in su7stantial a)ounts is of that class .hich in ti)e co)e true8 as in the case of his $rea) of .ireless telegra(hy0 Another use to .hich Tesla a$a(te$ the results of his high frequency in-estigations .as the control of the )o-e)ents of tor(e$oes an$ 7oats0 ,n 1898 he (atente$ such an a((aratus an$ also 7uilt an$ successfully o(erate$ such a craft0 The )o-e)ents of the (ro(elling engine8 the steering an$ other )echanis)s .ere controlle$ .irelessly fro) the shore or other (oint through a $istance of t.o )iles0 A((arently this8 li2e so)e of his other in-entions8 .as ahea$ of its ti)e0 Tesla8 ho.e-er8 e-i$ence$ his entire faith in the future of the a((aratus in an inter-ie. .hich a((eare$ in 1898 fro) .hich , quoteI "3ut , ha-e no $esire that )y fa)e shoul$ rest on the in-ention of a )erely $estructi-e $e-ice8 no )atter ho. terri7le0 , (refer to 7e re)e)7ere$ as the in-entor .ho succee$e$ in a7olishing .ar0 That .ill 7e )y highest (ri$e0 3ut there are )any (eaceful uses to .hich )y in-ention can 7e (ut8 cons(icuously that of rescuing the shi(.rec2e$0 ,t .ill 7e (erfectly feasi7le to equi( our lifesa-ing stations .ith life cars8 or 7oats8 $irecte$ an$ controlle$ fro) the shores8 .hich .ill a((roach stran$e$ -essels an$ 7ring off the (assengers an$ cre.s .ithout ris2ing the li-es of the 7ra-e fello.s .ho are no. force$ to fight their .ay to the rescue through the raging surf0 ,t )ay also 7e use$ for the (ro(ulsion of (ilot 7oats8 for carrying letters or (ro-isions or instru)ents to inaccessi7le regionsQQQQQQ0" ;n /arch 1!th8 18948 /r0 Tesla )et .ith a $isastrous loss 7y the $estruction of his la7oratory at 33 an$ 34 >outh 4th A-enue8 1e. Dor20 ,n the "lectrical +e-ie. of /arch !5th8 18948 there is (u7lishe$ an inter-ie. .ith /r0 Tesla regar$ing this fire0 ,n it he saysI ", a) congratulating )yself all the ti)e it is no .orse0 , 7egin all o-er again8 7ut , ha-e the 2no.le$ge an$ e'(erience of .hat has gone 7efore8 an$ fortunately , .as a7le to sho. .ith co)(lete$ a((aratus that )y i$eas an$ theories are correct0 Ha$ the fire occurre$ a fe. )onths ago , shoul$ ha-e 7een ro77e$ of the o((ortunity of )any highly successful $e)onstrations0" ,n his la7oratory .ere store$ a -ast quantity of 'ol$ )o$els an$ trial a((aratus .ith .hich he .oul$ ha-e 7een un.illing to (art for any a)ount of )oney0 He further states that he .as at the ti)e engage$ u(on four )ain lines of .or2 an$ in-estigationI his oscillator8 an$ i)(ro-e$ )etho$ of electric lighting8 the trans)ission of intelligence .ithout .ires8 an$8 an in-estigation relating to the nature of electricity0 /r0 Tesla $ee(ly a((reciate$ the e'(ressions of sy)(athy recei-e$ fro) his )any frien$s an$ .ith una7ate$ Beal a((lie$ hi)self to a continuation of the .or2 thus unfortunately interru(te$0 Another fiel$ of in-estigation in .hich /r0 Tesla has contri7ute$ -alua7le )aterial is relate$ to the +oentgen +ay0 ,n the "lectrical +e-ie. of /arch an$ A(ril8 189%8 there a((eare$ a nu)7er of co))unications fro) /r0 Tesla .hich .hile gi-ing full cre$it to +oentgen for his )agnificent $isco-ery )a$e (u7lic )uch a$$itional $ata $eri-e$ fro) his o.n careful e'(eri)ents in this line of research0 Fro) an e$itorial in the "lectrical +e-ie. of /arch 18th8 189%8 the follo.ing is quote$I "The announce)ent of 1i2ola Tesla's achie-e)ents in the ne. art first (u7lishe$ in the "lectrical +e-ie. of /arch 11th8 in the author's o.n )o$est language has a$$e$ fresh i)(etus to the .or2 in this $irection0 His $isru(ti-e $ischarge coil has 7een uni-ersally use$ .here the 7est results in ra$iogra(hy ha-e 7een o7taine$8 an$ his t.o )ar2e$ i)(ro-e)ents8 na)ely8 the single electro$e tu7e an$ his )etho$ of rarefaction8 (ro)ise great results0 ;ther i)(ortant (oints a7out Tesla's .or2 are the fine $etails he has o7taine$ in his ra$iogra(hs8
the great $istance at .hich the ra$iogra(hs ha-e 7een )a$e8 an$ 7rief ti)e of e'(osure0" an$ againI "/r0 Tesla is (ursuing quietly his .or2 an$ gi-ing all cre$it to +oentgenJ an$ it is significant8 .e thin28 that the first ra$iogra(h he (ro$uce$ in his la7oratory .as the na)e of the $isco-erer0 &e .ish that such courtesies a)ong scientists .oul$ al.ays 7e (ractise$0" /r0 E0 /ount 3leyer co))enting u(on these in-estigations sai$I "The results o7taine$ 7y Tesla are si)(ly )ar-ellous8 7ut are Hust .hat , e'(ecte$0" A)ong the )any other in-entions to .hich /r0 Tesla has $e-ote$ )uch ti)e an$ energy )ay 7e )entione$ a thereto9)agnetic )otor an$ a gyro9)agnetic generator8 antis(ar2ing $yna)o 7rush an$ co))utator8 au'iliary 7rush regulation of $irect current $yna)os8 uni9(olar $yna)os8 )echanical an$ electrical oscillators8 electro9 thera(eutic a((aratus8 the o'i$ation of nitrogen 7y high frequency currents8 an$ an electrolytic registering )eter0 The last na)e$ $e-ice .as 7ase$ u(on an e'cee$ingly interesting theory0 The current to 7e )easure$ .as (asse$ through t.o (arallel con$uctors arrange$ in series0 The current esta7lishe$ a $ifference of (otential 7et.een these con$uctors (ro(ortional to the strength of the current (assing0 This results in a transference of the )etal fro) one con$uctor to the other8 there7y $ecreasing the resistance of one an$ increasing that of the other0 Fro) such -ariations in resistance of one or 7oth8 the current energy e'(en$e$ is co)(ute$0 ;ne other line of en$ea-our entirely outsi$e of electricity to .hich Tesla has gi-en )uch attention is the $e-elo()ent of a 7la$eless stea) tur7ine in .hich the friction of the (assing stea) as $istinguishe$ fro) its $irect i)(act is a-aile$ of0 The stea) is a$)itte$ 7et.een (lain (arallel rotating $iscs an$ (assing s(irally fro) the circu)ference to.ar$ the a'ial centre i)(arts energy to the $iscs0 >uch a tur7ine can 7e run at e'cee$ingly high te)(eratures8 is rea$ily re-ersi7le an$ ha-ing no 7la$es is e'tre)ely si)(le an$ free fro) lia7ility to acci$ental $erange)ent0 &ith great ingenuity Tesla has succee$e$ in (ro$ucing such )achines of consi$era7le (o.er an$ ha-ing e'cee$ingly interesting characteristics0 ,t is to 7e ho(e$ that .ith his in$efatiga7le Beal Tesla .ill soon succee$ in (erfecting the co))ercial a((lication of this in-ention0 ,t is not (ossi7le in this 7rief sur-ey e-en to touch u(on )any of the lines of /r0 Tesla's acti-ities8 7ut .e )ust content oursel-es .ith this ina$equate (resentation of ty(ical e-i$ences of the fascinating genius of this )an .ho) .e $elight to .elco)e as a citiBen of our country 9 the country .hich he t.enty9fi-e years ago a$o(te$ as his o.n 9 the country of .hich he once sai$I "&hen , arri-e$ u(on your hos(ita7le shores , eagerly a((lie$ )yself to .or2 an$ to learn8 an$ , ha-e (erse-ere$ in that course0 ,f , ha-e )a$e any s(ecial success in this country8 , attri7ute it largely to a feature .hich is characteristic of 7oth the "nglish an$ A)erican racesJ that is8 their 2een an$ generous a((reciation of any .or2 that they thin2 is goo$0" /r0 Tesla8 .e .oul$ in$ee$ 7e .oefully lac2ing in the attri7utes .hich you so 2in$ly ascri7e to us .ere .e not )ost cor$ially a((reciati-e of your .or28 .or2 .hich .e 2no. is goo$0 TH" <+">,="1TI Gentle)en8 .e are fortunate in ha-ing .ith us to9night another )an .ho has 7een fa)iliar .ith /r0 Tesla's .or2 for )any years an$ can tell us so)ething further a7out his .or20 , intro$uce /r0 30 A0 3ehren$0 30 A0 3"H+"1=I /r0 Chair)anI /r0 <resi$ent of the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineersI Fello. /e)7ersI #a$ies an$ Gentle)enI 3D A1 "]T+A;+=,1A+D C;,1C,="1C"8 it is e'actly t.enty9nine years ago8 to the -ery $ay an$ hour8 that there stoo$ 7efore this ,nstitute /r0 1i2ola Tesla8 an$ he rea$ the follo.ing sentencesI 0h "To o7tain a rotary effort in these )otors .as the su7Hect of long thought0 ,n or$er to secure this result it .as necessary to )a2e such a $is(osition that .hile the (oles of one ele)ent of the )otor are shifte$ 7y the alternate currents of the source8 the (oles (ro$uce$ u(on the other ele)ents shoul$ al.ays 7e )aintaine$ in the (ro(er relation to the for)er8 irres(ecti-e of the s(ee$ of the )otor0 >uch a con$ition e'ists in a continuous current )otorJ 7ut in a synchronous )otor8 such as $escri7e$8 the con$ition is fulfille$ only .hen the s(ee$ is nor)al0 "The o7Hect has 7een attaine$ 7y (lacing .ithin the ring (ro(erly su7$i-i$e$ cylin$rical iron core .oun$ .ith se-eral in$e(en$ent coils close$ u(on the)sel-es0 T.o coils at right angles are sufficient8 7ut a greater nu)7er )ay 7e a$-antageously e)(loye$0 ,t results fro) this $is(osition that .hen the (oles of the ring are shifte$8 currents are generate$ in the close$ ar)ature coils0 These currents are the )ost intense at or near the (oints of
the greatest $ensity of the lines of force8 an$ their effect is to (ro$uce (oles u(on the ar)ature at right angles to those of the ring8 at least theoretically soJ an$ since this action is entirely in$e(en$ent of the s(ee$ 9 that is8 as far as the location of the (oles is concerne$ 9 a continuous (ull is e'erte$ u(on the (eri(hery of the ar)ature0 ,n )any res(ects these )otors are si)ilar to the continuous current )otors0 ,f loa$ is (ut on8 the s(ee$8 an$ also the resistance of the )otor8 is $i)inishe$ an$ )ore current is )a$e to (ass through the energiBing coils8 thus increasing the effort0 C(on the loa$ 7eing ta2en off8 the counter9electro)oti-e force increases an$ less current (asses through the (ri)ary or energiBing coils0 &ithout any loa$ the s(ee$ is -ery nearly equal to that of the shifting (oles of the fiel$ )agnet0 ",t .ill 7e foun$ that the rotary effort in these )otors fully equals that of the continuous current )otors0 The effort see)s to 7e greatest .hen 7oth ar)ature an$ fiel$ )agnets are .ithout any (roHections0" 1ot since the a((earance of Fara$ay's "'(eri)ental +esearches in "lectricity has a great e'(eri)ental truth 7een -oice$ so si)(ly an$ so clearly as this $escri(tion of /r0 Tesla's great $isco-ery of the generation an$ utiliBation of (oly(hase alternating currents0 He left nothing to 7e $one for those .ho follo.e$ hi)0 His (a(er containe$ the s2eleton e-en of the )athe)atical theory0 Three years later8 in 18918 there .as gi-en the first great $e)onstration8 7y >.iss engineers8 of the trans)ission of (o.er at 358555 -olts fro) Aauffen to Fran2fort 7y )eans of /r0 Tesla's syste)0 A fe. years later this .as follo.e$ 7y the $e-elo()ent of the Cataract Construction Co)(any8 un$er the (resi$ency of our )e)7er8 /r0 "$.ar$ =0 A$a)s8 an$ .ith the ai$ of the engineers of the &estinghouse Co)(any0 ,t is interesting to recall here to9night that in #or$ :el-in's re(ort to /r0 A$a)s8 #or$ :el-in reco))en$e$ the use of $irect current for the $e-elo()ent of (o.er at 1iagara Falls an$ for the trans)ission to 3uffalo0 The $ue a((reciation or e-en enu)eration of the results of /r0 Tesla's in-ention is neither (ractica7le nor $esira7le at this )o)ent0 There is a ti)e for all things0 >uffice it to say that8 .ere .e to seiBe an$ to eli)inate fro) our in$ustrial .orl$ the results of /r0 Tesla's .or28 the .heels of in$ustry .oul$ cease to turn8 our electric cars an$ trains .oul$ sto(8 our to.ns .oul$ 7e $ar28 our )ills .oul$ 7e $ea$ an$ i$le0 Dea8 so far reaching is this .or28 that it has 7eco)e the .ar( an$ .oof of in$ustry0 The 7asis for the theory of the o(erating characteristics of /r0 Tesla's rotating fiel$ in$uction )otor8 so necessary to its (ractical $e-elo()ent8 .as lai$ 7y the 7rilliant French sa-ant8 <rof0 An$re 3lon$el8 an$ 7y <rof0 :a(( of 3ir)ingha)0 ,t fell to )y lot to co)(lete their .or2 an$ to coor$inate8 9 7y )eans of the si)(le "circle $iagra)8" 9 the so)e.hat )ysterious an$ co)(le' e'(eri)ental (heno)ena0 As this .as $one t.enty9one years ago8 it is (articularly (leasing to )e8 u(on the co)ing of age of this no. uni-ersally acce(te$ theory8 9 trie$ out 7y a((lication to se-eral )illion horse (o.er of )achines o(erating in our great in$ustries8 9 to (ay )y tri7ute to the in-entor of the )otor an$ the syste) .hich ha-e )a$e (ossi7le the electric trans)ission of energy0 H,> na)e )ar2s an e(och in the a$-ance of electrical science0 Fro) THAT .or2 has s(rung a re-olution in the electrical art0 &e as2e$ /r0 Tesla to acce(t this )e$al0 &e $i$ not $o this for the )ere sa2e of conferring a $istinction8 or of (er(etuating a na)eJ for so long as )en occu(y the)sel-es .ith our in$ustry8 his .or2 .ill 7e incor(orate$ in the co))on thought of our art8 an$ the na)e of Tesla runs no )ore ris2 of o7li-ion than $oes that of Fara$ay8 or that of "$ison0 1or in$ee$ $oes this ,nstitute gi-e this )e$al as e-i$ence that /r0 Tesla's .or2 has recei-e$ its official sanction0 His .or2 stan$s in no nee$ of such sanction0 1o8 /r0 Tesla8 .e 7eg you to cherish this )e$al as a sy)7ol of our gratitu$e for the ne. creati-e thought8 the (o.erful i)(etus8 a2in to re-olution8 .hich you ha-e gi-en to our art an$ to our science0 Dou ha-e li-e$ to see the .or2 of your genius esta7lishe$0 &hat shall a )an $esire )ore than thisF There rings out to us a (ara(hrase of <o(e's lines on 1e.tonI 1ature an$ 1ature's la.s lay hi$ in night Go$ sai$8 '#et Tesla 7e8' an$ all .as light0 TH" <+">,="1TI ,t is easy8 , thin28 for engineers an$ scientists to ta2e for grante$ things that ha-e 7een $one in years (ast0 &hen .e sit un$er an a((le tree an$ see the a((les fall8 it is an o7-ious (heno)enon of nature0 &e can un$erstan$ the la.s of gra-itation8 7ut to >ir ,saac 1e.ton8 )any years ago8 this (heno)enon8 .hich to us to9$ay is so si)(le8 hel(e$ hi) to an act of creati-e i)agination of the )ost e'traor$inary 2in$0 >o8 later on8 the (heno)enon of electro)agnetic in$uction8 .hich to us to9$ay has 7eco)e a )atter of secon$ nature8 to Fara$ay .as an act of the )ost e'traor$inary creati-e i)agination0
Thirty years ago .hen /r0 Tesla .as $oing his -ery great .or28 .e so)eti)es forget the con$itions of electrical engineering .hich (re-aile$ at that ti)e0 =irect9current or continuous current .as uni-ersally use$8 an$ the conce(tions of electrical engineers .ith res(ect to electric currents .ere all uni$irectional8 so to s(ea20 &e ha$ not arri-e$ at that conce(tion of currents .hich .ent first in one $irection an$ then in another8 to say nothing of electrical currents .hich $iffere$ 7y (hase relations8 an$ the .or2 of 1i2ola Tesla at that ti)e in his great conce(tion of the rotary fiel$ see)s to )e one of the greatest feats of i)agination .hich has e-er 7een attaine$ 7y hu)an )in$0 To9$ay .e ta2e the rotary fiel$ )otor8 the rotary fiel$ trans)ission8 as a )atter of course8 7ecause .e ha-e 7eco)e use$ to it8 an$ .e forget .hat it require$ of the hu)an intellect to create it thirty or thirty9fi-e years ago0 At the ti)e the great 1iagara Falls enter(rise .as institute$8 .e .ere un$er the $irect9current regi)e0 As /r0 3ehren$ says8 such a great authority on electrical engineering as #or$ :el-in8 an$ also /r0 "$ison8 reco))en$e$ $irect9current for trans)ission of energy fro) 1iagara Falls to 3uffalo8 an$ as a syste) for uni-ersal use in their great .ater(o.er $e-elo()ent0 , thin2 .e all realiBe to9$ay .here .e shoul$ 7e at the (resent ti)e if $irect9current ha$ 7een use$ in the $e-elo()ent of that enter(rise0 There .oul$ ha-e 7een a ra$iating co((er )ine running out fro) 1iagara Falls .hich .oul$ ha-e .rec2e$ the enter(rise in the first year of its e'istence0 /r0 Tesla ca)e along .ith his great )in$ an$ at the (sychological )o)ent $e-ise$ the (rinci(le .hich )a$e that enter(rise a success8 an$ )a$e hun$re$s of other enter(rises all o-er the .orl$ an equal success0 &e o.e hi) the greatest (ossi7le $e7t of gratitu$e for .hat he has $one for electrical engineers0 An$ so again8 in another fiel$ of en$ea-our in .hich he .as )ost cons(icuous8 that of high -oltage an$ high frequency alternating9current8 he $e-ise$ an$ $isco-ere$ (heno)ena .hich .ere entirely ne. to electrical engineers8 an$ he intro$uce$ to the .orl$ the conce(tion of alternating9current as 7eing elastic or oscillating )e$ia0 The $irect9current engineers at the ti)e ne-er thought of the electric current 7eing so)ething that coul$ oscillate8 an$ /r0 Tesla sho.e$ it coul$8 an$ he also sho.e$ )any of the (heno)ena .hich resulte$ fro) oscillating currents0 Fro) his .or2 follo.e$ the great .or2 of +oentgen8 .ho $isco-ere$ the +oentgen rays8 an$ all that .or2 .hich has 7een carrie$ on throughout the .orl$ in the follo.ing years 7y E0 E0 Tho)(son an$ others8 .hich has really le$ to the conce(tion of )o$ern (hysics0 His .or28 as has 7een state$8 ante$ate$ that of /arconi an$ for)e$ the 7asis of .ireless telegra(hy8 .hich is one of the )ost scientific a((lications of the (resent $ay8 an$ so on throughout all 7ranches of science an$ engineering .e fin$ fro) ti)e to ti)e so)e i)(ortant e-i$ence of .hat Tesla has contri7ute$ to the sciences an$ engineering of the (resent $ay0 >o8 /r0 Tesla8 you hear to9night the )any co)(li)ents .hich ha-e 7een (ai$ to you8 7ut they are not 7ouquets )erely cast for the a$orn)ent of the occasion 9 they ha-e 7een gi-en .ith the sincere a((reciation of the electrical (rofession8 an$ .e gi-e this )e$al to you in recognition of this8 .ith full a((reciation of .hat you ha-e $one for us8 an$ .ith great ho(e that you )ay continue to contri7ute to our (rofession in the future0 (Great a((lause 1,:;#A T">#AI /r0 <resi$ent8 #a$ies an$ Gentle)en0 9 , .ish to than2 you heartily for your 2in$ sy)(athy an$ a((reciation0 , a) not $ecei-ing )yself in the fact8 of .hich you )ust 7e a.are8 that the s(ea2ers ha-e greatly )agnifie$ )y )o$est achie-e)ents0 ;ne shoul$ in such a situation 7e neither $iffi$ent nor self9asserti-e8 an$ in that9sense , .ill conce$e that so)e )easure of cre$it )ay 7e $ue to )e for the first ste(s in certain ne. $irectionsJ 7ut the i$eas , a$-ance$ ha-e triu)(he$8 the forces an$ ele)ents ha-e 7een conquere$8 an$ greatness achie-e$8 through the co9o(eration of )any a7le )en so)e of .ho)8 , a) gla$ to say8 are (resent this e-ening0 ,n-entors8 engineers8 $esigners8 )anufacturers an$ financiers ha-e $one their share until8 as /r0 3ehren$ sai$8 a gigantic re-olution has 7een .rought in the trans)ission an$ transfor)ation of energy0 &hile .e are elate$ o-er the results achie-e$ .e are (ressing on8 ins(ire$ .ith the ho(e an$ con-iction that this is Hust a 7eginning8 a forerunner of further an$ still greater acco)(lish)ents0 ;n this occasion8 you )ight .ant )e to say so)ething of a (ersonal an$ )ore inti)ate character 7earing on )y .or20 ;ne of the s(ea2ers suggeste$I "Tell us so)ething a7out yourself8 a7out your early struggles0" ,f , a) not )ista2en in this sur)ise , .ill8 .ith your a((ro-al8 $.ell 7riefly on this rather $elicate su7Hect0 >o)e of you .ho ha-e 7een i)(resse$ 7y .hat has 7een sai$8 an$ .oul$ 7e $is(ose$ to accor$ )e )ore than , ha-e $eser-e$8 )ight 7e )ystifie$ an$ .on$er ho. so )uch as /r0 Terry has outline$ coul$ ha-e 7een $one 7y a )an as )anifestly young as )yself0 <er)it )e to e'(lain this0 , $o not s(ea2 often in (u7lic8 an$ .ish to a$$ress Hust a fe. re)ar2s $irectly to the )e)7ers of )y (rofession8 so that there .ill 7e no )ista2e in the future0 ,n the first (lace8 , co)e fro) a -ery .iry an$ long9li-e$ race0 >o)e of )y ancestors ha-e 7een centenarians8 an$ one of the) li-e$ one hun$re$ an$ t.enty9nine years0 , a) $eter)ine$ to 2ee( u( the recor$ an$ (lease )yself .ith (ros(ects of great (ro)ise0 Then again8 nature has gi-en )e a -i-i$ i)agination .hich8 through incessant e'ercise an$ training8 stu$y of scientific su7Hects an$ -erification of theories through e'(eri)ent8 has 7eco)e -ery accurate an$ (recise8 so that , ha-e 7een a7le to $is(ense8 to a large e'tent8 .ith the slo.8 la7orious8 .asteful an$ e'(ensi-e (rocess of (ractical $e-elo()ent of the i$eas , concei-e0 ,t has )a$e it (ossi7le for )e
to e'(lore e'ten$e$ fiel$s .ith great ra(i$ity an$ get results .ith the least e'(en$iture of -ital energy0 3y this )eans , ha-e it in )y (o.er to (icture the o7Hects of )y $esires in for)s real an$ tangi7le an$ so ri$ )yself of that )or7i$ cra-ing for (erisha7le (ossessions to .hich so )any succu)70 , )ay say8 also8 that , a) $ee(ly religious at heart8 although not in the ortho$o' )eaning8 an$ that , gi-e )yself to the constant enHoy)ent of 7elie-ing that the greatest )ysteries of our 7eing are still to 7e fatho)e$ an$ that8 all the e-i$ence of the senses an$ the teachings of e'act an$ $ry sciences to the contrary not.ithstan$ing8 $eath itself )ay not 7e the ter)ination of the .on$erful )eta)or(hosis .e .itness0 ,n this .ay , ha-e )anage$ to )aintain an un$istur7e$ (eace of )in$8 to )a2e )yself (roof against a$-ersity8 an$ to achie-e content)ent an$ ha((iness to a (oint of e'tracting so)e satisfaction e-en fro) the $ar2er si$e of life8 the trials an$ tri7ulations of e'istence0 , ha-e fa)e an$ untol$ .ealth8 )ore than this8 an$ yet 9 ho. )any articles ha-e 7een .ritten in .hich , .as $eclare$ to 7e an i)(ractical unsuccessful )an8 an$ ho. )any (oor8 struggling .riters8 ha-e calle$ )e a -isionary0 >uch is the folly an$ shortsighte$ness of the .orl$Y 1o. that , ha-e e'(laine$ .hy , ha-e (referre$ )y .or2 to the attain)ent of .orl$ly re.ar$s8 , .ill touch u(on a su7Hect .hich .ill len$ )e to say so)ething of greater i)(ortance an$ ena7le )e to e'(lain ho. , in-ent an$ $e-elo( i$eas0 3ut first , )ust say a fe. .or$s regar$ing )y life .hich .as )ost e'traor$inary an$ .on$erful in its -arie$ i)(ressions an$ inci$ents0 ,n the first (lace8 it .as char)e$0 Dou ha-e hear$ that one of the (ro-isions of the "$ison /e$al .as that the reci(ient shoul$ 7e ali-e0 ;f course the )en .ho ha-e recei-e$ this )e$al ha-e fully $eser-e$ it8 in that res(ect8 7ecause they .ere ali-e .hen it .as conferre$ u(on the)8 7ut none has $eser-e$ it in anything li2e the )easure , $o8 .hen it co)es to that feature0 ,n )y youth )y ignorance an$ lighthearte$ness 7rought )e into innu)era7le $ifficulties8 $angers an$ scra(es8 fro) .hich , e'tricate$ )yself as 7y enchant)ent0 That occasione$ )y (arents great concern )ore8 (erha(s8 7ecause , .as the last )ale than 7ecause , .as of their o.n flesh an$ 7loo$0 Dou shoul$ 2no. that >er7ians $es(erately cling to the (reser-ation of the race0 , .as nearly $ro.ne$ a $oBen ti)es0 , .as al)ost cre)ate$ three or four ti)es an$ Hust )isse$ 7eing 7oile$ ali-e0 , .as 7urie$8 a7an$one$ an$ froBen0 , ha-e ha$ narro. esca(es fro) )a$ $ogs8 hogs an$ other .il$ ani)als0 , ha-e (asse$ through $rea$ful $iseases 9 ha-e 7een gi-en u( 7y (hysicians three or four ti)es in )y life for goo$0 , ha-e )et .ith all sorts of o$$ acci$ents 9 , cannot thin2 of anything that $i$ not ha((en to )e8 an$ to realiBe that , a) here this e-ening8 hale an$ hearty8 young in )in$ an$ 7o$y8 .ith all these fruitful years 7ehin$ )e8 is little short of a )iracle0 3ut )y life .as .on$erful in another res(ect 9 in )y ca(acity of in-entor0 1ot so )uch8 (erha(s8 in concentrate$ )entality8 or (hysical en$urance an$ energyJ for these are co))on enough0 ,f you inquire into the career of successful )en in the in-entor's (rofession you .ill fin$8 as a rule8 that they are as re)ar2a7le for their (hysical as for their )ental (erfor)ance0 , 2no. that .hen , .or2e$ .ith "$ison8 after all of his assistants ha$ 7een e'hauste$8 he sai$ to )eI ", ne-er sa. such a thing8 you ta2e the ca2e0" That .as a characteristic .ay for hi) to e'(ress .hat , $i$0 &e .or2e$ fro) half (ast ten in the )orning until fi-e o'cloc2 the ne't )orning0 , carrie$ this on for nine )onths .ithout a single $ay's e'ce(tionJ e-ery7o$y else ga-e u(0 "$ison stuc28 7ut he occasionally $oBe$ off on the ta7le0 &hat , .ish to say (articularly is that )y early life .as really e'traor$inary in certain e'(eriences .hich le$ to e-erything , e-er $i$ after.ar$s0 ,t is i)(ortant that this shoul$ 7e e'(laine$ to you as other.ise you .oul$ not 2no. ho. , $isco-ere$ the rotating fiel$0 Fro) chil$hoo$ , .as afflicte$ in a singular .ay 9 , .oul$ see i)ages of o7Hects an$ scenes .ith a strong $is(lay of light an$ of )uch greater -i-i$ness than those , ha$ o7ser-e$ 7efore0 They .ere al.ays i)ages of o7Hects an$ scenes , ha$ actually seen8 ne-er of such as , i)agine$0 , ha-e as2e$ stu$ents of (sychology8 (hysiology an$ other e'(erts a7out it8 7ut none of the) has 7een a7le to e'(lain the (heno)ena .hich see)s to ha-e 7een unique8 although , .as (ro7a7ly (re$is(ose$8 7ecause )y 7rother also sa. i)ages in the sa)e .ay0 /y theory is that they .ere si)(ly refle' actions fro) the 7rain on the retina8 su(erin$uce$ 7y hy(er9e'citation of the ner-es0 Dou )ight thin2 that , ha$ hallucinations8 That is i)(ossi7le0 They are (ro$uce$ only in $isease$ an$ anguishe$ 7rains0 /y hea$ .as al.ays clear as a 7ell8 an$ , ha$ no fear0 =o you .ant )e to tell of )y recollections 7earing on thisF (Turning to the gentle)en on the (latfor) 0 This is tra$itional .ith )e8 for , .as too young to re)e)7er anything of .hat , sai$0 , ha$ t.o ol$ aunts8 , recall8 .ith .rin2le$ faces8 one of the) .ith t.o great (rotru$ing teeth .hich she use$ to 7ury into )y chee2 .hen she 2isse$ )e0 ;ne $ay they as2e$ )e .hich of the t.o .as (rettier0 After loo2ing the) o-er , ans.ere$I "This one is not as ugly as the other one0" That .as e-i$ence of goo$ sense0 1o. as , tol$ you8 , ha$ no fear0 They use$ to as2 )e8 "Are you afrai$ of ro77ersF" an$ , .oul$ re(ly "1o"0 ";f .ol-esF" "1o"0 Then they .oul$ as28 "Are you afrai$ of craBy #u2aF" (A fello. .ho .oul$ tear through the -illage an$ nothing coul$ sto( hi) "1o8 , a) not afrai$ of #u2a0" "Are you afrai$ of the gan$erF" "Des8 , a)8" , .oul$ re(ly an$ cling to )y )other0 That .as 7ecause once they (ut )e in the court yar$ .ith nothing on8 an$ that 7east ran u( an$ gra77e$ )e 7y the soft (art of the sto)ach tearing off a (iece of flesh0 , still ha-e the )ar20 These i)ages , sa. cause$ )e consi$era7le $isco)fort0 , .ill gi-e you an$ illustrationI >u((ose , ha$ .itnesse$ a funeral0 ,n )y country the rites are 7ut intensifie$ torture0 They s)other the $ea$ 7o$y .ith 2isses8 then they
7athe it8 e'(ose it for three $ays8 an$ finally one hears the $ull thu$s of the earth8 .hen all is o-er0 >a)e of the (ictures as that of the coffin8 for instance8 .oul$ not a((ear -i-i$ly 7ut .ere so)eti)es so (ersistent that .hen , .oul$ stretch )y han$ out , .oul$ see it (enetrate the i)age0 As , loo2 at it no. these i)ages .ere si)(ly refle' actions through the o(tic ner-e on the retina8 (ro$ucing on the sa)e an effect i$entical to that of a (roHection through the lens8 an$ if )y -ie. is correct8 then it .ill 7e (ossi7le8 (an$ certainly )y e'(erience has $e)onstrate$ that 8 to (roHect the i)age of any o7Hect one concei-es in thought on a screen an$ )a2e it -isi7le0 ,f this coul$ 7e $one it .oul$ re-olutioniBe all hu)an relations0 , a) con-ince$ that it can an$ .ill 7e acco)(lishe$0 ,n or$er to free )yself of these tor)enting a((earances8 , trie$ to fi' )y )in$ on so)e other (icture or i)age .hich , ha$ seen8 an$ in this .ay , .oul$ )anage to get so)e reliefJ 7ut in or$er to get this relief , ha$ to let the i)ages co)e one after the other -ery fast0 Then , foun$ that , soon e'hauste$ all , ha$ at )y co))an$8 )y "reel" .as out8 as it .ere0 , ha$ seen little of the .orl$8 only o7Hects aroun$ )y o.n ho)e8 an$ they too2 )e a fe. ti)es to so)e neigh7ours8 that .as all , 2ne.0 &hen , $i$ so the secon$ or thir$ ti)e8 in or$er to chase the a((earance fro) )y -ision8 , foun$ that this re)e$y lost all the forceI Then , 7egan to )a2e e'cursions 7eyon$ the li)its of the little .orl$ , 2ne.8 an$ , sa. ne. scenes0 These .ere at first -ery 7lurre$ an$ in$istinct'8 an$ .oul$ flit a.ay .hen , trie$ to concentrate )y attention u(on the)8 7ut 7y an$ 7y , succee$e$ in fi'ing the)J they gaine$ in force an$ $istinctness an$ finally assu)e$ the intensity of real things0 >oon , o7ser-e$ that )y 7est co)fort .as attaine$ if , si)(ly .ent on in )y -ision farther an$ farther8 getting ne. i)(ressions all the ti)e8 an$ so , starte$ to tra-el 9 of course8 in )y )in$0 Dou 2no. that there ha-e 7een great $isco-eries )a$e 9 .hen Colu)7us foun$ A)erica that .as one8 7ut .hen , hit u(on the i$ea of tra-elling it see)e$ to )e that .as the greatest $isco-ery (ossi7le to )an0 "-ery night (an$ so)eti)es $uring the $ay 8 as soon as , .as alone , .oul$ start on )y tra-els0 , .oul$ see ne. (laces8 cities an$ countries8 , .oul$ li-e there8 )eet (eo(le an$ )a2e frien$shi(s an$ acquaintances8 an$ these .ere Hust as $ear to )e as those in real life an$ not a 7it less intense0 That is the .ay , $i$ until , reache$ al)ost )anhoo$0 &hen , turne$ )y thoughts to in-ention8 , foun$ that , coul$ -isualiBe )y conce(tions .ith the greatest facility0 , $i$ not nee$ any )o$els8 $ra.ings or e'(eri)ents8 , coul$ $o it all in )y )in$8 an$ , $i$0 ,n this .ay , ha-e unconsciously e-ol-e$ .hat , consi$er a ne. )etho$ of )aterialiBing in-enti-e conce(ts an$ i$eas8 .hich is e'actly o((osite to the (urely e'(eri)ental of .hich un$ou7te$ly "$ison is the greatest an$ )ost successful e'(onent0 The )o)ent you construct a $e-ice to carry into (ractice a cru$e i$ea you .ill fin$ yourself ine-ita7ly engrosse$ .ith the $etails an$ $efects of the a((aratus0 As you go on i)(ro-ing an$ reconstructing8 your force of concentration $i)inishes an$ you lose sight of the great un$erlying (rinci(le0 Dou o7tain results8 7ut at the sacrifice of quality0 /y )etho$ is $ifferent8 , $o not rush into constructi-e .or20 &hen , get an i$ea8 , start right a.ay to 7uil$ it u( in )y )in$0 , change the structure8 , )a2e i)(ro-e)ents8 , e'(eri)ent8 , run the $e-ice in )y )in$0 ,t is a7solutely the sa)e to )e .hether , o(erate )y tur7ine in thought or test it actually in )y sho(0 ,t )a2es no $ifference8 the results are the sa)e0 ,n this .ay8 you see8 , can ra(i$ly $e-elo( an$ (erfect an in-ention8 .ithout touching anything0 &hen , ha-e gone so far that , ha-e (ut into the $e-ice e-ery (ossi7le i)(ro-e)ent , can thin2 of8 that , can see no fault any.here8 , then construct this final (ro$uct of )y 7rain0 "-ery ti)e )y $e-ice .or2s as , concei-e it shoul$ an$ )y e'(eri)ent co)es out e'actly as , (lan it0 ,n t.enty years there has not 7een a single solitary e'(eri)ent .hich $i$ not turn out (recisely as , thought it .oul$0 &hy shoul$ it notF "ngineering8 electrical an$ )echanical8 is (ositi-e in results0 Al)ost any su7Hect (resente$ can 7e )athe)atically treate$ an$ the effects calculate$J 7ut if it is such that results cannot 7e ha$ 7y si)(le )etho$s of )athe)atics or short cuts8 there is all the e'(erience8 an$ all the $ata on .hich to $ra. an$ fro) .hich to 7uil$J 9 .hy8 then8 shoul$ one carry out the cru$e i$eaF ,t is not necessary8 it is a .aste of energy8 )oney an$ ti)e0 1o.8 that is Hust the .ay , (ro$uce$ the rotating fiel$0 ,f , a) to gi-e you in a fe. .or$s the history of that in-ention8 , )ust 7egin .ith )y 7irth$ay8 an$ you .ill see the reason .hy0 , .as 7orn e'actly at )i$night8 , ha-e no 7irth$ay an$ , ne-er cele7rate it0 3ut so)ething else )ust ha-e ha((ene$ on that $ate0 , ha-e learne$ that )y heart 7eat on the right si$e an$ $i$ so for )any years after0 As , gre. u( it 7eat on 7oth si$es8 an$ finally settle$ on the left0 , re)e)7er that , .as sur(rise$8 .hen , $e-elo(e$ into a -ery strong )an8 to fin$ )y heart on the left si$e0 1o7o$y un$erstan$s ho. it ha((ene$0 , ha$ t.o or three falls an$ on one occasion nearly all )y chest 7ones .ere crushe$ in0 >o)ething that .as quite unusual )ust ha-e occurre$ at )y 7irth an$ )y (arents $estine$ )e for the clergy then an$ there0 &hen , .as si' years ol$ , )anage$ to ha-e )yself i)(risone$ in a little cha(el at an inaccessi7le )ountain8 an$ -isite$ only once a year0 ,t .as a (lace of )any 7loo$y encounters an$ there .as a gra-e yar$ near 7y0 , .as loc2e$ in there .hile loo2ing for so)e s(arro.s' nests8 an$ ha$ the )ost $rea$ful night , e-er (asse$ in )y life8 in co)(any .ith the ghosts of the $ea$0 A)erican 7oys .ill not un$erstan$ it8 of course8 for there are no ghosts in A)erica 9 the (eo(le are too sensi7leJ 7ut )y country .as full of the)8 an$ e-ery one fro) the s)all 7oy to greatest hero8 .ho .as (lastere$ all o-er .ith )e$als for courage an$ 7ra-ery8 ha$ a fear of ghosts0 Finally8 as 7y a .on$er8
they rescue$ )e8 an$ then )y (arents sai$I ">urely he )ust go to the clergy8 he )ust 7eco)e a church)an0" &hate-er ha((ene$ after that8 no )atter .hat it .as8 si)(ly fortifie$ the) in that resolution0 ;ne $ay8 to tell you a little story8 , fell fro) the to( of one of the far) 7uil$ings into a large 2ettle of )il28 .hich .as 7oiling o-er a roaring fire0 =i$ , say 7oiling )il2F 9 ,t .as not 7oiling 9 not accor$ing to the ther)o)eter 9 though , .oul$ ha-e s.orn it .as .hen , fell into it8 an$ they (ulle$ )e out0 3ut , only got a 7lister on the 2nee .here , struc2 the hot 2ettle0 /y (arents sai$ againI "&as not that .on$erfulF =i$ you e-er hear of such a thingF He .ill surely 7e a 7isho(8 a )etro(olitan8 (erha(s ah (atriarch0" ,n )y eighteenth year , ca)e to the cross roa$s0 , ha$ (asse$ through the (reli)inary schools an$ ha$ to )a2e u( )y )in$ either to e)7race the clergy or to run a.ay0 , ha$ a (rofoun$ res(ect for )y (arents8 an$ so , resigne$ )yself to ta2e u( stu$ies for the clergy0 Eust then one thing occurre$8 an$ if it ha$ not 7een for that8 , .oul$ not ha-e ha$ )y na)e connecte$ .ith the occasion of this e-ening0 A tre)en$ous e(i$e)ic of cholera 7ro2e out8 .hich $eci)ate$ the (o(ulation an$8 of course8 , got i))e$iately0 #ater it $e-elo(e$ into $ro(sy8 (ul)onary trou7le8 an$ all sorts of $iseases until finally )y coffin .as or$ere$0 ,n one of the fainting s(ells .hen they thought , .as $ying8 )y father ca)e to )y 7e$si$e an$ cheere$ )eI "Dou are going to get .ell0" "<erha(s8" , re(lie$8 "if you .ill let )e stu$y engineering0" "Certainly , .ill8" he assure$ )e8 "you .ill go to the 7est (olytechnic school in "uro(e0" , reco-ere$ to the a)aBe)ent of e-ery7o$y0 /y father 2e(t his .or$8 an$ after a year of roa)ing through the )ountains an$ getting )yself in goo$ (hysical sha(e8 , .ent to the <olytechnic >chool at GratB8 >tyria8 one of the ol$est institutions0 >o)ething else occurre$8 ho.e-er8 of .hich , )ust tell you as it is -itally lin2e$ .ith this $isco-ery0 ,n the (re(aratory schools there .as no li7erty in the choice of su7Hects8 an$ unless a stu$ent .as (roficient in all of the) he coul$ not (ass0 , foun$ )yself in this (re$ica)ent e-ery year0 , coul$ not $ra.0 /y faculty for i)agining things (aralyse$ .hate-er gift , )ight ha-e ha$ in this res(ect0 , ha-e )a$e so)e )echanical $ra.ings8 of courseJ (ractising so )any years one )ust nee$s learn to )a2e si)(le s2etches8 7ut if , $ra. for half an hour , a) all e'hauste$0 , ne-er .as qualifie$ an$ (asse$ only through )y father's influence0 1o.8 .hen , .ent to the (olytechnic school , ha$ free choice of su7Hects an$ (ro(ose$ )yself to sho. )y (arents .hat , coul$ $o0 The first year at the (olytechnic school .as s(ent in this .ay 9 , got u( at three o'cloc2 in the )orning an$ .or2e$ until ele-en o'cloc2 at night8 for one .hole $ear8 .ith a single $ay's e'ce(tion0 &ell8 you 2no. .hen a )an .ith a reasona7ly healthy 7rain .or2s that .ay he )ust acco)(lish so)ething0 1aturally8 , $i$0 , gra$uate$ nine ti)es that year an$ so)e of the (rofessors .ere not satisfie$ .ith gi-ing )e the highest $istinction8 7ecause they sai$8 that $i$ not e'(ress their i$ea of .hat , $i$8 an$ here is .here , co)e to the rotating fiel$0 ,n a$$ition to the regular gra$uating (a(ers they ga-e )e so)e certificates .hich , 7rought to )y father 7elie-ing that , ha$ achie-e$ a great triu)(h0 He too2 the certificates an$ thre. the) into the .aste 7as2et8 re)ar2ing conte)(tuouslyI ", 2no. ho. these testi)onials are o7taine$0" That al)ost 2ille$ )y a)7itionJ 7ut later8 after )y father ha$ $ie$8 , .as )ortifie$ to fin$ a (ac2age of letters8 fro) .hich , coul$ see that there ha$ 7een consi$era7le corres(on$ence going on 7et.een hi) an$ the (rofessors .ho ha$ .ritten to the effect that unless he too2 )e a.ay fro) school , .oul$ 2ill )yself .ith .or20 Then , un$erstoo$ .hy he ha$ slighte$ )y success8 .hich , .as tol$ .as greater than any (re-ious one at that institutionJ in fact the 7est stu$ents ha$ only gra$uate$ t.ice0 /y recor$ in the first year ha$ the result that the (rofessors 7eca)e -ery )uch intereste$ in an$ attache$ to )e8 (articularly three of the)J <rof0 +ogner .ho .as teaching arith)etical su7Hects an$ geo)etryJ <rof0 Alle8 one of the )ost 7rilliant an$ .on$erful lecturers , ha-e e-er seen8 .ho s(ecialiBe$ in $ifferential equations8 a7out .hich he .rote quite a nu)7er of .or2s in Ger)an8 an$ <rof0 <oeschl8 .ho .as )y instructor in (hysics0 These three )en .ere si)(ly in lo-e .ith )e an$ use$ to gi-e )e (ro7le)s to sol-e0 <rof0 <oeschl .as a curious )an0 , ne-er sa. such feet in )y life0 They .ere a7out that siBe0 (,n$icating His han$s .ere li2e (a.s8 7ut .hen he (erfor)e$ e'(eri)ents they .ere so con-incing an$ the .hole .ent off so 7eautifully that one ne-er realiBe$ ho. they .ere $one0 ,t .as all in the )etho$0 He $i$ all .ith the (recision of a cloc2 .or28 an$ e-erything succee$e$0 ,t .as in the secon$ year of )y stu$ies that .e recei-e$ a Gra))e )achine fro) <aris8 ha-ing a horse9shoe for) of la)inate$ )agnet8 an$ a .oun$ ar)ature .ith a co))utator0 &e connecte$ it u( an$ sho.e$ -arious effects of currents0 =uring the ti)e <rof0 <oeschl .as )a2ing $e)onstrations running the )achine as a )otor .e ha$ so)e trou7le .ith the 7rushes0 They s(ar2e$ -ery 7a$ly8 an$ , o7ser-e$I "&hy shoul$ not .e o(erate .ithout the 7rushesF" <rof0 <oeschl $eclare$ that it coul$ not 7e $one8 an$ in -ie. of )y success in the (ast year he $i$ )e 8the honour of $eli-ering a lecture touching on the su7Hect0 He re)ar2e$I "/r0 Tesla )ay acco)(lish great things8 7ut he certainly ne-er .ill $o this8" an$ he reasone$ that it .oul$ 7e equi-alent to con-erting a stea$ily (ulling force8 li2e that of gra-ity8 into a rotary effort8 a sort of (er(etual )otion sche)e8 an i)(ossi7le i$ea0 3ut you 2no. that instinct is so)ething .hich transcen$s 2no.le$ge0 &e ha-e8 un$ou7te$ly8 certain finer fi7ers that ena7le us to (ercei-e truths .hen logical $e$uction8 or any other .ilful effort of the 7rain8 is futile0 &e cannot reach 7eyon$ certain li)its in our reasoning8 7ut .ith instinct .e can go to -ery great lengths0 , .as con-ince$ that , .as right an$ that it .as (ossi7le0 ,t .as not a (er(etual )otion i$ea8 it coul$ 7e $one8 an$ , starte$ to .or2 at once0
, .ill not tire you .ith an e'ten$e$ account of this un$erta2ing8 7ut .ill only say that , 7egan in the su))er of 18** an$ , (rocee$e$ as follo.sI , .oul$ (icture first of all8 a $irect9current )achine8 run it an$ see ho. the currents change$ in the ar)ature0 Then , .oul$ i)agine an alternator an$ $o the sa)e thing0 1e't , .oul$ -isualiBe syste)s co)(rising )otors an$ generators8 an$ so on0 &hate-er a((aratus , i)agine$8 , .oul$ (ut together an$ o(erate in )y )in$8 an$ , continue$ this (ractice incessantly until 188!0 ,n that year so)eho. or other8 , 7egan to feel that a re-elation .as near0 , coul$ not yet see Hust e'actly ho. to $o it8 7ut , 2ne. that , .as a((roaching the solution0 &hile on )y -acation8 in 188!8 sure enough8 the i$ea ca)e to )e an$ , .ill ne-er forget the )o)ent0 , .as .al2ing .ith a frien$ of )ine in the city (ar2 of 3u$a(est reciting (assages fro) Faust0 ,t .as nothing for )e to rea$ fro) )e)ory the contents of an entire 7oo28 .ith e-ery .or$ 7et.een the co-ers8 fro) the first to the last0 /y sister an$ 7rother8 ho.e-er8 coul$ $o )uch 7etter than )yself0 , .oul$ li2e to 2no. .hether any of you has that 2in$ of )e)ory0 ,t is curious8 entirely -isual an$ retroacti-e0 To 7e e'(licit 9 .hen , )a$e )y e'a)s8 , ha$ al.ays to rea$ the 7oo2s three or four $ays if not a .ee2 7efore8 7ecause in that ti)e , coul$ reconstruct the i)ages an$ -isualiBe the)J 7ut if , ha$ an e'a)ination the ne't $ay after rea$ing8 i)ages .ere not clear an$ the re)e)7rance .as not quite co)(lete0 As , say8 , .as reciting Goethe's (oe)8 an$ Hust as the sun .as setting , felt .on$erfully elate$8 an$ the i$ea ca)e to )e li2e a flash0 , sa. the .hole )achinery clearly8 the generator8 the )otor8 the connections8 , sa. it .or2 as if it ha$ 7een real0 &ith a stic2 , $re. on the san$ the $iagra)s .hich .ere sho.n in )y (a(er 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers an$ illustrate$ in )y (atents8 as clearly as (ossi7le8 an$ fro) that ti)e on , carrie$ this i)age in )y )in$0 Ha$ , 7een a )an (ossesse$ of the (ractical gifts of "$ison8 , .oul$ ha-e gone right a.ay to (erfor) an e'(eri)ent an$ (ush the in-ention along8 7ut , $i$ not ha-e to $o this0 , coul$ see (ictures so -i-i$ly8 an$ .hat , i)agine$ .as so real an$ (al(a7le8 that , $i$ not nee$ any e'(eri)enting8 nor .oul$ it ha-e 7een (articularly interesting to )e0 , .ent on an$ i)(ro-e$ the (lan continuously8 in-enting ne. ty(es8 an$ the $ay , ca)e to A)erica8 (ractically e-ery for)8 e-ery 2in$ of construction8 e-ery arrange)ent of a((aratus , $escri7e$ in )y thirty or forty (atents .as (erfecte$8 e'ce(t Hust t.o or three 2in$s of )otors .hich .ere the result of later $e-elo()ent0 ,n 18838 , )a$e so)e tests in >tras7urg8 as /r0 Terry (ointe$ out8 an$ there at the railroa$ station o7taine$ the first rotation0 The sa)e e'(eri)ent .as re(eate$ t.ice0 1o. , co)e to an interesting cha(ter of )y life8 .hen , arri-e$ in A)erica0 , ha$ )a$e so)e i)(ro-e)ents in $yna)os for a French co)(any .ho .ere getting their )achinery fro) here0 The i)(ro-e$ for)s .ere so )uch 7etter that the )anager of the .or2s sai$ to )eI "Dou )ust go to A)erica8 an$ $esign the )achines for the "$ison Co)(any0" >o8 after ineffectual efforts on the other si$e to get so)e7o$y to interest hi)self in )y (lans financially8 , ca)e to this country0 , .ish that , coul$ only gi-e you an i$ea ho. .hat , sa. here i)(resse$ )e0 Dou .oul$ 7e -ery )uch astonishe$0 Dou ha-e aF un$ou7te$ly rea$ those char)ing Ara7ian 1ights tales8 in .hich the genie trans(orts (eo(le into .on$erful regions8 to go through all sorts of $elightful a$-entures0 /y case .as Hust the o((osite0 The genie trans(orte$ )e fro) a .orl$ of $rea)s into one of realities0 /y .orl$ .as 7eautiful8 ethereal8 as , coul$ i)agine it0 The one , foun$ here .as a )achine .orl$J the contact .as rough8 7ut , li2e$ it0 , realiBe$ fro) the -ery )o)ent , sa. Castle Gar$en that , .as a goo$ A)erican 7efore , lan$e$0 Then ca)e another e-ent0 , )et "$ison8 an$ the effect he (ro$uce$ u(on )e .as e'traor$inary0 &hen , sa. this .on$erful )an8 .ho ha$ ha$ no theoretical training at all8 no a$-antages8 .ho $i$ all hi)self8 getting great results 7y -irtue of his in$ustry an$ a((lication8 , felt )ortifie$ that , ha$ squan$ere$ )y life0 , ha$ stu$ie$ a $oBen languages8 $el-e$ in literature an$ art an$ ha$ s(ent )y 7est years in ru)inating through li7raries an$ rea$ing all sorts of stuff that fell into )y han$s0 , thought to )yself8 .hat a terri7le thing it .as to ha-e .aste$ )y life in those useless efforts0 ,f , ha$ only co)e to A)erica earlier an$ $e-ote$ all of )y 7rain (o.er to in-enti-e .or28 .hat )ight , ha-e $oneF ,n later life though8 , realiBe$ , .oul$ not ha-e (ro$uce$ anything .ithout the scientific training , got8 an$ it is a question .hether )y sur)ise as to )y (ossi7le acco)(lish)ent .as correct0 ,n "$ison's .or2s , (asse$ nearly a year of the )ost strenuous la7our8 an$ then certain ca(italists a((roache$ )e .ith the (roHect to for) )y o.n co)(any0 , .ent into the (ro(osition8 an$ $e-elo(e$ the arc light0 To sho. you ho. (reHu$ice$ (eo(le .ere against the alternating9current8 as the <resi$ent has in$icate$8 .hen , tol$ these frien$s of )ine that , ha$ a great in-ention relating to alternating9current trans)ission8 they sai$I "1o8 .e .ant the arc la)(0 &e $o not care for this alternating9current0" Finally , (erfecte$ )y lighting syste) an$ the city a$o(te$ it0 Then , succee$e$ in organiBing another co)(any8 in A(ril8 188%8 an$ a la7oratory .as (ut u(8 .here , ra(i$ly $e-elo(e$ these )otors8 an$ e-entually the &estinghouse (eo(le a((roache$ us8 an$ an arrange)ent .as )a$e for their intro$uction0 Dou 2no. .hat has ha((ene$ since then0 The in-ention has s.e(t the .orl$0 , shoul$ li2e to say Hust a fe. .or$s regar$ing the 1iagara Falls enter(rise0 &e ha-e a )an here to9night to .ho) 7elongs really the cre$it for the early ste(s an$ for the first financiering of the (roHect8 .hich .as $ifficult at that ti)e0 , refer to /r0 "0 =0 A$a)s0 &hen , hear$ that such authorities as #or$ :el-in an$ <rof0 &0 C0 Cn.in ha$ reco))en$e$ 9 one the $irect9current syste) an$ the other co)(resse$ air 9 for the trans)ission of (o.er fro) 1iagara Falls to 3uffalo8 , thought it .as $angerous to let the )atter go further8 an$ , .ent to see /r0
A$a)s0 , re)e)7er the inter-ie. (erfectly0 /r0 A$a)s .as )uch i)(resse$ .ith .hat , tol$ hi)0 &e ha$ so)e corres(on$ence after.ar$s8 an$ .hether it .as in consequence of )y enlightening hi) on the situation8 or o.ing to so)e other influence8 )y syste) .as a$o(te$0 >ince that ti)e8 of course8 ne. )en8 ne. interests ha-e co)e in8 an$ .hat has 7een $one , $o not 2no.8 e'ce(t that the 1iagara Falls enter(rise .as the real starting i)(ulse in the great )o-e)ent inaugurate$ for the 9trans)ission an$ transfor)ation of energy on a huge scale0 /r0 Terry0 has referre$ to other in-entions of )ine0 , .ill Hust )a2e a fe. re)ar2s relati-e to these as so)e of )y .or2 has 7een )isun$erstoo$0 ,t see)s to )e that , ought to tell you a fe. .or$s a7out an effort that a7sor7e$ )y attention later0 ,n 189! , $eli-ere$ a lecture at the +oyal ,nstitution an$ #or$ +ayleigh sur(rise$ )e 7y ac2no.le$ging )y .or2 in -ery generous ter)s8 so)ething that is not custo)ary8 an$ a)ong other things he state$ that , ha$ really an e'traor$inary gift for in-ention0 C( to that ti)e8 , can assure you8 , ha$ har$ly realiBe$ that , .as an in-entor0 , re)e)7ere$8 for instance8 .hen , .as a 7oy8 , coul$ go out into the forest an$ catch as )any cro.s as , .ante$8 an$ no7o$y else coul$ $o it0 ;nce8 .hen , .as se-en years of age8 , re(aire$ a fire engine .hich the engineers coul$ not )a2e .or28 an$ they carrie$ )e in triu)(h through the city0 , constructe$ tur7ines8 cloc2s an$ such $e-ices as no other 7oy in the co))unity0 , sai$ to )yselfI ",f , really ha-e a gift for in-ention8 , .ill 7en$ it to so)e great (ur(ose or tas2 an$ not squan$er )y efforts on s)all things0" Then , 7egan to (on$er Hust .hat .as the greatest $ee$ to acco)(lish0 ;ne $ay as , .as .al2ing in the forest a stor) gathere$ an$ , ran un$er a tree for shelter0 The air .as -ery hea-y8 an$ all at once there .as a lightning flash8 an$ i))e$iately after a torrent of rain fell0 That ga-e )e the first i$ea0 , realiBe$ that the sun .as lifting the .ater -a(our8 an$ .in$ s.e(t it o-er the regions .here it accu)ulate$ an$ reache$ a con$ition .hen it .as easily con$ense$ an$ fell to earth again0 This life9sustaining strea) of .ater .as entirely )aintaine$ 7y sun (o.er8 an$ lightning8 or so)e other agency of this 2in$8 si)(ly ca)e in a trigger9)echanis) to release the energy at the (ro(er )o)ent0 , starte$ out an$ attac2e$ the (ro7le) of constructing a )achine .hich .oul$ ena7le us to (reci(itate this .ater .hene-er an$ .here-er $esire$0 ,f this .as (ossi7le8 then .e coul$ $ra. unli)ite$ a)ounts of .ater fro) the ocean8 create la2es8 ri-ers an$ .ater falls8 an$ in$efinitely increase the hy$roelectric (o.er8 of .hich there is no. a li)ite$ su((ly0 That le$ )e to the (ro$uction of -ery intense electrical effects0 At the sa)e ti)e )y .ireless .or28 .hich , ha$ alrea$y 7egun8 .as e'actly in that $irection8 an$ , $e-ote$ )yself to the (erfection of that $e-ice8 an$ in 19588 , file$ an a((lication $escri7ing an a((aratus .ith .hich , thought the .on$er coul$ 7e achie-e$0 The <atent ;ffice "'a)iner .as fro) /issouri8 he .oul$ not 7elie-e that it coul$ 7e $one8 an$ )y (atent .as ne-er grante$0 3ut in Colora$o , ha$ constructe$ a trans)itter0 7y .hich , (ro$uce$ effects in so)e res(ects at least greater than those of lightning0 , $o not )ean in (otential0 The highest (otential , reache$ .as so)ething li2e !585558555 -olts8 .hich is insignificant as co)(are$ to that of lightning8 7ut certain effects (ro$uce$ 7y )y a((aratus .ere greater than those of lightning0 For instance8 , o7taine$ in )y antennae currents of fro) 18555 to 18155 a)(eres0 That .as in 1899 an$ you 2no. that in the 7iggest .ireless (lants of to$ay only !45 a)(eres are use$0 ,n Colora$o , succee$e$ one $ay in (reci(itating a $ense fog0 There .as a )ist outsi$e8 7ut .hen , turne$ on the current the clou$ in the la7oratory 7eca)e so $ense that .hen the han$ .as hel$ only a fe. inches fro) the face it coul$ not 7e seen0 , a) (ositi-e in )y con-iction that .e can erect a (lant of (ro(er $esign in an ari$ region8 .or2 it accor$ing to certain o7ser-ations an$ rules8 an$ 7y its )eans $ra. fro) the ocean unli)ite$ a)ounts of .ater for irrigation an$ (o.er (ur(oses0 ,f , $o not li-e to carry it out8 so)e7o$y else .ill8 7ut , feel sure that , a) right0 As to the trans)ission of (o.er through s(ace8 that is a (roHect .hich , consi$ere$ a7solutely certain of success long since0 Dears ago , .as in the (osition to trans)it .ireless (o.er to any $istance .ithout li)it other than that i)(ose$ 7y the (hysical $i)ensions of the glo7e0 ,n )y syste) it )a2es no $ifference .hat the $istance is0 The efficiency of the trans)ission can 7e as high as 9% or 9* (er cent8 an$ there are (ractically no losses e'ce(t such as are ine-ita7le in the running of the )achinery0 &hen there is no recei-er there is no energy consu)(tion any.here0 &hen the recei-er is (ut on8 it $ra.s (o.er0 That is the e'act o((osite of the HertB9.a-e syste)0 ,n that case8 if you ha-e a (lant of 18555 horse(o.er8 it is ra$iating all the ti)e .hether the energy is recei-e$ or notJ 7ut in )y syste) no (o.er is lost0 &hen there are no recei-ers the (lant consu)es only a fe. horse(o.er necessary to )aintain the electric -i7rationJ it runs i$le8 as the "$ison (lant .hen the la)(s an$ )otors are shut off0 , ha-e )a$e a$-ances along this line in later years .hich .ill contri7ute to the (ractical features of the syste)0 +ecently , ha-e o7taine$ a (atent on a trans)itter .ith .hich it is (ractica7le to transfer unli)ite$ a)ount of energy to any $istance0 , ha$ a -ery interesting e'(erience .ith /r0 >tone8 .ho) , consi$er8 if not the a7lest8 certainly one of the a7lest li-ing e'(erts0 , sai$ to /r0 >toneI "=i$ you see )y (atentF" He re(lie$I "Des8 , sa. it8 7ut , thought you .ere craBy0" &hen , e'(laine$ it to /r0 >tone he sai$8 "1o.8 , seeJ .hy8 that is great8" an$ he un$erstoo$ ho. the energy is trans)itte$0
To conclu$e8 gentle)en8 .e are co)ing to great results8 7ut .e )ust 7e (re(are$ for a con$ition of (aralysis for quite a .hile0 &e are facing a crisis such as the .orl$ has ne-er seen 7efore8 an$ until the situation clears the 7est thing .e can $o is to $e-ise so)e sche)e for o-erco)ing the su7)arines8 an$ that is .hat , a) $oing no.0 (A((lause A#F+"= H0 C;&#">I Here are so)e (ictures you ga-e to )e t.enty years ago8 relating to your e'(eri)ents of 18998 , thin2 you .ill 7e intereste$ in seeing the)0 (Han$s (ictures to /r0 Tesla 1,:;#A T">#AI , ha-e learne$ ho. to (ut u( a (lant that .ill $e-elo( a tension of 15585558555 -olts an$ han$le it .ith (erfect safety0 This (lant (in$icating .as in Colora$o0 ,f any7o$y8 .ho ha$ not 7een $a77ling in these e'(eri)ents as long as )yself8 ha$ $one such .or28 he .oul$ surely ha-e 7een 2ille$0 ,n this (lant , ha$ the narro.est esca(e e-er0 ,t .as a square 7uil$ing8 in .hich there .as a coil 4! feet in $ia)eter8 a7out nine feet high0 &hen it .as a$Huste$ to resonance8 the strea)ers (asse$ fro) to( to 7otto) an$ it .as a )ost 7eautiful sight0 Dou see8 that .as a7out fifteen hun$re$8 (erha(s t.o thousan$ square feet of strea)er surface0 To sa-e )oney , ha$ calculate$ the $i)ensions as closely as (ossi7le8 an$ the strea)ers ca)e .ithin si' or se-en inches fro) the si$es of the 7uil$ing0 As 7oys ha$ 7een loo2ing through a single .in$o. (ro-i$e$ in the rear8 , naile$ it u(0 For han$ling the hea-y currents8 , ha$ a s(ecial s.itch0 ,t .as har$ to (ull8 an$ , ha$ a s(ring arrange$ so that , coul$ Hust touch the han$le an$ it .oul$ sna( in0 , sent one of )y assistants $o.n to.n an$ .as e'(eri)enting alone0 , thre. u( the s.itch an$ .ent 7ehin$ the coil to e'a)ine so)ething0 &hile , .as there the s.itch sna((e$ in8 .hen su$$enly the .hole roo) .as fille$ .ith strea)ers8 an$ , ha$ no .ay of getting out0 , trie$ to 7rea2 through the .in$o. 7ut in -ain as , ha$ no tools8 an$ there .as nothing else to $o than to thro. )yself on )y sto)ach an$ (ass un$er0 The (ri)ary carrie$ 4558555 -olts8 an$ , ha$ to cra.l through the narro. (lace here ((ointing .ith the strea)ers going0 The nitrous aci$ .as so strong , coul$ har$ly 7reathe0 These strea)ers ra(i$ly o'i$ise nitrogen 7ecause of their enor)ous surface8 .hich )a2es u( for .hat they lac2 in intensity0 &hen , ca)e to the narro. s(ace they close$ on )y 7ac20 , got a.ay an$ 7arely )anage$ to o(en the s.itch .hen the 7uil$ing 7egan to 7urn0 , gra77e$ a fire e'tinguisher an$ succee$e$ in s)othering the fire0 Then , ha$ enough8 , .as all in0 3ut no. , can o(erate a (lant .ithout any fear of its $estruction 7y fire0 /r0 Co.les is res(onsi7le for e'cursion into this )atter0 (A((lause TH" <+">,="1TI ,f there is no further 7usiness8 .e .ill consi$er this )eeting a$Hourne$0
1-1<-08-00: Tesla2s 6iews on *le(tri(ity and t,e Far 4y (. #infield &ecor

Electrical Ex*erimenter Exclusive Intervie" to T(E E%E2T!I2A% EL3E!I/ENTE!
*,:;#A T">#A8 one of the greatest of li-ing electrical engineers an$ reci(ient of the se-enth ""$ison" )e$al8
has e-ol-e$ se-eral unique an$ far9reaching i$eas .hich if $e-elo(e$ an$ (ractically a((lie$ shoul$ hel( to (artially8 if not totally8 sol-e the )uch $iscusse$ su7)arine )enace an$ to (ro-i$e a )eans .here7y the ene)y's (o.$er an$ shell )agaBines )ay 7e e'(lo$e$ at a $istance of se-eral )iles0 There ha-e 7een nu)erous stories 7ruite$ a7out 7y )ore or less irres(onsi7le self9style$ e'(erts that certain A)erican in-entors8 inclu$ing =r0 Tesla8 ha$ in-ente$ a)ong other things an electric ray to $estroy or $etect a su7)arine un$er .ater at a consi$era7le $istance0 /r0 Tesla -ery courteously grante$ the .riter an inter-ie. an$ so)e of his i$eas on electricity's (ossi7le role in hel(ing to en$ the great .orl$9.ar are herein gi-enI The all9a7sor7ing to(ic of $aily con-ersation at the (resent ti)e is of course the "C97oat0" Therefore8 , )a$e that su7Hect )y o(ening shot0
1i2ola Tesla8 the Fa)ous "lectric ,n-entor8 Has <ro(ose$ Three =ifferent "lectrical >che)es for #ocating >u7)erge$ >u7)arines0 The +eflecte$ "lectric +ay /etho$ is ,llustrate$ A7o-eJ the High9Frequency ,n-isi7le "lectric +ay8 &hen +eflecte$ 7y a >u7)arine Hull8 Causes <hos(horescent >creens on Another or "-en the >a)e >hi( to Glo.8 Gi-ing &arning That the C97oats Are 1ear0
"&ell8" sai$ =r0 Tesla8 ", ha-e se-eral $istinct i$eas regar$ing the su7Hugation of the su7)arine0 3ut lest .e forget8 let us not un$eresti)ate the efficiency of the )eans a-aila7le for carrying on su7)arine .arfare0 &e )ay use )icro(hones to $etect the su7)arine8 7ut on the other han$ the su7)arine co))an$er )ay e)(loy )icro(hones to locate a shi( an$ e-en tor(e$o it 7y the range thus foun$8 .ithout e-er sho.ing his (erisco(e a7o-e .ater0 "/any years ago .hile ser-ing in the ca(acity of chief electrician for an electric (lant situate$ on the ri-er >eine8
in France8 , ha$ occasion to require for certain testing (ur(oses an e'tre)ely sensiti-e gal-ano)eter0 ,n those $ays the quartB fi7er .as an un2no.n quantity 9 an$ ,8 7y 7e co)ing s(ecially a$e(t8 )anage$ to (ro$uce an e'tre)ely fine cocoon fi7er for the gal-ano)eter sus(ension0 Further8 the gal-ano)eter (ro-e$ -ery sensiti-e for the location in .hich it .as to 7e use$J so a s(ecial ce)ent 7ase .as sun2 in the groun$ an$ 7y using a lea$ su797ase sus(en$e$ on s(rings all )echanical shoc2 an$ -i7ration effects .ere finally gotten ri$ of0 "As a )atter of actual (ersonal e'(erience8" sai$ =r0 Tesla0 "it 7eca)e a fact that the s)all iron9hull stea) )ail9 (ac2ets (shi(s (lying u( an$ $o.n the ri-er >eine at a $istance of 3 )iles .oul$ $istinctly affect the gal-ano)eterY" "Ho. coul$ this 7e a((lie$ to the su7)arine (ro7le)F" , as2e$0 "&ell8 for one thing8" the scientist re(lie$8 ", 7elie-e this )agnetic )etho$ of locating or in$icating the (resence of an iron or steel )ass )ight (ro-e -ery (ractical in locating a hi$$en su7)arine0 An$ it is of course of (ara)ount i)(ortance that .e $o fin$ a )eans of accurately locating the su79sea fighters .hen they are su7)erge$8 so that .e can8 .ith this in for)ation8 7e rea$y to close in on the) .hen they atte)(t to co)e to the surface0 "s(ecially is this i)(ortant .hen se-eral -essels are tra-eling in fleet for)ationJ the location an$ (resence of the ene)y su7)arine can 7e ra$iogra(he$ to the other -essels 7y the one $oing the )agnetic sur-eying an$8 7y )eans of nets in so)e cases or gun9fire an$ the use of hy$ro9aero(lanes sent aloft fro) the shi(s8 the ene)y un$er .ater stan$s a )ighty goo$ chance of 7eing either '7o)7e$8' shelle$ or nette$0 "Ho.e-er8 a )eans .oul$ soon 7e foun$ of nullifying this )agnetic $etector of the su7)erge$ un$ersea .ar9 craft0 They )ight )a2e the 'C97oat' hulls of so)e non9)agnetic )etal8 such as co((er8 7rass8 or alu)inu)0 ,t is a goo$ rule to al.ays 2ee( in )in$ that for (ractically e-ery goo$ in-ention of such a 2in$ as this8 there has al.ays 7een in-ente$ an o((osite8 an$ equally efficient counteracting in-ention0" "Ho. a7out this ne. electric ray )etho$ of locating su7)arinesF" , -enture$ to as20 "Des8 yes8 , a) co)ing to that8" the )aster electrician (arrie$0 "1o. su((ose that .e erect on a -essel8 a large rectangular helice or in$uctance coil of insulate$ .ire0 Actual e'(eri)ents in )y la7oratory at Houston >treet (1e. Dor2 City 8 ha-e (ro-en that the (resence of a local iron )ass8 such as the shi('s hull8 .oul$ not interfere .ith the action of this $e-ice0 To this coil of .ire8 )easuring (erha(s 655 feet in length 7y *5 feet in .i$th (the length an$ 7rea$th of the shi( .e connect a source of e'tre)ely high frequency an$ -ery (o.erful oscillating current0 3y this )eans there are ra$iate$ (o.erful oscillating electro9static currents8 .hich as , ha-e foun$ 7y actual e'(eri)ent in )y Colora$o tests so)e years ago8 .ill first affect a )etallic 7o$y (such as a su7)arine hull8 e-en the )a$e of 7rass or any other )etal 8 an$ in turn cause that )ass to react in$ucti-ely on the e'citing coil on the shi(0 To locate an iron )ass it is not necessary to e'cite the coil .ith a high frequency currentJ the critical 7alance of the coil .ill 7e affecte$ si)(ly 7y the (resence of the )agnetic 7o$y0 To 7e a7le to accurately $eter)ine the $irection an$ range of the ene)y su7)arine four e'citing in$uctances shoul$ 7e use$0 &ith a single in$uctance8 ho.e-er8 it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le to $eter)ine the location of a su7)arine 7y running the shi( first in one $irection an$ then in another8 an$ noting .hether the reacti-e effect cause$ 7y the (resence of the su7)arine hull increase$ or $ecrease$0 The ra$iating in$uctance )ust 7e -ery shar(ly attune$ to the )easuring a((aratus installe$ on the shi(8 .hen no trou7le .ill 7e foun$ in $etecting the (resence of such a large )etallic )ass as a su7)arine8 e-en at a $istance of 4 to % )ilesJ of this , feel confi$ent fro) )y (ast e'(eri)ents in the real) of ultra9high frequency currents an$ (otentials0" "&hat (articular e'(eri)ents $o you ha-e in )in$8 =r0 TeslaF" , as2e$0 "The Colora$o tests of 1898919550 &on$erful .ere the results there o7taine$8 7oth those antici(ate$ as .ell as those une'(ecte$0 As an e'a)(le of .hat has 7een $one .ith se-eral hun$re$ 2ilo.atts of high frequency energy li7erate$8 it .as foun$ that the $yna)os in a (o.er house si' )iles a.ay .ere re(eate$ly 7urne$ out8 $ue to the (o.erful high frequency currents set u( in the)8 an$ .hich cause$ hea-y s(ar2s to Hu)( through the .in$ings an$ $estroy the insulationY The lightning arresters in the (o.er house sho.e$ a strea) of 7lue9.hite s(ar2s (assing 7et.een the )etal (lates to the earth connection0 , coul$ .al2 on the san$ (or$inarily consi$ere$ a -ery goo$ insulator se-eral hun$re$ feet fro) )y large high frequency oscillator8 an$ s(ar2s Hu)(e$ fro) )y shoesY At such $istances all in can$escent la)(s glo.e$ 7y .ireless (o.er8 an$ 7an2s of la)(8 connecte$ to a fe. turns of .ire arrange$ in a coil on the groun$8 .ere lighte$ to full 7rilliancy0 The effect on )etallic o7Hects at consi$era7le $istances .as really re)ar2a7le0" , as2e$ hi) a7out the "Cli-i ray8" .hich .as accor$e$ consi$era7le ne.s(a(er (u7licity so)e ti)e ago0 "The 'Cli-i ray' really .as trans(lante$ fro) this country to ,taly8" asserte$ =r0 Tesla0 ",t .as si)(ly an a$a(tation of )y ultra9(o.erful high9frequency (heno)ena as carrie$ out in Colora$o an$ cite$ (re-iously0 &ith a (o.erful
oscillator $e-elo(ing thousan$s of horse(o.er it .oul$ 7eco)e rea$ily (ossi7le to $etonate (o.$er an$ )unition )agaBines 7y )eans of the high frequency currents in$uce$ in e-ery 7it of )etal8 e-en .hen locate$ fi-e to si' )iles a.ay an$ )ore0 "-en a (o.$er can .oul$ ha-e a (otential of %8555 to *8555 -olts in$uce$ in it at that $istance0 "At the ti)e of those tests , succee$e$ in (ro$ucing the )ost (o.erful ]9rays e-er seen0 , coul$ stan$ at a $istance of 155 feet fro) the ]9ray a((aratus an$ see the 7ones of the han$ clearly .ith the ai$ of a fluorosco(e screenJ an$ , coul$ ha-e easily seen the) at a $istance se-eral ti)es this 7y utiliBing suita7le (o.er0 ,n fact8 , coul$ not then (rocure ]9ray generators to han$le e-en a s)all fraction of the (o.er , ha$ a-aila7le0 3ut , no. ha-e a((aratus $esigne$ .here7y this tre)en$ous energy of hun$re$s of 2ilo.atts can 7e successfully transfor)e$ into ]9rays0" "Coul$ these ultra9(o.erful an$ unusually (enetrating ]9rays 7e use$ to locate or $estroy a su7)arine .ithF" , interHecte$0 "1o. .e are co)ing to the )etho$ of locating such hi$$en )etal )asses as su7)arines 7y an electric ray8" re(lie$ the electrical .iBar$0 "That is the thing .hich see)s to hol$ great (ro)ises0 ,f .e can shoot out a concentrate$ ray co)(rising a strea) of )inute electric charges -i7rating electrically at tre)en$ous frequency8 say )illions of cycles (er secon$8 an$ then interce(t this ray8 after it has 7een reflecte$ 7y a su7)arine hull for e'a)(le8 an$ cause this interce(te$ ray to illu)inate a fluorescent screen (si)ilar to the ]9ray )etho$ on the sa)e or another shi(8 then our (ro7le) of locating the hi$$en su7)arine .ill ha-e 7een sol-e$0 "This electric ray .oul$ necessarily ha-e to ha-e an oscillation .a-e length e'tre)ely short an$ here is .here the great (ro7le) (resents itselfJ i0e08 to 7e a7le to $e-elo( a sufficiently short .a-e length an$ a large a)ount of (o.er8 say se-eral hun$re$ thousan$ or e-en se-eral thousan$ horse9(o.er0 , ha-e (ro$uce$ oscillators ha-ing a .a-e length of 7ut a fe. )illi)eters0 ">u((ose8 for e'a)(le8 that a -essel is fitte$ .ith such an electric ray (roHector0 The a-erage shi( has a-aila7le fro) say 158555 to 148555 H0<0 The e'(loring ray coul$ 7e flashe$ out inter)ittently an$ thus it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le to hurl forth a -ery for)i$a7le 7ea) of (ulsating electric energy8 in-ol-ing a $ischarge of hun$re$s of thousan$s of horse9(o.er0 The electric energy .oul$ 7e ta2en fro) the shi('s (lant for a fraction of a )inute only8 7eing a7sor7e$ at a tre)en$ous rate 7y suita7le con$ensers an$ other a((aratus8 fro) .hich it coul$ 7e li7erate$ at any rate $esire$0 ",)agine that the ray has 7een shot out an$ that in s.ee(ing through the .ater it encounters the hull of a su7)arine0 &hat ha((ensF Eust thisI The ray .oul$ 7e reflecte$8 an$ 7y an a((ro(riate $e-ice .e .oul$ interce(t an$ translate this reflecte$ ray8 as for instance 7y allo.ing the ray to i)(inge on a (hos(horescent screen8 acting in a si)ilar .ay to the ]9ray screen0 The ray .oul$ 7e in-isi7le to the unai$e$ eye0 The reflecte$ ray coul$ 7e firstly8 interce(te$ 7y the one or )ore shi(s in the fleetJ or secon$ly8 it .oul$ 7e (ossi7le for the shi( originating the ray to interce(t the refracte$ (ortion 7y sen$ing out the ray inter)ittently an$ also 7y ta2ing a$-antage of .hat is 2no.n as the after9glo. effect8 .hich )eans that the ray .oul$ affect the registering screen an a((recia7le ti)e after its origination0 This .oul$ 7e necessary to allo. the shi( to )o-e for.ar$ sufficiently to get .ithin range of the reflecte$ ray fro) the su7)arine8 as the reflection .oul$ not 7e in the sa)e $irection as the originating ray0 "To )a2e this clearer8 consi$er that a concentrate$ ray fro) a searchlight is thro.n on a 7alloon at night0 &hen the s(ot of light stri2es the 7alloon8 the latter at once 7eco)es -isi7le fro) )any $ifferent angles0 The sa)e effect .oul$ 7e create$ .ith the electric ray if (ro(erly a((lie$0 &hen the ray struc2 the rough hull of a su7)arine it .oul$ 7e reflecte$8 7ut not in a concentrate$ 7ea) 9 it .oul$ s(rea$ outJ .hich is Hust .hat .e .ant0 >u((ose se-eral -essels are stea)ing along in co)(any J it thus 7eco)es e-i$ent that se-eral of the) .ill interce(t the reflecte$ ray an$ accor$ingly 7e .arne$ of the (resence of the su7)arine or su7)arines0 The -essels .oul$ at once lo.er their nets8 if so equi((e$8 or$er their gun cre.s to quarters an$ $ou7le the loo29out .atch0 The i)(ortant thing to 2no. is that su7)arines are (resent0 Fore.arne$ is forear)e$Y "The Teutons are cle-er8 you 2no.J -ery8 -ery cle-er8 7ut .e shall 7eat the)8" sai$ =r0 Tesla confi$ently0 ?,t )ay 7e of interest to our rea$ers to 2no. that se-eral i)(ortant electrical .ar sche)es .ill shortly 7e lai$ 7efore the &ar an$ 1a-y =e(art)ents 7y =r0 Tesla8 the $etails of .hich .e naturally cannot no. (u7lish0@
1-18-0"-0<: A 'ig,ting Ma(,ine on NoEel 5rin(i$les by Nikola Tesla

un*ublished A )achine 7uilt on no-el an$ original lines is a7out to 7e (lace$ on the )ar2et0 ,t consists of a tur7ine an$ electric generator8 7oth e)(loying 7asically ne. (rinci(les in construction as .ell as o(eration8 an$ inti)ately associate$ to constitute a unit0 The for)er has 7een (ronounce$ re-olutionary in its $esign an$ (erfor)ance0 ,t is si)(licity itself8 7eing $e-oi$ of 7uc2ets8 $eflecting 7la$es8 gui$e (assages8 -anes an$ the li2e8 an$ (resents )any other $ecisi-e a$-antages o-er the or$inary (ri)e )o-er0 ,n the first (lace there is no .in$age8 .hich is the cause of a )ost serious loss of (o.er in 7uc2et tur7ines8 often a)ounting to a large (ercentage of the integral )echanical effort0 &hat is still )ore i)(ortant8 the ne. tur7ine is ca(a7le of ta2ing u( the .hole -elocity of the )oti-e flui$ in one continuous (rocess8 thus sa-ing the e'(ense an$ a-oi$ing the co)(lication inci$ent to "staging"0 Further)ore8 it has the (recious quality of transfor)ing into useful .or2 frictional energy irretrie-a7ly s(ent in other heat )otors0 The corrosion an$ erosion of 7uc2ets an$ -anes in the (resent tur7ines is the cause of another great an$ irre)e$ia7le .aste of energy8 the .ater rate frequently increasing 35i to 65i after 7ut a fe. )onths of use0 1o such hurtful actions e'ist in the ne. tur7ine8 an$ if they $i$8 they .oul$ not i)(air the (erfor)ance to any a((recia7le $egree0 Again8 the for)er are su7Hect to consi$era7le loss o.ing to un(re-enta7le .ear an$ $eterioration of the noBBles0 ,t is essential that the high -elocity strea)s of flui$ issuing fro) the) 7e $irecte$ u(on the cur-e$ 7la$es .ith great (recision8 as a failure of this is fatal to goo$ results0 To such an e'tent is this the case that e-en a slight roughening of the (olishe$ surfaces .ill re$uce the useful energy as )uch as !4i0 The ne. tur7ine is entirely free fro) this $efect0 Ho.e-er the noBBle )ay 7e use$ u(8 the flui$ is )a$e to flo. through the .heel s)oothly an$ e-enly in natural strea) lines8 trans)itting (o.er to the sa)e .ith un$i)inishe$ efficiency0 Another feature of su(eriority is foun$ in its a$a(ta7ility to high te)(eratures far 7eyon$ those (ractica7le in 7uc2et tur7ines0 For e-ery hun$re$ $egrees of increase in te)(erature8 the stea) consu)(tion is re$uce$ fro) 15i to 1!i0 Great econo)ies are thus )a$e (ossi7le 7y the use of the ne. (ri)e )o-er0 ,n e-ery tur7ine the $e-ice regulating the s(ee$ of rotation an$ controlling the a$)ission of the .or2ing flui$ to the noBBles is of -ital i)(ortance0 &ith scarcely an e'ce(tion it is of the centrifugal ty(e $ri-en fro) the shaft in so)e or other .ay an$ constituting an asse)7lage of gears8 flying .eights8 lin2s8 le-ers8 slee-es8 thrust 7earings an$ other (arts0 ,t is an a((aratus co)(le' an$ $elicate8 e'(ensi-e to construct an$ easily $erange$8 often .ith $isastrous consequences0 All this has 7een $one a.ay in the ne. tur7ine .hich is controlle$ in a no-el an$ stri2ing )anner0 The regulator is ele)entary in its construction8 (ositi-e an$ unfailing in its action8 an$ yet so sensiti-e as to res(on$ to -ariations of loa$ a)ounting to less than 1i of the nor)al0 This si)(le $e-ice is ren$ere$ still )ore -alua7le 7y the fact that it a$Husts itself instantaneously to (ressure changes so that the effects of these on the la)(s are ina((recia7le0 To illustrate8 the stea) gauge on the 7oiler )ay in$icate fluctuations fro) 155 to !55 (oun$s or )ore an$ follo.ing each other ho.e-er ra(i$ly .ithout the slightest o7ser-a7le change in the intensity of the light0 This re)ar2a7le action of the $e-ice is in$e(en$ent of its function as regulator of s(ee$0 Another a$-antage $eser-ing the )ost careful consi$eration of the user is the (erfect safety of the ne. tur7ine0 There is an e-er (resent $anger in a )achine of the ol$ ty(e8 that the .heel )ight 7urst an$ $estroy life an$ (ro(erty0 >uch a $e(lora7le acci$ent is a7solutely i)(ossi7le .ith the ne. tur7ine rotor8 co)(ose$ of thin $iscs .hich e'(an$ slightly an$ co)e to rest8 in-aria7ly .ithout $a)age8 as has 7een sho.n in e'hausti-e e'(eri)ents0 The one feature8 ho.e-er8 .hich has )ost a)aBe$ e'(erts8 is the e'traor$inary (o.er of this for) of (ri)e )o-er0 ;.ing to the great effecti-eness of the un$erlying (rinci(le an$ (eculiar construction8 ten ti)es )ore (o.er can 7e (ro$uce$ than .ith any other )achine 2no.n0 For e'a)(le8 a rotor of 9" in $ia)eter8 .eighing less than !5 (oun$s8 can rea$ily $e-elo( !55 7ra2e horse(o.er8 an$ this is 7y no )eans the li)it of (erfor)ance0 3ut the )erits of this lighting outfit $o not rest on the tur7ine alone0 The $yna)o associate$ .ith the sa)e is (erha(s equally note.orthy 7y its si)(licity of construction8 high efficiency an$ rare an$ -alua7le (ro(erties it (ossesses0 ,t consists of a s)ooth cylin$rical 7o$y )ounte$ on the tur7ine shaft an$ arrange$ to rotate .ithin a )agnetic fiel$ of no-el for)a There is no 7rush or sli$ing contact .hate-er8 the current 7eing ta2en fro)
stationary ter)inals to .hich the en$s of the generating coils are connecte$0 3y e)(loying the 7est )aterials an$ .or2)anshi( an$ resorting to artifices of $esign8 a )ost econo)ical electrical generator is (ro$uce$8 the efficiency 7eing o-er 95i e-en in )achines of -ery s)all siBe ha-ing rotors of not )ore than ! 1/!" in $ia)eter0 This generator (ossesses e'traor$inary qualities8 es(ecially $esira7le in electric lighting0 ,t is ca(a7le of furnishing a current constant .ithin a )inute fraction of 1i through a -ery .i$e range of s(ee$ -ariation8 an$ as such is i$eally suite$ for running arc la)(s or 2in$re$ electrical $e-ices in series0 /ore sur(rising still an$ also of greater co))ercial i)(ort is its ca(a7ility of )aintaining a constant (otential0 >uch results as are o7taina7le .ith it are .holly i)(ossi7le .ith other ty(es of electrical generators0 ,t has 7een foun$ in (ractice that all la)(s 7ut one can 7e turne$ off su$$enly .ithout the slightest (erce(ti7le flic2er an$ e-en .ithout any o7ser-a7le effect on the nee$le of a $elicate instru)ent in$icating the -oltage0 That an a((aratus of such si)(licity an$ (resenting so )any salient a$-antages shoul$ fin$ an e'tensi-e use in electric lighting )ight 7e naturally e'(ecte$8 7ut its o-er.hel)ing su(eriority .ill 7e 7etter a((reciate$ .hen it is state$ that it occu(ies har$ly )ore than one9tenth of the s(ace of a((aratus of the usual for)s an$ .eighs less in (ro(ortion0 A )achine ca(a7le of $e-elo(ing 192ilo.att8 for instance8 goes into a s(ace of 8 ' 8 ' 15" an$ .eighs 7ut 65 (oun$s0 ,t ta2es not )ore than one9thir$ of the stea) consu)e$ in other tur7o9generators of that siBe0 The gui$ing i$ea in the $e-elo()ent of this ne. )achine .as to e-ol-e a )echanis) a((ro'i)ating a static transfor)er of energy in si)(licity8 efficiency an$ relia7ility of o(eration0 "-ery $etail has 7een .or2e$ out .ith this o7Hect in -ie.0 There is no e'citer8 no co))utator8 7rush or sli$ing contact .hate-er8 no centrifugal regulator8 -oltage controller or any such co)(licate$ an$ haBar$ous $e-ice0 The )achine consists of 7ut a stationary soli$ fra)e an$ t.o s)ooth cylin$rical steel 7o$ies )ounte$ on a strong shaft arrange$ to rotate in 7earings -irtually frictionless0 1o oiling is require$8 although a s)all quantity of lu7ricant is (ro-i$e$ rather as a (recaution than necessity0 A (erfect $yna)ic 7alance is secure$ in a no-el )anner an$ insures a stea$y an$ quiet running .ithout tre)or an$ -i7ration0 The .hole a((aratus can 7e 7o'e$ u( an$ $e(en$e$ u(on to o(erate uninterru(te$ly through long (erio$s of ti)e0 The outfit can 7e constructe$ in -arious siBes u( to 15592ilo.att or )ore8 an$ shoul$ )eet )ore satisfactorily than any yet $e-ise$ the -arie$ require)ents of electric lighting on railroa$s8 7oats8 in (u7lic 7uil$ings8 factories an$ )ines8 an$ )ay also 7e a$-antageously utiliBe$ in connection .ith e'isting (lants for re(lacing 7elt $ri-en $yna)os an$ storage 7atteries8 an$ relie-ing larger engines through the night an$ hours of s)all loa$0
1-1--00-00: My :nEentions 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical Ex*erimenter :& My *arly 'ife The (rogressi-e $e-elo()ent of )an is -itally $e(en$ent on in-ention0 ,t is the )ost i)(ortant (ro$uct of his creati-e 7rain0 ,ts ulti)ate (ur(ose is the co)(lete )astery of )in$ o-er the )aterial .orl$8 the harnessing of the forces of nature to hu)an nee$s0 This is the $ifficult tas2 of the in-entor .ho is often )isun$erstoo$ an$ unre.ar$e$0 3ut he fin$s a)(le co)(ensation in the (leasing e'ercises of his (o.ers an$ in the 2no.le$ge of 7eing one of that e'ce(tionally (ri-ilege$ class .ithout .ho) the race .oul$ ha-e long ago (erishe$ in the 7itter struggle against (itiless ele)ents0 >(ea2ing for )yself8 , ha-e alrea$y ha$ )ore than )y full )easure of this e'quisite enHoy)ent8 so )uch that for )any years )y life .as little short of continuous ra(ture0 , a) cre$ite$ .ith 7eing one of the har$est .or2ers an$ (erha(s , a)8 if thought is the equi-alent of la7or8 for , ha-e $e-ote$ to it al)ost all of )y .a2ing hours0 3ut if .or2 is inter(rete$ to 7e a $efinite (erfor)ance in a s(ecifie$ ti)e accor$ing to a rigi$ rule8 then , )ay 7e the .orst of i$lers0 "-ery effort un$er co)(ulsion $e)an$s a sacrifice of life9energy0 , ne-er (ai$ such a (rice0 ;n the contrary8 , ha-e thri-e$ on )y thoughts0 ,n atte)(ting to gi-e a connecte$ an$ faithful account of )y acti-ities in this series of articles .hich .ill 7e (resente$ .ith the assistance of the "$itors of the "#"CT+,CA# "]<"+,/"1T"+ an$ are chiefly a$$rest to our young )en rea$ers8 , )ust $.ell8 ho.e-er reluctantly8 on the i)(ressions of )y youth an$ the circu)stances an$ e-ents .hich ha-e 7een instru)ental in $eter)ining )y career0 ;ur first en$ea-ours are (urely instincti-e8 (ro)(tings of an i)agination -i-i$ an$ un$isci(line$0 As .e gro. ol$er reason asserts itself an$ .e 7eco)e )ore an$ )ore syste)atic an$ $esigning0 3ut those early i)(ulses8 though not i))e$iately (ro$ucti-e8 are of the greatest )o)ent an$ )ay sha(e our -ery $estinies0 ,n$ee$8 , feel no. that ha$ , un$erstoo$ an$ culti-ate$ instea$ of su((ressing the)8 , .oul$ ha-e a$$e$ su7stantial -alue to )y 7equest to the .orl$0 3ut not until , ha$ attaine$ )anhoo$ $i$ , realiBe that , .as an in-entor0 This .as $ue to a nu)7er of causes0 ,n the first (lace , ha$ a 7rother .ho .as gifte$ to an e'traor$inary $egreeKone of those rare (heno)ena of )entality .hich 7iological in-estigation has faile$ to e'(lain0 His (re)ature $eath left )y (arents $isconsolate0 &e o.ne$ a horse .hich ha$ 7een (resente$ to us 7y a $ear frien$0 ,t .as a )agnificent ani)al of Ara7ian 7ree$8 (ossest of al)ost hu)an intelligence8 an$ .as care$ for an$ (ette$ 7y the .hole fa)ily8 ha-ing on one occasion sa-e$ )y father's life un$er re)ar2a7le circu)stances0 /y father ha$ 7een calle$ one .inter night to (erfor) an urgent $uty an$ .hile crossing the )ountains8 infeste$ 7y .ol-es8 the horse 7eca)e frightene$ an$ ran a.ay8 thro.ing hi) -iolently to the groun$0
1i2ola Tesla at the age of !30 Fro) An Cn(u7lishe$ <hotogra(h0
/r0Tesla at the age of !90
,t arri-e$ ho)e 7lee$ing an$ e'hauste$8 7ut after the alar) .as soun$e$ i))e$iately $ashe$ off again8 returning to the s(ot8 an$ 7efore the searching (arty .ere far on the .ay they .ere )et 7y )y father8 .ho ha$ reco-ere$ consciousness an$ re)ounte$8 not realiBing that he ha$ 7een lying in the sno. for se-eral hours0 This horse .as res(onsi7le for )y 7rother's inHuries fro) .hich he $ie$0 , .itnest the tragic scene an$ altho fifty9si' years ha-e ela(se$ since8 )y -isual i)(ression of it has lost none of its force0 The recollection of his attain)ents )a$e e-ery effort of )ine see) $ull in co)(arison0 Anything , $i$ that .as cre$ita7le )erely cause$ )y (arents to feel their loss )ore 2eenly0 >o , gre. u( .ith little confi$ence in )yself0 3ut , .as far fro) 7eing consi$ere$ a stu(i$ 7oy8 if , a) to Hu$ge fro) an inci$ent of .hich , ha-e still a strong re)e)7rance0 ;ne $ay the Al$er)en .ere (assing through a street .here , .as at (lay .ith other 7oys0 The ol$est of these -enera7le gentle)enKa .ealthy citiBenK(ause$ to gi-e a sil-er (iece to each of us0 Co)ing to )e he su$$enly sto(t an$ co))an$e$8 "#oo2 in )y eyes0" , )et his gaBe8 )y han$ outstretche$ to recei-e the )uch -alue$ coin8 .hen8 to )y $is)ay8 he sai$8 "1o8 not )uch8 you can get nothing fro) )e8 you are too s)art0" They use$ to tell a funny story a7out )e0 , ha$ t.o ol$ aunts .ith .rin2le$ faces8 one of the) ha-ing t.o teeth (rotru$ing li2e the tus2s of an ele(hant .hich she 7urie$ in )y chee2 e-ery ti)e she 2ist )e0
/r0Tesla at the age of 390
1othing .oul$ scare )e )ore than the (ros(ect of 7eing hugge$ 7y these as affectionate as unattracti-e relati-es0 ,t ha((ene$ that .hile 7eing carrie$ in )y )other's ar)s they as2e$ )e .ho .as the (rettier of the t.o0 After e'a)ining their faces intently8 , ans.ere$ thoughtfully8 (ointing to one of the)8 "This here is not as ugly as the other0" Then again8 , .as inten$e$ fro) )y -ery 7irth for the clerical (rofession an$ this thought constantly o((rest )e0 , longe$ to 7e an engineer 7ut )y father .as infle'i7le0 He .as the son of an officer .ho ser-e$ in the ar)y of the Great 1a(oleon an$8 in co))on .ith his 7rother8 (rofessor of )athe)atics in a (ro)inent institution8 ha$ recei-e$ a )ilitary e$ucation 7ut8 singularly enough8 later e)7race$ the clergy in .hich -ocation he achie-e$ e)inence0 He .as a -ery eru$ite )an8 a -erita7le natural (hiloso(her8 (oet an$ .riter an$ his ser)ons .ere sai$ to 7e as eloquent as those of A7raha) a >ancta9Clara0 He ha$ a (ro$igious )e)ory an$ frequently recite$ at length fro) .or2s in se-eral languages0 He often re)ar2e$ (layfully that if so)e of the classics .ere lost he coul$ restore the)0 His style of .riting .as )uch a$)ire$0 He (enne$ sentences short an$ terse an$ .as full of .it an$ satire0 The hu)orous re)ar2s he )a$e .ere al.ays (eculiar an$ characteristic0 Eust to illustrate8 , )ay )ention one or t.o instances0 A)ong the hel( there .as a cross9eye$ )an calle$ /ane8 e)(loye$ to $o .or2 aroun$ the far)0 He .as cho((ing .oo$ one $ay0 As he s.ung the a'e )y father8 .ho stoo$ near7y an$ felt -ery unco)forta7le8 cautione$ hi)8 "For Go$'s sa2e8 /ane8 $o not stri2e at .hat you are loo2ing 7ut at .hat you inten$ to hit0" ;n another occasion he .as ta2ing out for a $ri-e a frien$ .ho carelessly (er)itte$ his costly fur coat to ru7 on the carriage .heel0 /y father re)in$e$ hi) of it saying8 "<ull in your coat8 you are ruining )y tire0" He ha$ the o$$ ha7it of tal2ing to hi)self an$ .oul$ often carry on an ani)ate$ con-ersation an$ in$ulge in heate$ argu)ent8 changing the tone of his -oice0 A casual listener )ight ha-e s.orn that se-eral (eo(le .ere in the roo)0 Altho , )ust trace to )y )other's influence .hate-er in-enti-eness , (ossess8 the training he ga-e )e )ust ha-e 7een hel(ful0 ,t co)(rise$ all sorts of e'ercisesKas8 guessing one another's thoughts8 $isco-ering the $efects of so)e for) or e'(ression8 re(eating long sentences or (erfor)ing )ental calculations0 These $aily lessons .ere inten$e$ to strengthen )e)ory an$ reason an$ es(ecially to $e-elo( the critical sense8 an$ .ere un$ou7te$ly -ery 7eneficial0 /y )other $escen$e$ fro) one of the ol$est fa)ilies in the country an$ a line of in-entors0 3oth her father an$ gran$father originate$ nu)erous i)(le)ents for househol$8 agricultural an$ other uses0 >he .as a truly great .o)an8 of rare s2ill8 courage an$ fortitu$e8 .ho ha$ 7ra-e$ the stor)s of life an$ (ast through )any a trying e'(erience0 &hen she .as si'teen a -irulent (estilence s.e(t the country0 Her father .as calle$ a.ay to a$)inister the last sacra)ents to the $ying an$ $uring his a7sence she .ent alone to the assistance of a neigh7oring fa)ily .ho .ere stric2en 7y the $rea$ $isease0 All of the )e)7ers8 fi-e in nu)7er8 succu)7e$ in ra(i$ succession0 >he 7athe$8 clothe$ an$ lai$ out the 7o$ies8 $ecorating the) .ith flo.ers accor$ing to the
custo) of the country an$ .hen her father returne$ he foun$ e-erything rea$y for a Christian 7urial0 /y )other .as an in-entor of the first or$er an$ .oul$8 , 7elie-e8 ha-e achie-e$ great things ha$ she not 7een so re)ote fro) )o$ern life an$ its )ultifol$ o((ortunities0 >he in-ente$ an$ constructe$ all 2in$s of tools an$ $e-ices an$ .o-e the finest $esigns fro) threa$ .hich .as s(un 7y her0 >he e-en (lante$ the see$s8 raise$ the (lants an$ se(arate$ the fi7ers herself0 >he .or2e$ in$efatiga7ly8 fro) 7rea2 of $ay till late at night8 an$ )ost of the .earing a((arel an$ furnishings of the ho)e .as the (ro$uct of her han$s0 &hen she .as (ast si'ty8 her fingers .ere still ni)7le enough to tie three 2nots in an eyelash0 There .as another an$ still )ore i)(ortant reason for )y late a.a2ening0 ,n )y 7oyhoo$ , suffere$ fro) a (eculiar affliction $ue to the a((earance of i)ages8 often acco)(anie$ 7y strong flashes of light8 .hich )arre$ the sight of real o7Hects an$ interfere$ .ith )y thought an$ action0 They .ere (ictures of things an$ scenes .hich , ha$ really seen8 ne-er of those , i)agine$0 &hen a .or$ .as s(o2en to )e the i)age of the o7Hect it $esignate$ .oul$ (resent itself -i-i$ly to )y -ision an$ so)eti)es , .as quite una7le to $istinguish .hether .hat , sa. .as tangi7le or not0 This cause$ )e great $isco)fort an$ an'iety0 1one of the stu$ents of (sychology or (hysiology .ho) , ha-e consulte$ coul$ e-er e'(lain satisfactorily these (heno)ena0 They see) to ha-e 7een unique altho , .as (ro7a7ly (re$is(ose$ as , 2no. that )y 7rother e'(erience$ a si)ilar trou7le0 The theory , ha-e for)ulate$ is that the i)ages .ere the result of a refle' action fro) the 7rain on the retina un$er great e'citation0 They certainly .ere not hallucinations such as are (ro$uce$ in $isease$ an$ anguishe$ )in$s8 for in other res(ects , .as nor)al an$ co)(ose$0 To gi-e an i$ea of )y $istress8 su((ose that , ha$ .itnest a funeral or so)e such ner-e9rac2ing s(ectacle0 Then8 ine-ita7ly8 in the stillness of night8 a -i-i$ (icture of the scene .oul$ thrust itself 7efore )y eyes an$ (ersist $es(ite all )y efforts to 7anish it0 >o)eti)es it .oul$ e-en re)ain fi't in s(ace though , (ushe$ )y han$ through it0 ,f )y e'(lanation is correct8 it shoul$ 7e a7le to (roHect on a screen the i)age of any o7Hect one concei-es an$ )a2e it -isi7le0 >uch an a$-ance .oul$ re-olutioniBe all hu)an relations0 , a) con-ince$ that this .on$er can an$ .ill 7e acco)(lishe$ in ti)e to co)eJ , )ay a$$ that , ha-e $e-ote$ )uch thought to the solution of the (ro7le)0 To free )yself of these tor)enting a((earances8 , trie$ to concentrate )y )in$ on so)ething else , ha$ seen8 an$ in this .ay , .oul$ of ten o7tain te)(orary reliefJ 7ut in or$er to get it , ha$ to conHure continuously ne. i)ages0 ,t .as not long 7efore , foun$ that , ha$ e'hauste$ all of those at )y co))an$J )y "reel" ha$ run out8 as it .ere8 7ecause , ha$ seen little of the .orl$Konly o7Hects in )y ho)e an$ the i))e$iate surroun$ings0 As , (erfor)e$ these )ental o(erations for the secon$ or thir$ ti)e8 in or$er to chase the a((earances fro) )y -ision8 the re)e$y gra$ually lost all its force0 Then , instincti-ely co))ence$ to )a2e e'cursions 7eyon$ the li)its of the s)all .orl$ of .hich , ha$ 2no.le$ge8 an$ , sa. ne. scenes0 These .ere at first -ery 7lurre$ an$ in$istinct8 an$ .oul$ flit a.ay .hen , trie$ to concentrate )y attention u(on the)8 7ut 7y an$ 7y , succee$e$ in fi'ing the)J they gaine$ in strength an$ $istinctness an$ finally assu)e$ the concreteness of real things0 , soon $isco-ere$ that )y 7est co)fort .as attaine$ if , si)(ly .ent on in )y -ision farther an$ farther8 getting ne. i)(ressions all the ti)e8 an$ so , 7egan to tra-elKof course8 in )y )in$0 "-ery night (an$ so)eti)es $uring the $ay 8 .hen alone8 , .oul$ start on )y HourneysKsee ne. (laces8 cities an$ countriesKli-e there8 )eet (eo(le an$ )a2e frien$shi(s an$ acquaintances an$8 ho.e-er un7elie-a7le8 it is a fact that they .ere Hust as $ear to )e as those in actual life an$ not a 7it less intense in their )anifestations0 This , $i$ constantly until , .as a7out se-enteen .hen )y thoughts turne$ seriously to in-ention0 Then , o7ser-e$ to )y $elight that , coul$ -isualiBe .ith the greatest facility0 , nee$e$ no )o$els8 $ra.ings or e'(eri)ents0 , coul$ (icture the) all as real in )y )in$0 Thus , ha-e 7een le$ unconsciously to e-ol-e .hat , consi$er a ne. )etho$ of )aterialiBing in-enti-e conce(ts an$ i$eas8 .hich is ra$ically o((osite to the (urely e'(eri)ental an$ is in )y o(inion e-er so )uch )ore e'(e$itious an$ efficient0 The )o)ent one constructs a $e-ice to carry into (ractise a cru$e i$ea he fin$s hi)self una-oi$a7ly engrost .ith the $etails an$ $efects of the a((aratus0 As he goes on i)(ro-ing an$ reconstructing8 his force of concentration $i)inishes an$ he loses sight of the great un$erlying (rinci(le0 +esults )ay 7e o7taine$ 7ut al.ays at the sacrifice of quality0 /y )etho$ is $ifferent0 , $o not rush into actual .or20 &hen , get an i$ea , start at once 7uil$ing it u( in )y i)agination0 , change the construction8 )a2e i)(ro-e)ents an$ o(erate the $e-ice in )y )in$0 ,t is a7solutely i))aterial to )e .hether , run )y tur7ine in thought or test it in )y sho(0 , e-en note if it is out of 7alance0 There is no $ifference .hate-er8 the results are the sa)e0 ,n this .ay , a) a7le to ra(i$ly $e-elo( an$ (erfect a conce(tion .ithout touching anything0 &hen , ha-e gone so far as to e)7o$y in the in-ention e-ery (ossi7le i)(ro-e)ent , can thin2 of an$ see no fault any.here8 , (ut into concrete for) this final (ro$uct of )y 7rain0 ,n-aria7ly )y $e-ice .or2s as , concei-e$ that it shoul$8 an$ the e'(eri)ent co)es out e'actly as , (lanne$ it0 ,n t.enty years there has not 7een a single e'ce(tion0 &hy shoul$ it 7e other.iseF "ngineering8 electrical an$ )echanical8 is (ositi-e in results0 There is scarcely a su7Hect that cannot 7e )athe)atically treate$ an$ the effects calculate$ or the results $eter)ine$ 7eforehan$ fro) the a-aila7le theoretical an$ (ractical $ata0 The
carrying out into (ractise of a cru$e i$ea as is 7eing generally $one is8 , hol$8 nothing 7ut a .aste of energy8 )oney an$ ti)e0 /y early affliction ha$8 ho.e-er8 another co)(ensation0 The incessant )ental e'ertion $e-elo(e$ )y (o.ers of o7ser-ation an$ ena7le$ )e to $isco-er a truth of great i)(ortance0 , ha$ note$ that the a((earance of i)ages .as al.ays (rece$e$ 7y actual -ision of scenes un$er (eculiar an$ generally -ery e'ce(tional con$itions an$ , .as i)(elle$ on each occasion to locate the original i)(ulse0 After a .hile this effort gre. to 7e al)ost auto)atic an$ , gaine$ great facility in connecting cause an$ effect0 >oon , 7eca)e a.are8 to )y sur(rise8 that e-ery thought , concei-e$ .as suggeste$ 7y an e'ternal i)(ression0 1ot only this 7ut all )y actions .ere (ro)(te$ in a si)ilar .ay0 ,n the course of ti)e it 7eca)e (erfectly e-i$ent to )e that , .as )erely an auto)aton en$o.e$ .ith (o.er of )o-e)ent8 res(on$ing to the sti)uli of the sense organs an$ thin2ing an$ acting accor$ingly0 The (ractical result of this .as the art of telauto)atics .hich has 7een so far carrie$ out only in an i)(erfect )anner0 ,ts latent (ossi7ilities .ill8 ho.e-er8 7e e-entually sho.n0 , ha-e 7een since years (lanning self9controlle$ auto)ata an$ 7elie-e that )echanis)s can 7e (ro$uce$ .hich .ill act as if (ossest of reason8 to a li)ite$ $egree8 an$ .ill create a re-olution in )any co))ercial an$ in$ustrial $e(art)ents0 , .as a7out t.el-e years ol$ .hen , first succee$e$ in 7anishing an i)age fro) )y -ision 7y .ilful effort8 7ut , ne-er ha$ any control o-er the flashes of light to .hich , ha-e referre$0 They .ere8 (erha(s8 )y strangest e'(erience an$ ine'(lica7le0 They usually occurre$ .hen , foun$ )yself in a $angerous or $istressing situation8 or .hen , .as greatly e'hilarate$0 ,n so)e instances , ha-e seen all the air aroun$ )e fille$ .ith tongues of li-ing fla)e0 Their intensity8 instea$ of $i)inishing8 increase$ .ith ti)e an$ see)ingly attaine$ a )a'i)u) .hen , .as a7out t.enty9fi-e years ol$0 &hile in <aris8 in 18838 a (ro)inent French )anufacturer sent )e an in-itation to a shooting e'(e$ition .hich , acce(te$0 , ha$ 7een long confine$ to the factory an$ the fresh air ha$ a .on$erfully in-igourating effect on )e0 ;n )y return to the city that night , felt a (ositi-e sensation that )y 7rain ha$ caught fire0 , sa. a light as though a s)all sun .as locate$ in it an$ , (ast the .hole night a((lying col$ co)(ressions to )y torture$ hea$0 Finally the flashes $i)inishe$ in frequency an$ force 7ut it too2 )ore than three .ee2s 7efore they .holly su7si$e$0 &hen a secon$ in-itation .as e'ten$e$ to )e )y ans.er .as an e)(hatic 1;Y These lu)inous (heno)ena still )anifest the)sel-es fro) ti)e to ti)e8 as .hen a ne. i$ea o(ening u( (ossi7ilities stri2es )e8 7ut they are no longer e'citing8 7eing of relati-ely s)all intensity0 &hen , close )y eyes , in-aria7ly o7ser-e first8 a 7ac2groun$ of -ery $ar2 an$ unifor) 7lue8 not unli2e the s2y on a clear 7ut starless night0 ,n a fe. secon$s this fiel$ 7eco)es ani)ate$ .ith innu)era7le scintillating fla2es of green8 arrange$ in se-eral layers an$ a$-ancing to.ar$s )e0 Then there a((ears8 to the right8 a 7eautiful (attern of t.o syste)s of (arallel an$ closely s(ace$ lines8 at right angles to one another8 in all sorts of colors .ith yello.9green an$ gol$ (re$o)inating0 ,))e$iately thereafter the lines gro. 7righter an$ the .hole is thic2ly s(rin2le$ .ith $ots of t.in2ling light0 This (icture )o-es slo.ly across the fiel$ of -ision an$ in a7out ten secon$s -anishes to the left8 lea-ing 7ehin$ a groun$ of rather un(leasant an$ inert grey .hich quic2ly gi-es .ay to a 7illo.y sea of clou$s8 see)ingly trying to )oul$ the)sel-es in li-ing sha(es0 ,t is curious that , cannot (roHect a for) into this grey until the secon$ (hase is reache$0 "-ery ti)e8 7efore falling aslee(8 i)ages of (ersons or o7Hects flit 7efore )y -ie.0 &hen , see the) , 2no. that , a) a7out to lose consciousness0 ,f they are a7sent an$ refuse to co)e it )eans a slee(less night0 To .hat an e'tent i)agination (laye$ a (art in )y early life , )ay illustrate 7y another o$$ e'(erience0 #i2e )ost chil$ren , .as fon$ of Hu)(ing an$ $e-elo(e$ an intense $esire to su((ort )yself in the air0 ;ccasionally a strong .in$ richly charge$ .ith o'ygen 7le. fro) the )ountains ren$ering )y 7o$y as light as cor2 an$ then , .oul$ lea( an$ float in s(ace for a long ti)e0 ,t .as a $elightful sensation an$ )y $isa((oint)ent .as 2een .hen later , un$ecei-e$ )yself0 =uring that (erio$ , contracte$ )any strange li2es8 $isli2es an$ ha7its8 so)e of .hich , can trace to e'ternal i)(ressions .hile others are unaccounta7le0 , ha$ a -iolent a-ersion against the earrings of .o)en 7ut other orna)ents8 as 7racelets8 (lease$ )e )ore or less accor$ing to $esign0 The sight of a (earl .oul$ al)ost gi-e )e a fit 7ut , .as fascinate$ .ith the glitter of crystals or o7Hects .ith shar( e$ges an$ (lane surfaces0 , .oul$ not touch the hair of other (eo(le e'ce(t8 (erha(s8 at the (oint of a re-ol-er0 , .oul$ get a fe-er 7y loo2ing at a (each an$ if a (iece of ca)(hor .as any.here in the house it cause$ )e the 2eenest $isco)fort0 "-en no. , a) not insensi7le to so)e of these u(setting i)(ulses0 &hen , $ro( little squares of (a(er in a $ish fille$ .ith liqui$8 , al.ays sense a (eculiar an$ a.ful taste in )y )outh0 , counte$ the ste(s in )y .al2s an$ calculate$ the cu7ical contents of sou( (lates8 coffee cu(s an$ (ieces of foo$Kother.ise )y )eal .as unenHoya7le0 All re(eate$ acts or o(erations , (erfor)e$ ha$ to 7e $i-isi7le 7y three an$ if , )ist , felt i)(elle$ to $o it all o-er again8 e-en if it too2 hours0
C( to the age of eight years8 )y character .as .ea2 an$ -acillating0 , ha$ neither courage or strength to for) a fir) resol-e0 /y feelings ca)e in .a-es an$ surges an$ -i7rate$ unceasingly 7et.een e'tre)es0 /y .ishes .ere of consu)ing force an$ li2e the hea$s of the hy$ra8 they )ulti(lie$0 , .as o((rest 7y thoughts of (ain in life an$ $eath an$ religious fear0 , .as s.aye$ 7y su(erstitious 7elief an$ li-e$ in constant $rea$ of the s(irit of e-il8 of ghosts an$ ogres an$ other unholy )onsters of the $ar20 Then8 all at once8 there ca)e a tre)en$ous change .hich altere$ the course of )y .hole e'istence0 ;f all things , li2e$ 7oo2s the 7est0 /y father ha$ a large li7rary an$ .hene-er , coul$ )anage , trie$ to satisfy )y (assion for rea$ing0 He $i$ not (er)it it an$ .oul$ fly into a rage .hen he caught )e in the act0 He hi$ the can$les .hen he foun$ that , .as rea$ing in secret0 He $i$ not .ant )e to s(oil )y eyes0 3ut , o7taine$ tallo.8 )a$e the .ic2ing an$ cast the stic2s into tin for)s8 an$ e-ery night , .oul$ 7ush the 2eyhole an$ the crac2s an$ rea$8 often till $a.n8 .hen all others sle(t an$ )y )other starte$ on her ar$uous $aily tas20 ;n one occasion , ca)e across a no-el entitle$ "A7afi" (the >on of A7a 8 a >er7ian translation of a .ell 2no.n Hungarian .riter8 Eosi2a0 This .or2 so)eho. a.a2ene$ )y $or)ant (o.ers of .ill an$ , 7egan to (ractise self9control0 At first )y resolutions fa$e$ li2e sno. in A(ril8 7ut in a little .hile , conquere$ )y .ea2ness an$ felt a (leasure , ne-er 2ne. 7eforeKthat of $oing as , .ille$0 ,n the course of ti)e this -igourous )ental e'ercise 7eca)e secon$ nature0 At the outset )y .ishes ha$ to 7e su7$ue$ 7ut gra$ually $esire an$ .ill gre. to 7e i$entical0 After years of such $isci(line , gaine$ so co)(lete a )astery o-er )yself that , toye$ .ith (assions .hich ha-e )eant $estruction to so)e of the strongest )en0 At a certain age , contracte$ a )ania for ga)7ling .hich greatly .orrie$ )y (arents0 To sit $o.n to a ga)e of car$s .as for )e the quintessence of (leasure0 /y father le$ an e'e)(lary life an$ coul$ not e'cuse the senseless .aste of ti)e an$ )oney in .hich , in$ulge$0 , ha$ a strong resol-e 7ut )y (hiloso(hy .as 7a$0 , .oul$ say to hi)8 ", can sto( .hene-er , (lease 7ut is it .orth .hile to gi-e u( that .hich , .oul$ (urchase .ith the Hoys of <ara$iseF" ;n frequent occasions he ga-e -ent to his anger an$ conte)(t 7ut )y )other .as $ifferent0 >he un$erstoo$ the character of )en an$ 2ne. that one's sal-ation coul$ only 7e 7rought a7out through his o.n efforts0 ;ne afternoon8 , re)e)7er8 .hen , ha$ lost all )y )oney an$ .as cra-ing for a ga)e8 she ca)e to )e .ith a roll of 7ills an$ sai$8 "Go an$ enHoy yourself0 The sooner you lose all .e (ossess the 7etter it .ill 7e0 , 2no. that you .ill get o-er it0" >he .as right0 , conquere$ )y (assion then an$ there an$ only regrette$ that it ha$ not 7een a hun$re$ ti)es as strong0 , not only -anquishe$ 7ut tore it fro) )y heart so as not to lea-e e-en a trace of $esire0 "-er since that ti)e , ha-e 7een as in$ifferent to any for) of ga)7ling as to (ic2ing teeth0 =uring another (erio$ , s)o2e$ e'cessi-ely8 threatening to ruin )y health0 Then )y .ill asserte$ itself an$ , not only sto(t 7ut $estroye$ all inclination0 #ong ago , suffere$ fro) heart trou7le until , $isco-ere$ that it .as $ue to the innocent cu( of coffee , consu)e$ e-ery )orning0 , $iscontinue$ at once8 though , confess it .as not an easy tas20 ,n this .ay , chec2e$ an$ 7ri$le$ other ha7its an$ (assions an$ ha-e not only (reser-e$ )y life 7ut $eri-e$ an i))ense a)ount of satisfaction fro) .hat )ost )en .oul$ consi$er (ri-ation an$ sacrifice0 After finishing the stu$ies at the <olytechnic ,nstitute an$ Cni-ersity , ha$ a co)(lete ner-ous 7rea2$o.n an$ .hile the )ala$y laste$ , o7ser-e$ )any (heno)ena strange an$ un7elie-a7le0 ::& My 7irst *fforts At :nEention , shall $.ell 7riefly on these e'traor$inary e'(eriences8 on account of their (ossi7le interest to stu$ents of (sychology an$ (hysiology an$ also 7ecause this (erio$ of agony .as of the greatest consequence on )y )ental $e-elo()ent an$ su7sequent la7ors0 3ut it is in$is(ensa7le to first relate the circu)stances an$ con$itions .hich (rece$e$ the) an$ in .hich )ight 7e foun$ their (artial e'(lanation0 Fro) chil$hoo$ , .as co)(elle$ to concentrate attention u(on )yself0 This cause$ )e )uch suffering 7ut8 to )y (resent -ie.8 it .as a 7lessing in $isguise for it has taught )e to a((reciate the inesti)a7le -alue of intros(ection in the (reser-ation of life8 as .ell as a )eans of achie-e)ent0 The (ressure of occu(ation an$ the incessant strea) of i)(ressions (ouring into our consciousness through all the gate.ays of 2no.le$ge )a2e )o$ern e'istence haBar$ous in )any .ays0
This <hotogra(h >ho.s in the 3ac2groun$ the House in .hich /r0 Tesla's Fa)ily +esi$e$0 The "$ifice at the +ight ,s the _+eal Gy)nasiu)` &here He >tu$ie$0 The "cclesiastic Gentle)an ,s His Cncle8 the /etro(olian of 3osnia8 &ho &as a Great >tates)an an$ &ho Th.arte$ the =esigns of Austria C(on >er7ia at a Critical <erio$0
/ost (ersons are so a7sor7e$ in the conte)(lation of the outsi$e .orl$ that they are .holly o7li-ious to .hat is (assing on .ithin the)sel-es0 The (re)ature $eath of )illions is (ri)arily tracea7le to this cause0 "-en a)ong those .ho e'ercise care it is a co))on )ista2e to a-oi$ i)aginary8 an$ ignore the real $angers0 An$ .hat is true of an in$i-i$ual also a((lies8 )ore or less8 to a (eo(le as a .hole0 &itness8 in illustration8 the (rohi7ition )o-e)ent0 A $rastic8 if not unconstitutional8 )easure is no. 7eing (ut through in this country to (re-ent the consu)(tion of alcohol an$ yet it is a (ositi-e fact that coffee8 tea8 to7acco8 che.ing gu) an$ other sti)ulants8 .hich are freely in$ulge$ in e-en at the ten$er age8 are -astly )ore inHurious to the national 7o$y8 Hu$ging fro) the nu)7er of those .ho succu)70 >o8 for instance8 $uring )y stu$ent years , gathere$ fro) the (u7lishe$ necrologues in Gienna8 the ho)e of coffee $rin2ers8 that $eaths fro) heart trou7le so)eti)es reache$ si'ty9se-en (er cent of the total0 >i)ilar o7ser-ations )ight (ro7a7ly 7e )a$e in cities .here the consu)(tion of tea is e'cessi-e0 These $elicious 7e-erages su(ere'cite an$ gra$ually e'haust the fine fi7ers of the 7rain0 They also interfere seriously .ith arterial circulation an$ shoul$ 7e enHoye$ all the )ore s(aringly as their $eleterious effects are slo. an$ i)(erce(ti7le0 To7acco8 on the other han$8 is con$uci-e to easy an$ (leasant thin2ing an$ $etracts fro) the intensity an$ concentration necessary to all original an$ -igourous effort of the intellect0
An interesting stu$y of the great in-entor8 conte)(lating the glass 7ul7 of his fa)ous .ireless light0 A full $escri(tion of the in-ention .ill a((ear shortly in the "lectrical "'(eri)enter0 This is the only (rofile (hotogra(h of /r0 Tesla in e'istence0 ,t .as ta2en s(ecially for the "lectrical "'(eri)enter0
Che.ing gu) is hel(ful for a short .hile 7ut soon $rains the glan$ular syste) an$ inflicts irre(ara7le $a)age8 not to s(ea2 of the re-ulsion it creates0 Alcohol in s)all quantities is an e'cellent tonic8 7ut is to'ic in its action .hen a7sor7e$ in larger a)ounts8 quite i))aterial as to .hether it is ta2en in as .his2ey or (ro$uce$ in the sto)ach fro) sugar0 3ut it shoul$ not 7e o-erloo2e$ that all these are great eli)inators assisting 1ature8 as they $o8 in u(hol$ing her stern 7ut Hust la. of the sur-i-al of the fittest0 "ager refor)ers shoul$ also 7e )in$ful of the eternal (er-ersity of )an2in$ .hich )a2es the in$ifferent "laisseB9faire" 7y far (refera7le to enforce$ restraint0 The truth a7out this is that .e nee$ sti)ulants to $o our 7est .or2 un$er (resent li-ing con$itions8 an$ that .e )ust e'ercise )o$eration an$ control our a((etites an$ inclinations in e-ery $irection0 That is .hat , ha-e 7een $oing for )any years8 in this .ay )aintaining )yself young in 7o$y an$ )in$0 A7stinence .as not al.ays to )y li2ing 7ut , fin$ a)(le re.ar$ in the agreea7le e'(eriences , a) no. )a2ing0 Eust in the ho(e of con-erting so)e to )y (rece(ts an$ con-ictions , .ill recall one or t.o0 A short ti)e ago , .as returning to )y hotel0 ,t .as a 7itter col$ night8 the groun$ sli((ery8 an$ no ta'i to 7e ha$0 Half a 7loc2 7ehin$ )e follo.e$ another )an8 e-i$ently as an'ious as )yself to get un$er co-er0 >u$$enly )y legs .ent u( in the air0 ,n the sa)e instant there .as a flash in )y 7rain8 the ner-es res(on$e$8 the )uscles contracte$8 , s.ung through 185 $egrees an$ lan$e$ on )y han$s0 , resu)e$ )y .al2 as though nothing ha$ ha((ene$ .hen the stranger caught u( .ith )e0 "Ho. ol$ are youF" he as2e$8 sur-eying )e critically0 ";h8 a7out fifty9nine8" , re(lie$0 "&hat of itF" "&ell8" sai$ he8 ", ha-e seen a cat $o this 7ut ne-er a )an0" A7out a )onth since , .ante$ to or$er ne. eyeglasses an$ .ent to an oculist .ho (ut )e through the usual tests0 He loo2t at )e incre$ulously as , rea$ off .ith ease the s)allest (rint at consi$era7le $istance0 3ut .hen , tol$ hi) that , .as (ast si'ty he gas(e$ in astonish)ent0 Frien$s of )ine often re)ar2 that )y suits fit )e li2e glo-es 7ut they $o not 2no. that all )y clothing is )a$e to )easure)ents .hich .ere ta2en nearly 34 years ago an$ ne-er change$0 =uring this sa)e (erio$ )y .eight has not -arie$ one (oun$0 ,n this connection , )ay tell a funny story0 ;ne e-ening8 in the .inter of 18848 /r0 "$ison8 "$.ar$ H0 Eohnson8 the <resi$ent of the "$ison ,llu)inating Co)(any8 /r0 3atchellor8 /anager of the .or2s8 an$ )yself entere$ a
little (lace o((osite %4 Fifth A-enue .here the offices of the co)(any .ere locate$0 >o)eone suggeste$ guessing .eights an$ , .as in$uce$ to ste( on a scale0 "$ison felt )e all o-er an$ sai$I "Tesla .eighs 14! l7s0 to an ounce8" an$ he guest it e'actly0 >tri(t , .eighe$ 16! l7s0 an$ that is still )y .eight0 , .his(ere$ to /r0 EohnsonI "Ho. is it (ossi7le that "$ison coul$ guess )y .eight so closelyF" "&ell8" he sai$8 lo.ering his -oice0 ", .ill tell you8 confi$entially8 7ut you )ust not say anything0 He .as e)(loye$ for a long ti)e in a Chicago slaughter9house .here he .eighe$ thousan$s of hogs e-ery $ayY That's .hy0" /y frien$8 the Hon0 Chauncey /0 =e(e.8 tells of an "nglish)an on .ho) he s(rung one of his original anec$otes an$ .ho listene$ .ith a (uBBle$ e'(ression 7ut 9 a year later 9 laughe$ out lou$0 , .ill fran2ly confess it too2 )e longer than that to a((reciate Eohnson's Ho2e0 1o.8 )y .ell 7eing is si)(ly the result of a careful an$ )easure$ )o$e of li-ing an$ (erha(s the )ost astonishing thing is that three ti)es in )y youth , .as ren$ere$ 7y illness a ho(eless (hysical .rec2 an$ gi-en u( 7y (hysicians0 /ore than this8 through ignorance an$ lighthearte$ness8 , got into all sorts of $ifficulties8 $angers an$ scra(es fro) .hich , e'tricate$ )yself as 7y enchant)ent0 , .as al)ost $ro.ne$ a $oBen ti)esJ .as nearly 7oile$ ali-e an$ Hust )ist 7eing cre)ate$0 , .as ento)7e$8 lost an$ froBen0 , ha$ hair97rea$th esca(es fro) )a$ $ogs8 hogs8 an$ other .il$ ani)als0 , (ast through $rea$ful $iseases an$ )et .ith all 2in$s of o$$ )isha(s an$ that , a) hale an$ hearty to$ay see)s li2e a )iracle0 3ut as , recall these inci$ents to )y )in$ , feel con-ince$ that )y (reser-ation .as not altogether acci$ental0 An in-entor's en$ea-our is essentially lifesa-ing0 &hether he harnesses forces8 i)(ro-es $e-ices8 or (ro-i$es ne. co)forts an$ con-eniences8 he is a$$ing to the safety of our e'istence0 He is also 7etter qualifie$ than the a-erage in$i-i$ual to (rotect hi)self in (eril8 for he is o7ser-ant an$ resourceful0 ,f , ha$ no other e-i$ence that , .as8 in a )easure8 (ossest of such qualities , .oul$ fin$ it in these (ersonal e'(eriences0 The rea$er .ill 7e a7le to Hu$ge for hi)self if , )ention one or t.o instances0 ;n one occasion8 .hen a7out 16 years ol$8 , .ante$ to scare so)e frien$s .ho .ere 7athing .ith )e0 /y (lan .as to $i-e un$er a long floating structure an$ sli( out quietly at the other en$0 >.i))ing an$ $i-ing ca)e to )e as naturally as to a $uc2 an$ , .as confi$ent that , coul$ (erfor) the feat0 Accor$ingly , (lunge$ into the .ater an$8 .hen out of -ie.8 turne$ aroun$ an$ (rocee$e$ ra(i$ly to.ar$s the o((osite si$e0 Thin2ing that , .as safely 7eyon$ the structure8 , rose to the surface 7ut to )y $is)ay struc2 a 7ea)0 ;f course8 , quic2ly $i-e$ an$ forge$ ahea$ .ith ra(i$ stro2es until )y 7reath .as 7eginning to gi-e out0 +ising for the secon$ ti)e8 )y hea$ ca)e again in contact .ith a 7ea)0 1o. , .as 7eco)ing $es(erate0 Ho.e-er8 su))oning all )y energy8 , )a$e a thir$ frantic atte)(t 7ut the result .as the sa)e0 The torture of su((rest 7reathing .as getting unen$ura7le8 )y 7rain .as reeling an$ , felt )yself sin2ing0 At that )o)ent8 .hen )y situation see)e$ a7solutely ho(eless8 , e'(erience$ one of those flashes of light an$ the structure a7o-e )e a((eare$ 7efore )y -ision0 , either $iscerne$ or guest that there .as a little s(ace 7et.een the surface of the .ater an$ the 7oar$s resting on the 7ea)s an$8 .ith consciousness nearly gone8 , floate$ u(8 (rest )y )outh close to the (lan2s an$ )anage$ to inhale a little air8 unfortunately )ingle$ .ith a s(ray of .ater .hich nearly cho2e$ )e0 >e-eral ti)es , re(eate$ this (roce$ure as in a $rea) until )y heart8 .hich .as racing at a terri7le rate8 quiete$ $o.n an$ , gaine$ co)(osure0 After that , )a$e a nu)7er of unsuccessful $i-es8 ha-ing co)(letely lost the sense of $irection8 7ut finally succee$e$ in getting out of the tra( .hen )y frien$s ha$ alrea$y gi-en )e u( an$ .ere fishing for )y 7o$y0 That 7athing season .as s(oile$ for )e through rec2lessness 7ut , soon forgot the lesson an$ only t.o years later , fell into a .orse (re$ica)ent0 There .as a large flour )ill .ith a $a) across the ri-er near the city .here , .as stu$ying at that ti)e0 As a rule the height of the .ater .as only t.o or three inches a7o-e the $a) an$ to s.i) out to it .as a s(ort not -ery $angerous in .hich , often in$ulge$0 ;ne $ay , .ent alone to the ri-er to enHoy )yself as usual0 &hen , .as a short $istance fro) the )asonry8 ho.e-er8 , .as horrifie$ to o7ser-e that the .ater ha$ risen an$ .as carrying )e along s.iftly0 , trie$ to get a.ay 7ut it .as too late0 #uc2ily8 tho8 , sa-e$ )yself fro) 7eing s.e(t o-er 7y ta2ing hol$ of the .all .ith 7oth han$s0 The (ressure against )y chest .as great an$ , .as 7arely a7le to 2ee( )y hea$ a7o-e the surface0 1ot a soul .as in sight an$ )y -oice .as lost in the roar of the fall0 >lo.ly an$ gra$ually , 7eca)e e'hauste$ an$ una7le to .ithstan$ the strain longer0 Hust as , .as a7out to let go8 to 7e $ashe$ against the roc2s 7elo.8 , sa. in a flash of light a fa)iliar $iagra) illustrating the hy$raulic (rinci(le that the (ressure of a flui$ in )otion is (ro(ortionate to the area e'(ose$8 an$ auto)atically , turne$ on )y left si$e0 As if 7y )agic the (ressure .as re$uce$ an$ , foun$ it co)(arati-ely easy in that (osition to resist the force of the strea)0 3ut the $anger still confronte$ )e0 , 2ne. that sooner or later , .oul$ 7e carrie$ $o.n8 as it .as not (ossi7le for any hel( to reach )e in ti)e8 e-en if , attracte$ attention0 , a) a)7i$e'trous no. 7ut then , .as lefthan$e$ an$ ha$ co)(arati-ely little strength in )y right ar)0 For this reason , $i$ not $are to turn on the other si$e to rest an$ nothing re)aine$ 7ut to slo.ly (ush )y 7o$y along the $a)0 , ha$ to get a.ay fro) the )ill to.ar$s .hich )y face .as turne$ as the current there .as )uch s.ifter an$ $ee(er0 ,t .as a long an$ (ainful or$eal an$ , ca)e near to failing at its -ery en$ for , .as confronte$ .ith a $e(ression in the )asonry0 , )anage$ to get o-er .ith the last ounce of )y force an$ fell in a s.oon .hen ,
reache$ the 7an28 .here , .as foun$0 , ha$ torn -irtually all the s2in fro) )y left si$e an$ it too2 se-eral .ee2s 7efore the fe-er su7si$e$ an$ , .as .ell0 These are only t.o of )any instances 7ut they )ay 7e sufficient to sho. that ha$ it not 7een for the in-entor's instinct , .oul$ not ha-e li-e$ to tell this tale0 ,ntereste$ (eo(le ha-e often as2e$ )e ho. an$ .hen , 7egan to in-ent0 This , can only ans.er fro) )y (resent recollection in the light of .hich the first atte)(t , recall .as rather a)7itious for it in-ol-e$ the in-ention of an a((aratus an$ a )etho$0 ,n the for)er , .as antici(ate$ 7ut the latter .as original0 ,t ha((ene$ in this .ay0 ;ne of )y (lay)ates ha$ co)e into the (ossession of a hoo2 an$ fishing9tac2le .hich create$ quite an e'cite)ent in the -illage8 an$ the ne't )orning all starte$ out to catch frogs0 , .as left alone an$ $eserte$ o.ing to a quarrel .ith this 7oy0 , ha$ ne-er seen a real hoo2 an$ (icture$ it as so)ething .on$erful8 en$o.e$ .ith (eculiar qualities8 an$ .as $es(airing not to 7e one of the (arty0 Crge$ 7y necessity8 , so)eho. got hol$ of a (iece of soft iron .ire8 ha))ere$ the en$ to a shar( (oint 7et.een t.o stones8 7ent it into sha(e8 an$ fastene$ it to a strong string0 , then cut a ro$8 gathere$ so)e 7ait8 an$ .ent $o.n to the 7roo2 .here there .ere frogs in a7un$ance0 3ut , coul$ not catch any an$ .as al)ost $iscourage$ .hen it occurre$ to )e to $angle the e)(ty hoo2 in front of a frog sitting on a stu)(0 At first he colla(se$ 7ut 7y an$ 7y his eyes 7ulge$ out an$ 7eca)e 7loo$shot8 he s.elle$ to t.ice his nor)al siBe an$ )a$e a -icious sna( at the hoo20 ,))e$iately , (ulle$ hi) u(0 , trie$ the sa)e thing again an$ again an$ the )etho$ (ro-e$ infalli7le0 &hen )y co)ra$es8 .ho in s(ite of their fine outfit ha$ caught nothing8 ca)e to )e they .ere green .ith en-y0 For a long ti)e , 2e(t )y secret an$ enHoye$ the )ono(oly 7ut finally yiel$e$ to the s(irit of Christ)as0 "-ery 7oy coul$ then $o the sa)e an$ the follo.ing su))er 7rought $isaster to the frogs0 ,n )y ne't atte)(t , see) to ha-e acte$ un$er the first instincti-e i)(ulse .hich later $o)inate$ )e 9 to harness the energies of nature to the ser-ice of )an0 , $i$ this through the )e$iu) of /ay97ugs 9 or Eune97ugs as they are calle$ in A)erica 9 .hich .ere a -erita7le (est in that country an$ so)eti)es 7ro2e the 7ranches of trees 7y the sheer .eight of their 7o$ies0 The 7ushes .ere 7lac2 .ith the)0 , .oul$ attach as )any as four of the) to a cross(iece8 rota7ly arrange$ on a thin s(in$le8 an$ trans)it the )otion of the sa)e to a large $isc an$ so $eri-e consi$era7le "(o.er0" These creatures .ere re)ar2a7ly efficient8 for once they .ere starte$ they ha$ no sense to sto( an$ continue$ .hirling for hours an$ hours an$ the hotter it .as the har$er they .or2e$0 All .ent .ell until a strange 7oy ca)e to the (lace0 He .as the son of a retire$ officer in the Austrian Ar)y0 That urchin ate /ay97ugs ali-e an$ enHoye$ the) as though they .ere the finest 7lue9(oint oysters0 That $isgusting sight ter)inate$ )y en$ea-ours in this (ro)ising fiel$ an$ , ha-e ne-er since 7een a7le to touch a /ay97ug or any other insect for that )atter0 After that8 , 7elie-e8 , un$ertoo2 to ta2e a(art an$ asse)7le the cloc2s of )y gran$father0 ,n the for)er o(eration , .as al.ays successful 7ut often faile$ in the latter0 >o it ca)e that he 7rought )y .or2 to a su$$en halt in a )anner not too $elicate an$ it too2 thirty years 7efore , tac2le$ another cloc2.or2 again0 >hortly there after , .ent into the )anufacture of a 2in$ of (o(9gun .hich co)(rise$ a hollo. tu7e8 a (iston8 an$ t.o (lugs of he)(0 &hen firing the gun8 the (iston .as (rest against the sto)ach an$ the tu7e .as (ushe$ 7ac2 quic2ly .ith 7oth han$s0 The air 7et.een the (lugs .as co)(rest an$ raise$ to high te)(erature an$ one of the) .as e'(elle$ .ith a lou$ re(ort0 The art consiste$ in selecting a tu7e of the (ro(er ta(er fro) the hollo. stal2s0 , $i$ -ery .ell .ith that gun 7ut )y acti-ities interfere$ .ith the .in$o. (anes in our house an$ )et .ith (ainful $iscourage)ent0 ,f , re)e)7er rightly8 , then too2 to car-ing s.or$s fro) (ieces of furniture .hich , coul$ con-eniently o7tain0 At that ti)e , .as un$er the s.ay of the >er7ian national (oetry an$ full of a$)iration for the feats of the heroes0 , use$ to s(en$ hours in )o.ing $o.n )y ene)ies in the for) of corn9stal2s .hich ruine$ the cro(s an$ nette$ )e se-eral s(an2ings fro) )y )other0 /oreo-er these .ere not of the for)al 2in$ 7ut the genuine article0 , ha$ all this an$ )ore 7ehin$ )e 7efore , .as si' years ol$ an$ ha$ (ast through one year of ele)entary school in the -illage of >)ilHan .here , .as 7orn0 At this Huncture .e )o-e$ to the little city of Gos(ic near7y0 This change of resi$ence .as li2e a cala)ity to )e0 ,t al)ost 7ro2e )y heart to (art fro) our (igeons8 chic2ens an$ shee(8 an$ our )agnificent floc2 of geese .hich use$ to rise to the clou$s in the )orning an$ return fro) the fee$ing groun$s at sun$o.n in 7attle for)ation8 so (erfect that it .oul$ ha-e (ut a squa$ron of the 7est a-iators of the (resent $ay to sha)e0 ,n our ne. house , .as 7ut a (risoner8 .atching the strange (eo(le , sa. through the .in$o. 7lin$s0 /y 7ashfulness .as such that , .oul$ rather ha-e face$ a roaring lion than one of the city $u$es .ho strolle$ a7out0 3ut )y har$est trial ca)e on >un$ay .hen , ha$ to $ress u( an$ atten$ the ser-ice0 There , )eet .ith an acci$ent8 the )ere thought of .hich )a$e )y 7loo$ cur$le li2e sour )il2 for years after.ar$s0 ,t .as )y secon$ a$-enture in a church0 1ot long 7efore , .as ento)7e$ for a night in an ol$ cha(el on an inaccessi7le )ountain .hich .as -isite$ only once a year0 ,t .as an a.ful e'(erience8 7ut this one .as .orse0 There .as a .ealthy la$y in to.n8 a goo$ 7ut (o)(ous .o)an8 .ho use$ to co)e to the church gorgeously (ainte$ u( an$ attire$ .ith an enor)ous train an$ atten$ants0 ;ne >un$ay , ha$ Hust finishe$ ringing
the 7ell in the 7elfry an$ rushe$ $o.nstairs .hen this gran$ $a)e .as s.ee(ing out an$ , Hu)(e$ on her train0 ,t tore off .ith a ri((ing noise .hich soun$e$ li2e a sal-o of )us2etry fire$ 7y ra. recruits0 /y father .as li-i$ .ith rage0 He ga-e )e a gentle sla( on the chee28 the only cor(oral (unish)ent he e-er a$)inistere$ to )e 7ut , al)ost feel it no.0 The e)7arrass)ent an$ confusion that follo.e$ are in$escri7a7le0 , .as (ractically ostracise$ until so)ething else ha((ene$ .hich re$ee)e$ )e in the esti)ation of the co))unity0 An enter(rising young )erchant ha$ organiBe$ a fire $e(art)ent0 A ne. fire engine .as (urchase$8 unifor)s (ro-i$e$ an$ the )en $rille$ for ser-ice an$ (ara$e0 The engine .as8 in reality8 a (u)( to 7e .or2e$ 7y si'teen )en an$ .as 7eautifully (ainte$ re$ an$ 7lac20 ;ne afternoon the official trial .as (re(are$ for an$ the )achine .as trans(orte$ to the ri-er0 The entire (o(ulation turne$ out to .itness the great s(ectacle0 &hen all the s(eeches an$ cere)onies .ere conclu$e$8 the co))an$ .as gi-en to (u)(8 7ut not a $ro( of .ater ca)e fro) the noBBle0 The (rofessors an$ e'(erts trie$ in -ain to locate the trou7le0 The fiBBle .as co)(lete .hen , arri-e$ at the scene0 /y 2no.le$ge of the )echanis) .as nil an$ , 2ne. ne't to nothing of air (ressure8 7ut instincti-ely , felt for the suction hose in the .ater an$ foun$ that it ha$ colla(se$0 &hen , .a$e$ in the ri-er an$ o(ene$ it u( the .ater rushe$ forth an$ not a fe. >un$ay clothes .ere s(oile$0 Archi)e$es running na2e$ through the streets of >yracuse an$ shouting "ure2a at the to( of his -oice $i$ not )a2e a greater i)(ression than )yself0 , .as carrie$ on the shoul$ers an$ .as the hero of the $ay0 C(on settling in the city , 7egan a four9years' course in the so9calle$ 1or)al >chool (re(aratory to )y stu$ies at the College or +eal Gy)nasiu)0 =uring this (erio$ )y 7oyish efforts an$ e'(loits8 as .ell as trou7les8 continue$0 A)ong other things , attaine$ the unique $istinction of cha)(ion cro. catcher in the country0 /y )etho$ of (roce$ure .as e'tre)ely si)(le0 , .oul$ go in the forest8 hi$e in the 7ushes8 an$ i)itate the call of the 7ir$0 Csually , .oul$ get se-eral ans.ers an$ in a short .hile a cro. .oul$ flutter $o.n into the shru77ery near )e0 After that all , nee$e$ to $o .as to thro. a (iece of car$7oar$ to $istract its attention8 Hu)( u( an$ gra7 it 7efore it coul$ e'tricate itself fro) the un$ergro.th0 ,n this .ay , .oul$ ca(ture as )any as , $esire$0 3ut on one occasion so)ething occurre$ .hich )a$e )e res(ect the)0 , ha$ caught a fine (air of 7ir$s an$ .as returning ho)e .ith a frien$0 &hen .e left the forest8 thousan$s of cro.s ha$ gathere$ )a2ing a frightful rac2et0 ,n a fe. )inutes they rose in (ursuit an$ soon en-elo(e$ us0 The fun laste$ until all of a su$$en , recei-e$ a 7lo. on the 7ac2 of )y hea$ .hich 2noc2e$ )e $o.n0 Then they attac2e$ )e -iciously0 , .as co)(elle$ to release the t.o 7ir$s an$ .as gla$ to Hoin )y frien$ .ho ha$ ta2en refuge in a ca-e0 ,n the schoolroo) there .ere a fe. )echanical )o$els .hich intereste$ )e an$ turne$ )y attention to .ater tur7ines0 , constructe$ )any of these an$ foun$ great (leasure in o(erating the)0 Ho. e'traor$inary .as )y life an inci$ent )ay illustrate0 /y uncle ha$ no use for this 2in$ of (asti)e an$ )ore than once re7u2e$ )e0 , .as fascinate$ 7y a $escri(tion of 1iagara Falls , ha$ (eruse$8 an$ (icture$ in )y i)agination a 7ig .heel run 7y the Falls0 , tol$ )y uncle that , .oul$ go to A)erica an$ carry out this sche)e0 Thirty years later , sa. )y i$eas carrie$ out at 1iagara an$ )ar-ele$ at the unfatho)a7le )ystery of the )in$0 , )a$e all 2in$s of other contri-ances an$ contra(tions 7ut a)ong these the ar7alists , (ro$uce$ .ere the 7est0 /y arro.s8 .hen shot8 $isa((eare$ fro) sight an$ at close range tra-erse$ a (lan2 of (ine one inch thic20 through the continuous tightening of the 7o.s , $e-elo(e$ s2in on )y sto)ach -ery )uch li2e that of a croco$ile an$ , a) often .on$ering .hether it is $ue to this e'ercise that , a) a7le e-en no. to $igest co77le9stonesY 1or can , (ass in silence )y (erfor)ances .ith the sling .hich .oul$ ha-e ena7le$ )e to gi-e a stunning e'hi7it at the Hi((o$ro)e0 An$ no. , .ill tell of one of )y feats .ith this antique i)(le)ent of .ar .hich .ill strain to the ut)ost the cre$ulity of the rea$er0 , .as (racticing .hile .al2ing .ith )y uncle along the ri-er0 The sun .as setting8 the trout .ere (layful an$ fro) ti)e to ti)e one .oul$ shoot u( into the air8 its glistening 7o$y shar(ly $efine$ against a (roHecting roc2 7eyon$0 ;f course any 7oy )ight ha-e hit a fish un$er these (ro(itious con$itions 7ut , un$ertoo2 a )uch )ore $ifficult tas2 an$ , foretol$ to )y uncle8 to the )inutest $etail8 .hat , inten$e$ $oing0 , .as to hurl a stone to )eet the fish8 (ress its 7o$y against the roc28 an$ cut it in t.o0 ,t .as no sooner sai$ than $one0 /y uncle loo2e$ at )e al)ost scare$ out of his .its an$ e'clai)e$ "Ga$e retro >atanasY" an$ it .as a fe. $ays 7efore he s(o2e to )e again0 ;ther recor$s8 ho. e-er great8 .ill 7e ecli(se$ 7ut , feel that , coul$ (eacefully rest on )y laurels for a thousan$ years0 :::& My 'ater endeaEours The =isco-ery of the +otating /agnetic Fiel$ At the age of ten , entere$ the +eal Gy)nasiu) .hich .as a ne. an$ fairly .ell equi(t institution0 ,n the $e(art)ent of (hysics .ere -arious )o$els of classical scientific a((aratus8 electrical an$ )echanical0 The $e)onstrations an$ e'(eri)ents (erfor)e$ fro) ti)e to ti)e 7y the instructors fascinate$ )e an$ .ere un$ou7te$ly a (o.erful incenti-e to in-ention0 , .as also (assionately fon$ of )athe)atical stu$ies an$ often
.on the (rofessor's (raise for ra(i$ calculation0 This .as $ue to )y acquire$ facility of -isualiBing the figures an$ (erfor)ing the o(erations8 not in the usual intuiti-e )anner8 7ut as in actual life0 C( to a certain $egree of co)(le'ity it .as a7solutely the sa)e to )e .hether , .rote the sy)7ols on the 7oar$ or conHure$ the) 7efore )y )ental -ision0 3ut freehan$ $ra.ing8 to .hich )any hours of the course .ere $e-ote$8 .as an annoyance , coul$ not en$ure0 This .as rather re)ar2a7le as )ost of the )e)7ers of the fa)ily e'celle$ in it0 <erha(s )y a-ersion .as si)(ly $ue to the (re$ilection , foun$ in un$istur7e$ thought0 Ha$ it not 7een for a fe. e'ce(tionally stu(i$ 7oys8 .ho coul$ not $o anything at all8 )y recor$ .oul$ ha-e 7een the .orst0 ,t .as a serious han$ica( as un$er the then e'isting e$ucational regi)e8 $ra.ing 7eing o7ligatory8 this $eficiency threatene$ to s(oil )y .hole career an$ )y father ha$ consi$era7le trou7le in railroa$ing )e fro) one class to another0 ,n the secon$ year at that institution , 7eca)e o7sesse$ .ith the i$ea of (ro$ucing continuous )otion through stea$y air (ressure0 The (u)( inci$ent8 of .hich , ha-e tol$8 ha$ set afire )y youthful i)agination an$ i)(rest )e .ith the 7oun$less a7ilities of a -acuu)0 , gre. frantic in )y $esire to harness this ine'hausti7le energy 7ut for a long ti)e , .as gro(ing in the $ar20 Finally8 ho.e-er8 )y en$ea-ours crystalliBe$ in an in-ention .hich .as to ena7le )e to achie-e .hat no other )ortal e-er atte)(te$0 ,)agine a cylin$er freely rotata7le on t.o 7earings an$ (artly surroun$e$ 7y a rectangular trough .hich fits it (erfectly0 The o(en si$e of the trough is close$ 7y a (artition so that the cylin$rical seg)ent .ithin the enclosure $i-i$es the latter into t.o co)(art)ents entirely se(arate$ fro) each other 7y air9 tight sli$ing Hoints0 ;ne of these co)(art)ents 7eing seale$ an$ once for all e'hauste$8 the other re)aining o(en8 a (er(etual rotation of the cylin$er .oul$ result8 at least8 , thought so0 A .oo$en )o$el .as constructe$ an$ fitte$ .ith infinite care an$ .hen , a((lie$ the (u)( on one si$e an$ actually o7ser-e$ that there .as a ten$ency to turning8 , .as $elirious .ith Hoy0 /echanical flight .as the one thing , .ante$ to acco)(lish altho still un$er the $iscouraging recollection of a 7a$ fall , sustaine$ 7y Hu)(ing .ith an u)7rella fro) the to( of a 7uil$ing0 "-ery $ay , use$ to trans(ort )yself through the air to $istant regions 7ut coul$ not un$erstan$ Hust ho. , )anage$ to $o it0
1i2ola Tesla at %50 A -ery recent (ortrait of the great in-entor0 An e'cellent #i2eness0
1o. , ha$ so)ething concreteKa flying )achine .ith nothing )ore than a rotating shaft8 fla((ing .ings8 an$Ka -acuu) of unli)ite$ (o.erY Fro) that ti)e on , )a$e )y $aily aerial e'cursions in a -ehicle of co)fort an$ lu'ury as )ight ha-e 7efitte$ :ing >olo)on0 ,t too2 years 7efore , un$erstoo$ that the at)os(heric (ressure acte$ at right angles to the surface of the cylin$er an$ that the slight rotary effort , o7ser-e$ .as $ue to a lea20 though this 2no.le$ge ca)e gra$ually it ga-e )e a (ainful shoc20 , ha$ har$ly co)(lete$ )y course at the +eal Gy)nasiu) .hen , .as (rostrate$ .ith a $angerous illness or rather8 a score of the)8 an$ )y con$ition 7eca)e so $es(erate that , .as gi-en u( 7y (hysicians0 =uring this (erio$ , .as (er)itte$ to rea$ constantly8 o7taining 7oo2s fro) the <u7lic #i7rary .hich ha$ 7een neglecte$ an$ entruste$ to )e for classification of the .or2s an$ (re(aration of the catalogues0 ;ne $ay , .as han$e$ a fe. -olu)es of ne. literature unli2e anything , ha$ e-er rea$ 7efore an$ so ca(ti-ating as to )a2e )e utterly forget )y ho(eless state0 They .ere the earlier .or2s of /ar2 T.ain an$ to the) )ight ha-e 7een $ue the )iraculous reco-ery .hich follo.e$0 T.enty9fi-e years later8 .hen , )et /r0 Cle)ens an$ .e for)e$ a frien$shi( 7et.een us8 , tol$ hi) of the e'(erience an$ .as a)aBe$ to see that great )an of laughter 7urst into tears0 /y stu$ies .ere continue$ at the higher +eal Gy)nasiu) in Carlsta$t8 Croatia8 .here one of )y aunts resi$e$0 >he .as a $istinguishe$ la$y8 the .ife of a Colonel .ho .as an ol$ .ar9horse ha-ing (artici(ate$ in )any 7attles0 , ne-er can forget the three years , (ast at their ho)e0 1o fortress in ti)e of .ar .as un$er a )ore rigi$ $isci(line0 , .as fe$ li2e a canary 7ir$0 All the )eals .ere of the highest quality an$ $eliciously (re(are$ 7ut short in quantity 7y a thousan$ (ercent0 The slices of ha) cut 7y )y aunt .ere li2e tissue (a(er0 &hen the Colonel .oul$ (ut so)ething su7stantial on )y (late she .oul$ snatch it a.ay an$ say e'cite$ly to hi)I "3e
careful8 1i2o is -ery $elicate0" , ha$ a -oracious a((etite an$ suffere$ li2e Tantalus0 3ut , li-e$ in an at)os(here of refine)ent an$ artistic taste quite unusual for those ti)es an$ con$itions0 The lan$ .as lo. an$ )arshy an$ )alaria fe-er ne-er left )e .hile there $es(ite of the enor)ous a)ounts of quinin , consu)e$0 ;ccasionally the ri-er .oul$ rise an$ $ri-e an ar)y of rats into the 7uil$ings8 $e-ouring e-erything e-en to the 7un$les of the fierce (a(ri2a0 These (ests .ere to )e a .elco)e $i-ersion0 , thinne$ their ran2s 7y all sorts of )eans8 .hich .on )e the unen-ia7le $istinction of rat9catcher in the co))unity0 At last8 ho.e-er8 )y course .as co)(lete$8 the )isery en$e$8 an$ , o7taine$ the certificate of )aturity .hich 7rought )e to the cross9roa$s0 =uring all those years )y (arents ne-er .a-ere$ in their resol-e to )a2e )e e)7race the clergy8 the )ere thought of .hich fille$ )e .ith $rea$0 , ha$ 7eco)e intensely intereste$ in electricity un$er the sti)ulating influence of )y <rofessor of <hysics8 .ho .as an ingenious )an an$ often $e)onstrate$ the (rinci(les 7y a((aratus of his o.n in-ention0 A)ong these , recall a $e-ice in the sha(e of a freely rotata7le 7ul78 .ith tinfoil coatings8 .hich .as )a$e to s(in ra(i$ly .hen connecte$ to a static )achine0 ,t is i)(ossi7le for )e to con-ey an a$equate i$ea of the intensity of feeling , e'(erience$ in .itnessing his e'hi7itions of these )ysterious (heno)ena0 "-ery i)(ression (ro$uce$ a thousan$ echoes in )y )in$0 , .ante$ to 2no. )ore of this .on$erful forceJ , longe$ for e'(eri)ent an$ in-estigation an$ resigne$ )yself to the ine-ita7le .ith aching heart0
Tesla's First in$uction )otor0 This historic /o$el is ;ne of T.o First <resente$ 3efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers0
The (ur(ose of this analogy is to (ortray8 as faithfully as (ossi7le8 the (heno)ena of Tesla's rotating )agnetic fiel$ so to )a2e the) easily un$erstan$a7le to the a-erage rea$er0 The t.o alternating flu'es are re(resente$ 7y strea)s of .ater ha-ing the sa)e relation as to (hase8 a)(litu$e an$ $irection0 The )agnetic (olarity of the rotor is i)itate$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of a 7o$y so sha(e$ as to 7eha-e .ith res(ect to the strea)s e'actly as the rotor .ith res(ect to the (oles0 /oreo-er8 the corres(on$ing rotating an$ stationary (arts are gi-en a si)ilar a((earance an$ are $is(ose$ in li2e )anner0 To )a2e the analogy co)(lete8 it )ay
further 7e assu)e$ that the liqui$ is co)(ressi7le so that there .ill 7e a (hase $is(lace)ent 7et.een (ressure an$ flo. as that is e'isting 7et.een electro9 )oti-e force an$ current0
Eust as , .as )a2ing rea$y for the long Hourney ho)e , recei-e$ .or$ that )y father .ishe$ )e to go on a shooting e'(e$ition0 ,t .as a strange request as he ha$ 7een al.ays strenuously o((ose$ to this 2in$ of s(ort0 3ut a fe. $ays later , learne$ that the cholera .as raging in that $istrict an$8 ta2ing a$-antage of an o((ortunity8 , returne$ to Gos(ic in $isregar$ of )y (arents' .ishes0 ,t is incre$i7le ho. a7solutely ignorant (eo(le .ere as to the causes of this scourge .hich -isite$ the country in inter-als of fro) fifteen to t.enty years0 They thought that the $ea$ly agents .ere trans)itte$ through the air an$ fille$ it .ith (ungent o$ors an$ s)o2e0 ,n the )eanti)e they $ran2 the infecte$ .ater an$ $ie$ in hea(s0 , contracte$ the a.ful $isease on the -ery $ay of )y arri-al an$ altho sur-i-ing the crisis8 , .as confine$ to 7e$ for nine )onths .ith scarcely any a7ility to )o-e0 /y energy .as co)(letely e'hauste$ an$ for the secon$ ti)e , foun$ )yself at $eath's $oor0 ,n one of the sin2ing s(ells .hich .as thought to 7e the last8 )y father rushe$ into the roo)0 , still see his (alli$ face as he trie$ to cheer )e in tones 7elying his assurance0 "<erha(s8" , sai$8 ", )ay get .ell if you .ill let )e stu$y engineering0" "Dou .ill go to the 7est technical institution in the .orl$8" he sole)nly re(lie$8 an$ , 2ne. that he )eant it0 A hea-y .eight .as lifte$ fro) )y )in$ 7ut the relief .oul$ ha-e co)e too late ha$ it not 7een for a )ar-elous cure 7rought a7out through a 7itter $ecoction of a (eculiar 7ean0 , ca)e to life li2e another #aBarus to the utter a)aBe)ent of e-ery7o$y0 /y father insiste$ that , s(en$ a year in healthful (hysical out$oor e'ercises to .hich , reluctantly consente$0 For )ost of this ter) , roa)e$ in the )ountains8 loa$e$ .ith a hunter's outfit an$ a 7un$le of 7oo2s8 an$ this contact .ith nature )a$e )e stronger in 7o$y as .ell as in )in$0 , thought an$ (lanne$8 an$ concei-e$ )any i$eas al)ost as a rule $elusi-e0 The -ision .as clear enough 7ut the 2no.le$ge of (rinci(les .as -ery li)ite$0 ,n one of )y in-entions , (ro(ose$ to con-ey letters an$ (ac2ages across the seas8 through a su7)arine tu7e8 in s(herical containers of sufficient strength to resist the hy$raulic (ressure0 The (u)(ing (lant8 inten$e$ to force the .ater through the tu7e8 .as accurately figure$ an$ $esigne$ an$ all other (articulars carefully .or2e$ out0 ;nly one trifling $etail8 of no consequence8 .as lightly $is)ist0 , assu)e$ an ar7itrary -elocity of the .ater an$8 .hat is )ore8 too2 (leasure in )a2ing it high8 thus arri-ing at a stu(en$ous (erfor)ance su((orte$ 7y faultless calculations0 >u7sequent reflections8 ho.e-er8 on the resistance of (i(es to flui$ flo. $eter)ine$ )e to )a2e this in-ention (u7lic (ro(erty0 Another one of )y (roHects .as to construct a ring aroun$ the equator .hich .oul$8 of course8 float freely an$ coul$ 7e arreste$ in its s(inning )otion 7y reactionary forces8 thus ena7ling tra-el at a rate of a7out one thousan$ )iles an hour8 i)(ractica7le 7y rail0 The rea$er .ill s)ile0 The (lan .as $ifficult of e'ecution8 , .ill a$)it8 7ut not nearly so 7a$ as that of a .ell92no.n 1e. Dor2 (rofessor8 .ho .ante$ to (u)( the air fro) the torri$ to the te)(erate Bones8 entirely forgetful of the fact that the #or$ ha$ (ro-i$e$ a gigantic )achine for this -ery (ur(ose0 >till another sche)e8 far )ore i)(ortant an$ attracti-e8 .as to $eri-e (o.er fro) the rotational energy of terrestrial 7o$ies0 , ha$ $isco-ere$ that o7Hects on the earth's surface8 o.ing to the $iurnal rotation of the glo7e8 are carrie$ 7y the sa)e alternately in an$ against the $irection of translatory )o-e)ent0 Fro) this results a great change in )o)entu) .hich coul$ 7e utiliBe$ in the si)(lest i)agina7le )anner to furnish )oti-e effort in any ha7ita7le region of the .orl$0 , cannot fin$ .or$s to $escri7e )y $isa((oint)ent .hen later , realiBe$ that , .as in the (re$ica)ent of Archi)e$es8 .ho -ainly sought for a fi't (oint in the uni-erse0 At the ter)ination of )y -acation , .as sent to the <olytechnic >chool in GratB8 >tyria8 .hich )y father ha$ chosen as one of the ol$est an$ 7est re(ute$ institutions0 That .as the )o)ent , ha$ eagerly a.aite$ an$ , 7egan )y stu$ies un$er goo$ aus(ices an$ fir)ly resol-e$ to succee$0 /y (re-ious training .as a7o-e the a-erage8 $ue to )y father's teaching an$ o((ortunities affor$e$0 , ha$ acquire$ the 2no.le$ge of a nu)7er of languages an$ .a$e$ through the 7oo2s of se-eral li7raries8 (ic2ing u( infor)ation )ore or less useful0 Then again8 for the first ti)e8 , coul$ choose )y su7Hects as , li2e$8 an$ free9han$ $ra.ing .as to 7other )e no )ore0 , ha$ )a$e u( )y )in$ to gi-e )y (arents a sur(rise8 an$ $uring the .hole first year , regularly starte$ )y .or2 at three o'cloc2 in the )orning an$ continue$ until ele-en at night8 no >un$ays or holi$ays e'ce(te$0 As )ost of )y fello.9stu$ents too2 thin2s easily8 naturally enough , ecli(se$ all recor$s0 ,n the course of that year , (ast through nine e'a)s an$ the (rofessors thought , $eser-e$ )ore than the highest qualifications0 Ar)e$ .ith their flattering certificates8 , .ent ho)e for a short rest8 e'(ecting a triu)(h8 an$ .as )ortifie$ .hen )y father )a$e light of these har$ .on honours0 That al)ost 2ille$ )y a)7itionJ 7ut later8 after he ha$ $ie$8 , .as (aine$ to fin$ a (ac2age of letters .hich the (rofessors ha$ .ritten hi) to the effect that unless he too2 )e a.ay fro) the ,nstitution , .oul$ 7e 2ille$ through o-er.or20 Thereafter , $e-ote$ )yself chiefly to (hysics8 )echanics an$ )athe)atical stu$ies8 s(en$ing the hours of
leisure in the li7raries0 , ha$ a -erita7le rnania for finishing .hate-er , 7egan8 .hich often got )e into $ifficulties0 ;n one occasion , starte$ to rea$ the .or2s of Goltaire .hen , learne$8 to )y $is)ay8 that there .ere close on one hun$re$ large -olu)es in s)all (rint .hich that )onster ha$ .ritten .hile $rin2ing se-enty9t.o cu(s of 7lac2 coffee (er $ie)0 ,t ha$ to 7e $one8 7ut .hen , lai$ asi$e the last 7oo2 , .as -ery gla$8 an$ sai$8 "1e-er )oreY" /y first year's sho.ing ha$ .on )e the a((reciation an$ frien$shi( of se-eral (rofessors0 A)ong these .ere <rof0 +ogner8 .ho .as teaching arith)etical su7Hects an$ geo)etryJ <rof0 <oeschl8 .ho hel$ the chair of theoretical an$ e'(eri)ental (hysics8 an$ =r0 Alle8 .ho taught integral calculus an$ s(ecialiBe$ in $ifferential equations0 This scientist .as the )ost 7rilliant lecturer to .ho) , e-er listene$0 He too2 a s(ecial interest in )y (rogress an$ .oul$ frequently re)ain for an hour or t.o in the lecture roo)8 gi-ing )e (ro7le)s to sol-e8 in .hich , $elighte$0 To hi) , e'(laine$ a flying )achine , ha$ concei-e$8 not an illusionary in-ention8 7ut one 7ase$ on soun$8 scientific (rinci(les8 .hich has 7eco)e realiBa7le through )y tur7ine an$ .ill soon 7e gi-en to the .orl$0 3oth <rofessors +ogner an$ <oeschl .ere curious )en0 The for)er ha$ (eculiar .ays of e'(ressing hi)self an$ .hene-er he $i$ so there .as a riot8 follo.e$ 7y a long an$ e)7arrassing (ause0 <rof0 <oeschl .as a )etho$ical an$ thoroughly groun$e$ Ger)an0 He ha$ enor)ous feet an$ han$s li2e the (a.s of a 7ear8 7ut all of his e'(eri)ents .ere s2illfully (erfor)e$ .ith loc29li2e (recision an$ .ithout a )iss0 ,t .as in the secon$ year of )y stu$ies that .e recei-e$ a Gra))e $yna)o fro) <aris8 ha-ing the horseshoe for) of a la)inate$ fiel$ )agnet8 an$ a .ire9.oun$ ar)ature .ith a co))utator0 ,t .as connecte$ u( an$ -arious effects of the currents .ere sho.n0 &hile <rof0 <oeschl .as )a2ing $e)onstrations8 running the )achine as a )otor8 the 7rushes ga-e trou7le8 s(ar2ing 7a$ly8 an$ , o7ser-e$ that it )ight 7e (ossi7le to o(erate a )otor .ithout these a((liances0 3ut he $eclare$ that it coul$ not 7e $one an$ $i$ )e the honour of $eli-ering a lecture on the su7Hect8 at the conclusion of .hich he re)ar2e$I "/r0 Tesla )ay acco)(lish great things8 7ut he certainly ne-er .ill $o this0 ,t .oul$ 7e equi-alent to con-erting a stea$ily (ulling force8 li2e that of gra-ity8 into a rotary effort0 ,t is a (er(etual )otion sche)e8 an i)(ossi7le i$ea0" 3ut instinct is so)ething .hich transcen$s 2no.le$ge0 &e ha-e8 un$ou7te$ly8 certain finer fi7ers that ena7le us to (ercei-e truths .hen logical $e$uction8 or any other .illful effort of the 7rain8 is futile0 For a ti)e , .a-ere$8 i)(rest 7y the (rofessor's authority8 7ut soon 7eca)e con-ince$ , .as right an$ un$ertoo2 the tas2 .ith all the fire an$ 7oun$less confi$ence of youth0 , starte$ 7y first (icturing in )y )in$ a $irect9current )achine8 running it an$ follo.ing the changing flo. of the currents in the ar)ature0 Then , .oul$ i)agine an alternator an$ in-estigate the (rocesses ta2ing (lace in a si)ilar )anner0 1e't , .oul$ -isualiBe syste)s co)(rising )otors an$ generators an$ o(erate the) in -arious .ays0 The i)ages , sa. .ere to )e (erfectly real an$ tangi7le0 All )y re)aining ter) in GratB .as (asse$ in intense 7ut fruitless efforts of this 2in$8 an$ , al)ost ca)e to the conclusion that the (ro7le) .as insol-a7le0 ,n 1885 , .ent to <rague8 3ohe)ia8 carrying out )y father's .ish to co)(lete )y e$ucation at the Cni-ersity there0 ,t .as in that city that , )a$e a $eci$e$ a$-ance8 .hich consiste$ in $etaching the co))utator fro) the )achine an$ stu$ying the (heno)ena in this ne. as(ect8 7ut still .ithout result0 ,n the year follo.ing there .as a su$$en change in )y -ie.s of life0 , realiBe$ that )y (arents ha$ 7een )a2ing too great sacrifices on )y account an$ resol-e$ to relie-e the) of the 7ur$en0 The .a-e of the A)erican tele(hone ha$ Hust reache$ the "uro(ean continent an$ the syste) .as to 7e installe$ in 3u$a(est8 Hungary0 ,t a((eare$ an i$eal o((ortunity8 all the )ore as a frien$ of our fa)ily .as at the hea$ of the enter(rise0 ,t .as here that , suffere$ the co)(lete 7rea2$o.n of the ner-es to .hich , ha-e referre$0 &hat , e'(erience$ $uring the (erio$ of that illness sur(asses all 7elief0 /y sight an$ hearing .ere al.ays e'traor$inary0 , coul$ clearly $iscern o7Hects in the $istance .hen others sa. no trace of the)0 >e-eral ti)es in )y 7oyhoo$ , sa-e$ the houses of our neigh7ors fro) fire 7y hearing the faint crac2ling soun$s .hich $i$ not $istur7 their slee(8 an$ calling for hel(0 ,n 18998 .hen , .as (ast forty an$ carrying on )y e'(eri)ents in Colora$o8 , coul$ hear -ery $istinctly thun$ercla(s at a $istance of 445 )iles0 The li)it of au$ition for )y young assistants .as scarcely )ore than 145 )iles0 /y ear .as thus o-er thirteen ti)es )ore sensiti-e0 Det at that ti)e , .as8 so to s(ea28 stone $eaf in co)(arison .ith the acuteness of )y hearing .hile un$er the ner-ous strain0 ,n 3u$a(est , coul$ hear the tic2ing of a .atch .ith three roo)s 7et.een )e an$ the ti)e9(iece0 A fly alighting on a ta7le in the roo) .oul$ cause a $ull thu$ in )y ear0 A carriage (assing at a $istance of a fe. )iles fairly shoo2 )y .hole 7o$y0 The .histle of a loco)oti-e t.enty or thirty )iles a.ay )a$e the 7ench or chair on .hich , sat -i7rate so strongly that the (ain .as un7eara7le0 The groun$ un$er )y feet tre)7le$ continuously0 , ha$ to su((ort )y 7e$ on ru77er cushions to get any rest at all0 The roaring noises fro) near an$ far often (ro$uce$ the effect of s(o2en .or$s .hich .oul$ ha-e frightene$ )e ha$ , not 7een a7le to resol-e the) into their acci$ental co)(onents0 The sun's rays8
.hen (erio$ically interce(te$8 .oul$ cause 7lo.s of such force on )y 7rain that they .oul$ stun )e0 , ha$ to su))on all )y .ill (o.er to (ass un$er a 7ri$ge or other structure as , e'(erience$ a crushing (ressure on the s2ull0 ,n the $ar2 , ha$ the sense of a 7at an$ coul$ $etect the (resence of an o7Hect at a $istance of t.el-e feet 7y a (eculiar cree(y sensation on the forehea$0 /y (ulse -arie$ fro) a fe. to t.o hun$re$ an$ si'ty 7eats an$ all the tissues of the 7o$y qui-ere$ .ith t.itchings an$ tre)ors .hich .as (erha(s the har$est to 7ear0 A reno.ne$ (hysician .ho ga-e )e $aily large $oses of 3ro)i$e of <otassiu) (ronounce$ )y )ala$y unique an$ incura7le0 ,t is )y eternal regret that , .as not un$er the o7ser-ation of e'(erts in (hysiology an$ (sychology at that ti)e0 , clung $es(erately to life8 7ut ne-er e'(ecte$ to reco-er0 Can anyone 7elie-e that so ho(eless a (hysical .rec2 coul$ e-er 7e transfor)e$ into a )an of astonishing strength an$ tenacity8 a7le to .or2 thirty9eight years al)ost .ithout a $ay's interru(tion8 an$ fin$ hi)self still strong an$ fresh in 7o$y an$ )in$F >uch is )y case0 A (o.erful $esire to li-e an$ to continue the .or28 an$ the assistance of a $e-ote$ frien$ an$ athlete acco)(lishe$ the .on$er0 /y health returne$ an$ .ith it the -igour of )in$0 ,n attac2ing the (ro7le) again , al)ost regrette$ that the struggle .as soon to en$0 , ha$ so )uch energy to s(are0 &hen , un$ertoo2 the tas2 it .as not .ith a resol-e such as )en often )a2e0 &ith )e it .as a sacre$ -o.8 a question of life an$ $eath0 , 2ne. that , .oul$ (erish if , faile$0 1o. , felt that the 7attle .as .on0 3ac2 in the $ee( recesses of the 7rain .as the solution8 7ut , coul$ not yet gi-e it out.ar$ e'(ression0 ;ne afternoon8 .hich is e-er (resent in )y recollection8 , .as enHoying a .al2 .ith )y frien$ in the City <ar2 an$ reciting (oetry0 At that age , 2ne. entire 7oo2s 7y heart8 .or$ for .or$0 ;ne of these .as Goethe's "Faust0" The sun .as Hust setting an$ re)in$e$ )e of the glorious (assageI A&ie ruckt und "eicht+ der Tag ist uberlebt+ Dort eilt sie hin und fordert neues %eben. 'h+ dass kein 9lugel mich vom 4oden hebt Ihr nach und immer nach ;u strebenE Ein schoner Traum indessen sie ent"eicht+ Ach+ ;u des 5eistes 9lugeln "ird so leicht 6ein kor*erlicher 9lugel sich gesellenEA MThe glo" retreats+ done is the day of toil It yonder hastes+ ne" fields of life ex*loring Ah+ that no "ing can lift me from the soil D*on its track to follo"+ follo" soaringE A glorious dreamE though no" the glories fade. AlasE the "ings that lift the mind no aid 'f "ings to lift the body can be)ueath me.N As , uttere$ these ins(iring .or$s the i$ea ca)e li2e a flash of lightning an$ in an instant the truth .as re-eale$0 , $re. .ith a stic2 on the san$ the $iagra)s sho.n si' years later in )y a$$ress 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 an$ )y co)(anion un$erstoo$ the) (erfectly0 The i)ages , sa. .ere .on$erfully shar( an$ clear an$ ha$ the soli$ity of )etal an$ stone8 so )uch so that , tol$ hi)I ">ee )y )otor hereJ .atch )e re-erse it0" , cannot 7egin to $escri7e )y e)otions0 <yg)alion seeing his statue co)e to life coul$ not ha-e 7een )ore $ee(ly )o-e$0 A thousan$ secrets of nature .hich , )ight ha-e stu)7le$ u(on acci$entally , .oul$ ha-e gi-en for that one .hich , ha$ .reste$ fro) her against all o$$s an$ at the (eril of )y e'istence0 :6& T,e %is(oEery of t,e Tesla Coil and Transformer For a .hile , ga-e )yself u( entirely to the intense enHoy)ent of (icturing )achines an$ $e-ising ne. for)s0 ,t .as a )ental state of ha((iness a7out as co)(lete as , ha-e e-er 2no.n in life0 ,$eas ca)e in an uninterru(te$ strea) an$ the only $ifficulty , ha$ .as to hol$ the) fast0 The (ieces of a((aratus , concei-e$ .ere to )e a7solutely real an$ tangi7le in e-ery $etail8 e-en to the )inute )ar2s an$ signs of .ear0 , $elighte$ in i)agining the )otors constantly running8 for in this .ay they (resente$ to )in$'s eye a )ore fascinating sight0 &hen natural inclination $e-elo(s into a (assionate $esire8 one a$-ances to.ar$s his goal in se-en9league 7oots0 ,n less than t.o )onths , e-ol-e$ -irtually all the ty(es of )otors an$ )o$ifications of the syste) .hich are no. i$entifie$ .ith )y na)e0 ,t .as8 (erha(s8 (ro-i$ential that the necessities of e'istence co))an$e$ a te)(orary halt to this consu)ing acti-ity of the )in$0 , ca)e to 3u$a(est (ro)(te$ 7y a (re)ature re(ort concerning the tele(hone enter(rise an$8 as irony of fate .ille$ it8 , ha$ to acce(t a (osition as $rafts)an in the Central Telegra(h ;ffice of the Hungarian Go-ern)ent at a salary .hich , $ee) it )y (ri-ilege not to $iscloseY Fortunately8 , soon .on the interest of the ,ns(ector9in9Chief an$ .as thereafter e)(loye$ on calculations8
$esigns an$ esti)ates in connection .ith ne. installations8 until the Tele(hone "'change .as starte$8 .hen , too2 charge of the sa)e0 The 2no.le$ge an$ (ractical e'(erience , gaine$ in the course of this .or2 .as )ost -alua7le an$ the e)(loy)ent ga-e )e a)(le o((ortunities for the e'ercise of )y in-enti-e faculties0 , )a$e se-eral i)(ro-e)ents in the Central >tation a((aratus an$ (erfecte$ a tele(hone re(eater or a)(lifier .hich .as ne-er (atente$ or (u7licly $escri7e$ 7ut .oul$ 7e cre$ita7le to )e e-en to$ay0 ,n recognition of )y efficient assistance the organiBer of the un$erta2ing8 /r0 <us2as8 u(on $is(osing of his 7usiness in 3u$a(est8 offere$ )e a (osition in <aris .hich , gla$ly acce(te$0 , ne-er can forget the $ee( i)(ression that )agic city (ro$uce$ on )y )in$0 For se-eral $ays after )y arri-al , roa)e$ through the streets in utter 7e.il$er)ent of the ne. s(ectacle0 The attractions .ere )any an$ irresisti7le8 7ut8 alas8 the inco)e .as s(ent as soon as recei-e$0 &hen /r0 <us2as as2e$ )e ho. , .as getting along in the ne. s(here8 , $escri7e$ the situation accurately in the state)ent that "the last t.enty9nine $ays of the )onth are the toughestY" , le$ a rather strenuous life in .hat .oul$ no. 7e ter)e$ "+oose-eltian fashion0" "-ery )orning8 regar$less of .eather8 , .oul$ go fro) the 3oule-ar$ >t0 /arcel8 .here , resi$e$8 to a 7athing house on the >eine8 (lunge into the .ater8 loo( the circuit t.enty9 se-en ti)es an$ then .al2 an hour to reach ,-ry8 .here the Co)(any's factory .as locate$0 There , .oul$ ha-e a .oo$cho((er's 7rea2fast at half9(ast se-en o'cloc2 an$ then eagerly a.ait the lunch hour8 in the )ean.hile crac2ing har$ nuts for the /anager of the &or2s8 /r0 Charles 3atchellor8 .ho .as an inti)ate frien$ an$ assistant of "$ison0 Here , .as thro.n in contact .ith a fe. A)ericans .ho fairly fell in lo-e .ith )e 7ecause of )y (roficiency in 7illiar$s0 To these )en , e'(laine$ )y in-ention an$ one of the)8 /r0 =0 Cunningha)8 Fore)an of the /echanical =e(art)ent8 offere$ to for) a stoc2 co)(any0 The (ro(osal see)e$ to )e co)ical in the e'tre)e0 , $i$ not ha-e the faintest conce(tion of .hat that )eant e'ce(t that it .as an A)erican .ay of $oing things0 1othing ca)e of it8 ho.e-er8 an$ $uring the ne't fe. )onths , ha$ to tra-el fro) one to another (lace in France an$ Ger)any to cure the ills of the (o.er (lants0
Fig01 Tesla ;scillation Transfor)er (Tesla Coil (resente$ 7y #or$ :el-in 7efore the 3ritish Association in August8 189*0 This s)all an$ co)(act instru)ent8 only 8 inches high8 $e-elo(e$ t.o square feet of strea)ers .ith t.enty9fi-e .atts fro) 115 Golt =0C0 su((ly circuit0 The instru)ent contains a Tesla (ri)ary an$ secon$ary8 con$enser8 an$ a circuit controller0
;n )y return to <aris , su7)itte$ to one of the a$)inistrators of the Co)(any8 /r0 +au8 a (lan for i)(ro-ing their $yna)os an$ .as gi-en an o((ortunity0 /y success .as co)(lete an$ the $elighte$ $irectors accor$e$ )e the (ri-ilege of $e-elo(ing auto)atic regulators .hich .ere )uch $esire$0 >hortly after there .as so)e trou7le .ith the lighting (lant .hich ha$ 7een installe$ at the ne. railroa$ station in >trass7urg8 Alsace0 The .iring .as $efecti-e an$ on the occasion of the o(ening cere)onies a large (art of a .all .as 7lo.n out through a short9 circuit right in the (resence of ol$ ")(eror &illia) ,0 The Ger)an Go-ern)ent refuse$ to ta2e the (lant an$ the French Co)(any .as facing a serious loss0 ;n account of )y 2no.le$ge of the Ger)an language an$ (ast e'(erience8 , .as entruste$ .ith the $ifficult tas2 of straightening out )atters an$ early in 1883 , .ent to >trass7urg on that )ission0 >o)e of the inci$ents in that city ha-e left an in$eli7le recor$ on )y )e)ory0 3y a curious coinci$ence8 a nu)7er of )en .ho su7sequently achie-e$ fa)e8 li-e$ there a7out that ti)e0 ,n later life , use$ to say8 "There .ere 7acteria of greatness in that ol$ to.n0 ;thers caught the $isease 7ut , esca(e$Y" The (ractical .or28 corres(on$ence8 an$ conferences .ith officials 2e(t )e (reoccu(ie$ $ay an$ night8 7ut8 as soon as , .as a7le to )anage , un$ertoo2 the construction of a si)(le )otor in a )echanical sho( o((osite the railroa$ station8 ha-ing 7rought .ith )e fro) <aris so)e )aterial for that (ur(ose0 The consu))ation of the e'(eri)ent .as8 ho.e-er8 $elaye$ until the su))er of that year .hen , finally ha$ the satisfaction of seeing rotation effecte$ 7y
alternating currents of $ifferent (hase8 an$ .ithout sli$ing contacts or co))utator8 as , ha$ concei-e$ a year 7efore0 ,t .as an e'quisite (leasure 7ut not to co)(are .ith the $eliriu) of Hoy follo.ing the first re-elation0 A)ong )y ne. frien$s .as the for)er /ayor of the city8 /r0 3auBin8 .ho) , ha$ alrea$y in a )easure acquainte$ .ith this an$ other in-entions of )ine an$ .hose su((ort , en$ea-oure$ to enlist0 He .as sincerely $e-ote$ to )e an$ (ut )y (roHect 7efore se-eral .ealthy (ersons 7ut8 to )y )ortification8 foun$ no res(onse0 He .ante$ to hel( )e in e-ery (ossi7le .ay an$ the a((roach of the first of Euly8 19198 ha((ens to re)in$ )e of a for) of "assistance" , recei-e$ fro) that char)ing )an8 .hich .as not financial 7ut none the less a((reciate$0 ,n 18*58 .hen the Ger)ans in-a$e$ the country8 /r0 3auBin ha$ 7urie$ a goo$ siBe$ allot)ent of >t0 "ste(he of 1851 an$ he ca)e to the conclusion that he 2ne. no .orthier (erson than )yself to consu)e that (recious 7e-erage0 This8 , )ay say8 is one of the unforgetta7le inci$ents to .hich , ha-e referre$0 /y frien$ urge$ )e to return to <aris as soon as (ossi7le an$ see2 su((ort there0 This , .as an'ious to $o 7ut )y .or2 an$ negotiations .ere (rotracte$ o.ing to all sorts of (etty o7stacles , encountere$ so that at ti)es the situation see)e$ ho(eless0 Eust to gi-e an i$ea of Ger)an thoroness an$ "efficiency8" , )ay )ention here a rather funny e'(erience0 An incan$escent la)( of 1% c0(0 .as to 7e (lace$ in a hall.ay an$ u(on selecting the (ro(er location , or$ere$ the )onteur to run the .ires0 After .or2ing for a .hile he conclu$e$ that the engineer ha$ to 7e consulte$ an$ this .as $one0 The latter )a$e se-eral o7Hections 7ut ulti)ately agree$ that the la)( shoul$ 7e (lace$ t.o inches fro) the s(ot , ha$ assigne$8 .hereu(on the .or2 (rocee$e$0 Then the engineer 7eca)e .orrie$ an$ tol$ )e that ,ns(ector A-er$ec2 shoul$ 7e notifie$0 That i)(ortant (erson calle$8 in-estigate$8 $e7ate$8 an$ $eci$e$ that the la)( shoul$ 7e shifte$ 7ac2 t.o inches8 .hich .as the (lace , ha$ )ar2e$0 ,t .as not long8 ho.e-er8 7efore A-er$ec2 got col$ feet hi)self an$ a$-ise$ )e that he ha$ infor)e$ ;7er9,ns(ector Hieroni)us of the )atter an$ that , shoul$ a.ait his $ecision0 ,t .as se-eral $ays 7efore the ;7er9,ns(ector .as a7le to free hi)self of other (ressing $uties 7ut at last he arri-e$ an$ a t.o9hour $e7ate follo.e$8 .hen he $eci$e$ to )o-e the la)( t.o inches farther0 /y ho(es that this .as the final act .ere shattere$ .hen the ;7er9 ,ns(ector returne$ an$ sai$ to )eI "+egierungsrath Fun2e is so (articular that , .oul$ not $are to gi-e an or$er for (lacing this la)( .ithout his e'(licit a((ro-al0" Accor$ingly arrange)ents for a -isit fro) that great )an .ere )a$e0 &e starte$ cleaning u( an$ (olishing early in the )orning0 "-ery7o$y 7rushe$ u(8 , (ut on )y glo-es an$ .hen Fun2e ca)e .ith his retinue he .as cere)oniously recei-e$0 After t.o hours' $eli7eration he su$$enly e'clai)e$I ", )ust 7e going8" an$ (ointing to a (lace on the ceiling8 he or$ere$ )e to (ut the la)( there0 ,t .as the e'act s(ot .hich , ha$ originally chosen0
Fig0!0 This illustrates tests .ith s(ar2 $ischarges fro) a 7all of forty centi)etres ra$ius in Tesla's .ireless (lant erecte$ at Colora$o >(rings in 18990 The 7all is connecte$ to the free en$ of a groun$e$ resonant circuit se-enteen )etres in $ia)eter0 The $isru(ti-e (otential of a 7all is8 accor$ing to Tesla8 in -olts a((ro'i)ately G L *48655 r (r 7eing in centi)etres 8 that is8 in this case *48655 ' 65 L 3851%855 -olts0 The gigantic Tesla coil .hich (ro$uce$ these 7olts of Thor .a ca(a7le of furnishing a current of 18155 a)(eres in the high tension secon$ary0 The (ri)ary coil ha$ a $ia)eter of 41 feetY This Tesla coil (ro$uce$ $ischarges .hich .ere the nearest a((roach to lightning e-er )a$e 7y )an0
>o it .ent $ay after $ay .ith -ariations8 7ut , .as $eter)ine$ to achie-e at .hate-er cost an$ in the en$ )y efforts .ere re.ar$e$0 3y the s(ring of 1886 all the $ifferences .ere a$Huste$8 the (lant for)ally acce(te$8 an$ , returne$ to <aris .ith (leasing antici(ations0 ;ne of the a$)inistrators ha$ (ro)ise$ )e a li7eral co)(ensation in case , succee$e$8 as .ell as a fair consi$eration of the i)(ro-e)ents , ha$ )a$e in their $yna)os an$ , ho(e$ to realiBe a su7stantial su)0 There .ere three a$)inistrators .ho) , shall $esignate as A8 3 an$ C for con-enience0 &hen , calle$ on A he tol$ )e that 3 ha$ the say0 This gentle)an thought that only C coul$ $eci$e an$ the latter .as quite sure that A alone ha$ the (o.er to act0 After se-eral la(s of this circulus -i-ios it $a.ne$ u(on )e that )y re.ar$ .as a castle in >(ain0 The utter failure of )y atte)(ts to raise ca(ital for $e-elo()ent
.as another $isa((oint)ent an$ .hen /r0 3atchellor (rest )e to go to A)erica .ith a -ie. of re$esigning the "$ison )achines8 , $eter)ine$ to try )y fortunes in the #an$ of Gol$en <ro)ise0 3ut the chance .as nearly )ist0 , liquefie$ )y )o$est assets8 secure$ acco))o$ations an$ foun$ )yself at the railroa$ station as the train .as (ulling out0 At that )o)ent , $isco-ere$ that )y )oney an$ tic2ets .ere gone0 &hat to $o .as the question0 Hercules ha$ (lenty of ti)e to $eli7erate 7ut , ha$ to $eci$e .hile running alongsi$e the train .ith o((osite feelings surging in )y 7rain li2e con$enser oscillations0 +esol-e8 hel(e$ 7y $e'terity8 .on out in the nic2 of ti)e an$ u(on (assing through the usual e'(eriences8 as tri-ial as un(leasant8 , )anage$ to e)7ar2 for 1e. Dor2 .ith the re)nants of )y 7elongings8 so)e (oe)s an$ articles , ha$ .ritten8 an$ a (ac2age of calculations relating to solutions of an unsol-a7le integral an$ to )y flying )achine0 =uring the -oyage , sat )ost of the ti)e at the stern of the shi( .atching for an o((ortunity to sa-e so)e7o$y fro) a .atery gra-e8 .ithout the slightest thought of $anger0 #ater .hen , ha$ a7sor7e$ so)e of the (ractical A)erican sense , shi-ere$ at the recollection an$ )ar-elle$ at )y for)er folly0 , .ish that , coul$ (ut in .or$s )y first i)(ressions of this country0 ,n the Ara7ian Tales , rea$ ho. genii trans(orte$ (eo(le into a lan$ of $rea)s to li-e through $elightful a$-entures0 /y case .as Hust the re-erse0 The genii ha$ carrie$ )e fro) a .orl$ of $rea)s into one of realities0 &hat , ha$ left .as 7eautiful8 artistic an$ fascinating in e-ery .ayJ .hat , sa. here .as )achine$8 rough an$ unattracti-e0 A 7urly (olice)an .as t.irling his stic2 .hich loo2e$ to )e as 7ig as a log0 , a((roache$ hi) (olitely .ith the request to $irect )e0 ">i' 7loc2s $o.n8 then to the left8" he sai$8 .ith )ur$er in his eyes0 ",s this A)ericaF" , as2e$ )yself in (ainful sur(rise0 ",t is a century 7ehin$ "uro(e in ci-iliBation0" &hen , .ent a7roa$ in 1889 9 fi-e years ha-ing ela(se$ since )y arri-al here 9 , 7eca)e con-ince$ that it .as )ore than one hun$re$ years AH"A= of "uro(e an$ nothing has ha((ene$ to this $ay to change )y o(inion0 The )eeting .ith "$ison .as a )e)ora7le e-ent in )y life0 , .as a)aBe$ at this .on$erful )an .ho8 .ithout early a$-antages an$ scientific training8 ha$ acco)(lishe$ so )uch0 , ha$ stu$ie$ a $oBen languages8 $el-e$ in literature an$ art8 an$ ha$ s(ent )y 7est years in li7raries rea$ing all sorts of stuff that fell into )y han$s8 fro) 1e.ton's "<rinci(ia" to the no-els of <aul $e :oc28 an$ felt that )ost of )y life ha$ 7een squan$ere$0 3ut it $i$ not ta2e long 7efore , recogniBe$ that it .as the 7est thing , coul$ ha-e $one0 &ithin a fe. .ee2s , ha$ .on "$ison's confi$ence an$ it ca)e a7out in this .ay0 The >0>0 ;regon8 the fastest (assenger stea)er at that ti)e8 ha$ 7oth of its lighting )achines $isa7le$ an$ its sailing .as $elaye$0 As the su(erstructure ha$ 7een 7uilt after their installation it .as i)(ossi7le to re)o-e the) fro) the hol$0 The (re$ica)ent .as a serious one an$ "$ison .as )uch annoye$0 ,n the e-ening , too2 the necessary instru)ents .ith )e an$ .ent a7oar$ the -essel .here , staye$ for the night0 The $yna)os .ere in 7a$ con$ition8 ha-ing se-eral short9circuits an$ 7rea2s8 7ut .ith the assistance of the cre. , succee$e$ in (utting the) in goo$ sha(e0 At fi-e o'cloc2 in the )orning8 .hen (assing along Fifth A-enue on )y .ay to the sho(8 , )et "$ison .ith 3atchellor an$ a fe. others as they .ere returning ho)e to retire0 "Here is our <arisian running aroun$ at night8" he sai$0 &hen , tol$ hi) that , .as co)ing fro) the ;regon an$ ha$ re(aire$ 7oth )achines8 he loo2e$ at )e in silence an$ .al2e$ a.ay .ithout another .or$0 3ut .hen he ha$ gone so)e $istance , hear$ hi) re)ar2I "3atchellor8 this is a $9n goo$ )an8" an$ fro) that ti)e on , ha$ full free$o) in $irecting the .or20 For nearly a year )y regular hours .ere fro) 15035 A0/0 until 4 o'cloc2 the ne't )orning .ithout a $ay's e'ce(tion0 "$ison sai$ to )eI ", ha-e ha$ )any har$9.or2ing assistants 7ut you ta2e the ca2e0" =uring this (erio$ , $esigne$ t.enty9four $ifferent ty(es of stan$ar$ )achines .ith short cores an$ of unifor) (attern .hich re(lace$ the ol$ ones0 The /anager ha$ (ro)ise$ )e fifty thousan$ $ollars on the co)(letion of this tas2 7ut it turne$ out to 7e a (ractical Ho2e0 This ga-e )e a (ainful shoc2 an$ , resigne$ )y (osition0 ,))e$iately thereafter so)e (eo(le a((roache$ )e .ith the (ro(osal of for)ing an arc light co)(any un$er )y na)e8 to .hich , agree$0 Here finally .as an o((ortunity to $e-elo( the )otor8 7ut .hen , 7roache$ the su7Hect to )y ne. associates they sai$I "1o8 .e .ant the arc la)(0 &e $on't care for this alternating current of yours0" ,n 188% )y syste) of arc lighting .as (erfecte$ an$ a$o(te$ for factory an$ )unici(al lighting8 an$ , .as free8 7ut .ith no other (ossession than a 7eautifully engra-e$ certificate of stoc2 of hy(othetical -alue0 Then follo.e$ a (erio$ of struggle in the ne. )e$iu) for .hich , .as not fitte$8 7ut the re.ar$ ca)e in the en$ an$ in A(ril8 188*8 the Tesla "lectric Co)(any .as organiBe$8 (ro-i$ing a la7oratory an$ facilities0 The )otors , 7uilt there .ere e'actly as , ha$ i)agine$ the)0 , )a$e no atte)(t to i)(ro-e the $esign8 7ut )erely re(ro$uce$ the (ictures as they a((eare$ to )y -ision an$ the o(eration .as al.ays as , e'(ecte$0 ,n the early (art of 1888 an arrange)ent .as )a$e .ith the &estinghouse Co)(any for the )anufacture of the )otors on a large scale0 3ut great $ifficulties ha$ still to 7e o-erco)e0 /y syste) .as 7ase$ on the use of lo. frequency currents an$ the &estinghouse e'(erts ha$ a$o(te$ 133 cycles .ith the o7Hect of securing a$-antages in the transfor)ation0 They $i$ not .ant to $e(art fro) their stan$ar$ for)s of a((aratus an$ )y efforts ha$ to 7e concentrate$ u(on a$a(ting the )otor to these con$itions0 Another necessity .as to (ro$uce a
)otor ca(a7le of running efficiently at this frequency on t.o .ires .hich .as not easy of acco)(lish)ent0 At the close of 18898 ho.e-er8 )y ser-ices in <itts7urg 7eing no longer essential8 , returne$ to 1e. Dor2 an$ resu)e$ e'(eri)ental .or2 in a la7oratory on Gran$ >treet8 .here , 7egan i))e$iately the $esign of high frequency )achines0 The (ro7le)s of construction in this une'(lore$ fiel$ .ere no-el an$ quite (eculiar an$ , encountere$ )any $ifficulties0 , reHecte$ the in$uctor ty(e8 fearing that it )ight not yiel$ (erfect sine .a-es .hich .ere so i)(ortant to resonant action0 Ha$ it not 7een for this , coul$ ha-e sa-e$ )yself a great $eal of la7or0 Another $iscouraging feature of the high frequency alternator see)e$ to 7e the inconstancy of s(ee$ .hich threatene$ to i)(ose serious li)itations to its use0 , ha$ alrea$y note$ in )y $e)onstrations 7efore the A)erican ,nstitution of "lectrical "ngineers that se-eral ti)es the tune .as lost8 necessitating rea$Hust)ent8 an$ $i$ not yet foresee8 .hat , $isco-ere$ long after.ar$s8 a )eans of o(erating a )achine of this 2in$ at a s(ee$ constant to such a $egree as not to -ary )ore than a s)all fraction of one re-olution 7et.een the e'tre)es of loa$0 Fro) )any other consi$erations it a((eare$ $esira7le to in-ent a si)(ler $e-ice for the (ro$uction of electric oscillations0 ,n 184% #or$ :el-in ha$ e'(ose$ the theory of the con$enser $ischarge8 7ut no (ractical a((lication of that i)(ortant 2no.le$ge .as )a$e0 , sa. the (ossi7ilities an$ un$ertoo2 the $e-elo()ent of in$uction a((aratus on this (rinci(le0 /y (rogress .as so ra(i$ as to ena7le )e to e'hi7it at )y lecture in 1891 a coil gi-ing s(ar2s of fi-e inches0 ;n that occasion , fran2ly tol$ the engineers of a $efect in-ol-e$ in the transfor)ation 7y the ne. )etho$8 na)ely8 the loss in the s(ar2 ga(0 >u7sequent in-estigation sho.e$ that no )atter .hat )e$iu) is e)(loye$8 7e it air8 hy$rogen8 )ercury -a(or8 oil or a strea) of electrons8 the efficiency is the sa)e0 ,t is a la. -ery )uch li2e that go-erning the con-ersion of )echanical energy0 &e )ay $ro( a .eight fro) a certain height -ertically $o.n or carry it to the lo.er le-el along any $e-ious (ath8 it is i))aterial insofar as the a)ount of .or2 is concerne$0 Fortunately ho.e-er8 this $ra.7ac2 is not fatal as 7y (ro(er (ro(ortioning of the resonant circuits an efficiency of 84 (er cent is attaina7le0 >ince )y early announce)ent of the in-ention it has co)e into uni-ersal use an$ .rought a re-olution in )any $e(art)ents0 3ut a still greater future a.aits it0 &hen in 1955 , o7taine$ (o.erful $ischarges of 155 feet an$ flashe$ a current aroun$ the glo7e8 , .as re)in$e$ of the first tiny s(ar2 , o7ser-e$ in )y Gran$ >treet la7oratory an$ .as thrille$ 7y sensations a2in to those , felt .hen , $isco-ere$ the rotating )agnetic fiel$0
6& T,e Magnifying Transmitter As , re-ie. the e-ents of )y (ast life , realiBe ho. su7tle are the influences that sha(e our $estinies0 An inci$ent of )y youth )ay ser-e to illustrate0 ;ne .inter's $ay , )anage$ to cli)7 a stee( )ountain8 in co)(any .ith other 7oys0 The sno. .as quite $ee( an$ a .ar) southerly .in$ )a$e it Hust suita7le for our (ur(ose0 &e a)use$ oursel-es 7y thro.ing 7alls .hich .oul$ roll $o.n a certain $istance8 gathering )ore or less sno.8 an$ .e trie$ to out$o one another in this e'citing s(ort0 >u$$enly a 7all .as seen to go 7eyon$ the li)it8 s.elling to enor)ous (ro(ortions until it 7eca)e as 7ig as a house an$ (lunge$ thun$ering into the -alley 7elo. .ith a force that )a$e the groun$ tre)7le0 , loo2e$ on s(ell7oun$8 inca(a7le of un$erstan$ing .hat ha$ ha((ene$0 For .ee2s after.ar$ the (icture of the a-alanche .as 7efore )y eyes an$ , .on$ere$ ho. anything so s)all coul$ gro. to such an i))ense siBe0 "-er since that ti)e the )agnification of fee7le actions fascinate$ )e8 an$ .hen8 years later8 , too2 u( the e'(eri)ental stu$y of )echanical an$ electrical resonance8 , .as 2eenly intereste$ fro) the -ery start0 <ossi7ly8 ha$ it not 7een for that early (o.erful i)(ression8 , )ight not ha-e follo.e$ u( the little s(ar2 , o7taine$ .ith )y coil an$ ne-er $e-elo(e$ )y 7est in-ention8 the true history of .hich ,'ll tell here for the first ti)e0 "#ionhunters" ha-e often as2e$ )e .hich of )y $isco-eries , (riBe )ost0 This $e(en$s on the (oint of -ie.0 1ot a fe. technical )en8 -ery a7le in their s(ecial $e(art)ents8 7ut $o)inate$ 7y a (e$antic s(irit an$ nearsighte$8 ha-e asserte$ that e'ce(ting the in$uction )otor , ha-e gi-en to the .orl$ little of (ractical use0 This is a grie-ous )ista2e0 A ne. i$ea )ust not 7e Hu$ge$ 7y its i))e$iate results0 /y alternating syste) of (o.er trans)ission ca)e at a (sychological )o)ent8 as a long9sought ans.er to (ressing in$ustrial questions8 an$ altho consi$era7le resistance ha$ to 7e o-erco)e an$ o((osing interests reconcile$8 as usual8 the co))ercial intro$uction coul$ not 7e long $elaye$0
This <hotogra(h >ho.s the fa)ous Tesla to.er erecte$ at >horeha)8 #0,08 10D0 The to.er .as $is)antle$ at the out7rea2 of the .ar0 ,t .as 18* feet high0 The s(herical to( .as %8 feet in $ia)eter0 1ote the huge siBe of the structure 7y co)(aring the t.o story (o.er (lant in the rear0 The to.er .hich .as to 7e use$ 7y Tesla in his _&orl$ &ireless` .as ne-er finishe$0
1o.8 co)(are this situation .ith that confronting )y tur7ine8 for e'a)(le0 ;ne shoul$ thin2 that so si)(le an$ 7eautiful an in-ention8 (ossessing )any features of an i$eal )otor8 shoul$ 7e a$o(te$ at once an$8 un$ou7te$ly8 it .oul$ un$er si)ilar con$itions0 3ut the (ros(ecti-e effect of the rotating fiel$ .as not to ren$er .orthless e'isting )achineryJ on the contrary8 it .as to gi-e it a$$itional -alue0 The syste) lent itself to ne. enter(rise as .ell as to i)(ro-e)ent of the ol$0 /y tur7ine is an a$-ance of a character entirely $ifferent0 ,t is a ra$ical $e(arture in the sense that its success .oul$ )ean the a7an$on)ent of the antiquate$ ty(es of (ri)e )o-ers on .hich 7illions of $ollars ha-e 7een s(ent0 Cn$er such circu)stances the (rogress )ust nee$s 7e slo. an$ (erha(s the greatest i)(e$i)ent is encountere$ in the (reHu$icial o(inions create$ in the )in$s of e'(erts 7y organiBe$ o((osition0 ;nly the other $ay , ha$ a $isheartening e'(erience .hen , )et )y frien$ an$ for)er assistant8 Charles F0 >cott8 no. (rofessor of "lectrical "ngineering at Dale0 , ha$ not seen hi) for a long ti)e an$ .as gla$ to ha-e an o((ortunity for a little chat at )y office0 ;ur con-ersation naturally enough $rifte$ on )y tur7ine an$ , 7eca)e heate$ to a high $egree0 ">cott8" , e'clai)e$8 carrie$ a.ay 7y the -ision of a glorious future8 ")y tur7ine .ill
scra( all the heat9engines in the .orl$0" >cott stro2e$ his chin an$ loo2e$ a.ay thoughtfully8 as though )a2ing a )ental calculation0 "That .ill )a2e quite a (ile of scra(8" he sai$8 an$ left .ithout another .or$Y These an$ other in-entions of )ine8 ho.e-er8 .ere nothing )ore than ste(s for.ar$ in certain $irections0 ,n e-ol-ing the) , si)(ly follo.e$ the in7orn sense to i)(ro-e the (resent $e-ices .ithout any s(ecial thought of our far )ore i)(erati-e necessities0 The "/agnifying Trans)itter" .as the (ro$uct of la7ors e'ten$ing through years8 ha-ing for their chief o7Hect the solution of (ro7le)s .hich are infinitely )ore i)(ortant to )an2in$ than )ere in$ustrial $e-elo()ent0 ,f )y )e)ory ser-es )e right8 it .as in 1o-e)7er8 18958 that , (erfor)e$ a la7oratory e'(eri)ent .hich .as one of the )ost e'traor$inary an$ s(ectacular e-er recor$e$ in the annals of science0 ,n in-estigating the 7eha-iour of high frequency currents , ha$ satisfie$ )yself that an electric fiel$ of sufficient intensity coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ in a roo) to light u( electro$eless -acuu) tu7es0 Accor$ingly8 a transfor)er .as 7uilt to test the theory an$ the first trial (ro-e$ a )ar-elous success0 ,t is $ifficult to a((reciate .hat those strange (heno)ena )eant at that ti)e0 &e cra-e for ne. sensations 7ut soon 7eco)e in$ifferent to the)0 The .on$ers of yester$ay are to$ay co))on occurrences0 &hen )y tu7es .ere first (u7licly e'hi7ite$ they .ere -ie.e$ .ith a)aBe)ent i)(ossi7le to $escri7e0 Fro) all (arts of the .orl$ , recei-e$ urgent in-itations an$ nu)erous honours an$ other flattering in$uce)ents .ere offere$ to )e8 .hich , $ecline$0
This (hotogra(h of a )o$el sho.s ho. the Tesla to.er 7uilt on #ong ,slan$8 eighteen years ago8 .oul$ ha-e loo2e$ co)(lete$0 Fro) its a((earance no7o$y .oul$ infer that it .as to 7e use$ for the great (ur(oses .hich are set forth in his acco)(anying article0
3ut in 189! the $e)an$s 7eca)e irresisti7le an$ , .ent to #on$on .here , $eli-ere$ a lecture 7efore the ,nstitution of "lectrical "ngineers0 ,t ha$ 7een )y intention to lea-e i))e$iately for <aris in co)(liance .ith a si)ilar o7ligation8 7ut >ir Ea)es =e.ar insiste$ on )y a((earing 7efore the +oyal ,nstitution0 , .as a )an of fir) resol-e 7ut succu)7e$ easily to the forceful argu)ents of the great >cots)an0 He (ushe$ )e into a chair an$ (oure$ out half a glass of a .on$erful 7ro.n flui$ .hich s(ar2le$ in all sorts of iri$escent colors an$ taste$ li2e nectar0 "1o.8" sai$ he0 "you are sitting in Fara$ay's chair an$ you are enHoying .his2ey he use$ to $rin20" ,n 7oth as(ects it .as an en-ia7le e'(erience0 The ne't e-ening , ga-e a $e)onstration 7efore that ,nstitution8 at the ter)ination of .hich #or$ +ayleigh a$$resse$ the au$ience an$ his generous .or$s ga-e )e the first start in these en$ea-ours0 , fle$ fro) #on$on an$ later fro) <aris to esca(e fa-ors sho.ere$ u(on )e8 an$ Hourneye$ to )y ho)e .here , (asse$ through a )ost (ainful or$eal an$ illness0 C(on regaining )y health , 7egan to for)ulate (lans for the resu)(tion of .or2 in A)erica0 C( to that ti)e , ne-er realiBe$ that , (ossesse$ any (articular gift of $isco-ery 7ut #or$ +ayleigh8 .ho) , al.ays consi$ere$ as an i$eal )an of science8 ha$ sai$ so an$ if that .as the case , felt that , shoul$ concentrate on so)e 7ig i$ea0 ;ne $ay8 as , .as roa)ing in the )ountains8 , sought shelter fro) an a((roaching stor)0 The s2y 7eca)e o-erhung .ith hea-y clou$s 7ut so)eho. the rain .as $elaye$ until8 all of a su$$en8 there .as a lightning flash an$ a fe. )o)ents after a $eluge0 This o7ser-ation set )e thin2ing0 ,t .as )anifest that the t.o (heno)ena .ere closely relate$8 as cause an$ effect8 an$ a little reflection le$ )e to the conclusion that the electrical energy in-ol-e$ in the (reci(itation of the .ater .as inconsi$era7le8 the function of lightning 7eing )uch li2e that of a sensiti-e trigger0 Here .as a stu(en$ous (ossi7ility of achie-e)ent0 ,f .e coul$ (ro$uce electric effects of the require$ quality8 this .hole (lanet an$ the con$itions of e'istence on it coul$ 7e transfor)e$0 The sun raises the .ater of the
oceans an$ .in$s $ri-e it to $istant regions .here it re)ains in a state of )ost $elicate 7alance0 ,f it .ere in our (o.er to u(set it .hen an$ .here-er $esire$8 this )ighty life9sustaining strea) coul$ 7e at .ill controlle$0 &e coul$ irrigate ari$ $eserts8 create la2es an$ ri-ers an$ (ro-i$e )oti-e (o.er in unli)ite$ a)ounts0 This .oul$ 7e the )ost efficient .ay of harnessing the sun to the uses of )an0 The consu))ation $e(en$e$ on our a7ility to $e-elo( electric forces of the or$er of those in nature0 ,t see)e$ a ho(eless un$erta2ing8 7ut , )a$e u( )y )in$ to try it an$ i))e$iately on )y return to the Cnite$ >tates8 in the >u))er of 189!8 .or2 .as 7egun .hich .as to )e all the )ore attracti-e8 7ecause a )eans of the sa)e 2in$ .as necessary for the successful trans)ission of energy .ithout .ires0 The first gratifying result .as o7taine$ in the s(ring of the succee$ing year .hen , reache$ tensions of a7out 185558555 -olts .ith )y conical coil0 That .as not )uch in the light of the (resent art8 7ut it .as then consi$ere$ a feat0 >tea$y (rogress .as )a$e until the $estruction of )y la7oratory 7y fire in 18948 as )ay 7e Hu$ge$ fro) an article 7y T0 C0 /artin .hich a((eare$ in the A(ril nu)7er of the Century /agaBine0 This cala)ity set )e 7ac2 in )any .ays an$ )ost of that year ha$ to 7e $e-ote$ to (lanning an$ reconstruction0 Ho.e-er8 as soon as circu)stances (er)itte$8 , returne$ to the tas20 Although , 2ne. that higher electro9)oti-e forces .ere attaina7le .ith a((aratus of larger $i)ensions8 , ha$ an instincti-e (erce(tion that the o7Hect coul$ 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y the (ro(er $esign of a co)(arati-ely s)all an$ co)(act transfor)er0 ,n carrying on tests .ith a secon$ary in the for) of a flat s(iral8 as illustrate$ in )y (atents8 the a7sence of strea)ers sur(rise$ )e8 an$ it .as not long 7efore , $isco-ere$ that this .as $ue to the (osition of the turns an$ their )utual action0 <rofiting fro) this o7ser-ation , resorte$ to the use of a high tension con$uctor .ith turns of consi$era7le $ia)eter sufficiently se(arate$ to 2ee( $o.n the $istri7ute$ ca(acity8 .hile at the sa)e ti)e (re-enting un$ue accu)ulation of the charge at any (oint0 The a((lication of this (rinci(le ena7le$ )e to (ro$uce (ressures of 685558555 -olts8 .hich .as a7out the li)it o7taina7le in )y ne. la7oratory at Houston >treet8 as the $ischarges e'ten$e$ through a $istance of 1% feet0 A (hotogra(h of this trans)itter .as (u7lishe$ in the "lectrical +e-ie. of 1o-e)7er8 18980 ,n or$er to a$-ance further along this line , ha$ to go into the o(en8 an$ in the s(ring of 18998 ha-ing co)(lete$ (re(arations for the erection of a .ireless (lant8 , .ent to Colora$o .here , re)aine$ for )ore than one year0 Here , intro$uce$ other i)(ro-e)ents an$ refine)ents .hich )a$e it (ossi7le to generate currents of any tension that )ay 7e $esire$0 Those .ho are intereste$ .ill fin$ so)e infor)ation in regar$ to the e'(eri)ents , con$ucte$ there in )y article8 "The <ro7le) of ,ncreasing Hu)an "nergy" in the Century /agaBine of Eune8 19558 to .hich , ha-e referre$ on a (re-ious occasion0 , ha-e 7een as2e$ 7y the "#"CT+,CA# "]<"+,/"1T"+ to 7e quite e'(licit on this su7Hect so that )y young frien$s a)ong the rea$ers of the )agaBine .ill clearly un$erstan$ the construction an$ o(eration of )y "/agnifying Trans)itter" an$ the (ur(oses for .hich it is inten$e$0 &ell8 then8 in the first (lace8 it is a resonant transformer .ith a secon$ary in .hich the (arts8 charge$ to a high (otential8 are of consi$era7le area an$ arrange$ in s(ace along i$eal en-elo(ing surfaces of -ery large ra$ii of cur-ature8 an$ at (ro(er $istances fro) one another there7y insuring a small electric surface density every"here so that no leak can occur even if the conductor is bare0 ,t is suita7le for any frequency8 fro) a fe. to )any thousan$s of cycles (er secon$8 an$ can 7e use$ in the (ro$uction of currents of tre)en$ous -olu)e an$ )o$erate (ressure8 or of s)aller a)(erage an$ i))ense electro)oti-e force0 The )a'i)u) electric tension is merely de*endent on the curvature of the surfaces on .hich the charge$ ele)ents are situate$ an$ the area of the latter0 Eu$ging fro) )y (ast e'(erience8 as )uch as 15585558555 -olts are (erfectly (ractica7le0 ;n the other han$ currents of )any thousan$s of a)(eres )ay 7e o7taine$ in the antenna0 A (lant of 7ut -ery )o$erate $i)ensions is require$ for such (erfor)ances0 Theoretically8 a ter)inal of less than 95 feet in $ia)eter is sufficient to $e-elo( an electro)oti-e force of that )agnitu$e .hile for antenna currents of fro) !8555968555 a)(eres at the usual frequencies it nee$ not 7e larger than 35 feet in $ia)eter0 ,n a )ore restricte$ )eaning this .ireless trans)itter is one in .hich the HertB9.a-e ra$iation is an entirely negligi7le quantity as co)(are$ .ith the .hole energy8 un$er .hich con$ition the $a)(ing factor is e'tre)ely s)all an$ an enor)ous charge is store$ in the ele-ate$ ca(acity0 >uch a circuit )ay then 7e e'cite$ .ith i)(ulses of any 2in$8 e-en of lo. frequency an$ it .ill yiel$ sinusoi$al an$ continuous oscillations li2e those of an alternator0 Ta2en in the narro.est significance of the ter)8 ho.e-er8 it is a resonant transfor)er .hich8 7esi$es (ossessing these qualities8 is accurately (ro(ortione$ to fit the glo7e an$ its electrical constants an$ (ro(erties8 7y -irtue of .hich $esign it 7eco)es highly efficient an$ effecti-e in the .ireless trans)ission of energy0 =istance is then a7solutely eli)inate$8 there 7eing no diminution in the intensity of the transmitted im*ulses 0 ,t is e-en (ossi7le to )a2e the actions increase "ith the distance from the *lant accor$ing to an e'act )athe)atical la.0
This in-ention .as one of a nu)7er co)(rise$ in )y "&orl$9>yste)" of .ireless trans)ission .hich , un$ertoo2 to co))ercialiBe on )y return to 1e. Dor2 in 19550 As to the i))e$iate (ur(oses of )y enter(rise8 they .ere clearly outline$ in a technical state)ent of that (erio$ fro) .hich , quoteI "The '&orl$9>yste)' has resulte$ fro) a co)7ination of se-eral original $isco-eries )a$e 7y the in-entor in the course of long continue$ research an$ e'(eri)entation0 ,t )a2es (ossi7le not only the instantaneous an$ (recise .ireless trans)ission of any 2in$ of signals8 )essages or characters8 to all (arts of the .orl$8 7ut also the inter9connection of the e'isting telegra(h8 tele(hone8 an$ other signal stations .ithout any change in their (resent equi()ent0 3y its )eans8 for instance8 a tele(hone su7scri7er here )ay call u( an$ tal2 to any other su7scri7er on the Glo7e0 An ine'(ensi-e recei-er8 not 7igger than a .atch8 .ill ena7le hi) to listen any.here8 on lan$ or sea8 to a s(eech $eli-ere$ or )usic (laye$ in so)e other (lace8 ho.e-er $istant0 These e'a)(les are cite$ )erely to gi-e an i$ea of the (ossi7ilities of this great scientific a$-ance8 .hich annihilates $istance an$ )a2es that (erfect natural con$uctor8 the "arth8 a-aila7le for all the innu)era7le (ur(oses .hich hu)an ingenuity has foun$ for a line9.ire0 ;ne far9reaching result of this is that any $e-ice ca(a7le of 7eing o(erate$ through one or )ore .ires (at a $istance o7-iously restricte$ can li2e.ise 7e actuate$8 .ithout artificial con$uctors an$ .ith the sa)e facility an$ accuracy8 at $istances to .hich there are no li)its other than those i)(ose$ 7y the (hysical $i)ensions of the Glo7e0 Thus8 not only .ill entirely ne. fiel$s for co))ercial e'(loitation 7e o(ene$ u( 7y this i$eal )etho$ of trans)ission 7ut the ol$ ones -astly e'ten$e$0 The '&orl$9>yste)' is 7ase$ on the a((lication of the follo.ing i)(ortant in-entions an$ $isco-eriesI 10 The CTesla Transformer.C This a((aratus is in the (ro$uction of electrical -i7rations as re-olutionary as gun(o.$er .as in .arfare0 Currents )any ti)es stronger than any e-er generate$ in the usual .ays8 an$ s(ar2s o-er one hun$re$ feet long8 ha-e 7een (ro$uce$ 7y the in-entor .ith an instru)ent of this 2in$0 !0 The C/agnifying Transmitter.C This is Tesla's 7est in-ention8 a (eculiar transfor)er s(ecially a$a(te$ to e'cite the "arth8 .hich is in the trans)ission of electrical energy .hat the telesco(e is in astrono)ical o7ser-ation0 3y the use of this )ar-elous $e-ice he has alrea$y set u( electrical )o-e)ents of greater intensity than those of lightning an$ (asse$ a current8 sufficient to light )ore than t.o hun$re$ incan$escent la)(s8 aroun$ the Glo7e0 30 The CTesla #ireless &ystem.C This syste) co)(rises a nu)7er of i)(ro-e)ents an$ is the only )eans 2no.n for trans)itting econo)ically electrical energy to a $istance .ithout .ires0 Careful tests an$ )easure)ents in connection .ith an e'(eri)ental station of great acti-ity8 erecte$ 7y the in-entor in Colora$o8 ha-e $e)onstrate$ that (o.er in any $esire$ a)ount can 7e con-eye$8 clear across the Glo7e if necessary8 .ith a loss not e'cee$ing a fe. (er cent0 60 The CArt of Individuali;ation.C This in-ention of Tesla's is to (ri)iti-e 'tuning' .hat refine$ language is to unarticulate$ e'(ression0 ,t )a2es (ossi7le the trans)ission of signals or )essages a7solutely secret an$ e'clusi-e 7oth in the acti-e an$ (assi-e as(ect8 that is8 non9interfering as .ell as non9 interfera7le0 "ach signal is li2e an in$i-i$ual of un)ista2a7le i$entity an$ there is -irtually no li)it to the nu)7er of stations or instru)ents .hich can 7e si)ultaneously o(erate$ .ithout the slightest )utual $istur7ance0 40 CThe Terrestrial &tationary #aves.C This .on$erful $isco-ery8 (o(ularly e'(laine$8 )eans that the "arth is res(onsi-e to electrical -i7rations of $efinite (itch Hust as a tuning for2 to certain .a-es of soun$0 These (articular electrical -i7rations8 ca(a7le of (o.erfully e'citing the Glo7e8 len$ the)sel-es to innu)era7le uses of great i)(ortance co))ercially an$ in )any other res(ects0 The first '&orl$9>yste)' (o.er (lant can 7e (ut in o(eration in nine )onths0 &ith this (o.er (lant it .ill 7e (ractica7le to attain electrical acti-ities u( to ten )illion horse(o.er an$ it is $esigne$ to ser-e for as )any technical achie-e)ents as are (ossi7le .ithout $ue e'(ense0 A)ong these the follo.ing )ay 7e )entione$I
(1 The inter9connection of the e'isting telegra(h e'changes or offices all o-er the .orl$J (! The esta7lish)ent of a secret an$ non9interfera7le go-ern)ent telegra(h ser-iceJ (3 The inter9connection of all the (resent tele(hone e'changes or offices on the Glo7eJ (6 The uni-ersal $istri7ution of general ne.s8 7y telegra(h or tele(hone8 in connection .ith the <ressJ (4 The esta7lish)ent of such a '&orl$9>yste)' of intelligence trans)ission for e'clusi-e (ri-ate useJ (% The inter9connection an$ o(eration of all stoc2 tic2ers of the .orl$J (* The esta7lish)ent of a '&orl$9>yste)' of )usical $istri7ution8 etc0J (8 The uni-ersal registration of ti)e 7y chea( cloc2s in$icating the hour .ith astrono)ical (recision an$ requiring no attention .hate-erJ (9 The .orl$ trans)ission of ty(e$ or han$.ritten characters8 letters8 chec2s8 etc0J (15 The esta7lish)ent of a uni-ersal )arine ser-ice ena7ling the na-igators of all shi(s to steer (erfectly .ithout co)(ass8 to $eter)ine the e'act location8 hour an$ s(ee$8 to (re-ent collisions an$ $isasters8 etc0J (11 The inauguration of a syste) of .orl$9(rinting on lan$ an$ seaJ (1! The .orl$ re(ro$uction of (hotogra(hic (ictures an$ all 2in$s of $ra.ings or recor$s0" , also (ro(ose$ to )a2e $e)onstrations in the .ireless trans)ission of (o.er on a s)all scale 7ut sufficient to carry con-iction0 3esi$es these , referre$ to other an$ inco)(ara7ly )ore i)(ortant a((lications of )y $isco-eries .hich .ill 7e $isclose$ at so)e future $ate0 A (lant .as 7uilt on #ong ,slan$ .ith a to.er 18* feet high8 ha-ing a s(herical ter)inal a7out %8 feet in $ia)eter0 These $i)ensions .ere a$equate for the trans)ission of -irtually any a)ount of energy0 ;riginally only fro) !55 to 355 :0&0 .ere (ro-i$e$ 7ut , inten$e$ to e)(loy later se-eral thousan$ horse(o.er0 The trans)itter .as to e)it a .a-e co)(le' of s(ecial characteristics an$ , ha$ $e-ise$ a unique )etho$ of tele(honic control of any a)ount of energy0 The to.er .as $estroye$ t.o years ago 7ut )y (roHects are 7eing $e-elo(e$ an$ another one8 i)(ro-e$ in so)e features8 .ill 7e constructe$0 ;n this occasion , .oul$ contra$ict the .i$ely circulate$ re(ort that the structure .as $e)olishe$ 7y the Go-ern)ent .hich o.ing to .ar con$itions8 )ight ha-e create$ (reHu$ice in the )in$s of those .ho )ay not 2no. that the (a(ers8 .hich thirty years ago conferre$ u(on )e the honour of A)erican citiBenshi(8 are al.ays 2e(t in a safe8 .hile )y or$ers8 $i(lo)as8 $egrees8 gol$ )e$als an$ other $istinctions are (ac2e$ a.ay in ol$ trun2s0 ,f this re(ort ha$ a foun$ation , .oul$ ha-e 7een refun$e$ a large su) of )oney .hich , e'(en$e$ in the construction of the to.er0 ;n the contrary it .as in the interest of the Go-ern)ent to (reser-e it8 (articularly as it .oul$ ha-e )a$e (ossi7leKto )ention Hust one -alua7le resultKthe location of a su7)arine in any (art of the .orl$0 /y (lant8 ser-ices8 an$ all )y i)(ro-e)ents ha-e al.ays 7een at the $is(osal of the officials an$ e-er since the out7rea2 of the "uro(ean conflict , ha-e 7een .or2ing at a sacrifice on se-eral in-entions of )ine relating to aerial na-igation8 shi( (ro(ulsion an$ .ireless trans)ission .hich are of the greatest i)(ortance to the country0 Those .ho are .ell infor)e$ 2no. that )y i$eas ha-e re-olutioniBe$ the in$ustries of the Cnite$ >tates an$ , a) not a.are that there li-es an in-entor .ho has 7een8 in this res(ect8 as fortunate as )yself es(ecially as regar$s the use of his i)(ro-e)ents in the .ar0 , ha-e refraine$ fro) (u7licly e'(ressing )yself on this su7Hect 7efore as it see)e$ i)(ro(er to $.ell on (ersonal )atters .hile all the .orl$ .as in $ire trou7le0 , .oul$ a$$ further8 in -ie. of -arious ru)ors .hich ha-e reache$ )e8 that /r0 E0 <ier(ont /organ $i$ not
interest hi)self .ith )e in a 7usiness .ay 7ut in the sa)e large s(irit in .hich he has assiste$ )any other (ioneers0 He carrie$ out his generous (ro)ise to the letter an$ it .oul$ ha-e 7een )ost unreasona7le to e'(ect fro) hi) anything )ore0 He ha$ the highest regar$ for )y attain)ents an$ ga-e )e e-ery e-i$ence of his co)(lete faith in )y a7ility to ulti)ately achie-e .hat , ha$ set out to $o0 , a) un.illing to accor$ to so)e s)all)in$e$ an$ Healous in$i-i$uals the satisfaction of ha-ing th.arte$ )y efforts0 These )en are to )e nothing )ore than )icro7es of a nasty $isease0 /y (roHect .as retar$e$ 7y la.s of nature0 The .orl$ .as not (re(are$ for it0 ,t .as too far ahea$ of ti)e0 3ut the sa)e la.s .ill (re-ail in the en$ an$ )a2e it a triu)(hal success0 6:& T,e Art of Telautomati(s 1o su7Hect to .hich , ha-e e-er $e-ote$ )yself has calle$ for such concentration of )in$ an$ straine$ to so $angerous a $egree the finest fi7ers of )y 7rain as the syste) of .hich the /agnifying Trans)itter is the foun$ation0 , (ut all the intensity an$ -igour of youth in the $e-elo()ent of the rotating fiel$ $isco-eries8 7ut those early la7ors .ere of a $ifferent character0 Although strenuous in the e'tre)e8 they $i$ not in-ol-e that 2een an$ e'hausting $iscern)ent .hich ha$ to 7e e'ercise$ in attac2ing the )any (uBBling (ro7le)s of the .ireless0 =es(ite )y rare (hysical en$urance at that (erio$ the a7use$ ner-es finally re7elle$ an$ , suffere$ a co)(lete colla(se8 Hust as the consu))ation of the long an$ $ifficult tas2 .as al)ost in sight0 &ithout $ou7t , .oul$ ha-e (ai$ a greater (enalty later8 an$ -ery li2ely )y career .oul$ ha-e 7een (re)aturely ter)inate$8 ha$ not (ro-i$ence equi(t )e .ith a safety $e-ice8 .hich has see)e$ to i)(ro-e .ith a$-ancing years an$ unfailingly co)es into (lay .hen )y forces are at an en$0 >o long as it o(erates , a) safe fro) $anger8 $ue to o-er.or28 .hich threatens other in-entors an$8 inci$entally8 , nee$ no -acations .hich are in$is(ensa7le to )ost (eo(le0 &hen , a) all 7ut use$ u( , si)(ly $o as the $ar2ies8 .ho "naturally fall aslee( .hile .hite fol2s .orry0" To -enture a theory out of )y s(here8 the 7o$y (ro7a7ly accu)ulates little 7y little a $efinite quantity of so)e to'ic agent an$ , sin2 into a nearly lethargic state .hich lasts half an hour to the )inute0 C(on a.a2ening , ha-e the sensation as though the e-ents i))e$iately (rece$ing ha$ occurre$ -ery long ago8 an$ if , atte)(t to continue the interru(te$ train of thought , feel a -erita7le )ental nausea0 ,n-oluntarily , then turn to other .or2 an$ a) sur(rise$ at the freshness of the )in$ an$ ease .ith .hich , o-erco)e o7stacles that ha$ 7affle$ )e 7efore0 After .ee2s or )onths )y (assion for the te)(orarily a7an$one$ in-ention returns an$ , in-aria7ly fin$ ans.ers to all the -e'ing questions .ith scarcely any effort0 ,n this connection , .ill tell of an e'traor$inary e'(erience .hich )ay 7e of interest to stu$ents of (sychology0 , ha$ (ro$uce$ a stri2ing (heno)enon .ith )y groun$e$ trans)itter an$ .as en$ea-ouring to ascertain its true significance in relation to the currents (ro(agate$ through the earth0 ,t see)e$ a ho(eless un$erta2ing8 an$ for )ore than a year , .or2e$ unre)ittingly8 7ut in -ain0 This (rofoun$ stu$y so entirely a7sor7e$ )e that , 7eca)e forgetful of e-erything else8 e-en of )y un$er)ine$ health0 At last8 as , .as at the (oint of 7rea2ing $o.n8 nature a((lie$ the (reser-ati-e in$ucing lethal slee(0 +egaining )y senses , realiBe$ .ith consternation that , .as una7le to -isualiBe scenes fro) )y life e'ce(t those of infancy8 the -ery first ones that ha$ entere$ )y consciousness0 Curiously enough8 these a((eare$ 7efore )y -ision .ith startling $istinctness an$ affor$e$ )e .elco)e relief0 1ight after night8 .hen retiring8 , .oul$ thin2 of the) an$ )ore an$ )ore of )y (re-ious e'istence .as re-eale$0 The i)age of )y )other .as al.ays the (rinci(al figure in the s(ectacle that slo.ly unfol$e$8 an$ a consu)ing $esire to see her again gra$ually too2 (ossession of )e0 This feeling gre. so strong that , resol-e$ to $ro( all .or2 an$ satisfy )y longing0 3ut , foun$ it too har$ to 7rea2 a.ay fro) the la7oratory8 an$ se-eral )onths ela(se$ $uring .hich , ha$ succee$e$ in re-i-ing all the i)(ressions of )y (ast life u( to the s(ring of 189!0 ,n the ne't (icture that ca)e out of the )ist of o7li-ion8 , sa. )yself at the Hotel $e la <ai' in <aris Hust co)ing to fro) one of )y (eculiar slee(ing s(ells8 .hich ha$ 7een cause$ 7y (rolonge$ e'ertion of the 7rain0 ,)agine the (ain an$ $istress , felt .hen it flashe$ u(on )y )in$ that a $is(atch .as han$e$ to )e at that -ery )o)ent 7earing the sa$ ne.s that )y )other .as $ying0 , re)e)7ere$ ho. , )a$e the long Hourney ho)e .ithout an hour of rest an$ ho. she (asse$ a.ay after .ee2s of agonyY ,t .as es(ecially re)ar2a7le that $uring all this (erio$ of (artially o7literate$ )e)ory , .as fully ali-e to e-erything touching on the su7Hect of )y research0 , coul$ recall the s)allest $etails an$ the least significant o7ser-ations in )y e'(eri)ents an$ e-en recite (ages of te't an$ co)(le' )athe)atical for)ulae0 /y 7elief is fir) in a la. of co)(ensation0 The true re.ar$s are e-er in (ro(ortion to the la7or an$ sacrifices )a$e0 This is one of the reasons .hy , feel certain that of all )y in-entions8 the /agnifying Trans)itter .ill (ro-e )ost i)(ortant an$ -alua7le to future generations0 , a) (ro)(te$ to this (re$iction not so )uch 7y thoughts of the co))ercial an$ in$ustrial re-olution .hich it .ill surely 7ring a7out8 7ut of the hu)anitarian consequences of the )any achie-e)ents it )a2es (ossi7le0 Consi$erations of )ere utility .eigh little in the 7alance against the higher 7enefits of ci-iliBation0 &e are confronte$ .ith (ortentous (ro7le)s .hich can not 7e sol-e$ Hust 7y (ro-i$ing for our )aterial e'istence8 ho.e-er a7un$antly0 ;n the contrary8 (rogress in this $irection is fraught
.ith haBar$s an$ (erils not less )enacing than those 7orn fro) .ant an$ suffering0 ,f .e .ere to release the energy of ato)s or $isco-er so)e other .ay of $e-elo(ing chea( an$ unli)ite$ (o.er at any (oint of the glo7e this acco)(lish)ent8 instea$ of 7eing a 7lessing8 )ight 7ring $isaster to )an2in$ in gi-ing rise to $issension an$ anarchy .hich .oul$ ulti)ately result in the enthrone)ent of the hate$ regi)e of force0 The greatest goo$ .ill co)es fro) technical i)(ro-e)ents ten$ing to unification an$ har)ony8 an$ )y .ireless trans)itter is (ree)inently such0 3y its )eans the hu)an -oice an$ li2eness .ill 7e re(ro$uce$ e-ery.here an$ factories $ri-en thousan$s of )iles fro) .aterfalls furnishing the (o.erJ aerial )achines .ill 7e (ro(elle$ aroun$ the earth .ithout a sto( an$ the sun's energy controlle$ to create la2es an$ ri-ers for )oti-e (ur(oses an$ transfor)ation of ari$ $eserts into fertile lan$0 ,ts intro$uction for telegra(hic8 tele(honic an$ si)ilar uses .ill auto)atically cut out the statics an$ all other interferences .hich at (resent i)(ose narro. li)its to the a((lication of the .ireless0 This is a ti)ely to(ic on .hich a fe. .or$s )ight not 7e a)iss0 =uring the (ast $eca$e a nu)7er of (eo(le ha-e arrogantly clai)e$ that they ha$ succee$e$ in $oing a.ay .ith this i)(e$i)ent0 , ha-e carefully e'a)ine$ all of the arrange)ents $escri7e$ an$ teste$ )ost of the) long 7efore they .ere (u7licly $isclose$8 7ut the fin$ing .as unifor)ly negati-e0 A recent official state)ent fro) the C0>0 1a-y )ay8 (erha(s8 ha-e taught so)e 7eguila7le ne.s e$itors ho. to a((raise these announc)ents at their real .orth0 As a rule the atte)(ts are 7ase$ on theories so fallacious that .hene-er they co)e to )y notice , can not hel( thin2ing in a lighter -ein0 Auite recently a ne. $isco-ery .as heral$e$8 .ith a $eafening flourish of tru)(ets8 7ut it (ro-e$ another case of a )ountain 7ringing forth a )ouse0 This re)in$s )e of an e'citing inci$ent .hich too2 (lace years ago .hen , .as con$ucting )y e'(eri)ents .ith currents of high frequency0 >te-e 3ro$ie ha$ Hust Hu)(e$ off the 3roo2lyn 3ri$ge0 The feat has 7een -ulgariBe$ since 7y i)itators8 7ut the first re(ort electrifie$ 1e. Dor20 , .as -ery i)(ressiona7le then an$ frequently s(o2e of the $aring (rinter0 ;n a hot afternoon , felt the necessity of refreshing )yself an$ ste((e$ into one of the (o(ular thirty thousan$ institutions of this great city .here a $elicious t.el-e (er cent 7e-erage .as ser-e$ .hich can no. 7e ha$ only 7y )a2ing a tri( to the (oor an$ $e-astate$ countries of "uro(e0 The atten$ance .as large an$ not o-er$istinguishe$ an$ a )atter .as $iscusse$ .hich ga-e )e an a$)ira7le o(ening for the careless re)ar2I "This is .hat , sai$ .hen , Hu)(e$ off the 7ri$ge0" 1o sooner ha$ , uttere$ these .or$s than , felt li2e the co)(anion of Ti)otheus in the (oe) of >chiller0 ,n an instant there .as a (an$e)oniu) an$ a $oBen -oices crie$I ",t is 3ro$ieY " , thre. a quarter on the counter an$ 7olte$ for the $oor 7ut the cro.$ .as at )y heels .ith yellsI ">to(8 >te-eY" .hich )ust ha-e 7een )isun$erstoo$ for )any (ersons trie$ to hol$ )e u( as , ran frantically for )y ha-en of refuge0 3y $arting aroun$ corners , fortunately )anage$ 9 through the )e$iu) of a fire9esca(e 9 to reach the la7oratory .here , thre. off )y coat8 ca)ouflage$ )yself as a har$9 .or2ing 7lac2s)ith8 an$ starte$ the forge0 3ut these (recautions (ro-e$ unnecessaryJ , ha$ elu$e$ )y (ursuers0 For )any years after.ar$8 at night8 .hen i)agination turns into s(ectres the trifling trou7les of the $ay8 , often thought8 as , tosse$ on the 7e$8 .hat )y fate .oul$ ha-e 7een ha$ that )o7 caught )e an$ foun$ out that , .as not >te-e 3ro$ieY 1o. the engineer8 .ho lately ga-e an account 7efore a technical 7o$y of a no-el re)e$y against statics 7ase$ on a "heretofore un2no.n la. of nature8" see)s to ha-e 7een as rec2less as )yself .hen he conten$e$ that these $istur7ances (ro(agate u( an$ $o.n8 .hile those of a trans)itter (rocee$ along the earth0 ,t .oul$ )ean that a con$enser8 as this glo7e8 .ith its gaseous en-elo(e8 coul$ 7e charge$ an$ $ischarge$ in a )anner quite contrary to the fun$a)ental teachings (ro(oun$e$ in e-ery ele)ental te't97oo2 of (hysics0 >uch a su((osition .oul$ ha-e 7een con$e)ne$ as erroneous8 e-en in Fran2lin's ti)e8 for the facts 7earing on this .ere then .ell 2no.n an$ the i$entity 7et.een at)os(heric electricity an$ that $e-elo(e$ 7y )achines .as fully esta7lishe$0 ;7-iously8 natural an$ artificial $istur7ances (ro(agate through the earth an$ the air in e'actly the sa)e .ay8 an$ 7oth set u( electro)oti-e forces in the horiBontal8 as .ell as -ertical8 sense0 ,nterference can not 7e o-erco)e 7y any such )etho$s as .ere (ro(ose$0 The truth is thisI in the air the (otential increases at the rate of a7out fifty -olts (er foot of ele-ation8 o.ing to .hich there )ay 7e a $ifference of (ressure a)ounting to t.enty8 or e-en forty thousan$ -olts 7et.een the u((er an$ lo.er en$s of the antenna0 The )asses of the charge$ at)os(here are constantly in )otion an$ gi-e u( electricity to the con$uctor8 not continuously 7ut rather $isru(ti-ely8 this (ro$ucing a grin$ing noise in a sensiti-e tele(honic recei-er0 The higher the ter)inal an$ the greater the s(ace enco)(asse$ 7y the .ires8 the )ore (ronounce$ is the effect8 7ut it )ust 7e un$erstoo$ that it is (urely local an$ has little to $o .ith the real trou7le0 ,n 19558 .hile (erfecting )y .ireless syste)8 one for) of a((aratus co)(rise$ four antennae0 These .ere carefully cali7rate$ to the sa)e frequency an$ connecte$ in )ulti(le .ith the o7Hect of )agnifying the action8 in recei-ing fro) any $irection0 &hen , $esire$ to ascertain the origin of the trans)itte$ i)(ulses8 each $iagonally situate$ (air .as (ut in series .ith a (ri)ary coil energiBing the $etector circuit0 ,n the for)er case the soun$
.as lou$ in the tele(honeJ in the latter it cease$8 as e'(ecte$8 the t.o antennae neutraliBing each other8 7ut the true statics )anifeste$ the)sel-es in 7oth instances an$ , ha$ to $e-ise s(ecial (re-enti-es e)7o$ying $ifferent (rinci(les0 3y e)(loying recei-ers connecte$ to t.o (oints of the groun$8 as suggeste$ 7y )e long ago8 this trou7le cause$ 7y the charge$ air8 .hich is -ery serious in the structures as no. 7uilt8 is nullifie$ an$ 7esi$es8 the lia7ility of all 2in$s of interference is re$uce$ to a7out one9half8 7ecause of the $irectional character of the circuit0 This .as (erfectly self9e-i$ent8 7ut ca)e as a re-elation to so)e si)(le9)in$e$ .ireless fol2s .hose e'(erience .as confine$ to for)s of a((aratus that coul$ ha-e 7een i)(ro-e$ .ith an a'e8 an$ they ha-e 7een $is(osing of the 7ear's s2in 7efore 2illing hi)0 ,f it .ere true that strays (erfor)e$ such antics8 it .oul$ 7e easy to get ri$ of the) 7y recei-ing .ithout aerials0 3ut8 as a )atter of fact8 a .ire 7urie$ in the groun$ .hich8 confor)ing to this -ie.8 shoul$ 7e a7solutely i))une8 is )ore susce(ti7le to certain e'traneous i)(ulses than one (lace$ -ertically in the air0 To state it fairly8 a slight (rogress has 7een )a$e8 7ut not 7y -irtue of any (articular )etho$ or $e-ice0 ,t .as achie-e$ si)(ly 7y $iscar$ing the enor)ous structures8 .hich are 7a$ enough for trans)ission 7ut .holly unsuita7le for rece(tion8 an$ a$o(ting a )ore a((ro(riate ty(e of recei-er0 As , (ointe$ out in a (re-ious article8 to $is(ose of this $ifficulty for goo$8 a ra$ical change )ust 7e )a$e in the syste)8 an$ the sooner this is $one the 7etter0 ,t .oul$ 7e cala)itous8 in$ee$8 if at this ti)e .hen the art is in its infancy an$ the -ast )aHority8 not e'ce(ting e-en e'(erts8 ha-e no conce(tion of its ulti)ate (ossi7ilities8 a )easure .oul$ 7e rushe$ through the legislature )a2ing it a go-ern)ent )ono(oly0 This .as (ro(ose$ a fe. .ee2s ago 7y >ecretary =aniels8 an$ no $ou7t that $istinguishe$ official has )a$e his a((eal to the >enate an$ House of +e(resentati-es .ith sincere con-iction0 3ut uni-ersal e-i$ence un)ista2a7ly sho.s that the 7est results are al.ays o7taine$ in healthful co))ercial co)(etition0 There are8 ho.e-er8 e'ce(tional reasons .hy .ireless shoul$ 7e gi-en the fullest free$o) of $e-elo()ent0 ,n the first (lace it offers (ros(ects i))easura7ly greater an$ )ore -ital to 7etter)ent of hu)an life than any other in-ention or $isco-ery in the history of )an0 Then again8 it )ust 7e un$erstoo$ that this .on$erful art has 7een8 in its entirety8 e-ol-e$ here an$ can 7e calle$ "A)erican" .ith )ore right an$ (ro(riety than the tele(hone8 the incan$escent la)( or the aero(lane0 "nter(rising (ress agents an$ stoc2 Ho77ers ha-e 7een so successful in s(rea$ing )isinfor)ation that e-en so e'cellent a (erio$ical as the >cientific A)erican accor$s the chief cre$it to a foreign country0 The Ger)ans8 of course8 ga-e us the HertB9.a-es an$ the +ussian8 "nglish8 French an$ ,talian e'(erts .ere quic2 in using the) for signaling (ur(oses0 ,t .as an o7-ious a((lication of the ne. agent an$ acco)(lishe$ .ith the ol$ classical an$ uni)(ro-e$ in$uction coil 9 scarcely anything )ore than another 2in$ of heliogra(hy0 The ra$ius of trans)ission .as -ery li)ite$8 the results attaine$ of little -alue8 an$ the HertB oscillations8 as a )eans for con-eying intelligence8 coul$ ha-e 7een a$-antageously re(lace$ 7y soun$9.a-es8 .hich , a$-ocate$ in 18910 /oreo-er8 all of these atte)(ts .ere )a$e three years after the 7asic (rinci(les of the .ireless syste)8 .hich is uni-ersally e)(loye$ to9$ay8 an$ its (otent instru)entalities ha$ 7een clearly $escri7e$ an$ $e-elo(e$ in A)erica0 1o trace of those HertBian a((liances an$ )etho$s re)ains to$ay0 &e ha-e (rocee$e$ in the -ery o((osite $irection an$ .hat has 7een $one is the (ro$uct of the 7rains an$ efforts of citiBens of this country0 The fun$a)ental (atents ha-e e'(ire$ an$ the o((ortunities are o(en to all0 The chief argu)ent of the >ecretary is 7ase$ on interference0 Accor$ing to his state)ent8 re(orte$ in the 1e. Dor2 Heral$ of Euly !9th8 signals fro) a (o.erful station can 7e interce(te$ in e-ery -illage of the .orl$ 0 ,n -ie. of this fact8 .hich .as $e)onstrate$ in )y e'(eri)ents of 19558 it .oul$ 7e of little use to i)(ose restrictions in the Cnite$ >tates0 As thro.ing light on this (oint8 , )ay )ention that only recently an o$$ loo2ing gentle)an calle$ on )e .ith the o7Hect of enlisting )y ser-ices in the construction of .orl$ trans)itters in so)e $istant lan$0 "&e ha-e no )oney8" he sai$8 "7ut carloa$s of soli$ gol$ an$ .e .ill gi-e you a li7eral a)ount0" , tol$ hi) that , .ante$ to see first .hat .ill 7e $one .ith )y in-entions in A)erica8 an$ this en$e$ the inter-ie.0 3ut , a) satisfie$ that so)e $ar2 forces are at .or28 an$ as ti)e goes on the )aintenance of continuous co))unication .ill 7e ren$ere$ )ore $ifficult0 The only re)e$y is a syste) i))une against interru(tion0 ,t has 7een (erfecte$8 it e'ists8 an$ all that is necessary is to (ut it in o(eration0 The terri7le conflict is still u((er)ost in the )in$s an$ (erha(s the greatest i)(ortance .ill 7e attache$ to the /agnifying Trans)itter as a )achine for attac2 an$ $efense8 )ore (articularly in connection .ith Telauto)atics0 This in-ention is a logical outco)e of o7ser-ations 7egun in )y 7oyhoo$ an$ continue$ thruout )y life0 &hen the first results .ere (u7lisht the "lectrical +e-ie. state$ e$itorially that it .oul$ 7eco)e one of the ")ost (otent factors in the a$-ance an$ ci-iliBation of )an2in$0" The ti)e is not $istant .hen this (re$iction .ill 7e fulfille$0 ,n 1898 an$ 1955 it .as offere$ to the Go-ern)ent an$ )ight ha-e 7een a$o(te$ .ere , one of those .ho .oul$ go to Ale'an$er's she(her$ .hen they .ant a fa-or fro) Ale'an$er0 At that ti)e , really thought that it .oul$ a7olish .ar8 7ecause of its unli)ite$ $estructi-eness an$ e'clusion of the (ersonal ele)ent of co)7at0 3ut .hile
, ha-e not lost faith in its (otentialities8 )y -ie.s ha-e change$ since0 &ar can not 7e a-oi$e$ until the (hysical cause for its recurrence is re)o-e$ an$ this8 in the last analysis8 is the -ast e'tent of the (lanet on .hich .e li-e0 ;nly through annihilation of $istance in e-ery res(ect8 as the con-eyance of intelligence8 trans(ort of (assengers an$ su((lies an$ trans)ission of energy .ill con$itions 7e 7rought a7out so)e $ay8 insuring (er)anency of frien$ly relations0 &hat .e no. .ant )ost is closer contact an$ 7etter un$erstan$ing 7et.een in$i-i$uals an$ co))unities all o-er the earth8 an$ the eli)ination of that fanatic $e-otion to e'alte$ i$eals of national egois) an$ (ri$e .hich is al.ays (rone to (lunge the .orl$ into (ri)e-al 7ar7aris) an$ strife0 1o league or (arlia)entary act of any 2in$ .ill e-er (re-ent such a cala)ity0 These are only ne. $e-ices for (utting the .ea2 at the )ercy of the strong0 , ha-e e'(rest )yself in this regar$ fourteen years ago8 .hen a co)7ination of a fe. lea$ing go-ern)ents 9 a sort of Holy Alliance 9 .as a$-ocate$ 7y the late An$re. Carnegie8 .ho )ay 7e fairly consi$ere$ as the father of this i$ea8 ha-ing gi-en to it )ore (u7licity an$ i)(etus than any7o$y else (rior to the efforts of the <resi$ent0 &hile it can not 7e $enie$ that such a (act )ight 7e of )aterial a$-antage to so)e less fortunate (eo(les8 it can not attain the chief o7Hect sought0 <eace can only co)e as a natural consequence of uni-ersal enlighten)ent an$ )erging of races8 an$ .e are still far fro) this 7lissful realiBation0 As , -ie. the .orl$ of to$ay8 in the light of the gigantic struggle .e ha-e .itnest8 , a) fille$ .ith con-iction that the interests of hu)anity .oul$ 7e 7est ser-e$ if the Cnite$ >tates re)aine$ true to its tra$itions an$ 2e(t out of "entangling alliances0" >ituate$ as it is8 geogra(hically8 re)ote fro) the theaters of i)(en$ing conflicts8 .ithout incenti-e to territorial aggran$iBe)ent8 .ith ine'hausti7le resources an$ i))ense (o(ulation thoroughly i)7ue$ .ith the s(irit of li7erty an$ right8 this country is (lace$ in a unique an$ (ri-ilege$ (osition0 ,t is thus a7le to e'ert8 in$e(en$ently8 its colossal strength an$ )oral force to the 7enefit of all8 )ore Hu$iciously an$ effecti-ely8 than as )e)7er of a league0 ,n one of these 7iogra(hical s2etches8 (u7lishe$ in the "#"CT+,CA# "]<"+,/"1T"+8 , ha-e $.elt on the circu)stances of )y early life an$ tol$ of an affliction .hich co)(elle$ )e to unre)itting e'ercise of i)agination an$ self o7ser-ation0 This )ental acti-ity8 at first in-oluntary un$er the (ressure of illness an$ suffering8 gra$ually 7eca)e secon$ nature an$ le$ )e finally to recogniBe that , .as 7ut an auto)aton $e-oi$ of free .ill in thought an$ action an$ )erely res(onsi-e to the forces of the en-iron)ent0 ;ur 7o$ies are of such co)(le'ity of structure8 the )otions .e (erfor) are so nu)erous an$ in-ol-e$8 an$ the e'ternal i)(ressions on our sense organs to such a $egree $elicate an$ elusi-e that it is har$ for the a-erage (erson to gras( this fact0 An$ yet nothing is )ore con-incing to the traine$ in-estigator than the )echanistic theory of life .hich ha$ 7een8 in a )easure8 un$erstoo$ an$ (ro(oun$e$ 7y =escartes three hun$re$ years ago0 3ut in his ti)e )any i)(ortant functions of our organis) .ere un2no.n an$8 es(ecially .ith res(ect to the nature of light an$ the construction an$ o(eration of the eye8 (hiloso(hers .ere in the $ar20 ,n recent years the (rogress of scientific research in these fiel$s has 7een such as to lea-e no roo) for a $ou7t in regar$ to this -ie. on .hich )any .or2s ha-e 7een (u7lishe$0 ;ne of its a7lest an$ )ost eloquent e'(onents is8 (erha(s8 Feli' #e =antec8 for)erly assistant of <asteur0 <rof0 Eacques #oe7 has (erfor)e$ re)ar2a7le e'(eri)ents in heliotro(is)8 clearly esta7lishing the controlling (o.er of light in lo.er for)s of organis)s8 an$ his latest 7oo28 "Force$ /o-e)ents8" is re-elatory0 3ut .hile )en of science acce(t this theory si)(ly as any other that is recogniBe$8 to )e it is a truth .hich , hourly $e)onstrate 7y e-ery act an$ thought of )ine0 The consciousness of the e'ternal i)(ression (ro)(ting )e to any 2in$ of e'ertion8 (hysical or )ental8 is e-er (resent in )y )in$0 ;nly on -ery rare occasions8 .hen , .as in a state of e'ce(tional concentration8 ha-e , foun$ $ifficulty in locating the original i)(ulses0 The 7y far greater nu)7er of hu)an 7eings are ne-er a.are of .hat is (assing aroun$ an$ .ithin the)8 an$ )illions fall -icti)s of $isease an$ $ie (re)aturely Hust on this account0 The co))onest e-ery9$ay occurrences a((ear to the) )ysterious an$ ine'(lica7le0 ;ne )ay feel a su$$en .a-e of sa$ness an$ ra2e his 7rain for an e'(lanation .hen he )ight ha-e notice$ that it .as cause$ 7y a clou$ cutting off the rays of the sun0 He )ay see the i)age of a frien$ $ear to hi) un$er con$itions .hich he construes as -ery (eculiar8 .hen only shortly 7efore he has (asse$ hi) in the street or seen his (hotogra(h so)e.here0 &hen he loses a collar 7utton he fusses an$ s.ears for an hour8 7eing una7le to -isualiBe his (re-ious actions an$ locate the o7Hect $irectly0 =eficient o7ser-ation is )erely a for) of ignorance an$ res(onsi7le for the )any )or7i$ notions an$ foolish i$eas (re-ailing0 There is not )ore than one out of e-ery ten (ersons .ho $oes not 7elie-e in tele(athy an$ other (sychic )anifestations8 s(iritualis) an$ co))union .ith the $ea$8 an$ .ho .oul$ refuse to listen to .illing or un.illing $ecei-ers0 Eust to illustrate ho. $ee(ly roote$ this ten$ency has 7eco)e e-en a)ong the clearhea$e$ A)erican (o(ulation8 , )ay )ention a co)ical inci$ent0 >hortly 7efore the .ar8 .hen the e'hi7ition of )y tur7ines in this
city elicite$ .i$es(rea$ co))ent in the technical (a(ers8 , antici(ate$ that there .oul$0 7e a scra)7le a)ong )anufacturers to get hol$ of the in-ention8 an$ , ha$ (articular $esigns on that )an fro) =etroit .ho has an uncanny faculty for accu)ulating )illions0 >o confi$ent .as , that he .oul$ turn u( so)e $ay8 that , $eclare$ this as certain to )y secretary an$ assistants0 >ure enough8 one fine )orning a 7o$y of engineers fro) the For$ /otor Co)(any (resente$ the)sel-es .ith the request of $iscussing .ith )e an i)(ortant (roHect0 "=i$n't , tell youF" , re)ar2e$ triu)(hantly to )y e)(loyees8 an$ one of the) sai$8 "Dou are a)aBing8 /r0 TeslaJ e-erything co)es out e'actly as you (re$ict0" As soon as these har$9hea$e$ )en .ere seate$ ,8 of course8 i))e$iately 7egan to e'tol the .on$erful features of )y tur7ine8 .hen the s(o2es)en interru(te$ )e an$ sai$8 "&e 2no. all a7out this8 7ut .e are on a s(ecial erran$0 &e ha-e for)e$ a (sychological society for the in-estigation of (sychic (heno)ena an$ .e .ant you to Hoin us in this un$erta2ing0" , su((ose those engineers ne-er 2ne. ho. near they ca)e to 7eing fire$ out of )y office0 "-er since , .as tol$ 7y so)e of the greatest )en of the ti)e8 lea$ers in science .hose na)es are i))ortal8 that , a) (ossesst of an unusual )in$8 , 7ent all )y thin2ing faculties on the solution of great (ro7le)s regar$less of sacrifice0 For )any years , en$ea-oure$ to sol-e the enig)a of $eath8 an$ .atche$ eagerly for e-ery 2in$ of s(iritual in$ication0 3ut only once in the course of )y e'istence ha-e , ha$ an e'(erience .hich )o)entarily i)(resse$ )e as su(ernatural0 ,t .as at the ti)e of )y )other's $eath0 , ha$ 7eco)e co)(letely e'hauste$ 7y (ain an$ long -igilance8 an$ one night .as carrie$ to a 7uil$ing a7out t.o 7loc2s fro) our ho)e0 As , lay hel(less there8 , thought that if )y )other $ie$ .hile , .as a.ay fro) her 7e$si$e she .oul$ surely gi-e )e a sign0 T.o or three )onths 7efore , .as in #on$on in co)(any .ith )y late frien$8 >ir &illia) Croo2es8 .hen s(iritualis) .as $iscusse$8 an$ , .as un$er the full s.ay of these thoughts0 , )ight not ha-e (ai$ attention to other )en8 7ut .as susce(ti7le to his argu)ents as it .as his e(ochal .or2 on ra$iant )atter8 .hich , ha$ rea$ as a stu$ent8 that )a$e )e e)7race the electrical career0 , reflecte$ that the con$itions for a loo2 into the 7eyon$ .ere )ost fa-ora7le8 for )y )other .as a .o)an of genius an$ (articularly e'celling in the (o.ers of intuition0 =uring the .hole night e-ery fi7er in )y 7rain .as straine$ in e'(ectancy8 7ut nothing ha((ene$ until early in the )orning8 .hen , fell in a slee(8 or (erha(s a s.oon8 an$ sa. a clou$ carrying angelic figures of )ar-elous 7eauty8 one of .ho) gaBe$ u(on )e lo-ingly an$ gra$ually assu)e$ the features of )y )other0 The a((earance slo.ly floate$ across the roo) an$ -anishe$8 an$ , .as a.a2ene$ 7y an in$escri7a7ly s.eet song of )any -oices0 ,n that instant a certitu$e8 .hich no .or$s can e'(ress8 ca)e u(on )e that )y )other ha$ Hust $ie$0 An$ that .as true0 , .as una7le to un$erstan$ the tre)en$ous .eight of the (ainful 2no.le$ge , recei-e$ in a$-ance8 an$ .rote a letter to >ir &illia) Croo2es .hile still un$er the $o)ination of these i)(ressions an$ in (oor 7o$ily health0 &hen , reco-ere$ , sought for a long ti)e the e'ternal cause of this strange )anifestation an$8 to )y great relief8 , succee$e$ after )any )onths of fruitless effort0 , ha$ seen the (ainting of a cele7rate$ artist8 re(resenting allegorically one of the seasons in the for) of a clou$ .ith a grou( of angels .hich see)e$ to actually float in the air8 an$ this ha$ struc2 )e forcefully0 ,t .as e'actly the sa)e that a((eare$ in )y $rea)8 .ith the e'ce(tion of )y )other's li2eness0 The )usic ca)e fro) the choir in the church near7y at the early )ass of "aster )orning8 e'(laining e-erything satisfactorily in confor)ity .ith scientific facts0 This occurre$ long ago8 an$ , ha-e ne-er ha$ the faintest reason since to change )y -ie.s on (sychical an$ s(iritual (heno)ena8 for .hich there is a7solutely no foun$ation0 The 7elief in these is the natural outgro.th of intellectual $e-elo()ent0 +eligious $og)as are no longer acce(te$ in their ortho$o' )eaning8 7ut e-ery in$i-i$ual clings to faith in a su(re)e (o.er of so)e 2in$0 &e all )ust ha-e an i$eal to go-ern our con$uct an$ insure content)ent8 7ut it is i))aterial .hether it 7e one of cree$8 art8 science or anything else8 so long as it fulfills the function of a $e)aterialiBing force0 ,t is essential to the (eacef ul e'istence of hu)anity as a .hole that one co))on conce(tion shoul$ (re-ail0 &hile , ha-e faile$ to o7tain any e-i$ence in su((ort of the contentions of (sychologists an$ s(iritualists8 , ha-e (ro-e$ to )y co)(lete satisfaction the auto)atis) of life8 not only through continuous o7ser-ations of in$i-i$ual actions8 7ut e-en )ore conclusi-ely through certain generaliBations0 These a)ount to a $isco-ery .hich , consi$er of the greatest )o)ent to hu)an society8 an$ on .hich , shall 7riefly $.ell0 , got the first in2ling of this astoun$ing truth .hen , .as still a -ery young )an8 7ut for )any years , inter(rete$ .hat , note$ si)(ly as coinci$ences0 1a)ely8 .hene-er either )yself or a (erson to .ho) , .as attache$8 or a cause to .hich , .as $e-ote$8 .as hurt 7y others in a (articular .ay8 .hich )ight 7e 7est (o(ularly characteriBe$ as the )ost unfair i)agina7le8 , e'(erience$ a singular an$ un$efina7le (ain .hich8 for .ant of a 7etter ter)8 , ha-e qualifie$ as "cos)ic8" an$ shortly thereafter8 an$ in-aria7ly8 those .ho ha$ inflicte$ it ca)e to grief0 After )any such cases , confi$e$ this to a nu)7er of frien$s8 .ho ha$ the o((ortunity to con-ince the)sel-es of the truth of the theory .hich , ha-e gra$ually for)ulate$ an$ .hich )ay 7e state$ in the follo.ing fe. .or$sI ;ur 7o$ies are of si)ilar construction an$ e'(ose$ to the sa)e e'ternal influences0 This results in li2eness of res(onse an$ concor$ance of the general acti-ities on .hich all our social an$ other rules an$ la.s are 7ase$0
&e are auto)ata entirely controlle$ 7y the forces of the )e$iu) 7eing tosse$ a7out li2e cor2s on the surface of the .ater8 7ut )ista2ing the resultant of the i)(ulses fro) the outsi$e for free .ill0 The )o-e)ents an$ other actions .e (erfor) are al.ays life (reser-ati-e an$ though see)ingly quite in$e(en$ent fro) one another8 .e are connecte$ 7y in-isi7le lin2s0 >o long as the organis) is in (erfect or$er it res(on$s accurately to the agents that (ro)(t it8 7ut the )o)ent that there is so)e $erange)ent in any in$i-i$ual8 his self9(reser-ati-e (o.er is i)(aire$0 "-ery7o$y un$erstan$s8 of course8 that if one 7eco)es $eaf8 has his eyesight .ea2ene$8 or his li)7s inHure$8 the chances for his continue$ e'istence are lessene$0 3ut this is also true8 an$ (erha(s )ore so8 of certain $efects in the 7rain .hich $e(ri-e the auto)aton8 )ore or less8 of that -ital quality an$ cause it to rush into $estruction0 A -ery sensiti-e an$ o7ser-ant 7eing8 .ith his highly $e-elo(e$ )echanis) all intact8 an$ acting .ith (recision in o7e$ience to the changing con$itions of the en-iron)ent8 is en$o.e$ .ith a transcen$ing )echanical sense8 ena7ling hi) to e-a$e (erils too su7tle to 7e $irectly (ercei-e$0 &hen he co)es in contact .ith others .hose controlling organs are ra$ically faulty8 that sense asserts itself an$ he feels the "cos)ic" (ain0 The truth of this has 7een 7orne out in hun$re$s of instances an$ , a) in-iting other stu$ents of nature to $e-ote attention to this su7Hect8 7elie-ing that through co)7ine$ an$ syste)atic effort results of incalcula7le -alue to the .orl$ .ill 7e attaine$0 The i$ea of constructing an auto)aton8 to 7ear out )y theory8 (resente$ itself to )e early 7ut , $i$ not 7egin acti-e .or2 until 18938 .hen , starte$ )y .ireless in-estigations0 =uring the succee$ing t.o or three years a nu)7er of auto)atic )echanis)s8 to 7e actuate$ fro) a $istance8 .ere constructe$ 7y )e an$ e'hi7ite$ to -isitors in )y la7oratory0 ,n 189%8 ho.e-er8 , $esigne$ a co)(lete )achine ca(a7le of a )ultitu$e of o(erations8 7ut the consu))ation of )y la7ors .as $elaye$ until late in 189*0 This )achine .as illustrate$ an$ $escri7e$ in )y article in the Century /agaBine of Eune8 19558 an$ other (erio$icals of that ti)e an$8 .hen first sho.n in the 7eginning of 18988 it create$ a sensation such as no other in-ention of )ine has e-er (ro$uce$0 ,n 1o-e)7er8 18988 a 7asic (atent on the no-el art .as grante$ to )e8 7ut only after the "'a)iner9in9Chief ha$ co)e to 1e. Dor2 an$ .itnesst the (erfor)ance8 for .hat , clai)e$ see)e$ un7elie-a7le0 , re)e)7er that .hen later , calle$ on an official in &ashington8 .ith a -ie. of offering the in-ention to the Go-ern)ent8 he 7urst out in laughter u(on )y telling hi) .hat , ha$ acco)(lishe$0 1o7o$y thought then that there .as the faintest (ros(ect of (erfecting such a $e-ice0 ,t is unfortunate that in this (atent8 follo.ing the a$-ice of )y attorneys8 , in$icate$ the control as 7eing effecte$ through the )e$iu) of a single circuit an$ a .ell92no.n for) of $etector8 for the reason that , ha$ not yet secure$ (rotection on )y )etho$s an$ a((aratus for in$i-i$ualiBation0 As a )atter of fact8 )y 7oats .ere controlle$ through the Hoint action of se-eral circuits an$ interference of e-ery 2in$ .as e'clu$e$0 /ost generally , e)(loye$ recei-ing circuits in the for) of loo(s8 inclu$ing con$ensers8 7ecause the $ischarges of )y high9tension trans)itter ioniBe$ the air in the hall so that e-en a -ery s)all aerial .oul$ $ra. electricity fro) the surroun$ing at)os(here for hours0 Eust to gi-e an i$ea8 , foun$8 for instance8 that a 7ul7 1!" in $ia)eter8 highly e'hauste$8 an$ .ith one single ter)inal to .hich a short .ire .as attache$8 .oul$ $eli-er .ell on to one thousan$ successi-e flashes 7efore all charge of the air in the la7oratory .as neutraliBe$0 The loo( for) of recei-er .as not sensiti-e to such a $istur7ance an$ it is curious to note that it is 7eco)ing (o(ular at this late $ate0 ,n reality it collects )uch less energy than the aerials or a long groun$e$ .ire8 7ut it so ha((ens that it $oes a.ay .ith a nu)7er of $efects inherent to the (resent .ireless $e-ices0 ,n $e)onstrating )y in-ention 7efore au$iences8 the -isitors .ere requeste$ to as2 any questions8 ho.e-er in-ol-e$8 an$ the auto)aton .oul$ ans.er the) 7y signs0 This .as consi$ere$ )agic at that ti)e 7ut .as e'tre)ely si)(le8 for it .as )yself .ho ga-e the re(lies 7y )eans of the $e-ice0 At the sa)e (erio$ another larger telauto)atic 7oat .as constructe$ a (hotogra(h of .hich is sho.n in this nu)7er of the "#"CT+,CA# "]<"+,/"1T"+0 ,t .as controlle$ 7y loo(s8 ha-ing se-eral turns (lace$ in the hull8 .hich .as )a$e entirely .ater9tight an$ ca(a7le of su7)ergence0 The a((aratus .as si)ilar to that use$ in the first .ith the e'ce(tion of certain s(ecial features , intro$uce$ as8 for e'a)(le8 incan$escent la)(s .hich affor$e$ a -isi7le e-i$ence of the (ro(er functioning of the )achine0 These auto)ata8 controlle$ .ithin the range of -ision of the o(erator8 .ere8 ho.e-er8 the first an$ rather cru$e ste(s in the e-olution of the Art of Telauto)atics as , ha$ concei-e$ it0 The ne't logical i)(ro-e)ent .as its a((lication to auto)atic )echanis)s 7eyon$ the li)its of -ision an$ at great $istance fro) the center of control8 an$ , ha-e e-er since a$-ocate$ their e)(loy)ent as instru)ents of .arfare in (reference to guns0 The i)(ortance of this no. see)s to 7e recogniBe$8 if , a) to Hu$ge fro) casual announce)ents through the (ress of achie-e)ents .hich are sai$ to 7e e'traor$inary 7ut contain no )erit of no-elty8 .hate-er0 ,n an i)(erfect )anner it is (ractica7le8 .ith the e'isting .ireless (lants8 to launch an aero(lane8 ha-e it follo. a certain a((ro'i)ate course8 an$ (erfor) so)e o(eration at a $istance of )any hun$re$s of )iles0 A )achine of this 2in$ can also 7e )echanically controlle$ in se-eral .ays an$ , ha-e no $ou7t that it )ay (ro-e of so)e usefulness in .ar0 3ut there are8 to )y 7est 2no.le$ge8 no instru)entalities in e'istence to$ay .ith .hich such an o7Hect coul$ 7e acco)(lishe$ in a (recise )anner0 , ha-e $e-ote$ years of stu$y to this )atter an$ ha-e
e-ol-e$ )eans8 )a2ing such an$ greater .on$ers easily realiBa7le0 As state$ on a (re-ious occasion8 .hen , .as a stu$ent at college , concei-e$ a flying )achine quite unli2e the (resent ones0 The un$erlying (rinci(le .as soun$ 7ut coul$ not 7e carrie$ into (ractice for .ant of a (ri)e9 )o-er of sufficiently great acti-ity0 ,n recent years , ha-e successfully sol-e$ this (ro7le) an$ a) no. (lanning aerial )achines $e-oi$ of sustaining (lanes8 ailerons8 (ro(ellers an$ other e'ternal attach)ents8 .hich .ill 7e ca(a7le of i))ense s(ee$s an$ are -ery li2ely to furnish (o.erful argu)ents for (eace in the near future0 >uch a )achine8 sustaine$ an$ (ro(elle$ entirely 7y reaction8 is sho.n on (age 158 an$ is su((ose$ to 7e controlle$ either )echanically or 7y .ireless energy0 3y installing (ro(er (lants it .ill 7e (ractica7le to (roHect a )issile of this 2in$ into the air an$ $ro( it al)ost on the -ery s(ot $esignate$8 .hich )ay 7e thousan$s of )iles a.ay0 3ut .e are not going to sto( at this0 Telauto)ata .ill 7e ulti)ately (ro$uce$8 ca(a7le of acting as if (ossest of their o.n intelligence8 an$ their a$-ent .ill create a re-olution0 As early as 1898 , (ro(ose$ to re(resentati-es of a large )anufacturing concern the construction an$ (u7lic e'hi7ition of an auto)o7ile carriage .hich8 left to itself8 .oul$ (erfor) a great -ariety of o(erations in-ol-ing so)ething a2in to Hu$ge)ent0 3ut )y (ro(osal .as $ee)e$ chi)erical at that ti)e an$ nothing ca)e fro) it0 At (resent )any of the a7lest )in$s are trying to $e-ise e'(e$ients for (re-enting a re(etition of the a.ful conflict .hich is only theoretically en$e$ an$ the $uration an$ )ain issues of .hich , ha-e correctly (re$icte$ in an article (rinte$ in the >un of =ece)7er !58 19160 The (ro(ose$ #eague is not a re)e$y 7ut on the contrary8 in the o(inion of a nu)7er of co)(etent )en8 )ay 7ring a7out results Hust the o((osite0 ,t is (articularly regretta7le that a (uniti-e (olicy .as a$o(te$ in fra)ing the ter)s of (eace8 7ecause a fe. years hence it .ill 7e (ossi7le for nations to fight .ithout ar)ies8 shi(s or guns8 7y .ea(ons far )ore terri7le8 to the $estructi-e action an$ range of .hich there is -irtually no li)it0 A city8 at any $istance .hatsoe-er fro) the ene)y8 can 7e $estroye$ 7y hi) an$ no (o.er on earth can sto( hi) fro) $oing so0 ,f .e .ant to a-ert an i)(en$ing cala)ity an$ a state of things .hich )ay transfor) this glo7e into an inferno8 .e shoul$ (ush the $e-elo()ent of flying )achines an$ .ireless trans)ission of energy .ithout an instant's $elay an$ .ith all the (o.er an$ resources of the nation0
1-1--0"-00: 7amous S(ientifi( :llusions by Nikola Tesla

Electrical Ex*erimenter #ritten s*ecially for the Electrical Ex*erimenter +reface N$ For e-er a century an$ a half the .hole .orl$8 e$ucate$ an$ other.ise8 thought that the )oon re-ol-e$ aroun$ its a'is0 1i2ola Tesla in the (resent highly instructi-e article $is(ro-es that theory an$ .ill con-ince scientists an$ all others ali2e that the )oon $oes so such thing0 For thousan$s of years it .as thought that the sun an$ stars re-ol-e$ aroun$ the earth an$ all 2in$s of e'(eri)ental (roofs .ere furnishe$ to su7stantiate this theory0 The illustrious Galileo thought $ifferent8 an$ e-eryone to$ay 2no.s that the earth re-ol-es aroun$ the sun0 >o it is .ith Tesla's $isco-ery0 Tesla also8 in the secon$ (art of the (resent (a(er8 sho.s us that the ancient an$ ti)e9.orn theory a$-ance$ 7y 3enHa)in Fran2lin as to the lightning con$uctor is not su7stantially correct as -ie.e$ 7y latter $ay science0 ,t .ill co)e as a shoc2 e-en to our (rofessors that the lightning ro$ actually ai$s the lightning in hitting the 7uil$ing0 The reason is that the lightning ro$ hel(s in ionising ()a2ing con$ucti-e the surroun$ing air0 /r0 Tesla has $e-ise$ a lightning con$uctor .ith no (oints8 an$ there is no $ou7t .hatsoe-er that his theory is right0 >cientists the .orl$ o-er .ill ac2no.le$ge this -ery shortly0 ,n a thir$ section of the sa)e (a(er Tesla e'(lores still another (o(ular $elusion8 -iB08 that .ireless .a-es follo. the cur-ature of the earth .hen )essages are trans)itte$8 let us say fro) a (oint in the Cnite$ >tates to a (oint in "uro(e0 ,n his re-olutionary argu)ents8 su((orte$ 7y facts as .ell as 7y logic8 Tesla sho.s .hy the currents $o not tra-el aroun$ the earth 7ut $irectly through it0 ,n other .or$s8 Tesla )aintains that .ireless co))unication is acco)(lishe$ ;1#D through the )e$iu) of the earth itself0 His contention see)s -ery soun$0 ,f it .ere not so8 let e-ery .ireless station8 co))ercial or other.ise8 $o a.ay .ith its groun$ connection0 1one coul$ then o(erate as is .ell 2no.n8 e'ce(t (erha(s e-er -ery li)ite$ $istances0 /r0 Tesla's (resent article .ill arouse .orl$9.i$e co))ent $ue to the re-olutionary (hiloso(hy containe$ therein0 &e are sure our rea$ers .ill a((reciate /r0 Tesla's )ost ti)ely an$ illu)inating article on this 7ut little un$erstoo$ su7Hect0 +reface N6 ,n this original an$ re-olutioniBing $iscussion8 1i2ola Tesla gi-en us so)ething really ne. to thin2 a7out0 First K =oes the )oon rotate on its a'isF >econ$ K is the Fran2lin (ointe$ lightning ro$ correct in theory an$ o(erationF Thir$ K =o .ireless signal fly through s(ace 7y )eans of so9calle$ HertBian .a-es in the ether8 or are they (ro(agate$ through the earth at (ro$igious -elocity 7y )eans of earth97oun$ oscillationsF &orl$9 fa)ous conun$ru)s these questions .hich ha-e 7een ans.ere$ in )any .ays 7y so)e of the greatest scientists0 =r0 Tesla e'(lains these three (re$o)inant scientific fallacies in a )asterly .ay8 so that e-eryone can un$erstan$ the)0 Article The hu)an 7rain8 .ith all its .on$erful ca(a7ilities an$ (o.er8 is far fro) 7eing a faultless a((aratus0 /ost of its (arts )ay 7e in (erfect .or2ing or$er8 7ut so)e are atro(hie$8 un$e-elo(e$ or )issing altogether0 Great )en of all classes an$ (rofessions9scientists8 in-entors8 an$ har$9hea$e$ financiers K ha-e (lace$ the)sel-es on recor$ .ith i)(ossi7le theories8 ino(erati-e $e-ices8 an$ unrealisa7le sche)es0 ,t is $ou7tful that there coul$ 7e foun$ a single .or2 of any one in$i-i$ual free of error0 There is no such thing as an infalli7le 7rain0 ,n-aria7ly8 so)e cells or fi7res are .asting or unres(onsi-e8 .ith the result of i)(airing Hu$ge)ent8 sense of (ro(ortion8 or so)e other faculty0 A )an of genius e)inently (ractical8 .hose na)e is a househol$ .or$8 has .aste$ the 7est years of his life in a -isionary un$erta2ing0 A cele7rate$ (hysicist .as inca(a7le of tracing the $irection of an electric current accor$ing to a chil$ishly si)(le rule0 The .riter8 .ho .as 2no.n to recite entire -olu)es 7y heart8 has ne-er 7een a7le to retain in )e)ory an$ reca(itulate in their (ro(er or$er the .or$s $esignating the colours of the rain7o.8 an$ can only ascertain the) after long an$ la7orious thought8 strange as it )ay see)0 ;ur organs of rece(tion8 too8 are $eficient an$ $ece(ti-e0 As a se)7lance of life is (ro$uce$ 7y a ra(i$ succession of inani)ate (ictures8 so )any of our (erce(tions are 7ut tric2ery of the senses8 $e-oi$ of reality0 The greatest triu)(hs of )an .ere those in .hich his )in$ ha$ to free itself fro) the influence of $elusi-e
a((earances0 >uch .as the re-elation of 3u$$ha that self is an illusion cause$ 7y the (ersistence an$ continuity of )ental i)agesI the $isco-ery of Co(ernicus that contrary to all o7ser-ation8 this (lanet rotates aroun$ the sunJ the recognition of =escartes that the hu)an 7eing is an auto)aton8 go-erne$ 7y e'ternal influence an$ the i$ea that the earth is s(herical8 .hich le$ Colu)7us to the fin$ing of this continent0 An$ though the )in$s of in$i-i$uals su((le)ent one another an$ science an$ e'(erience are continually eli)inating fallacies an$ )isconce(tions8 )uch of our (resent 2no.le$ge is still inco)(lete an$ unrelia7le0 &e ha-e so(his)s in )athe)atics .hich cannot 7e $is(ro-e$0 "-en in (ure reasoning8 free of the shortco)ings of sy)7olic (rocesses8 .e are often arreste$ 7y $ou7t .hich the strongest intelligences ha-e 7een una7le to $is(el0 "'(eri)ental science itself8 )ost (ositi-e of all8 is not unfailing0 ,n the follo.ing , shall consi$er three e'ce(tionally interesting errors in the inter(retation an$ a((lication of (hysical (heno)ena .hich ha-e for years $o)inate$ the )in$s of e'(erts an$ )en of science0
,t is .ell 2no.n that the )oon8 /08 al.ays turns the sa)e face to.ar$ the "arth8 "8 as the 7lac2 arro.s in$icate0 The (arallel rays fro) the >un illu)inate the )oon in its successi-e or7ital (ositions as the unsha$e$ se)i9circles in$icate0 3earing this in )in$8 $o you 7elie-e that the )oon rotates on its o.n a'isF
Fig0!0 9 Tesla's conce(tion of the rotation of the )oon8 /8 aroun$ the "arth8 "J the )oon8 in this $e)onstration hy(othesis8 7eing consi$ere$ as e)7e$$e$ in a soli$ )ass8 /10 ,f8 as co))only 7elie-e$8 the )oon rotates8 this .oul$ 7e equally true for a (ortion of the )ass /!8 an$ the (art co))on to 7oth 7o$ies .oul$ turn si)ultaneously in _o((osite` $irections0
I The Illusion of the A"ial &otation of the 'oon ,t is .ell 2no.n since the $isco-ery of Galileo that the )oon8 in tra-elling through s(ace8 al.ays turns the sa)e face to.ar$s the earth0 This is e'(laine$ 7y stating that .hile (assing once aroun$ its )other9(lanet the lunar glo7e (erfor)s Hust one re-olution on its a'is0 The s(inning )otion of a hea-enly 7o$y )ust necessarily un$ergo )o$ifications in the course of ti)e8 7eing either retar$e$ 7y resistances internal or e'ternal8 or accelerate$ o.ing to shrin2age an$ other causes0 An unaltera7le rotational -elocity through all (hases of (lanetary e-olution is )anifestly i)(ossi7le0 &hat .on$er8 then8 that at this -ery instant of its long e'istence our satellite shoul$ re-ol-e e'actly so8 an$ not faster or slo.er0 3ut )any astrono)ers ha-e acce(te$ as a (hysical fact that such rotation ta2es (lace0 ,t $oes not8 7ut only a((ears soJ it is an illusion8 a )ost sur(rising one8 too0 , .ill en$ea-our to )a2e this clear 7y reference to Fig0 18 in .hich " re(resents the earth an$ / the )oon0 The )o-e)ent through s(ace is such that the arro.8 fir)ly attache$ to the latter8 al.ays occu(ies the (osition in$icate$ .ith reference to the earth0 ,f one i)agines hi)self as loo2ing $o.n on the or7ital (lane an$ follo.s the )otion he .ill 7eco)e con-ince$ that the )oon $oes turn on its a'is as it tra-els aroun$0 3ut in this -ery act the o7ser-er .ill ha-e $ecei-e$ hi)self0 To )a2e the $elusion co)(lete let hi) ta2e a .asher si)ilarly )ar2e$ an$ su((orting it rotata7ly in the centre8 carry it aroun$ a stationary o7Hect8 constantly 2ee(ing the arro. (ointing to.ar$s the latter0 though to his 7o$ily -ision the $is2 .ill re-ol-e on its a'is8 such )o-e)ent $oes not e'ist0 He can $is(el the illusion at once 7y hol$ing the .asher fi'e$ly .hile going aroun$0 He .ill no. rea$ily see that the
su((ose$ a'ial rotation is only a((arent8 the i)(ression 7eing (ro$uce$ 7y successi-e changes of (osition in s(ace0 3ut )ore con-incing (roofs can 7e gi-en that the )oon $oes not8 an$ cannot re-ol-e on its a'is0 &ith this o7Hect in -ie. attention is calle$ to Fig0 !8 in .hich 7oth the satellite8 /8 an$ earth8 "8 are sho.n e)7e$$e$ in a soli$ )ass8 /i8 (in$icate$ 7y sti((ling an$ su((ose$ to rotate so as to i)(act to the )oon its nor)al translatory -elocity0 "-i$ently8 if the lunar glo7e coul$ rotate as co))only 7elie-e$8 this .oul$ 7e equally true of any other (ortion of )ass / 18 as the s(here /18 sho.n in $otte$ lines8 an$ then the (art co))on to 7oth 7o$ies .oul$ ha-e to turn si)ultaneously in o((osite $irections0 This can 7e e'(eri)entally illustrate$ in the )anner suggeste$ 7y using instea$ of one8 t.o o-erla((ing rotata7le .ashers8 as )ay 7e con-eniently re(resente$ 7y circles / an$ / !8 an$ carrying the) aroun$ a centre as "8 so that the (lain an$ $otte$ arro.s are al.ays (ointing to.ar$s the sa)e centre0 1o further argu)ent is nee$e$ to $e)onstrate that the t.o gyrations cannot co9e'ist or e-en 7e (icture$ in the i)agination an$ reconcile$ in a (urely a7stract sense0 The truth is8 the so9calle$ "a'ial rotation" of the )oon is a (heno)enon $ece(ti-e ali2e to the eye an$ )in$ an$ $e-oi$ of (hysical )eaning0 ,t has nothing in co))on .ith real )ass re-olution characteriBe$ 7y effects (ositi-e an$ un)ista2a7le0 Golu)es ha-e 7een .ritten on the su7Hect an$ )any erroneous argu)ents a$-ance$ in su((ort of the notion0 Thus8 it is reasone$8 that if the (lanet $i$ not turn on its a'is it .oul$ e'(ose the .hole surface to terrestrial -ie.J as only one9half is -isi7le8 it )ust re-ol-e0 The first state)ent is true 7ut the logic of the secon$ is $efecti-e8 for it a$)its of only one alternati-e0 The conclusion is not Hustifie$ as the sa)e a((earance can also 7e (ro$uce$ in another .ay0 The )oon $oes rotate8 not on its o.n8 7ut a7out an a'is (assing through the centre of the earth8 the true an$ only one0 The unfailing test of the s(inning of a )ass is8 ho.e-er8 the e'istence of energy of )otion0 The )oon is not (ossesse$ of such -is -i-a0 ,f it .ere the case then a re-ol-ing 7o$y as / 1 .oul$ contain )echanical energy other than that of .hich .e ha-e e'(eri)ental e-i$ence0 ,rres(ecti-e of this so e'act a coinci$ence 7et.een the a'ial an$ or7ital (erio$s is8 in itself8 i))ensely i)(ro7a7le for this is not the (er)anent con$ition to.ar$s .hich the syste) is ten$ing0 Any a'ial rotation of a )ass left to itself retar$e$ 7y forces e'ternal or internal8 )ust cease0 "-en a$)itting its (erfect control 7y ti$es the coinci$ence .oul$ still 7e )iraculous0 3ut .hen .e re)e)7er that )ost of the satellites e'hi7it this (eculiarity8 the (ro7a7ility 7eco)es infinitesi)al0 Three theories ha-e 7een a$-ance$ for the origin of the )oon0 Accor$ing to the ol$est suggeste$ 7y the great Ger)an (hiloso(her :ant8 an$ $e-elo(e$ 7y #a(lace in his )onu)ental treatise "/Ucanique CUleste"8 the (lanets ha-e 7een thro.n off fro) larger central )asses 7y centrifugal force0 1early forty years ago <rof0 George H0 =ar.in in a )asterful essay on ti$al friction furnishe$ )athe)atical (roofs8 $ee)e$ irrefuta7le8 that the )oon ha$ se(arate$ fro) the earth0 +ecently this esta7lishe$ theory has 7een attac2e$ 7y <rof0 T0 E0 E0 >ee in a re)ar2a7le .or2 on the ""-olution of the >tellar >yste)s"8 in .hich he (ro(oun$s8 the -ie. that centrifugal force .as altogether ina$equate to 7ring a7out the se(aration an$ that all (lanets8 inclu$ing the )oon8 ha-e co)e fro) the $e(ths of s(ace an$ ha-e 7een ca(ture$0 >till a thir$ hy(othesis of un2no.n origin e'ists .hich has 7een e'a)ine$ an$ co))ente$ u(on 7y <rof0 &0 H0 <ic2ering in "<o(ular Astrono)y of l95*"8 an$ accor$ing to .hich the )oon .as torn fro) the earth .hen the later .as (artially soli$ifie$8 this accounting for the continents .hich )ight not ha-e 7een for)e$ other.ise0 Cn$ou7te$ly (lanets an$ satellites ha-e originate$ in 7oth .ays an$8 in )y o(inion8 it is not $ifficult to ascertain the character of their 7irth0 The follo.ing conclusions can 7e safely $ra.nI 10 A hea-enly 7o$y thro.n off fro) a larger one cannot rotate on its a'is0 The )ass8 ren$ere$ flui$ 7y the co)7ine$ action of heat an$ (ressure8 u(on the re$uction of the latter i))e$iately stiffens8 7eing at the sa)e ti)e $efor)e$ 7y gra-itational (ull0 The sha(e 7eco)es (er)anent u(on cooling an$ soli$ification an$ the s)aller )ass continues to )o-e a7out the larger one as though it .ere rigi$ly connecte$ to it e'ce(t for (en$ular s.ings or -i7rations $ue to -arying or7ital -elocity0 >uch )otion (reclu$es the (ossi7ility of a'ial rotation in the strictly (hysical sense0 The )oon has ne-er s(un aroun$ as is .ell $e)onstrate$ 7y the fact that the )ost (recise )easure)ents ha-e faile$ to sho. any )easura7le flattening in for)0 !0 ,f a (lanetary 7o$y in its or7ital )o-e)ent turns the sa)e si$e to.ar$s the central )ass this is a (ositi-e (roof that it has 7een se(arate$ fro) the latter an$ is a true satellite0 30 A (lanet re-ol-ing on its a'is in its (assage aroun$ another cannot ha-e 7een thro.n off fro) the sa)e 7ut )ust ha-e 7een ca(ture$0 II The !allacy of !ranklinHs +ointed .ightningB&od The $is(lay of at)os(heric electricity has since ages 7een one of the )ost )ar-ellous s(ectacles affor$e$ to the sight of )an0 ,ts gran$eur an$ (o.er fille$ hi) .ith fear an$ For centuries he attri7ute$ lightning to agents go$ li2e an$ su(ernatural an$ its (ur(ose in the sche)e of this uni-erse re)aine$ un2no.n to hi)0 1o. .e ha-e
learne$ that the .aters of the ocean are raise$ 7y the sun an$ )aintaine$ in the at)os(here $elicately sus(en$e$8 that they are .aite$ to $istant regions of the glo7e .here electric forces assert the)sel-es in u(setting the sensiti-e 7alance an$ causing (reci(itation8 thus sustaining all organic life0 There is e-ery reason to ho(e that )an .ill soon 7e a7le to control this life9gi-ing $o. of .ater an$ there7y sol-e )any (ressing (ro7le)s of his e'istence0 At)os(heric electricity 7eca)e of scientific interest in Fran2lin's ti)e0 Fara$ay ha$ not yet announce$ his e(ochal $isco-eries in )agnetic in$uction 7ut static frictional )achines .ere alrea$y generally use$ in (hysical la7oratories0 Fran2linNs (o.erful )in$ an$ once lea(e$ to the conclusion that frictional an$ at)os(here electricity .ere i$entical0 To our (resent -ie. this inference a((ears o7-ious8 7ut in his (resence )ere thought of it .as little short of 7las(he)y0 He in-estigate$ the (heno)ena an$ argue$ that if they .ere of the sa)e nature then the clou$s coul$ 7e $raine$ of their energy e'actly as the 7all of a static )achine8 an$ in 1*69 he in$icate$ in a (u7lishe$ )e)oir ho. this coul$ 7e $one 7y the use of (ointe$ )etal ro$s0 The earliest trials .ere )a$e 7y =ali7ran$ in France8 7ut Fran2lin hi)self .as the first to o7tain a s(ar2 7y using a 2ite8 in Eune8 1*4!0 &hen these at)os(heric $ischarges )anifest the)sel-es to$ay in our .ireless station .e feel annoye$ an$ .ish that they .oul$ sto(8 7ut to the )an .ho $isco-ere$ the) they 7rought tears of Hoy0 The lightning con$uctor in its classical for) .as in-ente$ 7y 3enHa)in Fran2lin in 1*44 an$ i))e$iately u(on its a$o(tion (ro-e$ a success to a $egree0 As usual8 ho.e-er8 its -irtues .ere often e'aggerate$0 >o8 for instance8 it .as seriously clai)e$ that in the city of <iater)aritB7urg (ca(ital of 1atal8 >outh Africa no lightning stro2es occurre$ after the (ointe$ ro$s .ere installe$8 although the stor)s .ere as frequent as 7efore0 "'(erience has sho.n that Hust the o((osite is true0 A )o$ern city li2e 1e. Dor28 (resenting innu)era7le shar( (oints an$ (roHections in goo$ contact .ith the earth8 is struc2 )uch )ore often than equi-alent area of lan$0 >tatistical recor$s8 carefully co)(ile$ an$ (u7lishe$ fro) ti)e to ti)e8 $e)onstrate that the $anger fro) lightning to (ro(erty an$ life has 7een re$uce$ to a s)all (ercentage 7y Fran2lin's in-ention8 7ut the $a)age 7y fire a)ounts8 ne-ertheless8 to se-eral )illion $ollars annually0 ,t is astonishing that this $e-ice8 .hich has 7een in uni-ersal use for )ore than one century an$ a half8 shoul$ 7e foun$ to in-ol-e a gross fallacy in $esign an$ construction .hich i)(airs its usefulness an$ )ay e-en ren$er its e)(loy)ent haBar$ous un$er certain con$itions0 For e'(lanation of this curious fact , )ay first refer to Fig0 38 in .hich s is a )etallic s(here of ra$ius r8 such as the ca(acity ter)inal of a static )achine8 (ro-i$e$ .ith a shar(ly (ointe$ (in of length h8 as in$icate$0 ,t is .ell 2no.n that the latter has the (ro(erty of quic2ly $issi(ating the accu)ulate$ charge into the air0 To e'a)ine this action in the light of (resent 2no.le$ge .e )ay li2en electric (otential to te)(erature0 ,)agine that s(here s is heate$ to T $egrees an$ that the (in or )etal 7ar is a (erfect con$uctor of heat so that its e'tre)e en$ is at the sa)e te)(erature T0 Then if another s(here of larger ra$ius8 -18 is $ra.n a7out the first an$ the te)(erature along this 7oun$ary is T18 it is e-i$ent that there .ill 7e 7et.een the en$ of the 7ar an$ its surroun$ing a $ifference of te)(erature T K T18 .hich .ill $eter)ine the outflo. of heat0 ;7-iously8 if the a$Hacent )e$iu) .as not affecte$ 7y the hot s(here this te)(erature $ifference .oul$ 7e greater an$ )ore heat .oul$ 7e gi-en off0 "'actly so in the electric syste)0 #et q 7e the quantity of the charge8 then the s(here K an$ o.ing to its great con$ucti-ity also the (in K .ill 7e at q/r the (otential0 The )e$iu) aroun$ the (oint of the (in .ill 7e at the (otential q/r1 L q/(rMh an$8 consequently8 the $ifference q/r P q/(rMh L qh/r(rMh >u((ose no. that a s(here > of )uch larger ra$ius +Lnr is e)(loye$ containing a charge A this $ifference of (otential .ill 7e8 analogously Ah/+(+Mh 0 Accor$ing to ele)entary (rinci(les of electro9 statics the (otentials of the t.o s(heres s an$ > .ill 7e equal if ALnq in .hich case Ah/+(+Mh L nqh/nr(nrMh L qh/r(nrMh 0 Thus the
$ifference of (otential 7et.een the (oint of the (in an$ the )e$iu) aroun$ the sa)e .ill 7e s)aller in the ratio (rMh /(nrMh .hen the large s(here is use$0 ,n )any scientific tests an$ e'(eri)ents this i)(ortant o7ser-ation has 7een $isregar$e$ .ith the result of causing serious errors0 ,ts significance is that the 7eha-iour of the (ointe$ ro$ entirely $e(en$s on the linear $i)ensions of the electrifie$ 7o$y0 ,ts quality to gi-e off the charge )ay 7e entirely lost if the latter is -ery large0 For this reason8 all (oints or (roHections on the surface of a con$uctor of such -ast $i)ensions as the earth .oul$ 7e quite ineffecti-e .ere it not for other influences0 These .ill 7e eluci$ate$ .ith reference to Fig0 68 in .hich our artist of the ,)(ressionist school has e)(hasiBe$ Fran2lin's notion that his ro$ .as $ra.ing electricity fro) the clou$s0 ,f the earth .ere not surroun$e$ 7y an at)os(here .hich is generally o((ositely charge$ it .oul$ 7eha-e8 $es(ite all its irregularities of surface8 li2e a (olishe$ s(here0 3ut o.ing to the electrifie$ )asses of air an$ clou$ the $istri7ution is greatly )o$ifie$0 Thus in Fig0 60 the (ositi-e charge of the clou$ in$uces in the earth an equi-alent of o((osite charge8 the $ensity at the surface of the latter $i)inishing .ith the cu7e of the $istance fro) the static centre of the clou$0 A 7rush $ischarge is then for)e$ at the (oint of the ro$ an$ the action Fran2lin antici(ate$ ta2es (lace0 ,n a$$ition8 the surroun$ing air is ioniBe$ an$ ren$ere$ con$ucting an$8 e-entually8 a 7olt )ay hit the 7uil$ing or so)e other o7Hect in the -icinity0 The -irtue of the (ointe$ en$ to $issi(ate the charge8 .hich .as u((er)ost in Fran2lin's )in$ is8 ho.e-er8 infinitesi)al0 Careful )easure)ents sho. that it .oul$ ta2e )any years 7efore the electricity store$ in a single clou$ of )o$erate site .oul$ 7e $ra.n off or neutraliBe$ through such a lightning con$uctor0 The groun$e$ ro$ has the quality of ren$ering har)less )ost of the stro2es it recei-es8 though occasionally the charge is $i-erte$ .ith $a)aging results0 3ut8 .hat is -ery i)(ortant to note8 it in-ites $anger an$ haBar$ on account of the fallacy in-ol-e$ in its $esign0 The shar( (oint .hich .as thought a$-antageous an$ in$is(ensa7le to its o(eration8 is really a $efect $etracting consi$era7ly fro) the (ractical -alue of the $e-ice0 , ha-e (ro$uce$ a )uch i)(ro-e$ for) of lightning (rotector characteriBe$ 7y the e)(loy)ent of a ter)inal of consi$era7le area an$ large ra$ius of cur-ature .hich )a2es i)(ossi7le un$ue $ensity of the charge an$ ioniBation of the air0 These (rotectors act as quasi9re(ellents an$ so far ha-e ne-er 7een struc2 though e'(ose$ a long ti)e0 Their safety is e'(eri)entally $e)onstrate$ to greatly e'cee$ that in-ente$ 7y Fran2lin0 3y their use (ro(erty .orth )illions of $ollars .hich is no. annually lost8 can 7e sa-e$0
III The ,ingular 'isconception of the Wireless To the (o(ular )in$ this sensational a$-ance con-eys the i)(ression of a single in-ention 7ut in reality it is an art8 the successful (ractice of .hich in-ol-es the e)(loy)ent of a great )any $isco-eries an$ i)(ro-e)ents0 , -ie.e$ it as such .hen , un$ertoo2 to sol-e .ireless (ro7le)s an$ it is $ue to this fact that )y insight into its un$erlying (rinci(les .as clear fro) their -ery ince(tion0 ,n the course of $e-elo()ent of )y in$uction )otors it 7eca)e $esira7le to o(erate the) at high s(ee$s an$ for this (ur(ose , constructe$ alternators of relati-ely high frequencies0 The stri2ing 7eha-iour of the currents soon ca(ti-ate$ )y attention an$ in 1889 , starte$ a syste)atic in-estigation of their (ro(erties an$ the (ossi7ilities of (ractical a((lication0 The first gratifying result of )y efforts in this $irection .as the trans)ission of electrical energy through one "ire .ithout return8 of .hich , ga-e $e)onstrations in )y lectures an$ a$$resses 7efore se-eral scientific 7o$ies here an$ a7roa$ in 1891 an$ 189!0 =uring that (erio$8 .hile .or2ing .ith )y oscillation transfor)ers an$ $yna)os of frequencies u( to !558555 cycles (er secon$8 the i$ea gra$ually too2 hol$ of )e that the earth )ight 7e use$ in (lace of the .ire8 thus $is(ensing .ith artificial con$uctors altogether0 The i))ensity of the glo7e see)e$ an insur)ounta7le o7stacle 7ut after a (rolonge$ stu$y of the su7Hect , 7eca)e satisfie$ that the un$erta2ing .as rational8 an$ in )y lectures 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ 1ational "lectric #ight Association early in 1893 , ga-e the outline of the syste) , ha$ concei-e$0 ,n the latter (art of that year8 at the Chicago &orl$'s Fair8 , ha$ the goo$ fortune of )eeting <rof0 Hel)holtB to .ho) , e'(laine$ )y (lan8
illustrating it .ith e'(eri)ents0 ;n that occasion , as2e$ the cele7rate$ (hysicist for an e'(ression of o(inion on the feasi7ility of the sche)e0 He state$ unhesitatingly that it .as (ractica7le8 (ro-i$e$ , coul$ (erfect a((aratus ca(a7le of (utting it into effect 7ut this8 he antici(ate$8 .oul$ 7e e'tre)ely $ifficult to acco)(lish0 , resu)e$ the .or2 -ery )uch encourage$ an$ fro) that $ate to 189% a$-ance$ slo.ly 7ut stea$ily8 )a2ing a nu)7er of i)(ro-e)ents the chief of .hich .as )y syste) of concatenated tuned circuits an$ )etho$ of regulation8 no. uni-ersally a$o(te$0 ,n the su))er of 189* #or$ :el-in ha((ene$ to (ass through 1e. Dor2 an$ honoure$ )e 7y a -isit to )y la7oratory .here , entertaine$ hi) .ith $e)onstrations in su((ort of )y .ireless theory0 He .as fairly carrie$ a.ay .ith .hat he sa. 7ut8 ne-ertheless8 con$e)ne$ )y (roHect in e)(hatic ter)s8 qualifying it as so)ething i)(ossi7le8 "an illusion an$ a snare0" , ha$ e'(ecte$ his a((ro-al an$ .as (aine$ an$ sur(rise$0 3ut the ne't $ay he returne$ an$ ga-e )e a 7etter o((ortunity for e'(lanation of the a$-ances , ha$ )a$e an$ of the true (rinci(les un$erlying the syste) , ha$ e-ol-e$0 >u$$enly he re)ar2e$ .ith e-i$ent astonish)entI "Then you are not )a2ing use of HertB .a-esF" "Certainly not8" , re(lie$8 _ these are radiations`0 1o energy coul$ 7e econo)ically trans)itte$ to a $istance 7y any such agency0 ,n )y syste) the (rocess is one of true conduction .hich8 theoretically8 can 7e effecte$ at the greatest $istance .ithout a((recia7le loss0" , can ne-er forget the )agic change that ca)e o-er the illustrious (hiloso(her the )o)ent he free$ hi)self fro) that erroneous i)(ression0 The sce(tic .ho .oul$ not 7elie-e .as su$$enly transfor)e$ into the .ar)est of su((orters0 He (arte$ fro) )e not only thoroughly con-ince$ of the scientific soun$ness of the i$ea 7ut strongly e'(resse$ his confi$ence in its success0 ,n )y e'(osition to hi) , resorte$ to the follo.ing )echanical analogues of )y o.n an$ the HertB .a-e syste)0
Tesla's .orl$9.i$e .ireless trans)ission of electrical signals8 as .ell as light an$ (o.er8 is here illustrate$ in theory8 analogy an$ realiBation0 Tesla's e'(eri)ents .ith 155 foot $ischarges at (otentials of )illions of -olts ha-e $e)onstrate$ that the HertB9.a-es are infinitesi)al in effect an$ unreco-era7leJ the reco-era7le groun$ .a-es of Tesla fly _through the "arth`0 +a$io "ngineers are gra$ually 7eginning to see the light an$ that the la.s of (ro(agation lai$ $o.n 7y Tesla o-er a quarter of a century ago for) the real an$ true 7asis of all .ireless trans)ission to$ay0
,)agine the earth to 7e a 7ag of ru77er fille$ .ith .ater8 a s)all quantity of .hich is (erio$ically force$ in an$ out of the sa)e 7y )eans of a reci(rocating (u)(8 as illustrate$0 ,f the stro2es of the latter are effecte$ in inter-als of )ore than one hour an$ forty9eight )inutes8 sufficient for the trans)ission of the i)(ulse through the .hole )ass8 the entire 7ag .ill e'(an$ an$ contract an$ corres(on$ing )o-e)ents .ill 7e i)(arte$ to (ressure gauges or )o-a7le (istons .ith the sa)e intensity8 irres(ecti-e of $istance0 3y .or2ing the (u)( faster8 shorter .a-es .ill 7e (ro$uce$ .hich8 on reaching the o((osite en$ of the 7ag8 )ay 7e reflecte$ an$ gi-e rise to stationary no$es an$ loo(s8 7ut in any case8 the flui$ 7eing inco)(ressi7le8 its inclosure (erfectly elastic8 an$ the frequency of oscillations not -ery high8 the energy .ill 7e econo)ically trans)itte$ an$ -ery little (o.er consu)e$ so long as no .or2 is $one in the recei-ers0 This is a cru$e 7ut correct re(resentation of )y .ireless syste) in .hich8 ho.e-er8 , resort to -arious refine)ents0 Thus8 for instance8 the (u)( is )a$e (art of a resonant syste) of great inertia8 enor)ously )agnifying the force of the i)(rest i)(ulses0 The recei-ing $e-ices
are si)ilarly con$itione$ an$ in this )anner the a)ount of energy collecte$ in the) -astly increase$0 The HertB .a-e syste) is in )any res(ects the -ery o((osite of this0 To e'(lain it 7y analogy8 the (iston of the (u)( is assu)e$ to -i7rate to an$ fro at a terrific rate an$ the orifice through .hich the flui$ (asses in an$ out of the cylin$er is re$uce$ to a s)all hole0 There is scarcely any )o-e)ent of the flui$ an$ al)ost the .hole .or2 (erfor)e$ results in the (ro$uction of ra$iant heat8 of .hich an infinitesi)al (art is reco-ere$ in a re)ote locality0 Ho.e-er incre$i7le8 it is true that the )in$s of so)e of the a7lest e'(erts ha-e 7een fro) the 7eginning8 an$ still are8 o7sesse$ 7y this )onstrous i$ea8 an$ so it co)es that the true .ireless art8 to .hich , lai$ the foun$ation in 18938 has 7een retar$e$ in its $e-elo()ent for t.enty years0 This is the reason .hy the "statics" ha-e (ro-e$ unconquera7le8 .hy the .ireless shares are of little -alue an$ .hy the Go-ern)ent has 7een co)(elle$ to interfere0 &e are li-ing on a (lanet of .ell9nigh inconcei-a7le $i)ensions8 surroun$e$ 7y a layer of insulating air a7o-e .hich is a rarefie$ an$ con$ucting at)os(here (Fig0 4 0 This is (ro-i$ential8 for if all the air .ere con$ucting the trans)ission of electrical energy through the natural )e$ia .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7le0 /y early e'(eri)ents ha-e sho.n that currents of high frequency an$ great tension rea$ily (ass through an at)os(here 7ut )o$erately rarefie$8 so that the insulating stratu) is re$uce$ to a s)all thic2ness as .ill 7e e-i$ent 7y ins(ection of Fig0 %8 in .hich a (art of the earth an$ its gaseous en-elo(e is sho.n to scale0 ,f the ra$ius of the s(here is 1! a"8 then the non9con$ucting layer is only 1/%6" thic2 an$ it .ill 7e o7-ious that the HertBian rays cannot tra-erse so thin a crac2 7et.een t.o con$ucting surfaces for any consi$era7le $istance8 .ithout 7eing a7sor7e$0 The theory has 7een seriously a$-ance$ that these ra$iations (ass aroun$ the glo7e 7y successive reflections8 7ut to sho. the a7sur$ity of this suggestion reference is )a$e to Fig0 * in .hich this (rocess is $iagra))atically in$icate$0 Assu)ing that there is no refraction8 the rays8 as sho.n on the right8 .oul$ tra-el along the si$es of a (olygon $ra.n aroun$ the soli$8 an$ inscri7e$ into the con$ucting gaseous 7oun$ary in .hich case the length of the si$e .oul$ 7e a7out 655 )iles0 As one9half the circu)ference of the earth is a((ro'i)ately 1!8555 )iles long there .ill 7e8 roughly8 thirty $e-iations0 The efficiency of such a reflector cannot 7e )ore than !4 (er cent8 so that if none of the energy of the trans)itter .ere lost in other .ays8 the (art reco-ere$ .oul$ 7e )easure$ 7y the fraction (g " #et the trans)itter ra$iate HertB .a-es at the rate of 18555 2ilo.atts0 Then a7out one hundred and fifteen billionth *art of one "att is all that .oul$ 7e collecte$ in a *erfect recei-er0 ,n truth8 the reflections .oul$ 7e )uch )ore nu)erous as sho.n on the left of the figure8 an$ o.ing to this an$ other reasons8 on .hich it is unnecessary to $.ell8 the a)ount reco-ere$ .oul$ 7e a -anishing quantity0 Consi$er no. the (rocess ta2ing (lace in the trans)ission 7y the instru)entalities an$ )etho$s of )y in-ention0 For this (ur(ose attention is calle$ to Fig0 88 .hich gi-es an i$ea of the )o$e of (ro(agation of the current .a-es an$ is largely self9e'(lanatory0 The $ra.ing re(resents a solar ecli(se .ith the sha$o. of the )oon Hust touching the surface of the earth at a (oint .here the trans)itter is locate$0 As the sha$o. )o-es $o.n.ar$ it .ill s(rea$ o-er the earth's surface8 first .ith infinite an$ then gra$ually $i)inishing -elocity until at a $istance of a7out %8555 )iles it .ill attain its true s(ee$ in s(ace0 Fro) there on it .ill (rocee$ .ith increasing -elocity8 reaching infinite -alue at the o((osite (oint of the glo7e0 ,t har$ly nee$ 7e state$ that this is )erely an illustration an$ not an accurate re(resentation in the astrono)ical sense0
The e'act la. .ill 7e rea$ily un$erstoo$ 7y reference to Fig0 98 in .hich a trans)itting circuit is sho.n connecte$ to earth an$ to an antenna0 The trans)itter 7eing in action8 t.o effects are (ro$uce$I HertB .a-es (ass through the air8 an$ a current tra-erses the earth0 The for)er (ro(agate .ith the s(ee$ of light an$ their energy is unrecoverable in the circuit0 The latter (rocee$s .ith the s(ee$ -arying as the cosecant of the angle .hich a ra$ius $ra.n fro) any (oint un$er consi$eration for)s .ith the a'is of sy))etry of the .a-es0 At the origin the s(ee$ is infinite 7ut gra$ually $i)inishes until a qua$rant is tra-erse$8 .hen the -elocity is that of light0 Fro) there on it again increases8 7eco)ing infinite at the anti(ole0 Theoretically the energy of this current is recoverable in its entirety8 in (ro(erly attune$ recei-ers0 >o)e e'(erts8 .ho) , ha-e cre$ite$ .ith 7etter 2no.le$ge8 ha-e for years conten$e$ that )y (ro(osals to trans)it (o.er .ithout .ires are sheer nonsense 7ut , note that they are gro.ing )ore cautious e-ery $ay0 The latest o7Hection to )y syste) is foun$ in the chea(ness of gasoline0 These )en la7our un$er the i)(ression that the energy flo.s in all $irections an$ that8 therefore8 only a )inute a)ount can 7e reco-ere$ in any in$i-i$ual recei-er0 3ut this is far fro) 7eing so0 The (o.er is con-eye$ in only one $irection8 fro) the trans)itter to the recei-er8 an$ none of it is lost else.here0 ,t is (erfectly (ractica7le to reco-er at any (oint of the glo7e energy enough for $ri-ing an air(lane8 or a (leasure 7oat or for lighting a $.elling0 , a) es(ecially sanguine in regar$ to the lighting of isolate$ (laces an$ 7elie-e that a )ore econo)ical an$ con-enient )etho$ can har$ly 7e $e-ise$0 The future .ill sho. .hether )y foresight is as accurate no. as it has (ro-e$ heretofore0
1-1--0"-"9: Tesla answers Mr& Manierre and furt,er e+$lains t,e a+ial rotation of t,e moon by Nikola Tesla
Ne" -ork Tribune >irsI ,n your article of Fe7ruary !8 /r0 Charles "0 /anierre8 co))enting u(on )y article in "The "lectrical "'(eri)enter" for Fe7ruary8 .hich a((eare$ in The Tri7une of Eanuary !%8 suggests that , gi-e a $efinition of a'ial rotation0 , inten$e$ to 7e e'(licit on this (oint8 as )ay 7e Hu$ge$ fro) the follo.ing quotationI "The unfailing test of the s(inning of a )ass is8 ho.e-er8 the e'istence of energy of )otion0 The )oon is not (ossesse$ of such -is -i-a0" 3y this , )eant that "a'ial rotation" is not si)(ly "rotation u(on an a'is" as nonchalantly $efine$ in $ictionaries8 7ut is circular )otion in the true (hysical sense 9 that is8 one in .hich half the (ro$uct of the )ass .ith the square of -elocity is a $efinite an$ (ositi-e quantity0 The )oon is a nearly s(herical 7o$y8 of a ra$ius of a7out 1858104 )iles8 fro) .hich , calculate its -olu)e to 7e a((ro'i)ately 483558!1%8355 cu7ic )iles0 >ince its )ean $ensity is 30!*8 one cu7ic foot of )aterial co)(osing it .eighs close to !54 (oun$s0 Accor$ingly8 the total .eight of the satellite is a7out *989%9855585558 555855585558555 an$ its )ass !868384558555855585558555 terrestrial short tons0 Assu)ing that the )oon $oes (hysically rotate u(on its a'is8 it (erfor)s one re-olution in !* $ays * hours 63 )inutes an$ 11 secon$s8 or !83%58491 secon$s0 ,f8 in confor)ity .ith )athe)atical (rinci(les8 .e i)agine the entire )ass concentrate$ at a $istance fro) the centre equal to t.o9fifths of the ra$ius8 then the calculate$ rotational -elocity is 3056 feet (er secon$8 at .hich the glo7e .oul$ contain 1186*685558555855585558555 short foot tons of energy8 sufficient to run 1855585558 555 horse(o.er for a (erio$ of 183!3 years0 1o.8 , say that there is not enough energy in the )oon to run a $elicate .atch0 ,n astrono)ical treatises usually the argu)ent is a$-ance$ that "if the lunar glo7e $i$ not turn u(on its a'is it .oul$ e'(ose all (arts to terrestrial -ie.0 As only a little o-er one9half is -isi7le it )ust rotate0" 3ut this inference is erroneous8 for it a$)its of one alternati-e0 There are an infinite nu)7er of a'es 7esi$es its o.n on each of .hich the )oon )ight turn an$ still e'hi7it the sa)e (eculiarity0 , ha-e state$ in )y article that the )oon rotates a7out an a'is8 (assing through the centre of the earth8 .hich is not strictly true8 7ut $oes not -itiate the conclusions , ha-e $ra.n0 ,t is .ell 2no.n8 of course8 that the t.o 7o$ies re-ol-e aroun$ a co))on centre of gra-ity .hich is at a $istance of a little o-er !8899 )iles fro) the earth's centre0 Another )ista2e in 7oo2s on astrono)y is )a$e in consi$ering this )otion equi-alent to that of a .eight .hirle$ on a string or in a sling0 ,n the first (lace8 there is an essential $ifference 7et.een these t.o $e-ices though in-ol-ing the sa)e )echanical (rinci(le0 ,f a )etal 7all attache$ to a string is .hirle$ aroun$ an$ the latter 7rea2s an a'ial rotation of the )issile results .hich is $efinitely relate$ in )agnitu$e an$ $irection to the )otion (rece$ing0 3y .ay of illustrationI ,f the 7all is .hirle$ on the string cloc2.ise8 ten ti)es a secon$8 then .hen it flies off it .ill rotate on its a'is t.enty ti)es a secon$8 li2e.ise in the $irection of the cloc20 Auite $ifferent are the con$itions .hen the 7all is thro.n fro) a sling0 ,n this case a )uch )ore ra(i$ rotation is i)(arte$ to it in the o((osite sense0 There is not true analogy to these in the )otion of the )oon0 ,f the gra-itational string8 as it .ere8 .oul$ sna(8 the satellite .oul$ go off in a tangent .ithout the slightest s.er-ing or rotation8 for there is no )o)entu) a7out the a'is an$8 consequently8 no ten$ency .hate-er to s(inning )otion0 /r0 /anierre is )ista2en in his sur)ise as to .hat .oul$ ha((en if the earth .ere su$$enly eli)inate$0 #et us su((ose that this .oul$ occur at the instant .hen the )oon is in o((osition0 Then it .oul$ continue on its elli(tical (ath aroun$ the sun8 (resenting to it stea$ily the face .hich .as al.ays e'(ose$ to the earth0 ,f8 on the other han$8 the latter .oul$ $isa((ear at the )o)ent of conHunction8 the )oon .oul$ gra$ually s.ing aroun$ through 185 $egrees an$8 after a nu)7er of oscillations8 re-ol-e again .ith the sa)e face to the sun0 ,n either case there .oul$ 7e no (erio$ic changes8 7ut eternal $ay an$ night8 res(ecti-ely8 on the si$es turne$ to.ar$ an$ a.ay fro) the lu)inary0 1,:;#A T">#A
1-1--0/-00: T,e MoonKs #otation by Nikola Tesla

Electrical Ex*erimenter >ince the a((earance of )y article entitle$ the "Fa)ous >cientific ,llusions" in your Fe7ruary issue8 , ha-e recei-e$ a nu)7er of letters criticising the -ie.s , e'(rest regar$ing the )oon's "a'ial rotation0" These ha-e 7een (artly ans.ere$ 7y )y state)ent to the 1e. Dor2 Tri7une of Fe7ruary !38 .hich allo. )e to quoteI ,n your issue of Fe7ruary !8 /r0 Charles "0 /anierre8 co))enting u(on )y article in the "lectrical "'(eri)enter for Fe7ruary .hich a((eare$ in the Tri7une of Eanuary !%8 suggests that , gi-e a $efinition of a'ial rotation0 , inten$e$ to 7e e'(licit on this (oint as )ay 7e Hu$ge$ fro) the follo.ing quotationI "The unfailing test of the s(inning of a )ass is8 ho.e-er8 the e'istence of energy of )otion0 The )oon is not (osest of such -is -i-a0" 3y this , )eant that "a'ial rotation" is not si)(ly "rotation u(on an a'is nonchalantly $efine$ in $ictionaries8 7ut is a circular )otion in the true (hysical senseKthat is8 one in .hich half the (ro$uct of the )ass .ith the square of -elocity is a $efinite an$ (ositi-e quantity0 The )oon is a nearly s(herical 7o$y8 of a ra$ius of a7out 1858*04 )iles8 fro) .hich , calculate its -olu)e to 7e a((ro'i)ately 483558!1%8355 cu7ic )iles0 >ince its )ean $ensity is 3!*8 one cu7ic foot of )aterial co)(osing it .eighs close on !54 l7s0 Accor$ingly8 the total .eight of the satellite is a7out *989%9855585558555855585558 an$ its )ass !868384558555855585558555 terrestrial short tons0 Assu)ing that the )oon $oes (hysically rotate u(on its a'is8 it (erfor)s one re-olution in !* $ays8 * hours8 63 )inutes an$ 11 secon$s8 or !83%58491 secon$s0 ,f8 in confor)ity .ith )athe)atical (rinci(les8 .e i)agine the entire )ass concentrate$ at a $istance fro) the centre equal to t.o9fifths of the ra$ius8 then the calculate$ rotational -elocity is 3056 feet (er secon$8 at .hich the glo7e .oul$ contain 1186*685558555855585558555 short foot tons of energy sufficient to run 1855585558555 horse(o.er for a (erio$ of 183!3 years0 1o.8 , say8 that there is not enough of that energy in the )oon to run a $elicate .atch0 ,n astrono)ical treatises usually the argu)ent is a$-ance$ that "if the lunar glo7e $i$ not turn u(on its a'is it .oul$ e'(ose all (arts to terrestrial -ie.0 As only a little o-er one9half is -isi7le it )ust rotate0" 3ut this inference is erroneous8 for it only a$)its of one alternati-e0 There are an infinite nu)7er of a'is 7esi$es its o.n in each of .hich the )oon )ight turn an$ still e'hi7it the sa)e (eculiarity0 , ha-e state$ in )y article that the )oon rotates a7out an a'is (assing through the centre of the earth8 .hich is not strictly true8 7ut it $oes not -itiate the conclusions , ha-e $ra.n0 ,t is .ell 2no.n8 of course8 that the t.o 7o$ies re-ol-e aroun$ a co))on centre of gra-ity8 .hich is at a $istance of a little o-er !8899 )iles fro) the earth's centre0 Another )ista2e in 7oo2s on astrono)y is )a$e in consi$ering this )otion equi-alent to that of a .eight .hirle$ on a string or in a sling0 ,n the first (lace there is an essential $ifference 7et.een these t.o $e-ices though in-ol-ing the sa)e )echanical (rinci(le0 ,f a )etal 7all8 attache$ to a string8 is .hirle$ aroun$ an$ the latter 7rea2s8 an a'ial rotation of the )issile results .hich is $efinitely relate$ in )agnitu$e an$ $irection to the )otion (rece$ing0 3y .ay of illustrationKif the 7all is .hirle$ on the string cloc2.ise ten ti)es (er secon$8 then .hen it flies off8 it .ill rotate on its a'is ten ti)es (er secon$8 li2e.ise in the $irection of a cloc20 Auite $ifferent are the con$itions .hen the 7all is thro.n fro) a sling0 ,n this case a )uch )ore ra(i$ rotation is i)(arte$ to it in the o((osite sense0 There is no true analogy to these in the )otion of the )oon0 ,f the gra-itational string8 as it .ere8 .oul$ sna(8 the satellite .oul$ go off in a tangent .ithout the slightest s.er-ing or rotation8 for there is no )o)ent a7out the a'is an$8 consequently8 no ten$ency .hate-er to s(inning )otion0 /r0 /anierre is )ista2en in his sur)ise as to .hat .oul$ ha((en if the earth .ere su$$enly eli)inate$0 #et us su((ose that this .oul$ occur at the instant .hen the )oon is in o((osition0 Then it .oul$ continue on its elli(tical (ath aroun$ the sun8 (resenting to it stea$ily the face .hich .as al.ays e'(ose$ to the earth0 ,f8 on the other han$8 the latter .oul$ $isa((ear at the )o)ent of conHunction8 the )oon .oul$ gra$ually s.ing aroun$ through 185Q an$8 after a nu)7er of oscillations8 re-ol-e8 again .ith the sa)e face to the sun0 ,n either case there .oul$ 7e no (erio$ic changes 7ut eternal $ay an$ night8 res(ecti-ely8 on the si$es turne$ to.ar$s8 an$ a.ay fro)8 the lu)inary0 >o)e of the argu)ents a$-ance$ 7y the corres(on$ents are ingenious an$ not a fe. co)ical0 1one8 ho.e-er8 are -ali$0 ;ne of the .riters i)agines the earth in the centre of a circular or7ital (late8 ha-ing fi'e$ly attache$ to its (eri(eral (ortion a $is29sha(e$ )oon8 in frictional or geare$ engage)ent .ith another $is2 of the sa)e $ia)eter
an$ freely rotata7le on a (i-ot (roHecting fro) an ar) entirely in$e(en$ent of the (lanetary syste)0 The ar) 7eing hel$ continuously (arallel to itself8 the (i-ote$ $is28 of course8 is )a$e to turn on its a'is as the or7ital (late is rotate$0 This is a .ell92no.n $ri-e8 an$ the rotation of the0 (i-ote$ $is2 is as (al(a7le a fact as that of the or7ital (late0 3ut0 the )oon in this )o$el only re-ol-es a7out the centre of the syste) .ithout the slightest angular $is(lace)ent on its o.n a'is0 The sa)e is true of a cart9.heel to .hich this .riter refers0 >o long as it a$-ances on the earth's surface it turns on the a'le in the true (hysical senseJ .hen one of its s(o2es is al.ays 2e(t in a (er(en$icular (osition the .heel still re-ol-es a7out the earth's centre8 7ut a'ial rotation has cease$0 Those .ho thin2 that it then still e'ists are la7ouring un$er an illusion0 An o7-ious fallacy is in-ol-e$ in the follo.ing a7stract reasoning0 The or7ital (late is assu)e$ to gra$ually shrin28 so that finally the centres of the earth an$ the satellite coinci$e .hen the latter re-ol-es si)ultaneously a7out its o.n an$ the earth's a'is0 &e )ay re$uce the earth to a )athe)atical (oint an$ the $istance 7et.een the t.o (lanets to the ra$ius of the )oon .ithout affecting the syste) in (rinci(le8 7ut a further $i)inution of the $istance is )anifestly a7sur$ an$ of no 7earing on the question un$er consi$eration0 ,n all the co))unications , ha-e recei-e$8 though $ifferent in the )anner of (resentation8 the successi-e changes of (osition in s(ace are )ista2en for a'ial rotation0 >o8 for instance8 a (ositi-e refutation of )y argu)ents is foun$ in the o7ser-ation that the )oon e'(oses all si$es to other (lanetsY ,t re-ol-es8 to 7e sure8 7ut none of the e-i$ences is a (roof that it turns on its a'is0 "-en the .ell92no.n e'(eri)ent .ith the Foucault (en$ulu)8 altho e'hi7iting si)ilar (heno)ena as on our glo7e8 .oul$ )erely $e)onstrate a )otion of the satellite a7out so)e a'is0 The -ie. , ha-e a$-ance$ is 1;T 3A>"= ;1 A TH";+D 7ut on facts $e)onstra7le 7y e'(eri)ent0 ,t is not a )atter of $efinition as so)e .oul$ ha-e it0 A /A>> +"G;#G,1G ;1 ,T> A],> /C>T 3" <;>">T ;F /;/"1TC/0 ,f it has none8 there is no a'ial rotation8 all a((earances to the contrary not.ithstan$ing0 A fe. si)(le reflections 7ase$ on .ell esta7lisht )echanical (rinci(les .ill )a2e this clear0 Consi$er first the case of t.o equal .eights . an$ .18 in Fig0 18 .hirle$ a7out the centre ; on a string s as sho.n0 Assu)ing the latter to 7rea2 at a 7oth .eights .ill fly off on tangents to their circles of gyration8 an$8 7eing ani)ate$ .ith $ifferent -elocities8 they .ill rotate aroun$ their co))on centre of gra-ity o0 ,f the .eights are .hirle$ n ti)es (er secon$ then the s(ee$ of the outer an$ the inner one .ill 7e8 res(ecti-ely8 G L ! (+ M r n an$ G1 L ! j (+Kr n8 an$ the $ifference GKG1 L 6 j r n8 .ill 7e the length of the circular (ath of the outer .eight0 ,nas)uch8 ho.e-er8 as there .ill 7e equaliBation of the s(ee$s until the )ean -alue is attaine$8 .e shall ha-e
V V1 = "rn = "rN 8 1 "
Fig0 10 K ,f Dou >till Thin2 That the /oon +otate on ,ts A'is8 #oo2 at This =iagra) an$ Follo. Closely the >uccessi-e <ositions Ta2en 7y ;ne of the 3alls / &hile ,t is +otate$ 7y a >(o2e of the &heel0 >u7stitute Gra-ity for the >(o2e an$ the Analogy >ol-es the /oon +otation +i$$le0
7eing the nu)7er of re-olutions (er secon$ of the .eights aroun$ their centre of gra-ity0 "-i$ently then8 the .eights continue to rotate at the original rate an$ in the sa)e $irection0 , 2no. this to 7e a fact fro) actual e'(eri)ents0 ,t also follo.s that a 7all8 as that sho.n in the figure8 .ill 7eha-e in a si)ilar )anner for the t.o half9s(herical )asses can 7e concentrate$ at their centres of gra-ity an$ ) an$ )18 res(ecti-ely8 .hich .ill 7e at a $istance fro) o equal to 3/8 r0
#e believe the accom*anying illustration and its ex*lanation "ill dis*el all doubts as to "hether the moon rotates on its axis or not. Each of the balls+ as /+ de*icts a different *osition of+ and rotates exactly like+ the moon kee*ing al"ays the same face turned to"ards the centre '+ re*resenting the earth. 4ut as you study this diagram+ can you conceive that any of the balls turn on their axisO 3lainly this is rendered *hysically im*ossible by the s*okes. 4ut if you are still unconvinced+ /r. TeslaCs ex*erimental *roof "ill surely satisfy you. A body rotating on its axis must contain rotational energy. No" it is a fact+ as /r. Tesla sho"s+ that no such energy is im*arted to the ball as+ for instance+ to a *roPectile discharged from a gun. It is therefore evident that the moon+ in "hich the gravitational attraction is substituted for a s*oke+ cannot rotate on its axis or+ in other "ords+ contain rotational energy. If the earthCs attraction "ould suddenly cease and cause it to fly off in a tangent+ the moon "ould have no other energy exce*t that of
translatory movement+ and it "ould not s*in like the ball.HEditor.
This 7eing un$erstoo$8 i)agine a nu)7er of 7alls / carrie$ 7y as )any s(o2es > ra$iating fro) a hu7 H8 as illustrate$ in Fig0 !8 an$ let this syste) 7e rotate$ n ti)es (er secon$ aroun$ centre ; on frictionless 7earings0 A certain a)ount of .or2 .ill 7e require$ to 7ring the structure to this s(ee$8 an$ it .ill 7e foun$ that it equals e'actly half the (ro$uct of the )asses .ith the square of the tangential -elocity0 1o. if it 7e true that the )oon rotates in reality on its a'is this )ust also hol$ goo$ for "ACH of the 7alls as it (erfor)s the sa)e 2in$ of )o-e)ent0 Therefore8 in i)(arting to the syste) a gi-en -elocity8 energy )ust ha-e 7een use$ u( in the a'ial rotation of the 7alls0 #et / 7e the )ass of one of these an$ + the ra$ius of gyration8 then the rotational energy .ill 7e " L a/ (! + n !0 >ince for one co)(lete turn of the .heel e-ery 7all )a2es one re-olution on its a'is8 accor$ing to the (re-ailing theory8 the energy of a'ial rotation of each 7all .ill 7e " L a/ (! r1 n !8 r1 7eing the ra$ius of gyration a7out the a'is an$ equal to 50%3!4 r0 &e can use as large 7alls as .e li2e8 an$ so )a2e e a consi$era7le (ercentage of k an$ yet8 it is (ositi-ely esta7lishe$ 7y e'(eri)ent that each of the rotating 7alls contain only the energy "8 no (o.er .hate-er 7eing consu)e$ in the su((ose$ a'ial rotation8 .hich is8 consequently8 .holly illusionary0 >o)ething e-en )ore interesting )ay8 ho.e-er8 7e state$0 As , ha-e sho.n 7efore8 a 7all flying off .ill rotate at the rate of the .heel an$ in the sa)e $irection0 3ut this .hirling )otion8 unli2e that of a (roHectile8 neither a$$s to8 nor $etracts fro)8 the energy of the translatory )o-e)ent .hich is e'actly equal to the .or2 consu)e$ in gi-ing to the )ass the o7ser-e$ -elocity0 Fro) the foregoing it .ill 7e seen that in or$er to )a2e one (hysical re-olution on its a'is the )oon shoul$ ha-e t.ice its (resent angular -elocity8 an$ then it .oul$ contain a quantity of store$ energy as gi-en in )y a7o-e letter to the 1e. Dor2 Tri7une8 on the assu)(tion that the ra$ius of gyration is !/4 that of figure0 This8 of course8 is uncertain8 as the $istri7ution of $ensity in the interior is un2no.n0 3ut fro) the character of )otion of the satellite it )ay 7e conclu$e$ .ith certitu$e that it is $e-oi$ of )o)entu) a7out its a'is0 ,f it 7e 7isecte$ 7y a (lane tangential to the or7it8 the )asses of the t.o hal-es are in-ersely as the $istances of their centres of gra-ity fro) the earth's centre an$8 therefore8 if the latter .ere to $isa((ear su$$enly8 no a'ial rotation8 as in the case of a .eight thro.n off8 .oul$ ensue0
Fig0 !0 K =iagra) ,llustrating the +otation of &eights Thro.n ;n 3y Centrifugal Force0
1-1--0/-00: Tesla on 0ig, 7re8uen(y Benerators by Nikola Tesla

Electrical Ex*erimenter "$itor8 "lectrical "'(eri)enterI ,t is to 7e regrette$ that a letter a$$rest to )e 7y /r0 E0 Harris +ogers8 in your care8 .as (u7lishe$ in the /arch nu)7er of the "lectrical "'(eri)enter8 altho the concurrence of our -ie.s in so)e .ireless features )ight ha-e )a$e this $esira7le to so .i$e9a.a2e an$ enter(rising a (erio$ical as yours0 /r0 +ogers see)s to 7e a -ery a((reciati-e gentle)an an$ nothing .oul$ 7e farther fro) )y thoughts than to $etract anything fro) his )erit8 7ut in a se(arate contri7ution8 .hich , e'(ect to (re(are for your ne't issue8 , shall e'(ress )yself on this su7Hect .ithout (reHu$ice an$ in the interest of truth0 Ho.e-er8 the article 7y your /r0 H0 &infiel$ >ecor on "A)erica's Greatest &ar ,n-ention K The +ogers Cn$ergroun$ &ireless" contains a reference to "a no-el an$ original high frequency generator" of /r0 +ogers' in-ention0 /ay , not K to use the <resi$ent's elegant e'(ression K call attention to the fact that this $e-ice .as $escri7e$ 7y )e years ago8 as .ill 7e e-i$ent fro) the follo.ing e'cer(t of a co))unication .hich a((eare$ in the "lectrical +e-ie. of /arch 148 18990 ,n s(ea2ing of circuit controllers8 , sai$I ", )ay )ention here8 7ase$ on a $ifferent (rinci(le8 .hich is inco)(ara7ly )ore effecti-e8 )ore efficient8 an$ also si)(ler on the .hole0 ,t co)(rises a fine strea) of con$ucting flui$ .hich is )a$e to issue8 .ith any $esire$ s(ee$8 fro) an orifice connecte$ .ith one (ole of a generator8 through the (ri)ary of the in$uction coil8 against the other ter)inal of the generator (lace$ at a s)all $istance0 This $e-ice gi-es $ischarges of a re)ar2a7le su$$enness8 an$ the frequency )ay 7e 7rought .ithin reasona7le li)its8 al)ost to anything $esire$0 , ha-e use$ this $e-ice for a long ti)e in connection .ith or$inary coils an$ in a for) of )y o.n coil .ith results greatly su(erior in e-ery res(ect to those o7taina7le .ith the for) of your letter8 )a2e a fe. state)ents referring in such )a2e9an$97rea2 $e-ices in general8 an$ -arious for)s 7ase$ on this ne. (rinci(le0" , )ay a$$ that a great )any for)s of this a((aratus .ere constructe$ an$ e)(loye$ 7y )e for a long ti)e8 (ro-ing -ery con-enient an$ useful0 &ater $oes not gi-e (articularly goo$ results8 7eing inca(a7le of causing -ery a7ru(t changes8 7ut eletrolytes ha-e the (ro(erty of $i)inishing enor)ously in resistance .hen they are heate$ an$ the effects are )uch )ore intense0 >alts of lithiu) are es(ecially efficient0 1,:;#A T">#A0 1e. Dor28 Fe7ruary !58 19190
1-1--05-00: T,e True Fireless by Nikola Tesla

Electrical Ex*erimenter
:n this remarkable and com*lete story of his discovery of the ATrue #irelessA and the *rinci*les u*on "hich
transmission and rece*tion+ even in the *resent day systems+ are based+ Dr. Nikola Tesla sho"s us that he is indeed the A9ather of the #ireless.A To him the (ert; "ave theory is a delusion it looks sound from certain angles+ but the facts tend to *rove that it is hollo" and em*ty. (e convinces us that the real (ert; "aves are blotted out after they have traveled but a short distance from the sender. It follo"s+ therefore+ that the measured antenna current is no indication of the effect+ because only a small *art of it is effective at a distance. The limited activity of *ure (ert; "ave transmission and rece*tion is here clearly ex*lained+ besides sho"ing definitely that in s*ite of themselves+ the radio engineers of today are em*loying the original Tesla tuned oscillatory system. (e sho"s by exam*les "ith different forms of aerials that the signals *icked u* by the instruments must actually be induced by earth currentsHnot etheric s*ace "aves. Tesla also dis*roves the A(eaviside layerA theory from his *ersonal observations and tests. EDIT'!. "-er since the announce)ent of /a'.ell's electro9 )agnetic theory scientific in-estigators all the .orl$ o-er ha$ 7een 7ent on its e'(eri)ental -erification0 They .ere con-ince$ that it .oul$ 7e $one an$ li-e$ in an at)os(here of eager e'(ectancy8 unusually fa-oura7le to the rece(tion of any e-i$ence to this en$0 1o .on$er then that the (u7lication of =r0 Heinrich HertB's results cause$ a thrill as ha$ scarcely e-er 7een e'(erience$ 7efore0 At that ti)e , .as in the )i$st of (ressing .or2 in connection .ith the co))ercial intro$uction of )y syste) of (o.er trans)ission8 7ut8 ne-ertheless8 caught the fire of enthusias) an$ fairly 7urne$ .ith $esire to 7ehol$ the )iracle .ith )y o.n eyes0 Accor$ingly8 as soon as , ha$ free$ )yself of these i)(erati-e $uties an$ resu)e$ research .or2 in )y la7oratory on Gran$ >treet8 1e. Dor28 , 7egan8 (arallel .ith high frequency alternators8 the construction of se-eral for)s of a((aratus .ith the o7Hect of e'(loring the fiel$ o(ene$ u( 7y =r0 HertB0
Alternator of 158555 Cycles (0s08 ca(acity 15 :0&08 .hich .as e)(loye$ 7y Tesla in his first $e)onstrations of high frequency (heno)ena 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers an Colo)7ia College8 /ay !58 18910 Fig010
+ecogniBing the li)itations of the $e-ices he ha$ e)(loye$8 , concentrate$ )y attention on the (ro$uction of a (o.erful in$uction coil 7ut )a$e no nota7le (rogress until a ha((y ins(iration le$ )e to the in-ention of the oscillation transfor)er0 ,n the latter (art of 1891 , .as alrea$y so far a$-ance$ in the $e-elo()ent of this ne. (rinci(le that , ha$ at )y $is(osal )eans -astly su(erior to those of the Ger)an (hysicist0 All )y (re-ious efforts .ith +hu)2orf coils ha$ left )e uncon-ince$8 an$ in or$er to settle )y $ou7ts , .ent o-er the .hole groun$ once )ore8 -ery carefully8 .ith these i)(ro-e$ a((liances0 >i)ilar (heno)ena .ere note$8 greatly )agnifie$ in intensity8 7ut they .ere susce(ti7le of a $ifferent an$ )ore (lausi7le e'(lanation0 , consi$ere$ this so i)(ortant that in 189! , .ent to 3onn8 Ger)any8 to confer .ith =r0 HertB in regar$ to )y o7ser-ations0 He see)e$ $isa((ointe$ to such a $egree that , regrette$ )y tri( an$ (arte$ fro) hi) sorro.fully0 =uring the succee$ing years , )a$e nu)erous e'(eri)ents .ith the sa)e o7Hect8 7ut the results .ere unifor)ly negati-e0 ,n 19558 ho.e-er8 after , ha$ e-ol-e$ a .ireless trans)itter .hich ena7le$ )e to o7tain electro9)agnetic acti-ities of )any )illions of horse9(o.er8 , )a$e a last $es(erate atte)(t to (ro-e that the $istur7ances e)anating fro) the oscillator .ere ether -i7rations a2in to those of light8 7ut )et again .ith utter failure0 For )ore than eighteen years , ha-e 7een rea$ing treatises8 re(orts of scientific transactions8 an$ articles on HertB9.a-e telegra(hy8 to 2ee( )yself infor)e$8 7ut they ha-e al.ays i)(rest )e li2e .or2s of fiction0 The history of science sho.s that theories are (erisha7le0 &ith e-ery ne. truth that is re-eale$ .e get a 7etter un$erstan$ing of 1ature an$ our conce(tions an$ -ie.s are )o$ifie$0 =r0 HertB $i$ not $isco-er a ne. (rinci(le0 He )erely ga-e )aterial su((ort to hy(othesis .hich ha$ 7een long ago for)ulate$0 ,t .as a (erfectly .ell9 esta7lishe$ fact that a circuit8 tra-erse$ 7y a (erio$ic current8 e)itte$ so)e 2in$ of s(ace .a-es8 7ut .e .ere in
ignorance as to their character0 He a((arently ga-e an e'(eri)ental (roof that they .ere trans-ersal -i7rations in the ether0 /ost (eo(le loo2 u(on this as his great acco)(lish)ent0 To )y )in$ it see)s that his i))ortal )erit .as not so )uch in this as in the focusing of the in-estigators' attention on the (rocesses ta2ing (lace in the a)7ient )e$iu)0 The HertB9.a-e theory8 7y its fascinating hol$ on the i)agination8 has stifle$ creati-e effort in the .ireless art an$ retar$e$ it for t.enty9fi-e years0 3ut8 on the other han$8 it is i)(ossi7le to o-er9esti)ate the 7eneficial effects of the (o.erful sti)ulus it has gi-en in )any $irections0 As regar$s signaling .ithout .ires8 the a((lication of these ra$iations for the (ur(ose .as quite o7-ious0 &hen =r0 HertB .as as2e$ .hether such a syste) .oul$ 7e of (ractical -alue8 he $i$ not thin2 so8 an$ he .as correct in his forecast0 The 7est that )ight ha-e 7een e'(ecte$ .as a )etho$ of co))unication si)ilar to the heliogra(hic an$ su7Hect to the sa)e or e-en greater li)itations0 ,n the s(ring of 1891 , ga-e )y $e)onstrations .ith a high frequency )achine 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers at Colu)7ia College8 .hich lai$ the foun$ation to a ne. an$ far )ore (ro)ising $e(arture0 Altho the la.s of electrical resonance .ere .ell 2no.n at that ti)e an$ )y la)ente$ frien$8 =r0 Eohn Ho(2inson8 ha$ e-en in$icate$ their s(ecific a((lication to an alternator in the <rocee$ings of the ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers8 #on$on8 1o-0138 18898 nothing ha$ 7een $one to.ar$s the (ractical use of this 2no.le$ge an$ it is (ro7a7le that those e'(eri)ents of )ine .ere the first (u7lic e'hi7ition .ith resonant circuits8 )ore (articularly of high frequency0 &hile the s(ontaneous success of )y lecture .as $ue to s(ectacular features8 its chief i)(ort .as in sho.ing that all 2in$s of $e-ices coul$ 7e o(erate$ through a single .ire .ithout return0 This .as the initial ste( in the e-olution of )y .ireless syste)0 The i$ea (resente$ itself to )e that it )ight 7e (ossi7le8 un$er o7ser-ance of (ro(er con$itions of resonance8 to trans)it electric energy through the earth8 thus $is(ensing .ith all artificial con$uctors0 Anyone .ho )ight .ish to e'a)ine i)(artially the )erit of that early suggestion )ust not -ie. it in the light of (resent $ay science0 , only nee$ to say that as late as 18938 .hen , ha$ (re(are$ an ela7orate cha(ter on )y .ireless syste)8 $.elling on its -arious instru)entalities an$ future (ros(ects8 /r0 Eose(h &etBler an$ other frien$s of )ine e)(hatically (roteste$ against its (u7lication on the groun$ that such i$le an$ far9fetche$ s(eculations .oul$ inHure )e in the o(inion of conser-ati-e 7usiness )en0 >o it ca)e that only a s)all (art of .hat , ha$ inten$e$ to say .as e)7o$ie$ in )y a$$ress of that year 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ 1ational "lectric #ight Association un$er the cha(ter ";n "lectrical +esonance0" This little sal-age fro) the .rec2 has earne$ )e the title of "Father of the &ireless" fro) )any .ell9$is(ose$ fello. .or2ers8 rather than the in-ention of scores of a((liances .hich ha-e 7rought .ireless trans)ission .ithin the reach of e-ery young a)ateur an$ .hich8 in a ti)e not $istant8 .ill lea$ to un$erta2ings o-ersha$o.ing in )agnitu$e an$ i)(ortance all (ast achie-e)ents of the engineer0 The (o(ular i)(ression is that )y .ireless .or2 .as 7egun in 18938 7ut as a )atter of fact , s(ent the t.o (rece$ing years in in-estigations8 e)(loying for)s of a((aratus8 so)e of .hich .ere al)ost li2e those of to$ay0 ,t .as clear to )e fro) the -ery start that the successful consu))ation coul$ only 7e 7rought a7out 7y a nu)7er of ra$ical i)(ro-e)ents0 >uita7le high frequency generators an$ electrical oscillators ha$ first to 7e (ro$uce$0 The energy of these ha$ to 7e transfor)e$ in effecti-e trans)itters an$ collecte$ at a $istance in (ro(er recei-ers0 >uch a syste) .oul$ 7e )anifestly circu)scri7e$ in its usefulness if all e'traneous interference .ere not (re-ente$ an$ e'clusi-eness secure$0 ,n ti)e8 ho.e-er8 , recogniBe$ that $e-ices of this 2in$8 to 7e )ost effecti-e an$ efficient8 shoul$ 7e $esigne$ .ith $ue regar$ to the (hysical (ro(erties of this (lanet an$ the electrical con$itions o7taining on the sa)e0 , .ill 7riefly touch u(on the salient a$-ances as they .ere )a$e in the gra$ual $e-elo()ent of the syste)0 The high frequency alternator e)(loye$ in )y first $e)onstrations is illustrate$ in Fig0 10 ,t co)(rise$ a fiel$ ring8 .ith 386 (ole (roHections an$ a $isc ar)ature .ith coils .oun$ in one single layer .hich .ere connecte$ in -arious .ays accor$ing to require)ents0 ,t .as an e'cellent )achine for e'(eri)ental (ur(oses8 furnishing sinusoi$al currents of fro) 158555 to !58555 cycles (er secon$0 The out(ut .as co)(arati-ely large8 $ue to the fact that as )uch as 35 a)(eres (er square )illi)eter coul$ 7e (ast through the coils .ithout inHury0 The $iagra) in Fig0 ! sho.s the circuit arrange)ents as use$ in )y lecture0 +esonant con$itions .ere )aintaine$ 7y )eans of a con$enser su7$i-i$e$ into s)all sections8 the finer a$Hust)ents 7eing effecte$ 7y a )o-a7le iron core .ithin an in$uctance coil0 #oosely lin2e$ .ith the latter .as a high tension secon$ary .hich .as tune$ to the (ri)ary0
!ig 6 %iagram Illustrating the Circuit Connections and Tuning %evices -mployed by Tesla In 4is -"perimental %emonstrations 0efore the American Institute of -lectrical -ngineers With the 4igh !requency Alternator ,hown in !ig $
The o(eration of $e-ices through a single .ire .ithout return .as (uBBling at first 7ecause of its no-elty8 7ut can 7e rea$ily e'(laine$ 7y suita7le analogs0 For this (ur(ose reference is )a$e to Figs0 3 an$ 60
!ig 7 -lectric Transmission through Two Wires and 4ydraulic Analog
!ig < -lectric Transmission through a ,ingle Wire 4ydraulic Analog
,n the for)er the lo. resistance electrical con$uctors are re(resente$ 7y (i(es of large cross section8 the alternator 7y an oscillating (iston an$ the fila)ent of an incan$escent la)( 7y a )inute channel connecting the (i(es0 ,t .ill 7e clear fro) a glance at the $iagra) that -ery slight e'cursions of the (iston .oul$ cause the flui$ to rush .ith high -elocity through the s)all channel an$ that -irtually all the energy of )o-e)ent .oul$ 7e transfor)e$ into heat 7y friction8 si)ilarly to that of the electric current in the la)( fila)ent0 The secon$ $iagra) .ill no. 7e self9e'(lanatory0 Corres(on$ing to the ter)inal ca(acity of the electric syste) an elastic reser-oir is e)(loye$ .hich $is(enses .ith the necessity of a return (i(e0 As the (iston oscillates the 7ag e'(an$s an$ contracts8 an$ the flui$ is )a$e to surge through the restricte$ (assage .ith great s(ee$8 this resulting in the generation of heat as in the incan$escent la)(0 Theoretically consi$ere$8 the efficiency of con-ersion of energy shoul$ 7e the sa)e in 7oth cases0 Grante$8 then8 that an econo)ic syste) of (o.er trans)ission through a single .ire is (ractica7le8 the question arises ho. to collect the energy in the recei-ers0 &ith this o7Hect attention is calle$ to Fig0 48 in .hich a con$uctor is sho.n e'cite$ 7y an oscillator Hoine$ to it at one en$0 "-i$ently8 as the (erio$ic i)(ulses (ass through the .ire8 $ifferences of (otential .ill 7e create$ along the sa)e as .ell as at right angles to it in the surroun$ing )e$iu) an$ either of these )ay 7e usefully a((lie$0 Thus at a8 a circuit co)(rising an in$uctance an$ ca(acity is resonantly e'cite$ in the trans-erse8 an$ at 78 in the longitu$inal sense0 At c8 energy is collecte$ in a circuit (arallel to the con$uctor 7ut not in contact .ith it8 an$ again at $8 in a circuit .hich is (artly sun2 into the con$uctor an$ )ay 7e8 or not8 electrically connecte$ to the sa)e0 It is im*ortant to kee* these ty*ical dis*ositions in mind+ for ho"ever the distant actions of the oscillator might be modified through the immense extent of the globe the *rinci*les involved are the same.
!ig = Illustrating Typical Arrangements for Collecting -nergy In a ,ystem of Transmission through a ,ingle Wire
Consi$er no. the effect of such a con$uctor of -ast $i)ensions on a circuit e'citing it0 The u((er $iagra) of Fig0 % illustrates a fa)iliar oscillating syste) co)(rising a straight ro$ of self9in$uctance !# .ith s)all ter)inal ca(acities cc an$ a no$e in the center0 ,n the lo.er $iagra) of the figure a large ca(acity C is attache$ to the ro$ at one en$ .ith the result of shifting the no$e to the right8 through a $istance corres(on$ing to self9in$uctance ]0 As 7oth (arts of the syste) on either si$e of the no$e -i7rate at the sa)e rate8 .e ha-e e-i$ently8 (#M] c L (#9 ] C fro) .hich ] L #(C9c/CMc 0 &hen the ca(acity C 7eco)es co))ensurate to that of the earth8 ] a((ro'i)ates #8 in other .or$s8 the no$e is close to the groun$ connection0 The exact determination of its *osition is very im*ortant in the calculation of certain terrestrial electrical and geodetic data an$ , ha-e $e-ise$ s(ecial )eans .ith this (ur(ose in -ie.0
!ig > %iagram -lucidating -ffect of .arge Capacity on (ne -nd
/y original (lan of trans)itting energy .ithout .ires is sho.n in the u((er $iagra) of Fig0 *8 .hile the lo.er one illustrates its )echanical analog8 first (u7lishe$ in )y article in the Century /agaBine of Eune8 19550 An alternator8 (refera7ly of high tension8 has one of its ter)inals connecte$ to the groun$ an$ the other to an ele-ate$ ca(acity an$ i)(resses its oscillations u(on the earth0 At a $istant (oint a recei-ing circuit8 li2e.ise connecte$ to groun$ an$ to an ele-ate$ ca(acity8 collects so)e of the energy an$ actuates a suita7le $e-ice0 , suggeste$ a )ulti(lication of such units in or$er to intensify the effects8 an i$ea .hich )ay yet (ro-e -alua7le0 ,n the analog t.o tuning for2s are (ro-i$e$8 one at the sen$ing an$ the other at the recei-ing station8 each ha-ing attache$ to its lo.er (rong a (iston fitting in a cylin$er0 The t.o cylin$ers co))unicate .ith a large elastic reser-oir fille$ .ith an inco)(ressi7le flui$0 The -i7rations trans)itte$ to either of the tuning for2s e'cite the) 7y resonance an$8 through electrical contacts or other.ise8 7ring a7out the $esire$ result0 This8 , )ay say8 .as not a )ere )echanical illustration8 7ut a si)(le re(resentation of )y a((aratus for su7)arine signaling8 (erfecte$ 7y )e in 189!8 7ut not a((reciate$ at that ti)e8 altho )ore efficient than the instru)ents no. in use0
!ig ? Transmission of -lectrical -nergy through the -arth as Illustrated in TeslaHs .ectures 0efore the !ranklin Institute and -lectric .ight Association in !ebruary and 'arch, $:;7, and 'echanical Analog of the ,ame
The electric $iagra) in Fig0 *8 .hich .as re(ro$uce$ fro) )y lecture8 .as )eant only for the e'(osition of the (rinci(le0 The arrange)ent8 as , $escri7e$ it in $etail8 is sho.n in Fig0 80 ,n this case an alternator energiBes the (ri)ary of a transfor)er8 the high tension secon$ary of .hich is connecte$ to the groun$ an$ an ele-ate$ ca(acity an$ tune$ to the i)(rest oscillations0 The recei-ing circuit consists of an in$uctance connecte$ to the groun$ an$ to an ele-ate$ ter)inal .ithout 7rea2 an$ is resonantly res(onsi-e to the trans)itte$ oscillations0 A s(ecific for) of recei-ing $e-ice .as not )entione$8 7ut , ha$ in )in$ to transfor) the recei-e$ currents an$ thus )a2e their -olu)e an$ tension suita7le for any (ur(ose0 This8 in su7stance8 is the syste) of to$ay an$ , a) not a.are of a singe authenticate$ instance of successful trans)ission at consi$era7le $istance 7y $ifferent instru)entalities0 ,t )ight8 (erha(s8 not 7e clear to those .ho ha-e (eruse$ )y first $escri(tion of these i)(ro-e)ents that8 7esi$es )a2ing 2no.n ne. an$ efficient ty(es of a((aratus8 , ga-e to the .orl$ a .ireless syste) of (otentialities far 7eyon$ anything 7efore concei-e$0 , )a$e e'(licit an$ re(eate$ state)ents that , conte)(late$ trans)ission8 a7solutely unli)ite$ as to terrestrial $istance an$ a)ount of energy0 3ut8 altho , ha-e o-erco)e all o7stacles .hich see)e$ in the 7eginning unsur)ounta7le an$ foun$ elegant solutions of all the (ro7le)s .hich confronte$ )e8 yet8 e-en at this -ery $ay8 the )aHority of e'(erts are still 7lin$ to the (ossi7ilities .hich are .ithin easy attain)ent0
!ig : TeslaHs ,ystem of Wireless Transmission through the -arth as Actually -"posed In 4is .ectures 0efore the !ranklin Institute and -lectric .ight Association in !ebruary and 'arch, $:;7
/y confi$ence that a signal coul$ 7e easily flashe$ aroun$ the glo7e .as strengthene$ through the $isco-ery of the "rotating 7rush8" a .on$erful (heno)enon .hich , ha-e fully $escri7e$ in )y a$$ress 7efore the ,nstitution of
"lectrical "ngineers8 #on$on8 in 189! ?"'(eri)ents .ith Alternate Currents of High <otential an$ High Frequency@8 an$ .hich is illustrate$ in Fig0 90 This is undoubtedly the most delicate "ireless detector kno"n 8 7ut for a long ti)e it .as har$ to (ro$uce an$ to )aintain in the sensiti-e state0 These $ifficulties $o not e'ist no. an$ , a) loo2ing to -alua7le a((lications of this $e-ice8 (articularly in connection .ith the high9s(ee$ (hotogra(hic )etho$8 .hich , suggeste$8 in .ireless8 as .ell as in .ire8 trans)ission0
!ig ; The !orerunner of the AudionBthe 'ost ,ensitive Wireless %etector )nown, as %escribed by Tesla In 4is .ecture 0efore the Institution of -lectrical -ngineers, .ondon, !ebruary, $:;6
<ossi7ly the )ost i)(ortant a$-ances $uring the follo.ing three or four years .ere )y syste) of concatenate$ tune$ circuits an$ )etho$s of regulation8 no. uni-ersally a$o(te$0 The inti)ate 7earing of these in-entions on the $e-elo()ent of the .ireless art .ill a((ear fro) Fig0 158 .hich illustrates an arrange)ent $escri7e$ in )y C0>0 <atent 1o0 4%881*8 of >e(te)7er !!8 189%8 an$ corres(on$ing $is(ositions of .ireless a((aratus0 The ca(tions of the in$i-i$ual $iagra)s are thought sufficiently e'(licit to $is(ense .ith further co))ent0 , .ill )erely re)ar2 that in this early recor$8 in a$$ition to in$icating ho. any nu)7er of resonant circuits )ay 7e lin2e$ an$ regulate$8 , ha-e sho.n the a$-antage of the (ro(er ti)ing of (ri)ary i)(ulses an$ use of har)onics0 ,n a farcical .ireless suit in #on$on8 so)e engineers8 rec2less of their re(utation8 ha-e clai)e$ that )y circuits .ere not at all attune$J in fact they asserte$ that , ha$ loo2e$ u(on resonance as a sort of .il$ an$ unta)a7le 7eastY
!ig $A TeslaHs ,ystem of Concatenated Tuned Circuits ,hown and %escribed In U , +atent *o =>:,$?: of ,eptember 66, $:;>, and Corresponding Arrangements in Wireless Transmission
,t .ill 7e of interest to co)(are )y syste) as first $escri7e$ in a 3elgian (atent of 189* .ith the HertB9.a-e syste) of that (erio$0 The significant $ifferences 7et.een the) .ill 7e o7ser-e$ at a glance0 The first ena7les us to trans)it econo)ically energy to any $istance an$ is of inesti)a7le -alueJ the latter is ca(a7le of a ra$ius of only a fe. )iles an$ is .orthless0 ,n the first there are no s(ar29ga(s an$ the actions are enor)ously )agnifie$ 7y resonance0 ,n 7oth trans)itter an$ recei-er the currents are transfor)e$ an$ ren$ere$ )ore effecti-e an$ suita7le for the o(eration of any $esire$ $e-ice0 <ro(erly constructe$8 )y syste) is safe against static an$ other interference an$ the a)ount of energy .hich )ay 7e trans)itte$ is billions of times greater than .ith the HertBian .hich has none of these -irtues8 has ne-er 7een use$ successfully an$ of .hich no trace can 7e foun$ at (resent0 A .ell9a$-ertise$ e'(ert ga-e out a state)ent in 1899 that )y a((aratus $i$ not .or2 an$ that it .oul$ ta2e !55 years 7efore a )essage .oul$ 7e flashe$ across the Atlantic an$ e-en acce(te$ stoli$ly )y congratulations on a su((ose$ great feat0 3ut su7sequent e'a)ination of the recor$s sho.e$ that )y $e-ices .ere secretly use$ all the ti)e an$ e-er since , learne$ of this , ha-e treate$ these 3orgia9/e$ici )etho$s .ith the conte)(t in .hich they are hel$ 7y all fair9)in$e$ )en0 The .holesale a((ro(riation of )y in-entions .as8 ho.e-er8 not al.ays .ithout a $i-erting si$e0 As an e'a)(le to the (oint , )ay )ention )y oscillation transfor)er o(erating .ith an air ga(0 This .as in turn re(lace$ 7y a car7on arc8 quenche$ ga(8 an at)os(here of hy$rogen8 argon or heliu)8 7y a )echanical 7rea2 .ith o((ositely rotating )e)7ers8 a )ercury interru(ter or so)e 2in$ of a -acuu) 7ul7 an$ 7y such tours de force as )any ne. "syste)s" ha-e 7een (ro$uce$0 , refer to this of course8 .ithout the slightest ill9feeling8 let us a$-ance 7y all )eans0 3ut , cannot hel( thin2ing ho. )uch 7etter it .oul$ ha-e 7een if the ingenious )en8 .ho ha-e originate$ these "syste)s8" ha$ in-ente$ so)ething of their o.n instea$ of $e(en$ing on )e altogether0 3efore 1955 t.o )ost -alua7le i)(ro-e)ents .ere )a$e0 ;ne of these .as )y in$i-i$ualiBe$ syste) .ith
trans)itters e)itting a .a-e9co)(le' an$ recei-ers co)(rising se(arate tune$ ele)ents coo(erati-ely associate$0 The un$erlying (rinci(le can 7e e'(laine$ in a fe. .or$s0 >u((ose that there are n si)(le -i7rations suita7le for use in .ireless trans)ission8 the (ro7a7ility that any one tune .ill 7e struc2 7y an e'traneous $istur7ance is 1/n0 There .ill then re)ain n91 -i7rations an$ the chance that one of these .ill 7e e'cite$ is 1/n91 hence the (ro7a7ility that t.o tunes .oul$ 7e struc2 at the sa)e ti)e is 1/n(n91 0 >i)ilarly8 for a co)7ination of three the chance .ill 7e 1/n(n91 (n9! an$ so on0 ,t .ill 7e rea$ily seen that in this )anner any $esire$ $egree of safety against the statics or other 2in$ of $istur7ance can 7e attaine$ (ro-i$e$ the recei-ing a((aratus is so $esigne$ that is o(eration is (ossi7le only through the Hoint action of all the tune$ ele)ents0 This .as a $ifficult (ro7le) .hich , ha-e successfully sol-e$ so that no. any $esire$ nu)7er of si)ultaneous )essages is (ractica7le in the trans)ission through the earth as .ell as through artificial con$uctors0
!ig $$ TeslaHs !our Circuit Tuned ,ystem Contrasted With the Contemporaneous 4ert@Bwave ,ystem
The other in-ention8 of still greater i)(ortance8 is a (eculiar oscillator ena7ling the trans)ission of energy .ithout .ires in any quantity that )ay e-er 7e require$ for in$ustrial use8 to any $istance8 an$ .ith -ery high econo)y0 ,t .as the outco)e of years of syste)atic stu$y an$ in-estigation an$ .on$ers .ill 7e achie-e$ 7y its )eans0 The (re-ailing )isconce(tion of the )echanis) in-ol-e$ in the .ireless trans)ission has 7een res(onsi7le for -arious un.arrante$ announce)ents .hich ha-e )isle$ the (u7lic an$ .or2e$ har)0 3y 2ee(ing stea$ily in )in$ that the trans)ission through the earth is in e-ery res(ect i$entical to that through a straight .ire8 one .ill gain a clear un$erstan$ing of the (heno)ena an$ .ill 7e a7le to Hu$ge correctly the )erits of a ne. sche)e0 &ithout .ishing to $etract fro) the -alue of any (lan that has 7een (ut for.ar$ , )ay say that they are $e-oi$ of no-elty0 >o for instance in Fig0 1! arrange)ents of trans)itting an$ recei-ing circuits are illustrate$8 .hich , ha-e $escri7e$ in )y C0>0 <atent 1o0 %138859 of 1o-e)7er 88 1898 on a /etho$ of an$ A((aratus for Controlling /echanis) of /o-ing Gessels or Gehicles8 an$ .hich ha-e 7een recently $ishe$ u( as original $isco-eries0 ,n other (atents an$ technical (u7lications , ha-e suggeste$ con$uctors in the groun$ as one of the o7-ious )o$ifications in$icate$ in Fig0 40
!ig $6 Arrangements of %irective Circuits %escribed In TeslaHs U , +atent *o >$7,:A; of *ovember : $:;:, on L'ethod of and Apparatus for Controlling 'echanism of 'oving 1essels or 1ehicles L
For the sa)e reason the statics are still the 7ane of the .ireless0 There is a7out as )uch -irtue in the re)e$ies recently (ro(ose$ as in hair restorers0 A small and com*act a**aratus has been *roduced "hich does a"ay entirely "ith this trouble8 at least in (lants suita7ly re)o$ele$0 1othing is )ore i)(ortant in the (resent (hase of $e-elo()ent of the .ireless art than to $is(ose of the $o)inating erroneous i$eas0 &ith this o7Hect , shall a$-ance a fe. argu)ents 7ase$ on )y o.n o7ser-ations "hich *rove that (ert; "aves have little to do "ith the results obtained even at small distances 0 ,n Fig0 13 a trans)itter is sho.n ra$iating s(ace .a-es of consi$era7le frequency0 ,t is generally 7elie-e$ that these .a-es (ass along the earth's surface an$ thus affect the recei-ers0 , can har$ly thin2 of anything )ore i)(ro7a7le than this "gli$ing .a-e" theory an$ the conce(tion of the "gui$e$ .ireless" .hich are contrary to all la.s of action an$ reaction0 &hy shoul$ these $istur7ances cling to a con$uctor .here they are counteracte$ 7y in$uce$ currents8 .hen they can (ro(agate in all other $irections uni)(e$e$F The fact is that the ra$iations of the trans)itter (assing along the earth's surface are soon e'tinguishe$8 the height of8 the inacti-e Bone in$icate$ in the $iagra)8 7eing so)e function of the .a-e length8 the 7ul2 of the .a-es tra-ersing freely the at)os(here0 Terrestrial (heno)ena .hich , ha-e note$ conclusi-ely sho. that there is no (eaviside layer8 or if it e'ists8 it is of no effect0 ,t certainly .oul$ 7e unfortunate if the hu)an race .ere thus i)(risone$ an$ fore-er .ithout (o.er to reach out into the $e(ths of s(ace0
!ig $7 %iagram -"posing the !allacy of the #ilding Wave Theory as +ropounded In Wireless Te"t 0ooks
The actions at a $istance cannot 7e (ro(ortionate to the height of the antenna an$ the current in the sa)e0 , shall en$ea-our to )a2e this clear 7y reference to $iagra) in Fig0 160 The ele-ate$ ter)inal charge$ to a high (otential in$uces an equal an$ o((osite charge in the earth an$ there are thus A lines gi-ing an a-erage current ,L6An .hich circulates locally an$ is useless e'ce(t that it a$$s to the )o)entu)0 A relati-ely s)all nu)7er of lines q ho.e-er8 go off to great $istance an$ to these corres(on$s a )ean current of i e L 6qn to "hich is due the
action at a distance0 The total a-erage current in the antenna is thus , ) L 6An M 6qn an$ its intensity is no criterion for the (erfor)ance0 The electric efficiency of the antenna is q/AMq an$ this is often a -ery s)all fraction0
!ig $< %iagram -"plaining the &elation 0etween the -ffective and the 'easured Current In the Antenna
=r0 #0 &0 Austin an$ /r0 E0 #0 Hogan ha-e )a$e quantitati-e )easure)ents .hich are -alua7le8 7ut far fro) su((orting the HertB .a-e theory they are e-i$ences in $is(ro-al of the sa)e8 as .ill 7e easily (ercei-e$ 7y ta2ing the a7o-e facts into consi$eration0 =r0 Austin's researches are es(ecially useful an$ instructi-e an$ , regret that , cannot agree .ith hi) on this su7Hect0 , $o not thin2 that if his recei-er .as affecte$ 7y HertB .a-es he coul$ e-er esta7lish such relations as he has foun$8 7ut he .oul$ 7e li2ely to reach these results if the HertB .a-es .ere in a large (art eli)inate$0 At great $istance the s(ace .a-es an$ the current .a-es are of equal energy8 the for)er 7eing )erely an acco)(anying )anifestation of the latter in accor$ance .ith the fun$a)ental teachings of /a'.ell0 ,t occurs to )e here to as2 the questionK.hy ha-e the HertB .a-es8 7een re$uce$ fro) the original frequencies to those , ha-e a$-ocate$ for )y syste)8 .hen in so $oing the acti-ity of the trans)itting a((aratus has 7een re$uce$ a 7illion fol$F , can in-ite any e'(ert to (erfor) an e'(eri)ent such as is illustrate$ in Fig0 148 .hich sho.s the classical HertB oscillator altho .e )ay ha-e in the HertB oscillator an acti-ity thousan$s of ti)es greater8 the effect on the recei-er is not to 7e co)(are$ to that of the groun$e$ circuit0 This sho.s that in the transmission from an air*lane "e are merely "orking through a condenser 8 the ca(acity of .hich is a function of a logarith)ic ratio 7et.een the length of the con$uctor an$ the $istance fro) the groun$0 The recei-er is affecte$ in e'actly the sa)e )anner as fro) an or$inary trans)itter8 the only $ifference 7eing that there is a certain )o$ification of the action .hich can 7e (re$eter)ine$ fro) the electrical constants0 ,t is not at all $ifficult to )aintain co))unication 7et.een an air(lane an$ a station on the groun$8 on the contrary8 the feat is -ery easy0
!ig $= Illustrating (ne of the #eneral -vidences Against the ,pace Wave Transmission
To )ention another e'(eri)ent in su((ort of )y -ie.8 , )ay refer to Fig0 1% in .hich t.o groun$e$ circuits are sho.n e'cite$ 7y oscillations of the HertBian or$er0 ,t .ill 7e foun$ that the antennas can 7e (ut out of (arallelis) .ithout noticea7le change in the action on the recei-er8 this (ro-ing that it is $ue to currents (ro(agate$ through the groun$ an$ not to s(ace .a-es0
!ig $> ,howing Unimportance of &elative +osition of Transmitting and &eceiving Antennae In %isproval of the 4ert@Bwave Theory
<articularly significant are the results o7taine$ in cases illustrate$ in Figures 1* an$ 180 ,n the for)er an o7stacle is sho.n in the (ath of the .a-es 7ut unless the recei-er is .ithin the effecti-e electrostatic influence of the )ountain range8 the signals are not a((recia7ly .ea2ene$ 7y the (resence of the latter8 7ecause the currents (ass un$er it an$ e'cite the circuit in the sa)e .ay as if it .ere attache$ to an energiBe$ .ire0 ,f8 as in Fig0 188 a secon$ range ha((ens to 7e 7eyon$ the recei-er8 it coul$ only strengthen the HertB .a-e effect 7y reflection8 7ut as a )atter of fact it $etracts greatly fro) the intensity of the recei-e$ i)(ulses 7ecause the electric ni-eau 7et.een the )ountains is raise$8 as , ha-e e'(laine$ .ith )y lightning (rotector in the "]<"+,/"1T"+ of Fe7ruary0
!ig $? Illustrating Influence of (bstacle In the +ath of Transmission as -vidence Against the 4ert@Bwave Theory
!ig $: ,howing -ffect of Two 4ills as !urther +roof Against the 4ert@Bwave Theory
Again in Fig0 19 t.o trans)itting circuits8 one groun$e$ $irectly an$ the other through an air ga( are sho.n0 ,t is a co))on o7ser-ation that the for)er is far )ore effecti-e8 .hich coul$ not 7e the case .ith HertB ra$iations0 ,n a li2e )anner if t.o groun$e$ circuits are o7ser-e$ fro) $ay to $ay the effect is foun$ to increase greatly .ith the $a)(ness of the groun$8 an$ for the sa)e reason also the trans)ission through sea9.ater is )ore efficient0
!ig $; Comparing the Actions of Two !orms of Transmitter as 0earing (ut the !allacy of the 4ert@Bwave Theory
An illu)inating e'(eri)ent is in$icate$ in Fig0 !5 in .hich t.o groun$e$ trans)itters are sho.n8 one .ith a large an$ the other .ith a s)all ter)inal ca(acity0 >u((ose that the latter 7e 1/15 of the for)er 7ut that it is charge$ to 15 ti)es the (otential an$ let the frequency of the t.o circuits an$ therefore the currents in 7oth antennas 7e e'actly the sa)e0 The circuit .ith the s)aller ca(acity .ill then ha-e 15 ti)es the energy of the other 7ut the effects on the recei-er .ill 7e in no .ise (ro(ortionate0
!ig 6A %isproving the 4ert@Bwave Theory by Two Transmitters, (ne of #reat and the (ther of ,mall -nergy
The sa)e conclusions .ill 7e reache$ 7y trans)itting an$ recei-ing circuits .ith .ires 7urie$ un$ergroun$0 ,n each case the actions carefully in-estigate$ .ill 7e foun$ to 7e $ue to earth currents0 1u)erous other (roofs )ight 7e cite$ .hich can 7e easily -erifie$0 >o for e'a)(le oscillations of lo" fre)uency are e-er so )uch )ore effecti-e in the trans)ission .hich is inconsistent .ith the (re-ailing i$ea0 /y o7ser-ations in 1955 an$ the recent trans)issions of signals to -ery great $istances are another e)(hatic $is(ro-al0 The HertB .a-e theory of .ireless trans)ission )ay 7e 2e(t u( for a .hile8 7ut , $o not hesitate to say that in a short ti)e it .ill 7e recogniBe$ as one of the )ost re)ar2a7le an$ ine'(lica7le a7errations of the scientific )in$ .hich has e-er 7een recor$e$ in history0
1-1--06-00: T,e MoonKs #otation by Nikola Tesla

Electrical Ex*erimenter In this article Dr. Tesla *roves conclusively by theory and ex*eriment that all the kinetic energy of a rotating mass is *urely translational and that the moon contains absolutely no rotational energy+ in other "ords+ does not rotate on its axis.HEDIT'!. ,n re-ising )y article on "The /oon's +otation`8 .hich a((eare$ in the A(ril issue of the "lectrical "'(eri)enter8 , a((en$e$ a fe. re)ar2s to the original te't in further su((ort an$ eluci$ation of the theory a$-ance$0 =ue to the (rinter's error these .ere lost an$8 in con9sequence8 , foun$ it necessary to for.ar$ another co))unication .hich8 unfortunately8 .as recei-e$ too late for e)7o$i)ent in the /ay nu)7er0 /ean.hile )any letters ha-e reache$ )e in .hich certain (heno)ena (resente$ 7y rotating 7o$ies8 as the )oon's li7erations of longitu$e8 are cite$ as e-i$ences of energy $ue to s(inning )otion8 i0e08 (roofs of a'ial rotation of the satellite in the true (hysical sense0 , trust that the follo.ing a)(lifie$ state)ent .ill )eet all of the o7Hections raise$ an$ con-ert to )y -ie.s those .ho are still uncon-ince$0 The 2inetic energy of a rotating )ass can 7e $eter)ine$ in four .ays .hich are illustrate$ in $iagra)s8 Figs0 18 !8 3 an$ 6 an$ )ay 7e foun$ )ore or less suita7le0
,n =eter)ining the :inetic "nergy of a +otating /ass0 This Figure >ho.s the >election of a 1u)7er of <oints Ta2en &ith,n the >traight +o$ or /ass /8 at >uccessi-e =istances fro) the A'is of +otation ,n This Case the /ass /8 +otating n Ti)es <er >econ$8 A7out An ;0 :no.ing These Galues an$ the >(ee$ of +otation the :inetic A'is ;8 is =i-i$e$ ,nto 1u)erous "le)ents or >)all <arts at Garious "nergy of the /ass is +ea$ily Co)(ute$0 +a$ii fro) ;0 :no.ing the :inetic "nergy of "ach <art8 the &hole :inetic "nergy of the /ass is "asily =eter)ine$ 7y Ta2ing a >u))ation of the ,n$i-i$ual Auantities0
+eferring to Fig0 18 the )etho$ consists in selecting Hu$iciously a nu)7er of (oints as o 18 o!8 o38 etc08 .ithin the straight ro$ or )ass /8 res(ecti-ely at $istances r18 r!8 r38 etc08 fro) the a'is of rotation 5 an$ calculating the square root of the )ean square of these $istances0 ,ts -alue 7eing + g8 $enote$ ra$ius of gyration8 the effecti-e -elocity of the )ass at n re-olutions (er secon$ .ill 7e Ge L !l +g n an$ its 2inetic energy " L a / Ge ! L a / (!l +g n !0 ,n Fig0 ! the )ass /8 rotating n ti)es (er secon$ a7out an a'is 5 at right angles to the (lane of the (a(er8 is $i-i$e$ into nu)erous ele)ents or s)all (arts8 )ost con-eniently -ery thin concentric la)inae8 as l 18 l!8 l38 etc08 at $istances r18 r!8 r38 etc08 fro) 50 >ince the 2inetic energy of each (art is equal to half the (ro$uct of its )ass an$ the square of the -elocity8 the su) of all these ele)ental energies " L a m ) G ! L a )1 G1 ! M a )! G! ! M a )3
G3 ! Mnn L a )1 (!l+1n ! M a )! (!l+!n ! M a )3 (!l +3n ! Mnn A $ifferent for) of e'(ression for the energy of a rotating 7o$y )ay 7e o7taine$ 7y $eter)ining its )o)ent of inertia0 For this (ur(ose the )ass / (in Fig0 3 8 rotating n ti)es (er secon$ a7out an a'is 58 is se(arate$ into )inute (arts8 as )18 )!8 )38 etc08 res(ecti-ely at $istances r18 r!8 r3 8 etc08 fro) the sa)e0 The su) of the (ro$ucts of all these s)all )asses an$ the squares of their $istances is the )o)ent of inertia ,8 an$ then " L a ,o!8 j oL !ln 7eing the angular -elocity0
Another For) of "'(ression for the "nergy of a +otating 3o$y /ay ,n this Case the /otion is +esol-e$ ,nto T.o >e(arate Co)(onents 7e o7taine$ 7y =eter)ining ,ts /o)ent of ,nertia0 Here the /ass / K ;ne Translational A7out ; an$ the ;ther +otational A7out C0 The Total :inetic "nergy of the /ass "quals the >u) of These T.o ,s >u7$i-i$e$ ,nto /inute <arts )18 )!8 )38 n etc0 The >u) of the "nergies0 <ro$ucts of These /asses an$ the >quares of Their =istances is the /o)ent of ,nertia8 &hich .ith the Angular >(ee$8 Gi-es the :inetic "nergy "0
,t is o7-ious that in all these instances )any (oints or ele)ents .ill 7e require$ for great accuracy 7ut8 as a rule8 -ery fe. are sufficient in (ractice0 >till another .ay to co)(ute the 2inetic energy is illustrate$ in Fig0 68 in .hich case the quantity , is gi-en in ter)s of the )o)ent of inertia ,e a7out another a'is (arallel to 5 an$ (assing through the centre of gra-ity C of )ass /0 ,n confor)ity .ith this the energy of )otion " L a / G ! M a ,eo! in .hich equation G is the -elocity of the centre of gra-ity0 The (rece$ing is $ee)e$ in$is(ensa7le as , note that the corres(on$ents8 e-en those .ho see) thoroughly fa)iliar .ith )echanical (rinci(les8 fail to )a2e a $istinction 7et.een theoretical an$ (hysical truths .hich is essential to )y argu)ent0 ,n esti)ating the 2inetic energy of a rotating )ass in any of the .ays in$icate$ .e arri-e8 through suita7le conce(tions an$ )etho$s of a((ro'i)ation8 at e'(ressions .hich )ay 7e )a$e quantitati-ely (recise to any $esire$ $egree8 7ut $o not truly $efine the actual con$ition of the 7o$y0 To illustrate8 .hen (rocee$ing accor$ing to the (lan of Fig0 18 .e fin$ a certain hy(othetical -elocity .ith .hich the entire )ass shoul$ )o-e in or$er to contain the sa)e energy8 a state .holly i)aginary an$ irreconcila7le .ith the actual0 ;nly8 .hen all (articles of the 7o$y ha-e the sa)e -elocity8 $oes the (ro$uct a / G ! s(ecify a (hysical fact an$ is nu)erically an$ $escri(ti-ely accurate0 >till )ore re)ote fro) (al(a7le truth is the equation of )otion o7taine$ in the )anner in$icate$ in Fig0 68 in .hich the first ter) re(resents the 2inetic energy of translation of the 7o$y as a .hole an$ the secon$ that of its a'ial rotation0 The for)er .oul$ $e)an$ a )o-e)ent of the )ass in a $efinite (ath an$ $irection8 all (articles ha-ing the sa)e -elocity8 the latter its si)ultaneous )otion in another (ath an$ $irection8 the (articles ha-ing $ifferent -elocities0 This a7stract i$ea of angular )otion is chiefly res(onsi7le for the illusion of the )oon's a'ial rotation8 .hich , shall en$ea-our to $is(el 7y a$$itional e-i$ences0 &ith this o7Hect attention is calle$ to Fig0 4 sho.ing a syste) co)(ose$ of eight 7alls /0 .hich are carrie$ on
s(o2es >0 ra$iating fro) a hu7 H0 rotata7le aroun$ a central a'is 5 in 7earings su((ose$ to 7e frictionless0 ,t is an arrange)ent si)ilar to that 7efore illustrate$ .ith the e'ce(tion that the 7alls8 instea$ of for)ing (arts of the s(o2es8 are su((orte$ in scre. (i-ots s0 .hich are nor)ally loose 7ut can 7e tightene$ so as to (er)it 7oth free turning an$ rigi$ fi'ing as )ay he $esire$0 To facilitate o7ser-ation the s(o2es are
=iagra) >ho.ing a 3all Ha-ing /ass /8 of +a$ius r8 +otating A7out This =iagra) +e(resents a >yste) Co)(ose$ of 8 3alls /8 Carrie$ centre ;8 an$ Cse$ ,n the Theoretical Analysis of the /oon's /otion0 on >(o2es >8 an$ +otating Aroun$ centre ;0 The 3alls Are Freely +otata7le on <i-ots &hich Can 3e Tightene$0 &ith This /o$el the Fallacy of the /oon's +otation on ,ts A'le ,s =e)onstra7le
(ro-i$e$ .ith ra$ial )ar2s an$ (he lo.er si$es of the 7alls are sha$e$0 Assu)e8 first8 that the $ra.ing $e(icts the state of rest8 the 7alls 7eing rotata7le .ithout friction8 an$ let an angular -elocity oL !ln 7e i)(arte$ to the syste) in the cloc2.ise $irection as in$icate$ 7y the long soli$ arro.0 Gie.ing a 7all as /8 its successi-e (ositions 18 !8 3K8 in s(ace8 an$ also relati-ely to the s(o2e8 .ill 7e Hust as $ra.n8 an$ it is e-i$ent fro) an ins(ection of the $iagra) that .hile )o-ing .ith the angular -elocity j a7out 58 in the cloc2.ise $irection8 the 7all turns8 .ith res(ect to its a'is8 at the sa)e angular -elocity 7ut in the o(9(osition $irection8 that of the $otte$ arro.0 The co)7ine$ result of these t.o )otions is a translatory )o-e)ent of the 7all such that all (articles are ani)ate$ .ith the sa)e -elocity G8 .hich is that of its centre of gra-ity0 ,n this case8 grante$ that there is a7solutely no friction the 2inetic energy of each 7all .ill 7e gi-en 7y the (ro$uct of a / G ! not a((ro'i)ately8 7ut .ith )athe)atical rigour0 ,f no. the (i-ots are scre.e$ tight an$ the 7alls fi't rigi$ly to0 The s(o2es8 this angular )otion relati-ely to their a'es 7eco)es (hysically i)(ossi7le an$ then it is foun$ that the 2inetic energy of each 7all is increase$8 the incre)ent 7eing e'actly the energy of rotation of the hall on its a'is0 This fact8 .hich is 7orne out 7oth 7y theory an$ e'(eri)ent8 is the foun$ation of the general notion that a gyrating 7o$yKin this instance 7all /K(resenting al.ays the sa)e face to.ar$s the centre of )otion8 actually rotates u(on its a'is in the sa)e sense8 as in$icate$ 7y the short full arro.0 3ut it $oes not though to the eye it see)s so0 The fallacy .ill 7eco)e )anifest on further inquiry0 To 7egin .ith8 o7ser-e that .hen a )ass8 say the ar)ature of an electric )otor8 rotating .ith the angular -elocity jo8 is re-erse$8 its s(ee$ is K o j an$ the $ifference o K (Ko L !oL !0 1o.8 in fi'ing the 7all to the s(o2e8 the change of angular -elocity is only oJ therefore8 an a$$itional -elocity o .oul$ ha-e to 7e i)(arte$ to it in or$er to cause a cloc2.ise rotation of the 7all on its a'is in the true significance of the .or$0 The 2inetic energy .oul$ then 7e equal to the su) of the energies of the translatory an$ a'ial )otions8 not )erely in the a7stract )athe)atical )eaning8 7ut as a (hysical fact0 , a) .ell a.are that8 accor$ing to the (re-ailing o(inion8 .hen the 7all is free on the (i-ots it $oes not turn on its a'is at all an$ only rotates .ith the angular -elocity of the fra)e .hen rigi$ly attache$ to the sa)e8 7ut the truth .ill a((ear u(on a closer e'a)ination of this 2in$ of )o-e)ent0 #et the syste) 7e rotate$ as first assu)e$ an$ illustrate$8 the 7alls 7eing (erfectly free on the (i-ots8 an$ i)agine the latter to 7e gra$ually tightene$ to cause friction slo.ly re$ucing an$ finally (re9-enting the sli(0 At the outset all (articles of each 7all ha-e 7een )o-ing .ith the s(ee$ of its centre of gra-ity8 7ut as the 7earing
resistance asserts itself )ore an$ )ore the translatory -elocity of the (articles nearer to the a'is 5 .ill 7e $i)inishing8 .hile that of the $ia)etrically o((osite ones .ill 7e increasing8 until the )a'i)a of these changes are attaine$ .hen the 7alls are fir)ly hel$0 ,n this o(eration .e ha-e thus $e(ri-e$ those (arts of the )asses .hich are nearer to the centre of )otion8 of so)e 2inetic energy of translation .hile a$$ing to the energy of those .hich are farther an$8 o7-iously8 the gain .as greater than the loss so that the effecti-e -elocity of each 7all as a .hole .as increase$0 ;nly so ha-e .e aug)ente$ the 2inetic energy of the syste)8 not 7y causing a'ial rotation of the 7alls0 The energy " of each of these is solely that of translatory )o-e)ent .ith an effecti-e -elocity G0 as a7o-e $efine$ such that " L a / G!0 The a'ial rotations of the 7all in either $irection are 7ut a((arentJ they ha-e no reality .hate-er an$ call for no )echanical effort0 ,t is )erely .hen an e'traneous force acts in$e(en$ently to turn the .hirling 7o$y on its a'is that energy co)es into (lay0 ,nci$entally it shoul$ 7e (ointe$ out that in true a'ial rotation of a rigi$ an$ ho)ogeneous )ass all sy))etrically situate$ (articles contri7ute equally to the )o)entu) .hich is not the case here0 That there e'ists not e-en the slightest ten$ency to such )otion can8 ho.e-er8 7e rea$ily esta7lishe$0 For this (ur(ose , .oul$ refer to Fig0 % sho.ing a 7all / of ra$ius r8 the centre C of .hich is at a $istance + fro) a'is 5 an$ .hich is 7isecte$ 7y a tangential (lane (( as in$icate$8 the lo.er half s(here 7eing sha$e$ for $istinction0 The 2inetic energy of the 7all .hen .hirle$ n ti)es (er secon$ a7out 5 is accor$ing to the first for) of e'(ression " L a / Ge! L a / (!l +g n !8 / 7eing the )ass an$ +g the ra$ius of gyration0 3ut8 as e'(laine$ in connection .ith Fig0 68 .e ha-e also "L a / G! M a ,eo!8 G L !l+ n 7eing the -elocity of the centre of gra-ity C an$ ,e the )o)ent of inertia of the 7all8 a7out the (arallel a'is (assing through C an$ equal to !/4 / i ! so that " L a / (!l+ n ! M 1/4 / r! (!ln !0 1either of these t.o e'(ressions for " $escri7es the actual state of the 7o$y 7ut the first is certainly (refer9a7le con-eying8 as it $oes8 the i$ea of a single )otion instea$ of t.o8 one of .hich )oreo-er is $e-oi$ of e'istence0 , shall first un$erta2e to $e)onstrate that there is no torque or rotary effort a7out centre C an$ that the 2inetic energy of the su((ose$ a'ial rotation of the 7all is )athe)atically equal to Bero0 This )a2es it necessary to consi$er the t.o hal-es se(arate$ 7y the tangential (lane (( .holly in$e(en$ent fro) one another0 #et c1 an$ c!8 7e their centres of gra-ity8 then Cc1 L Cc! L 3/8 r0 ,n or$er to ascertain the 2inetic energy of the he)is(heres .e ha-e to fin$ their ra$ii of gyration .hich can 7e $one 7y $eter)ining the )o)ents of inertia ,c1 an$ ,c! a7out (arallel a'es (assing through c1 an$ c!0 Co)(le' calculation .ill 7e a-oi$e$ 7y re)e)7ering that the )o)ent of inertia of either one of the half s(heres a7out an a'is through C is ,c L a ] !/4 / r! L 1/4 / r! an$ since / L ! )8 ,c L !/4 ) r!0 This can 7e e'(rest in ter)s of the )o)ents ,c1 an$ ,c!J na)ely8 ,c L ,c1 M ) (p r ! L ,c! M ( p r !0 Hence ,c1 L ,c! L ,c K ) ( p r ! L !/4 ) r! K 9/%6 ) r! L 83/3!5 ) r!0 Follo.ing the sa)e rule the )o)ents of inertia of the half s(heres a7out the a'is (assing through the centre of )otion 5 can 7e foun$0 =esignating the )o)ents for the u((er an$ lo.er hal-es of the 7all8 res(ecti-ely8 ,o1 an$ ,o! .e ha-e ,o1 L ) (+ M p r ! M ,c1 L ) (+ M p r ! M 83/3!5 ) r! an$ ,o! L ) (+ K p r ! M ,c! L ) (+ K p r ! M 83/3!5 ) r!0 Thus for the u((er half s(here the ra$ius of gyration
Rg 1 =
I O1 = G R + 38 r H " + 83 3"0 r " an$ for the lo.er one Rg " = m
IO" = G R 38 r H " + 83 3"0 r " m
These are the $istances fro) centre 58 at .hich the )asses of the half s(heres )ay he concentrate$ an$ then the alge7raic su) of their energiesK.hich are .holly translatory those of a'ial rotation 7eing nilK.ill 7e e'actly equal to the total 2inetic energy of the 7all as a unit0 The significance of this .ill 7e un$erstoo$ 7y reference to Fig0 * in .hich the t.o )asses8 con$ense$ into (oints8 are re(resente$ as attache$ to in$e(en$ent .eightless strings of lengths +g1 an$ +g!9 .hich are (ur(osely sho.n as $is(lace$ 7ut shoul$ 7e i)agine$ as coinci$ent0 ,t .ill 7e rea$ily seen that if 7oth strings are cut in the sa)e instant the )asses .ill fly off in tangents to their circular or7its8 the angular )o-e)ent 7eco)ing rectilinear .ithout any transfor)ation of energy occurring0 #et us no. inquire .hat .ill ha((en if the t.o )asses are rigi$ly Hoine$8 the connection 7eing assu)e$ i)(on$era7le0 Here .e co)e to the real 7ug in the question un$er $iscussion0 "-i$ently8 so long as the .hirling )otion continues8 an$ 7oth the )asses ha-e (recisely the sa)e angular -elocity8 this connecting lin2 .ill 7e of no effect .hate-er8 not the slightest turning effort a7out the co))on centre of gra-ity of the )asses or ten$ency of equaliBation of energy 7et.een the) .ill e'ist0 The )o)ent the strings are 7ro2en an$ they are thro.n off they .ill 7egin to rotate 7ut8 as (ointe$ out 7efore8 this )otion neither a$$s to or $etracts fro) the energy store$0 The rotation is8 ho.e-er8 not $ue to an e'clusi-e -irtue of angular )otion8 7ut to the fact that the tangential -elocities of the )asses or (arts of the 7o$y thro.n off are $ifferent0
To /a2e the <ro7le) >ho.n ,n Fig0 * Clear8 ,)agine T.o +ifle 3arrels <arallel to "ach ;ther0 ,f T.o 3alls /9/ Are Fire$ >i)ultaneously8 Eoine$ 7y a Theoretical 3on$8 They &ill +e-ol-e A7out Their Co))on centre of Gra-ity8 <ro-ing That the /oon <ossesses ;nly :inetic "nergy of Translation0
Here T.o /asses )9)8 Are Consi$ere$ as Con$ense$ ,nto <oints8 Attache$ to &eightless >trings of =ifferent +a$ii0 ,f 3oth >trings Are Cut8 an$ the /asses Consi$ere$ as Eoine$8 Then There &ill 3e 1o +otation A7out the Co))on centre of Gra-ity0
To )a2e this clear an$ to in-estigate the effects (ro$uce$8 i)agine t.o rifle 7arrels8 as sho.n in Fig0 88 (lace$ (arallel to each other .ith their a'es se(arate$ 7y a $istance + g1K +g! an$ assu)e that t.o 7alls of sa)e $ia)eter8 each ha-ing )ass )8 are $ischarge$ .ith )uBBle -elocities G1 an$ G!8 res(ecti-ely equal to !ln +g1 an$ !ln +g! as in the case Hust consi$ere$0 ,f it 7e further su((ose$ that at the instant of lea-ing the 7arrels the 7alls are Hoine$ 7y a rigi$ 7ut .eightless lin2 they .ill rotate a7out their co))on centre of gra-ity an$ in accor$ance .ith the state)ent in )y (re-ious article a7o-e )entione$8 the relation .ill e'ist
V1 V" = nG Rg 1 Rg " H n 7eing the nu)7er of re-olutions (er secon$0 The equaliBation of the s(ee$s an$ "
2inetic energies of the 7alls .ill 7e8 un$er these circu)stances8 -ery ra(i$ 7ut in t.o hea-enly 7o$ies lin2e$ 7y gra-itational attraction8 the (rocess )ight require ages0 1o.8 this .hirling )o-e)ent is real an$ requires energy .hich8 o7-iously8 )ust 7e $eri-e$ fro) that originally i)(arte$ an$8 consequently8 )ust re$uce the -elocity of the 7alls in the $irection of flight 7y an a)ount .hich can 7e easily calculate$0 At the )o)ent of $ischarge the total 2inetic energy .as " L a / G1! M a / G!! .hich is e-i$ently equal to ) G3!8 G3 7eing the effecti-e -elocity of the co))on centre of gra-ity8 fro) .hich follo.s that )asses is8 of course8
V3 =
V1 + V" "
"
"
The s(ee$ of re-olution of the
V1 V" an$ the rotational energy of 7oth 7alls8 .hich )ust 7e consi$ere$ as (oints8 is "
V V" e = m 1 The 2inetic energy of translation in the $irection of flight is then "
1
V1 V" V1 + V" V1 + V" " = m = mV- ' V- = 7eing the s(ee$ of the co))on " mV + " mV m " " "
" 1 1 " " "
"
"
centre of gra-ity8 so that G3KG6 is the loss of -elocity in the $irection of flight o.ing to the rotation of the t.o )ass (oints0 ,f instea$ of these .e .oul$ $eal .ith the 7alls as they are8 their rotational energy
V + V" " e1 = e + i " = m 1 + i G "nH i 7eing the )o)ent of inertia of each 7all a7out its a'is0 "
As .ill 7e seen8 .e arri-e at (recisely the sa)e results .hether the )o-e)ent is rectilinear or in a circle0 ,n 7oth cases the total 2inetic energy can 7e $i-i$e$ into t.o (arts8 res(ecti-ely of the sa)e nu)erical -alues8 7ut there
is an essential $ifference0 ,n angular )otion the a'ial rotation is nothing )ore than an a7stract conce(tionJ in rectilinear )o-e)ent it is a (ositi-e e-ent0 Girtually all satellites route in li2e )anner an$ the (ro7a7ility8 that the acceleration or retar$ation of their a'ial )otionsKif they e-er e'iste$Kshoul$ co)e to a sto( (recisely at a $efinite angular -elocity8 is infinitesi)al .hile it is al)ost a7solutely certain that all )o-e)ent of this 2in$ .oul$ ulti)ately cease0 The )ost (lausi7le -ie. is that no true )oon has e-er rotate$ on its a'is8 for at the ti)e of its 7irth there )ust ha-e 7een so)e $efor)ation an$ $is(lace)ent of its centre of gra-ity through the attracti-e force of the )other (lanet so as to )a2e its (eculiar (osition in s(ace8 relati-e to the latter8 in .hich it (ersists irres(ecti-e of $istance8 )ore or less sta7le0 ,n e'(lanation of this8 su((ose that one of the halls as / in Fig 4 is not of ho)ogenous )aterial an$ that it is si)ilarly su((orte$ 7ut on an a'is (assing through its centre of gra-ity instea$ of for)0 Then8 no )atter in .hat (osition the 7all is fi'e$ on the (i-ots8 its 2inetic energy an$ centrifugal (ull .ill 7e the sa)e0 1e-ertheless a $irecti-e ten$ency .ill e'ist as the t.o centres $o not coinci$e an$ there is8 consequently8 no $yna)ic 7alance0 &hen (er)itte$ to turn freely on the a'is of gra-ity the 7o$y8 of .hate-er sha(e it )ay 7e8 .ill ten$ to (lace itself so that the line Hoining the t.o centres (oints to ; an$ there )ay 7e t.o (ositions of sta7ility 7ut8 generally8 if the centre of gra-ity is not greatly $is(lace$8 the hea-ier si$e .ill s.ing out.ar$ly0 >uch con$ition )ay o7tain in the )oon if it ha$ soli$ifie$ 7efore rece$ing fro) the earth to great $istance8 .hen the arrange)ent of the )asses in its interior 7eca)e su7Hect to gra-itational forces of its o.n8 -astly greater than the terrestrial0 ,t has 7een suggeste$ that the (lanet is egg9sha(e$ or elli(soi$al 7ut the $e(arture fro) s(herical for) )ust 7e inconsi$era7le0 ,t )ay e-en 7e a (erfect s(here .ith the centres of gra-ity an$ sy))etry coinci$ing an$ still rotate as it $oes0 &hate-er 7e its origin an$ (ast history8 the fact is8 that at (resent all its (arts ha-e the sa)e angular -elocity as though it .ere rigi$ly connecte$ .ith the earth0 This state )ust en$ure fore-er unless forces fro) .ithout the luna9terrestrial syste) 7ring a7out $ifferent con$itions an$ thus the ho(e of the star9gaBers that its other si$e )ay 7eco)e -isi7le so)e $ay )ust 7e in$efinitely $eferre$0 A )otion of this character8 as , ha-e sho.n8 (reclu$es the (ossi7ility of a'ial rotation0 The easiest .ay to free oursel-es of this illusion is to concei-e the satellite su7$i-i$e$ into )inute an$ entirely in$e(en$ent (arts8 as $ust (articles8 .hich ha-e $ifferent or7ital8 7ut rigorously the sa)e angular8 -elocities0 ;ne )ust at once recogniBe that the 2inetic energy of such an agglo)eration is solely translational0 There 7eing a7solutely no ten$ency to a'ial rotation0 This )a2es it also (erfectly clear .hy the )oon8 (ro-i$e$ its $istance $oes not greatly increase8 )ust al.ays turn the sa)e face to us e-en .ithout any inherent $irecti-e ten$ency nor so )uch as the slightest effort fro) the earth0 +eferring to the li7rations of longitu$e8 , $o not see that they ha-e any 7earing on this question0 ,n astrono)ical treatises the a'ial rotation of the )oon is acce(te$ as a )aterial fact an$ it is thought that its angular -elocity is constant .hile that of the or7ital )o-e)ent is not8 this resulting in an a((arent oscillation re-ealing )ore of its surface to our -ie.0 To a $egree this )ay 7e true8 7ut , hol$ that the )ere change of or7ital -elocity8 as .ill 7e e-i$ent fro) .hat has 7een state$ 7efore coul$ not (ro$uce these (heno)ena8 for no )atter ho. fast or slo. the gyration8 the (osition of the 7o$y relati-e to the centre of attraction re)ains the sa)e0 The real cause of these a'ial $is(lace)ents is the changing $istance of the )oon fro) the earth o.ing to .hich the tangential co)(onents of -elocity of its (arts are -arie$0 ,n a(ogee8 .hen the (lanet rece$es8 the ra$ial co)(onent of -elocity $ecreases .hile the tangential increases 7ut8 as the $ecre)ent of the for)er is the sa)e for all (arts8 this is )ore (ronounce$ in the regions facing the earth than in those turne$ a.ay fro) it8 the consequence 7eing an a'ial $is(lace)ent e'(osing )ore of the eastern si$e0 ,n (erigee8 on the contrary8 the ra$ial co)(onent increases an$ the effect is Hust the o((osite .ith the result that )ore of the .estern si$e is seen0 The )oon actually s.ings on the a'is (assing through its centre of gra-ity on .hich it is su((orte$ li2e a 7all on a string0 The forces in-ol-e$ in these (en$ular )o-e)ents are inco)(ara7ly s)aller than those require$ to effect changes in or7ital -elocity0 ,f .e esti)ate the ra$ius of gyration of the satellite at %55 )iles an$ its )ean $istance fro) the earth at !658555 )iles8 then the energy necessary to rotate it once in a )onth .oul$ 7e only
1 600 of the 2inetic energy of the or7ital )o-e)ent0 = "-0.000 160.000
"
1-1--0<-00: Ni.ola Tesla Tells 0ow Fe May 7ly *ig,t Miles 0ig, at 1)000 Miles an 0our by Nikola Tesla
!econstruction ,n an inter-ie. .ith Fre$eric2 /0 :er7y0 As the in-entor of the alternating current8 the .orl$ is in$e7te$ to /r0 Tesla for the use of electricity carrie$ #ong $istances0 He no. $iscusses0 the (ro7a7ility that air(lanes .ill rise to great heights an$ tra-el at s(ee$s that see) incre$i7le0 This article is .ritten8 in (art 7y /r0 Testa hi)self0 The rest is .ritten fro) stenogra(hic notes0 ,t gi-es8 -ery #i2ely8 a gli)(se of the i))e$iate future0 >itting in his office on the t.enty9fifth floor of the &ool.orth To.er8 /r0 E0 <ier(ont Eones8 A)erican 7usiness )an8 .ill one $ay glance at his .atch an$ $isco-er it is 3 o'cloc2 in the afternoon0 "3y George8" he .ill say8 7uBBing for his secretary8 ",f , $on't hurry ,'ll 7e late for that $inner engage)ent at the >a-oyY" An$ as his secretary ans.ers the 7uBBerI "Charles8 .hen $oes the ne't #on$on 7us lea-eF" "Three9thirty8 sir8" says Charles0 "Dou can )a2e it if you hurry0 The car is .aiting0" An$ fifteen )inutes later /r0 E0 <ier(ont Eones .ill e)erge fro) the ele-ator on the aeronautic lan$ing stage of lo.er /anhattan8 cli)7 into the her)etically seale$ steel fuselage of the 1e. Dor29#on$on #i)ite$8 .hich .ill rise (ro)(tly at 3I35 (0 )0 At se-en that night he .ill cli)7 out of his co)(art)ent on the lan$ing stage on the Tha)es ")7an2)ent8 an$ $escen$ to )eet his frien$ for $inner0 The three9hour aero(lane tri( fro) 1e. Dor2 to #on$on8 flying a7o-e the stor) le-el at eight )iles a7o-e the earth's surface is the (ossi7ility of the i))e$iate future0 This is not )y o.n (re$iction0 ,t is the result of si'teen (ages of close calculations in higher )athe)atics )a$e 7y 1i2ola Tesla8 to test an$ chec2 u( other (ages of intricate calculations )a$e 7y >a)uel =0 /ott8 charter )e)7er of the Aero Clu7 of A)erica0 /r0 /ott asserts that the three9hour tri( to #on$on fro) 1e. Dor2 is a question of rising into rarefie$ air .here the air (ressure is only one9fifth .hat it is at the earth's surface8 at .hich (oint the "alti(lane"8 as he has na)e$ the flying )achine of the future8 )ay 7e e'(ecte$ to fly fi-e ti)es as fast as at the earth's surface0 An$ if the s(ee$ of the aero(lane is increase$ not fi-e ti)es 7ut only one9fifth8 /r0 /ott says the tri( .ill 7e )a$e anyho. in the rarefie$ air eight )iles a7o-e the earth's surface in not )ore than t.el-e hourse running ti)e0 An$ 1i2ola Tesla agrees that ta2ing a (lane to such an altitu$e )ust result in great increase in s(ee$8 although he $oes not .ish8 in the a7sence of e'act 2no.le$ge of certain factors entering into the (ro7le)8 to (re$ict e'act s(ee$s0 >(ea2ing 7efore the <an9A)erican Aeronautic Con-ention at Atlantic City8 /r0 /ott asserte$ that in or$er to a-oi$ 7eing .eather97oun$ as .ere the a-iators at 1e.foun$lan$8 it .ill 7e necessary to construct (lanes that .ill rise a7o-e the stor) li)it0 ", su7)it8" he sai$8 "that .aiting in$efinitely for i$eal .eather con$itions for long9$istance flying o-er lan$ or sea .ill not $o for the $e)an$s of co))erce0 Therefore , .oul$ 7ring to your attention the (ossi7ilities fro) the air(lane or or hy$ro(lane8 to go into the stillness of nature a7o-e the .eather0 &hat The <ro7le) ,s "The (ro7le) is e-i$ently one of equi()ent of our (lanes to function in rarefie$ air8 an$ (rotection of na-igators against its tenuityJ li2e.ise (rotection of their 7o$y .ar)th an$ co)fort in e'tre)es of te)(erature0 Ho. high .e )ay go no one )ay 2no. until teste$0 <ersonally , 7elie-e it (ossi7le to go fifteen or t.enty )ils aloft8 if necessary0 ,t is o7-iously a )atter of equi()ent (lus cli)7ing a7ility of aircraft $esigne$ for the (ur(ose0 "&hat is the o7Hect of high flyingF =aily e'(erience sho.s us that high s(ee$ an$ $ensity are inco)(ati7le0 &e 2no. that .e )ust furnish aircraft .ith four ti)es the (o.er to go t.ice as fast8 an$ the )arine engineer 2no.s that he )ust furnish eight ti)es the (o.er to go t.ice as fast0 ,n other .or$s8 fro) the ulti)ate height of the air to the earth's core (ressure is (rogressi-e0 Thirty9three feet 7elo. the ocean's surface the (ressure $ou7les0 For e-ery 18555 feet ascent the (ressure $i)inishes roughly one9half (oun$ (er square inch0 The (ressure t.o )iles high is 908 (oun$s (er square inchJ at one )ile high8 15088J at three9quarters of a )ile8 1!05%J one9half )ile8
13033J one9quarter )ile8 160!8 an$ at sea le-el8 160* (oun$s8 or8 in roun$ nu)7ers8 14 (oun$s (er square inch0 "The un2no.n factor in the high altitu$e (ro7le) is thisI &ill an alti(lane in one9fifth $ensity (eight )iles high 8 .ith equal (ush8 go fi-e ti)es faster or one9fifth fasterF The rest is a )atter of si)(le equi()ent an$ goo$ construction0 ,n either case the gain is su7stantial0 ,f the for)er .ere true a -oyage 7et.een 1e. Dor2 an$ #on$on can 7e )a$e in a7out three hours 7y going eight )iles high0 ,f the latter is true the sa)e -oyage can 7e )a$e in a7out t.el-e hours running ti)e8 assu)ing a surface s(ee$ of !55 )iles an hour8 .hich is (ractically a question of (o.er0 "To )y )in$ it is (lain that the high altitu$es .ill 7e $eter)ining factors in long $istance flying0 Greater s(ee$8 greater $istance8 )ore co)fort an$ less $anger 7ecause .hen .e $ou7le the ti)e to $o a ris2y thing .e $ou7le the ris2 incurre$J less gasolene8 less .eight an$ e'(ense8 for if en-iron)ent (er)its us to go 155 )iles .ith t.ice the fuel .e for)erly use$ to go t.enty9fi-e )iles our econo)ic gain is o7-iously 155 (er cent8 7ecause .e )ay then go 155 )iles .ith the a)ount of fuel .e for)erly consu)e$ to go fifty )iles0" That aerial na-igation at higher altitu$es .ill Cn$ou7te$ly result in great increase of s(ee$ is also the o(inion of 1i2ola Tesla8 to .ho) , too2 /r0 /ott's conclusions in or$er to get the o(inion of this )an .ho has )a$e a life9 ti)e stu$y of the air as a )e$iu) for the trans)ission of electrical energy0 ",n the (ro(ulsion of aerial -essels (ro7le)s are in-ol-e$ entirely $ifferent fro) those (resente$ in the na-igation of the .ater8" sai$ Tesla0 "The at)os(here )ay 7e li2ene$ to a -ast ocean8 7ut if one i)agines a su7)arine -essel constructe$ li2e an aero(lane one i))e$iately realiBes ho. inefficient it .oul$ 7e0 The energy use$ in (ro(elling a 7o$y through a )e$iu) of any 2in$ is .aste$ in three $ifferent .aysJ first8 7y s2in frictionJ secon$8 .a-e )a2ingJ thir$8 (ro$uction of e$$ies0 ;n general (rinci(les8 ho.e-er8 the resistance can 7e $i-i$e$ into t.o (artsI one .hich is $ue to the friction of the )e$iu) an$ the other to its stic2iness8 or -iscosity8 as it is ter)e$0 The first is (ro(ortionate to the $ensityJ the secon$ to this (eculiar (ro(erty of the flui$0 ""-ery7o$y .ill rea$ily un$erstan$ that the $enser the )e$iu) the har$er it is to (ush a 7o$y through it8 7ut it )ight not 7e clear to e-ery (erson .hat this other resistance 9 this -iscosity 9 )eans0 This .ill 7e un$erstoo$ if .e co)(are8 for instance8 .ater an$ oil0 The latter is lighter8 7ut )uch )ore stic2y8 so that it is a greater o7stacle to (ro(ulsion than .ater0 Air is a -ery -iscous su7stance an$ that (art of resistance .hich is $ue to this quality is consi$era7le0 &e )ust ta2e this latter resistance into account in calculating ho. fast an aero(lane coul$ fly in the u((er reaches of the air0 "1o.8 the i$ea is to fly at a great height .here the air is rarefie$8 an$ therefore )uch less (o.er is require$ to (ro(el the )achine through it0 ,f .e ta2e the (ressure at sea9le-el at 160* (oun$s an$ the te)(erature at 14 $egrees centigra$e8 then8 .ithout intro$ucing se-eral corrections that .oul$ )a2e for greater accuracy8 the (ressures at $ifferent heights are a7out as follo.sI At0 18555 feet a7o-e seale-el8 1601*8 l7s0J at one9)ile8 1!0164* l7s0J at t.o )iles8 150534 l7s0J at eight )iles8 3019!% l7s0J at fifteen )iles8 50839! l7s0 an$ at t.enty )iles8 503!3 l7s0 Con$ition "ight /iles C( "Accor$ing to these figures that , ha-e .or2e$ out8 at a height of eight )iles the $ensity of the air is 50!1*! or a7out !!9155th of that at sea le-elJ at fifteen )iles it is 5054*8 an$ at t.enty )iles only 505!198 or nearly !!9 1555th of that at sea9le-el0 "#et us su((ose then that an aero(lane rises to a height of eight )iles .here the (ressure of the air .ill 7e only 3019!% l7s08 or8 in other .or$s8 the $ensity 50!1*! of that at sea9le-el0 >ince8 as (ointe$ out8 the (urely frictional resistance is (ro(ortionate to the $ensity of the air8 it is o7-ious that8 if there .ere no other resitance to o-erco)e8 only a7out !! (er cent of (o.er or roughly onefifth8 .oul$ 7e require$ to (ro(el the -essel at that height8 so that e'tre)ely high s(ee$8 as /r0 /ott (oints out8 .oul$ 7e o7taina7le0 "An$ though the other resistance8 .hich is $ue to the stic2iness of the )e$iu)8 .ill not 7e $i)inishe$ at the sa)e ratio8 an$ therefore the gain .ill not 7e strictly in (ro(ortion to the $ecrease of $ensity of the air8 ne-ertheless8 the total resistance .ill 7e re$uce$8 if not to !! (er cent8 (erha(s to 35 (er cent8 so that there .ill 7e a great e'cess of (o.er a-aila7le for )ore ra(i$ flight0 ""-en allo.ing for the $ecrease$ thrust of the (ro(eller $ue to the thinness of the air8 .hich cannot 7e o-erco)e 7y $ri-ing the scre. faster8 there still .ill 7e the -ery consi$era7le gain an$ the aircraft .ill 7e (ro(elle$ at a higher s(ee$0 ";f course )any incertitu$es still e'ist in the theoretical treat)ent of a question li2e this8 as there are a nu)7er of factors .hich affect the result an$ in regar$ to .hich .e ha-e not yet co)(lete infor)ation0
At An Altitu$e of T.enty /iles ", $ou7t that it .ill 7e (ossi7le to rise as high as fifteen or t.enty )iles8 .hich is the o(inion e'(resse$ 7y /r0 /ott0 At the height of t.enty )iles there is only a7out * (er cent of o'ygen in the air instea$ of !1 (er cent .hich is (resent close to the groun$8 an$ there .oul$ 7e great trou7le in securing the o'ygen su((ly for the co)7ustion of the fuel8 not to s(ea2 of other li)itations0 "Ho.e-er8 at a height of eight )iles the $ecrease of o'ygen can 7e o-erco)e for 7oth engine an$ a-iator0 ;f course (ro-ision .oul$ ha-e to 7e )a$e for su((lying the a-iator an$ (assengers .ith o'ygen0 ,n all (ro7a7ility they .oul$ ha-e to 7e entirely enclose$ Hust as a $i-er is enclose$0 ;ur highest )ountains are fi-e )iles an$ the rarefication of the air )a2es cli)7ing the) $ifficult0 A7out fi-e )iles (ro-ision .oul$ certainly ha-e to 7e )a$e for su((lying the a-iator0 ,f he .ere not enclose$ the $ecrease of (ressure $ue to the thinner air .oul$ result $isastrously0 The hu)an )echanis) is a$Huste$ to a (ressure of nearly 14 (oun$s (er square inchJ an$ if that (ressure is re$uce$ to a7out three (oun$s8 as it .oul$ 7e at an altitu$e of eight )iles8 the a-iator's ear $ru)s .oul$ 7urst8 an$ e-en the 7loo$ .oul$ 7e force$ through the (ores an$ .oul$ ooBe out of the 7o$y0 Tesla e'(laine$ that the effect .oul$ 7e the sa)e as that of 7ringing a $ee(9sea fish8 accusto)e$ to li-e a )ile 7elo. the surface8 to the surface of the .ater0 The fish si)(ly e'(lo$es8 for lac2 of the (ressure .hich its 7o$y is 7uilt to .ithstan$0 &ith (ro(er (rotection of the a-iator an$ an artificial su((ly of o'ygen Tesla 7elie-es that flights at the eight9)ile altitu$e are quite (ossi7le0 "Then there .ill 7e great (rogress .ith the lighter than air )achine an$ .e )ay soon e'(ect the a$-ent of a $irigi7le of the We((elin ty(e as a co))on -ehicle for tra-el0 Contrary to the general 7elief8 such a -essel can 7e (ro(elle$ )ore ra(i$ly than an air(lane an$ it .ill 7e8 on the .hole8 )uch safer0 Further)ore it .ill gi-e to the (assengers the co)forts that are necessary in or$er to )a2e this for) of tra-el (o(ular0 ;f course in the (ractical use of these )onstrous structures8 for)i$a7le o7stacles .ill 7e encountere$0 They are susce(ti7le to $a)age 7y stor)s8 an$ , 7elie-e also fro) certain $anger fro) lightning8 .hich .ill not 7e o7-iate$ 7y the use of heliu) gas0 3ut , e'(ect to see these $ifficulties o-erco)e0 The $irigi7le8 su((lie$ .ith sufficient (o.er8 nee$ not fear the stor)J it can rise a7o-e it8 or go aroun$ it0 The only $anger fro) stor) in any case lies in 7eing 7lo.n fro) the course8 for .hile the shi( is )o-ing .ith the stor) it is in no $anger8 since it tra-els at the sa)e s(ee$ as the .in$8 an$ the (assengers .oul$ 7e in a7solutely quiet air8 so that a can$le )ight 7e lighte$ on $ec20 /etho$s of $oc2ing an$ housing the 7ig shi(s )ust 7e $e-ise$8 7ut se-eral ha-e 7een (ro(ose$ that re$uce the $anger of lan$ing 7y )a2ing it unnecessary for the shi( to co)e to earth0 " 3ut the re-olutioniBing influence on aircraft of the future /r0 Tesla 7elie-es to lie in the (ossi7ility of trans)itting (o.er to the) through the air0 "For years8" he sai$8 " , ha-e a$-ocate$ )y syste) of .ireless trans)ission of (o.er .hich is no. (erfectly (ractica7le an$ , a) loo2ing confi$ently to its a$o(tion an$ further $e-elo()ent0 ,n the syste) , ha-e $e-elo(e$8 $istance is of a7solutely no consequence0 That is to say8 a We((elin -essel .oul$ recei-e the sa)e (o.er .hether it .as 1!8555 )iles a.ay or i))e$iately a7o-e the (o.er (lant0 The a((lication of .ireless (o.er for aerial (ro(ulsion .ill $o a.ay .ith a great $eal of co)(lication an$ .aste8 an$ it is $ifficult to i)agine that a )ore (erfect )eans .ill e-er 7e foun$ to trans(ort hu)an 7eings to great $istances econo)ically0 The (o.er su((ly is -irtually unli)ite$8 as any nu)7er of (o.er (lants can 7e o(erate$ together8 su((lying energy to airshi(s Hust as trains running on trac2s are no. su((lie$ .ith electrical energy through rails or .ires0 "The trans)ission of (o.er 7y .ireless .ill $o a.ay .ith the (resent necessity for carrying fuel on the air(lane or airshi(0 The )otors of the (lane or airshi( .ill 7e energiBe$ 7y this trans)itte$ (o.er8 an$ there .ill 7e no such thing as a li)itation on their ra$ius of action8 since they can (ic2 u( (o.er at any (oint on the glo7e0 The a$-ance of science to this (oint8 ho.e-er8 is atten$e$ .ith terri7le ris2s for the .orl$0 &e are facing a con$ition that is (ositi-ely a((alling if .e e-er (er)it .arfare to in-a$e the earth again0 For u( to the (resent .ar the )ain $estructi-e force .as (ro-i$e$ 7y guns .hich are li)ite$ 7y the siBe of the (roHectile an$ the $istance it can 7e thro.n0 ,n the future nations .ill fight each other thousan$s of )iles a(art0 1o sol$ier .ill see his ene)y0 ,n fact future .ars .ill not 7e con$ucte$ 7y )en $irectly 7ut 7y the forces .hich if let loose )any .ell $estroy ci-iliBation co)(letely0 ,f .ar co)es again8 , loo2 for the e'tensi-e use of self9(ro(elle$ air -ehicles carrying enor)ous charges of e'(losi-e .hich .ill 7e sent fro) any (oint to another to $o their $estructi-e .or28 .ith no hu)an 7eing a7oar$ to gui$e the)0 The $istance to .hich they can 7e sent is (ractically unli)ite$ an$ the a)ount of e'(losi-e they can carry is li2e.ise (ractically unli)ite$0 ,t is (ractica7le to sen$ such an air -essel
say to a $istance of four or fi-e thousan$ )iles an$ so control its course either gyrosco(ically or electrically that it .ill lan$ at the e'act s(ot .here it is inten$e$ to ha-e it lan$8 .ithin a fe. feet8 an$ its cargo of e'(losi-e can there 7e $etonate$0 "This cannot 7e $one 7y )eans of the (resent .ireless (lants8 7ut .ith a (ro(er (lant it can 7e $one8 an$ .e ha-e here the a((alling (ros(ect of a .ar 7et.een nations at a $istance of thousan$s9of )iles8 .ith .ea(ons so $estructi-e an$ $e)oraliBing that the .orl$ coul$ not en$ure the)0 That is .hy there )ust 7e no )ore .ar0
1-1--0<-00: *le(tri(al Os(illators 4y Nikola Tesla

Electrical Ex*erimenter Fe. fiel$s ha-e 7een o(ene$ u( the e'(loration of .hich has (ro-e$ as fruitful as that of high frequency currents0 Their singular (ro(erties an$ the s(ectacular character of the (heno)ena they (resente$ i))e$iately co))an$e$ uni-ersal attention0 >cientific )en 7eca)e intereste$ in their in-estigation8 engineers .ere attracte$ 7y their co))ercial (ossi7ilities8 an$ (hysicians recogniBe$ in the) a long9sought )eans for effecti-e treat)ent of 7o$ily ills0 >ince the (u7lication of )y first researches in 18918 hun$re$s of -olu)es ha-e 7een .ritten on the su7Hect an$ )any in-alua7le results o7taine$ through the )e$iu) of this ne. agency0 Det8 the art is only in its infancy an$ the future has inco)(ara7ly 7igger things in store0 Fro) the -ery 7eginning , felt the necessity of (ro$ucing efficient a((aratus to )eet a ra(i$ly gro.ing $e)an$ an$ $uring the eight years succee$ing )y original announce)ents , $e-elo(e$ not less than fifty ty(es of these transfor)ers or electrical oscillators8 each co)(lete in e-ery $etail an$ refine$ to such a $egree that , coul$ not )aterially i)(ro-e any one of the) to$ay0 Ha$ , 7een gui$e$ 7y (ractical consi$erations , )ight ha-e 7uilt u( an i))ense an$ (rofita7le 7usiness8 inci$entally ren$ering i)(ortant ser-ices to the .orl$0 3ut the force of circu)stances an$ the e-er enlarging -ista of greater achie-e)ents turne$ )y efforts in other $irections0 An$ so it co)es that instru)ents .ill shortly 7e (lace$ on the )ar2et .hich8 o$$ly enough8 .ere (erfecte$ t.enty years agoY These oscillators are e'(ressly inten$e$ to o(erate on $irect an$ alternating lighting circuits an$ to generate $a)(e$ an$ un$a)(ene$ oscillations or currents of any frequency8 -olu)e an$ tension .ithin the .i$est li)its0 They are co)(act8 self9containe$8 require no care for long (erio$s of ti)e an$ .ill 7e foun$ -ery con-enient an$ useful for -arious (ur(oses as8 .ireless telegra(hy an$ tele(honyJ con-ersion of electrical energyJ for)ation of che)ical co)(oun$s through fusion an$ co)7inationJ synthesis of gasesJ )anufacture of oBoneJ lightingJ .el$ingJ )unici(al8 hos(ital8 an$ $o)estic sanitation an$ steriliBation8 an$ nu)erous other a((lications in scientific la7oratories an$ in$ustrial institutions0 &hile these transfor)ers ha-e ne-er 7een $escri7e$ 7efore8 the general (rinci(les un$erlying the) .ere fully set forth in )y (u7lishe$ articles an$ (atents8 )ore (articularly those of >e(te)7er !!8 189%8 an$ it is thought8 therefore8 that the a((en$e$ (hotogra(hs of a fe. ty(es8 together .ith a short e'(lanation8 .ill con-ey all the infor)ation that )ay 7e $esire$0 The essential (arts of such an oscillator areI a con$enser8 a self9in$uction coil for charging the sa)e to a high (otential8 a circuit controller8 an$ a transfor)er .hich is energiBe$ 7y the oscillatory0 $ischarges of the con$enser0 There are at least three8 7ut usually four8 fi-e or si'8 circuits in tune an$ the regulation is effecte$ in se-eral .ays8 )ost frequently )erely 7y )eans of an a$Husting scre.0 Cn$er fa-oura7le con$itions an efficiency as high as 84i is attaina7le8 that is to say8 that (ercentage of the energy su((lie$ can 7e reco-ere$ in the secon$ary of the transfor)er0 &hile the chief -irtue of this 2in$ of a((aratus is o7-iously $ue to the .on$erful (o.ers of the con$enser8 s(ecial qualities result fro) concatenation of circuits un$er o7ser-ance of accurate har)onic relations8 an$ )ini)iBation of frictional an$ other losses .hich has 7een one of the (rinci(al o7Hects of the $esign0 3roa$ly8 the instru)ents can 7e $i-i$e$ into t.o classesI one in .hich the circuit controller co)(rises soli$ contacts8 an$ the other in .hich the )a2e an$ 7rea2 is effecte$ 7y )ercury0 Figures 1 to 88 inclusi-e8 7elong to the first8 an$ the re)aining ones to the secon$ class0 The for)er are ca(a7le of an a((recia7ly higher efficiency on account of the fact that the losses in-ol-e$ in the )a2e an$ 7rea2 are re$uce$ to the )ini)u) an$ the resistance co)(onent of the $a)(ing factor is -ery s)all0 The latter are (refera7le for (ur(oses requiring larger out(ut an$ a great nu)7er of 7rea2s (er secon$0 The o(eration of the )otor an$ circuit controller of course consu)es a certain a)ount of energy .hich8 ho.e-er8 is the less significant the larger the ca(acity of the )achine0
,n Fig0 1 is sho.n one of the earliest for)s of oscillator constructe$ for e'(eri)ental (ur(oses0 The con$enser is containe$ in a square 7o' of )ahogany u(on .hich is )ounte$ the self9in$uction or charging coil .oun$8 as .ill 7e note$8 in t.o sections connecte$ in )ulti(le or series accor$ing to .hether the tension of the su((ly circuit is 115 or !!5 -olts0 Fro) the 7o' (rotru$e four 7rass colu)ns carrying a (late .ith the s(ring contacts an$ a$Husting scre.s as .ell as t.o )assi-e ter)inals for the rece(tion of the (ri)ary of the transfor)er0 T.o of the colu)ns ser-e as con$enser connections .hile the other (air is e)(loye$ to Hoin the 7in$ing (osts of the s.itch in front to the self9in$uctance an$ con$enser0 The (ri)ary coil consists of a fe. turns of to((er ri77on to the en$s of .hich are sol$ere$ short ro$s fitting into the ter)inals referre$ to0 The secon$ary is )a$e in t.o (arts8 .oun$ in a )anner to re$uce as )uch as (ossi7le the $istri7ute$ ca(acity an$ at the sa)e ti)e ena7le the coil to .ithstan$ a -ery high (ressure 7et.een its ter)inals at the centre8 .hich are connecte$ to 7in$ing (osts on t.o ru77er colu)ns (roHecting fro) the (ri)ary0 The circuit connections )ay 7e slightly -arie$ 7ut or$inarily they are as $iagra))atically illustrate$ in the "lectrical "'(eri)enter for /ay on (age 898 relating to )y oscillation transfor)er (hotogra(h of .hich a((eare$ on (age 1% of the sa)e nu)7er0 The o(eration is as follo.sI &hen the s.itch is thro.n on8 the current fro) the su((ly circuit rushes through the self9in$uction coil8 )agnetiBing the iron core .ithin an$ se(arating the contacts of the controller0 The high tension in$uce$ current then charges the con$enser an$ u(on closure of the contacts the accu)ulate$ energy is release$ through the (ri)ary8 gi-ing rise to a long series of oscillations .hich e'cite the tune$ secon$ary circuit0 This $e-ice has (ro-e$ highly ser-icea7le in carrying on la7oratory e'(eri)ents of all 2in$s0 For instance8 in stu$ying (heno)ena of i)(e$ance8 the transfor)er .as re)o-e$ an$ a 7ent co((er 7ar inserte$ in the ter)inals0 The latter .as often re(lace$ 7y a large circular loo( to e'hi7it in$ucti-e effects at a $istance or to e'cite resonant circuits use$ in -arious in-estigations an$ )easure)ents0 A transfor)er suita7le for any $esire$ (erfor)ance coul$ 7e rea$ily i)(ro-ise$ an$ attache$ to the ter)inals an$ in this .ay )uch ti)e an$ la7or .as sa-e$0 Contrary to .hat )ight 7e naturally e'(ecte$8 little trou7le .as e'(erience$ .ith the contacts8 although the currents through the) .ere hea-y8 na)ely8 (ro(er con$itions of resonance e'isting8 the great flo. occurs only .hen the circuit is close$ an$ no $estructi-e arcs can $e-elo(0 ;riginally , e)(loye$ (latinu) an$ iri$iu) ti(s 7ut later re(lace$ the) 7y so)e of )eteorite an$ finally of tungsten0 The last ha-e gi-en the 7est satisfaction8 (er)itting .or2ing for hours an$ $ays .ithout interru(tion0 Fig0 ! illustrates a s)all oscillator $esigne$ for certain s(ecific uses0 The un$erlying i$ea .as to attain great acti-ities $uring )inute inter-als of ti)e each succee$e$ 7y a co)(arati-ely long (erio$ of inaction0 &ith this o7Hect a large self9in$uction an$ a quic29acting 7rea2 .ere e)(loye$ o.ing to .hich arrange)ent the con$enser .as charge$ to a -ery high (otential0 >u$$en secon$ary currents an$ s(ar2s of great -olu)e .ere thus o7taine$8 e)inently suita7le for .el$ing thin .ires8 flashing la)( fila)ents8 igniting e'(losi-e )i'tures an$ 2in$re$ a((lications0 The instru)ent .as also a$a(te$ for 7attery use an$ in this for) .as a -ery effecti-e igniter for gas engines on .hich a (atent 7earing nu)7er %598!45 .as grante$ to )e August 1%818980 Fig0 3 re(resents a large oscillator of the first class inten$e$ for .ireless e'(eri)ents8 (ro$uction of +ontgen rays an$ scientific research in general0 ,t co)(rises a 7o' containing t.o con$ensers of the sa)e ca(acity on .hich are su((orte$ the charging coil an$ transfor)er0 The auto)atic circuit controller8 han$ s.itch an$ connecting (osts are )ounte$ on the front (late of the in$uctance s(ool as is also one of the contact s(rings0 The con$enser 7o' is equi((e$ .ith three ter)inals8 the t.o e'ternal ones ser-ing )erely for connection .hile the )i$$le one carries a contact 7ar .ith a scre. for regulating the inter-al $uring .hich the circuit is close$0 The -i7rating s(ring8 itself8 the sole function of .hich is to cause (erio$ic interru(tions8 can 7e a$Huste$ in its strength as .ell as $istance fro) the iron core in the centre of the charging coil 7y four scre.s -isi7le on the to( (late so that any $esire$ con$itions of )echanical control )ight 7e secure$0 The (ri)ary coil of the transfor)er is of co((er sheet an$ ta(s are )a$e at suita7le (oints for the (ur(ose of -arying at .ill08 the nu)7er of turns0 As in Fig0 1 the in$uctance coil is .oun$ in t.o sections to a$a(t the instru)ent 7oth to 115 an$ !!5 -olt circuits an$ se-eral secon$aries .ere (ro-i$e$ to suit the -arious .a-e lengths of the (ri)ary0 The out(ut .as a((ro'i)ately 455 .att .ith $a)(e$ .a-es of a7out 458555 cycles (er secon$0 For short (erio$s of ti)e un$a)(ene$ oscillations .ere (ro$uce$ in scre.ing the -i7rating s(ring tight against the iron core an$ se(arating the contacts 7y the a$Husting scre. .hich also (erfor)e$ the function of a 2ey0 &ith this oscillator , )a$e a nu)7er of i)(ortant o7ser-ations an$ it .as one of the )achines e'hi7ite$ at a lecture 7efore the 1e. Dor2 Aca$e)y of >ciences in 189*0 Fig0 6 is a (hotogra(h of a ty(e of transfor)er in e-ery res(ect si)ilar to the one illustrate$ in the /ay8 19198 issue of the "lectrical "'(eri)enter to .hich reference has alrea$y 7een )a$e0 ,t contains the i$entical essential (arts8 $is(ose$ in li2e )anner8 7ut .as s(ecially $esigne$ for use on su((ly circuits of higher tension8 fro) !!5 to 455 -olts or )ore0 The usual a$Hust)ents are )a$e in setting the contact s(ring an$ shifting the iron core .ithin the in$uctance coil u( an$ $o.n 7y )eans of t.o scre.s0 ,n or$er to (re-ent inHury through a short9circuit8
fuses are inserte$ in the lines0 The instru)ent .as (hotogra(he$ in action8 generating un$a)(ene$ oscillations fro) a !!5 -olt lighting circuit0 Fig0 4 sho.s a later for) of transfor)er (rinci(ally inten$e$ to re(lace +hu)2orf coils0 ,n this instance a (ri)ary is e)(loye$8 ha-ing a )uch greater nu)7er of turns an$ the secon$ary is closely lin2e$ .ith the sa)e0 The currents $e-elo(e$ in the latter8 ha-ing a tension of fro) 158555 to 358555 -olts8 are use$ to charge con$ensers an$ o(erate an in$e(en$ent high frequency coil as custo)ary0 The controlling )echanis) is of so)e.hat $ifferent construction 7ut the core an$ contact s(ring are 7oth a$Husta7le as 7efore0 Fig0 % is a s)all instru)ent of this ty(e8 (articularly inten$e$ for oBone (ro$uction or steriliBation0 ,t is re)ar2a7ly efficient for its siBe an$ can 7e connecte$ either to a 115 or !!5 -olt circuit8 $irect or alternating8 (refera7ly the for)er0 ,n Fig0 * is sho.n a (hotogra(h of a larger transfor)er of this 2in$0 The construction an$ $is(osition of the (arts is as 7efore 7ut there are t.o con$ensers in the 7o'8 one of .hich is connecte$ in the circuit as in the (re-ious cases8 .hile the other is in shunt to the (ri)ary coil0 ,n this )anner currents of great -olu)e are (ro$uce$ in the latter an$ the secon$ary effects are accor$ingly )agnifie$0 The intro$uction of an a$$itional tune$ circuit secures also other a$-antages 7ut the a$Hust)ents are ren$ere$ )ore $ifficult an$ for this reason it is $esira7le to use such an instru)ent in the (ro$uction of currents of a $efinite an$ unchanging frequency0
Fig0 8 illustrates a transfor)er .ith rotary 7rea20 There are t.o con$ensers of the sa)e ca(acity in the 7o' .hich can 7e connecte$ in series or )ulti(le0 The charging in$uctances are in the for) of t.o long s(ools u(on .hich are su((orte$ the secon$ary ter)inals0 A s)all $irect current )otor8 the s(ee$ of .hich can 7e -arie$ .ithin .i$e li)its8 is e)(loye$ to $ri-e a s(ecially constructe$ )a2e an$ 7rea20 ,n other features the oscillator is li2e the one illustrate$ in Fig0 3 an$ its o(eration .ill 7e rea$ily un$erstoo$ fro) the foregoing0 This transfor)er .as use$ in )y .ireless e'(eri)ents an$ frequently also for lighting the la7oratory 7y )y -acuu) tu7es an$ .as li2e.ise e'hi7ite$ at )y lecture 7efore the 1e. Dor2 Aca$e)y of >ciences a7o-e )entione$0 Co)ing no. to )achines of the secon$ class8 Fig0 9 sho.s an oscillatory transfor)er co)(rising a con$enser an$ charging in$uctance enclose$ in a 7o'8 a transfor)er an$ a )ercury circuit controller8 the latter 7eing of a construction $escri7e$ for the first ti)e in )y (atent 1o0 %598!41 of August 1%8 18980 ,t consists of a )otor
$ri-en hollo. (ulley containing a s)all quantity of )ercury .hich is thro.n out.ar$ly against the .alls of the -essel 7y centrifugal force an$ entrains a contact .heel .hich (erio$ically closes an$ o(ens the con$enser circuit0 3y )eans of a$Husting scre.s a7o-e the (ulley8 the $e(th of i))ersion of the -anes an$ consequently8 also8 the $uration of each contact can 7e -arie$ at $esire an$ thus the intensity of the effects an$ their character controlle$0 This for) of 7rea2 has gi-en thorough satisfaction8 .or2ing continuously .ith currents of fro) !5 to !4 a)(eres0 The nu)7er of interru(tions is usually fro) 455 to 18555 (er secon$ 7ut higher frequencies are (ractica7le0 The s(ace occu(ie$ is a7out 15" ] 8" ] 15" an$ the out(ut a((ro'i)ately 1/! 2&0 ,n the transfor)er Hust $escri7e$ the 7rea2 is e'(ose$ to the at)os(here an$ a slo. o'i$ation of the )ercury ta2es (lace0 This $isa$-antage is o-erco)e in the instru)ent sho.n in Fig0 158 .hich consists of a (erforate$ )etal 7o' containing the con$enser an$ charging in$uctance an$ carrying on the to( a )otor $ri-ing the 7rea28 an$ a transfor)er0 The )ercury 7rea2 is of a 2in$ to 7e $escri7e$ an$ o(erates on the (rinci(le of a Het .hich esta7lishes8 inter)ittently8 contact .ith a rotating .heel in the interior of the (ulley0 The stationary (arts are su((orte$ in the -essel on a 7ar (assing through the long hollo. shaft of the )otor an$ a )ercury seal is e)(loye$ to effect her)etic closure of the cha)7er enclosing the circuit controller0 The current is le$ into the interior of the (ulley through t.o sli$ing rings on the to( .hich are in series .ith the con$enser an$ (ri)ary0 The e'clusion of the o'ygen is a $eci$e$ i)(ro-e)ent8 the $eterioration of the )etal an$ atten$ant trou7le 7eing eli)inate$ an$ (erfect .or2ing0 Fig0 11 is a (hotogra(h of a si)ilar oscillator .ith her)etically inclose$ )ercury 7rea20 ,n this )achine the stationary (arts of the interru(ter in the interior of the (ulley .ere su((orte$ on a tu7e through .hich .as le$ an insulate$ .ire connecting to one ter)inal of the 7rea2 .hile the other .as in contact .ith the -essel0 The sli$ing rings .ere8 in this )anner8 a-oi$e$ an$ the construction si)(lifie$0 The instru)ent .as $esigne$ for oscillations of lo.er tension an$ frequency requiring (ri)ary currents of co)(arati-ely s)aller a)(erage an$ .as use$ to e'cite other resonant circuits0 Fig0 1! sho.s an i)(ro-e$ for) of oscillator of the 2in$ $escri7e$ in Fig0 158 in .hich the su((orting 7ar through the hollo. )otor shaft .as $one a.ay .ith8 the $e-ice (u)(ing the )ercury 7eing 2e(t in (osition 7y gra-ity8 as .ill 7e )ore fully e'(laine$ .ith reference to another figure0 3oth the ca(acity of the con$enser an$ (ri)ary turns .ere )a$e -aria7le .ith the -ie. of (ro$ucing oscillations of se-eral frequencies0
Fig0 13 is a (hotogra(hic -ie. of another for) of oscillatory transfor)er .ith her)etically seale$ )ercury interru(ter8 an$ Fig0 16 $iagra)s sho.ing the circuit connections an$ arrange)ent of (arts re(ro$uce$ fro) )y (atent8 1o0 %598!648 of August 1%8 18988 $escri7ing this (articular $e-ice0 The con$enser8 in$uctance8 transfor)er an$ circuit controller are $is(ose$ as 7efore8 7ut the latter is of $ifferent construction8 .hich .ill 7e clear fro) an ins(ection of Fig0 16I The hollo. (ulley a is secure$ to a shaft c .hich is )ounte$ in a -ertical 7earing (assing through the stationary fiel$ )agnet $ of the )otor0 ,n the interior of the -essel is su((orte$8 on frictionless 7earings8 a 7o$y h of )agnetic )aterial .hich is surroun$e$ 7y a $o)e 7 in the centre of a la)inate$ iron ring8 .ith (ole (ieces oo .oun$ .ith energiBing coils (0 The ring is su((orte$ on four colu)ns an$8 .hen )agnetiBe$8 2ee(s the 7o$y h in (osition .hile the (ulley is rotate$0 The latter is of steel8 7ut the $o)e is (refera7ly )a$e of Ger)an sil-er 7urnt 7lac2 7y aci$ or nic2elle$0 The 7o$y h carries a short tu7e 2 7ent8 as in$icate$8 to catch the flui$ as it is .hirle$ aroun$8 an$ (roHect it against the teeth of a .heel fastene$ to the (ulley0 The .heel is insulate$ an$ contact fro) it to the e'ternal circuit is esta7lishe$ through a )ercury cu(0 As the (ulley is ra(i$ly rotate$ a Het of the flui$ is thro.n against the .heel8 thus (ea2ing an$ 7rea2ing contact a7out 18555 ti)es (er secon$0 The instru)ent .or2s silently an$8 o.ing to the a7sence of all $eteriorating agentsJ 2ee(s continually clean an$ in (erfect con$ition0 The nu)7er of interru(tions (er secon$ )ay 7e )uch greater8 ho.e-er8 so as to )a2e the currents suita7le for .ireless tele(hony an$ li2e (ur(oses0
Fig0 14 Tesla Transfor)er .ith gra-ity controlle$8 seale$ )ercury interru(ter0
A )o$ifie$ for) of oscillator is re(resente$ in Figs0 14 an$ 1%8 the for)er 7eing a (hotogra(hic -ie. an$ the latter a $iagra))atic illustration sho.ing the arrange)ent of the interior (arts of the controller0 ,n this instance the shaft 7 carrying the -essel a is hollo. an$ su((orts8 in frictionless 7earings8 a s(in$le H to .hich is fastene$ a .eight 20 ,nsulate$ fro) the latter8 7ut )echanically fi'e$ to it8 is a cur-e$ ar) # u(on .hich is su((orte$8 freely rotata7le8 a 7rea29.heel .ith (roHections AA0 The .heel is in electrical connection .ith the e'ternal circuit through a )ercury cu( an$ an insulate$ (lug su((orte$ fro) the to( of the (ulley0 ;.ing to the incline$ (osition of the0 )otor the .eight 2 2ee(s the 7rea29.heel in (lace 7y the force of gra-ity an$ as the (ulley is rotate$ the circuit8 inclu$ing the con$enser an$ (ri)ary coil of the transfor)er8 is8 ra(i$ly )a$e an$ 7ro2en0
Fig 18
Fig 1* Fig0 1* sho.s a si)ilar instru)ent in .hich8 ho.e-er8 the )a2e an$ 7rea2 $e-ice is a Het of )ercury i)(inging against an insulate$ toothe$ .heel carrie$ on an insulate$ stu$ in the centre of the co-er of the (ulley as sho.n0 Connection to the con$enser circuit is )a$e 7y 7rushes 7earing on this (lug0 Fig0 18 is a (hotogra(h of another transfor)er .ith a )ercury circuit controller of the .heel ty(e8 )o$ifie$ in so)e features on .hich it is unnecessary to $.ell0 These are 7ut a fe. of the oscillatory transfor)ers , ha-e (erfecte$ an$ constitute only a s)all (art of )y high frequency a((aratus of .hich , ho(e to gi-e a full $escri(tion8 .hen , shall ha-e free$ )yself of (ressing $uties8 at so)e future $ate0
1-1--10-1": Signals to Mars ;ased on 0o$e of 'ife on 5lanet by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald #ritten &*ecially for the (erald by Nikola Tesla The i$ea that other (lanets are inha7ite$ 7y intelligent 7eings )ight 7e trace$ to the -ery 7eginnings of ci-iliBation0 This8 in itself8 .oul$ ha-e little significance8 for )any of the ancient 7eliefs ha$ their origin in ignorance8 fear or other )oti-es 9 goo$ or e-il8 an$ .ere nothing )ore than (ro$ucts of untraine$ or torture$ i)agination0 3ut .hen a conce(tion li-es through ages in the )in$s8 gro.ing stronger an$ stronger .ith increasing 2no.le$ge an$ intellectual $e-elo()ent8 it )ay 7e safely conclu$e$ that there is a soli$ truth un$erlying the instincti-e (erce(tion0 The in$i-i$ual is short li-e$ an$ erringJ )an8 relati-ely s(ea2ing8 is i)(erisha7le an$ infalli7le0 "-en the (ositi-e e-i$ences of the sense an$ the conclusions of science )ust 7e hesitatingly acce(te$ .hen they are $irecte$ against the testi)ony of the entire 7o$y of hu)anity an$ the e'(erience of centuries0 /o$ern in-estigation has $isclose$ the fact that there are other .orl$s8 situate$ )uch the sa)e as ours8 an$ that organic life is 7oun$ to $e-elo( .here-er there is heat8 light an$ )oisture0 &e 2no. no. that such con$itions e'ist on innu)era7le hea-enly 7o$ies0 ,n the solar syste)8 t.o of these are (articularly cons(icuous K Genus an$ /ars0 The for)er is8 in )any re(ects li2e the earth an$ )ust un$ou7te$ly 7e the a7o$e of so)e 2in$ of life8 7ut as to this .e can only conHecture8 for the surface is hi$$en fro) our -ie. 7y a $ense at)os(here0 The latter (lanet can 7e rea$ily o7ser-e$ an$ its (erio$ic changes8 .hich ha-e 7een e'hausti-ely stu$ie$ 7y the late <erci-al #o.ell8 are a strong argu)ent in su((ort of the su((osition that it is (o(ulate$ 7y a race -astly su(erior to ours in the )astery of the forces of nature ,f such 7e the case then all that .e can acco)(lish on this glo7e is of trifling i)(ortance as co)(are$ .ith the (erfection of )eans (utting us in (ossession of the secrets they )ust ha-e $isco-ere$ in their struggle against )erciless ele)ents0 &hat a trage$y it .oul$ 7e .ere .e to fin$ so)e $ay that this .on$erful (eo(le ha$ finally )et its ine-ita7le fate an$ that all the (recious intelligence they )ight ha-e an$8 (erha(s8 ha$ trie$ to con-ey to us8 .as lost0 3ut although scientific research $uring the last fe. $eca$es has gi-en su7stance to the tra$itional 7elief8 no serious atte)(t to esta7lish co))unication coul$ ha-e 7een )a$e until quite recently for .ant of (ro(er instru)entalities0 #ight +ay <roHect0 #ong ago it .as (ro(ose$ to e)(loy rays of light for this (ur(ose an$ a nu)7er of )en of science ha$ $e-ise$ s(ecific (lans .hich .ere $iscusse$ in the (erio$icals fro) ti)e to ti)e0 3ut a careful e'a)ination sho.s that none of the) is feasi7le8 e-en on the assu)(tion that the inter(lanetary s(ace is $e-oi$ of gross )atter8 7eing fille$ only .ith a ho)ogeneous an$ inconcei-a7ly tenuous )e$iu) calle$ the ether0 The tails of co)ets an$ other (heno)ena8 ho.e-er8 .oul$ see) to $is(ro-e the theory8 so that the successful e'change of signals 7y that 2in$ of agency is -ery i)(ro7a7le0 &hile .e can clearly $iscern the surface of /ars8 it $oes not follo. that the re-erse is true0 ,n (erfect -acuu)8 of course8 a (arallel 7ea) of light .oul$ 7e i$eally suite$ for the trans)ission of energy in any a)ount for8 theoretically8 it coul$ (ass through infinite $istance .ithout any $i)inution of intensity0 Cnfortunately8 this as .ell as other for)s of ra$iant energy are ra(i$ly a7sor7e$ in tra-ersing the at)os(here0 ,t is (ossi7le that a )agnetic force )ight 7e (ro$uce$ on the earth sufficient to 7ri$ge the ga( of 4585558555 )iles an$8 in fact8 it has 7een suggeste$ to lay a ca7le aroun$ the glo7e .ith the o7Hect of )agnetiBing it0 3ut certain electrical o7ser-ations , )a$e in stu$ying terrestrial $istur7ances (ro-e conclusi-ely that there can not 7e )uch iron or other )agnetic 7o$ies in the earth 7eyon$ the insignificant quantity in the crust0 "-erything in$icates that it is -irtually a 7all of glass an$ it .oul$ require )any energiBing turns to (ro$uce (erce(ti7le effects at great $istance in this )anner0 /oreo-er8 such an un$erta2ing .oul$ 7e costly an$8 on account of the lo. s(ee$ of the current through the ca7le8 the signalling .oul$ 7e e'tre)ely slo.0 The /iracle <erfor)e$0 >uch .as the state of things until t.enty years ago .hen a .ay .as foun$ to (erfor) this )iracle0 ,t calls for nothing )ore than a $eter)ine$ effort an$ a feat in electrical engineering .hich8 although $ifficult8 is certainly realiBa7le0 ,n 1899 , un$ertoo2 to $e-elo( a (o.erful .ireless trans)itter an$ to ascertain the )o$e in .hich the .a-es
.ere (ro(agate$ through the earth0 This .as in$is(ensa7le in or$er to a((ly )y syste) intelligently for co))ercial (ur(oses an$8 after careful stu$y8 , selecte$ the high (lateau of Colora$o (%8555 feet a7o-e sea le-el for the (lant .hich , erecte$ in the first (art of that year0 /y success in o-erco)ing the technical $ifficulties .as greater than , ha$ e'(ecte$ an$ in a fe. )onths , .as a7le to (ro$uce electrical actions co)(ara7le to8 an$ in a certain sense sur(assing those of lightning0 Acti-ities of 1885558555 horse(o.er .ere rea$ily attaine$ an$ , frequently co)(ute$ the intensity of the effect in re)ote localities0 =uring )y e'(eri)ents there8 /ars .as at a relati-ely s)all $istance fro) us an$8 in that $ry an$ rarefie$ air8 Genus a((eare$ so large an$ 7right that it )ight ha-e 7een )ista2en for one of those )ilitary signaling lights0 ,ts o7ser-ation (ro)(te$ )e to calculate the energy trans)itte$ 7y a (o.erful oscillator at 4585558555 )iles8 an$ , ca)e to the conclusion that it .as sufficient to e'ert a noticea7le influence on a $elicate recei-er of the 2in$ , .as8 in the )ean.hile8 (erfecting0 /y first announce)ents to this effect .ere recei-e$ .ith incre$ulity 7ut )erely 7ecause the (otencies of the instru)ent , ha$ $e-ise$ .ere un2no.n0 ,n the succee$ing year8 ho.e-er8 , $esigne$ a )achine for a )a'i)u) acti-ity of 1855585558555 horse(o.er .hich .as (artly constructe$ on #ong ,slan$ in 195! an$ .oul$ ha-e 7een (ut in o(eration 7ut for re-erses an$ the fact that )y (roHect .as too far in a$-ance of the ti)e0 ,t .as re(orte$ at that (erio$ that )y to.er .as inten$e$ for signalling to /ars8 .hich .as not the case8 7ut it is true that , )a$e a s(ecial (ro-ision for ren$ering it suita7le to e'(eri)ents in that $irection0 For the last fe. years there has 7een such a .i$e a((lication of )y .ireless trans)itter that e'(erts ha-e 7eco)e8 to an e'tent8 fa)iliar .ith its (ossi7ilities8 an$8 if , a) not )ista2en8 there are -ery fe. "$ou7ting Tho)ases" no.0 3ut our a7ility to con-ey a signal across the gulf se(arating us fro) our neigh7oring (lanets .oul$ 7e of no a-ail if they are $ea$ an$ 7arren or inha7ite$ 7y races still un$e-elo(e$0 ;ur ho(e that it )ight 7e $ifferent rests on .hat the telesco(e has re-eale$8 7ut not on this alone0 Gast <o.er Foun$0 ,n the course of )y in-estigations of terrestrial electrical $istur7ances in Colora$o , e)(loye$ a recei-er8 the sensiti-eness of .hich is -irtually unli)ite$0 ,t is generally 7elie-e$ that the so9calle$ au$ion e'cels all others in this res(ect an$ >ir ;li-er #o$ge is cre$ite$ .ith saying that it has 7een the )eans of achie-ing .ireless tele(hony an$ transfor)ing ato)ic energy0 ,f the ne.s is correct that scientist )ust ha-e 7een -icti)iBe$ 7y so)e (layful s(irits .ith .ho) he is co))unicating0 ;f course8 there is no con-ersion of ato)ic energy in such a 7ul7 an$ )any $e-ices are 2no.n .hich can 7e use$ in the art .ith success0 /y arrange)ents ena7le )e to )a2e a nu)7er of $isco-eries8 so)e of .hich , ha-e alrea$y announce$ in technical (erio$icals0 The con$itions un$er .hich , o(erate$ .ere -ery fa-ora7le for no other .ireless (lant of any consi$era7le (o.er e'iste$ an$ the effects t o7ser-e$ .ere thereafter $ue to natural causes8 terrestrial or cos)ic0 , gra$ually learne$ ho. to $istinguish in )y recei-er an$ eli)inate certain actions an$ on one of these occasions )y ear 7arely caught signals co)ing in regular succession .hich coul$ not ha-e 7een (ro$uce$ on the earth8 cause$ 7y any solar or lunar action or 7y the influence of Genus8 an$ the (ossi7ility that they )ight ha-e co)e fro) /ars flashe$ u(on )y )in$0 ,n later years , ha-e 7itterly regrette$ that , yiel$e$ to the e'cite)ent of i$eas an$ (ressure of 7usiness instea$ of concentrating all )y energies on that in-estigation0 The ti)e is ri(e no. to )a2e a syste)atic stu$y of this transcen$ing (ro7le)8 the consu))ation of .hich )ay )ean untol$ 7lessings to the hu)an race0 Ca(ital shoul$ 7e li7erally (ro-i$e$ an$ a 7o$y of co)(etent e'(erts for)e$ 9to e'a)ine all the (lans (ro(ose$ an$ to assist in carrying out the 7est0 The )ere initiation of such a (roHect in these uncertain an$ re-olutionary ti)es .oul$ result in a 7enefit .hich cannot 7e un$eresti)ate$0 ,n )y early (ro(osals , ha-e a$-ocate$ the a((lication of fun$a)ental )athe)atical (rinci(les for reaching the first ele)entary un$erstan$ing0 3ut since that ti)e , ha-e $e-ise$ a (lan a2in to (icture trans)ission through .hich 2no.le$ge of for) coul$ 7e con-eye$ an$ the 7arriers to the )utual e'change of i$eas largely re)o-e$0 >uccess in Trials <erfect success cannot 7e attaine$ in any other .ay for .e 2no. only .hat .e can -isualiBe0 &ithout (erce(tion of for) there is not (recise 2no.le$ge0 A nu)7er of ty(es of a((aratus ha-e 7een alrea$y in-ente$ .ith .hich trans)ission of (ictures has 7een effecte$ through the )e$iu) of .ires8 an$ they can 7e o(erate$ .ith equal facility 7y the .ireless )etho$0 >o)e of these are of (ri)iti-ely si)(le construction0 They are 7ase$ on the e)(loy)ent of li2e (arts .hich )o-e in synchronis) an$ trans)it in this )anner recor$s8 ho.e-er co)(le'0 ,t .oul$ not require an e'traor$inary effort of the )in$s to hit u(on this (lan an$ $e-ise instru)ents on this or si)ilar (rinci(les an$ 7y gra$ual trials finally arri-e at a full un$erstan$ing0 The Heral$ of >e(t0 !6 contains a $is(atch announcing that <rof0 =a-i$ To$$8 of A)hurst College8 conte)(lates an atte)(t to co))unicate .ith the inha7itants of /ars0 The i$ea is0to rise in a 7alloon to a height of a7out 458555 feet .ith the )anifest (ur(ose of o-erco)ing the i)(e$i)ents of the $ense air stratu)0 , $o not .ish to
co))ent a$-ersely u(on this un$erta2ing 7eyon$ saying that no )aterial a$-antage .ill 7e o7taine$ 7y this )etho$8 for .hat is gaine$ 7y height is offset a thousan$fol$ 7y the ina7ility of using (o.erful an$ co)(le' trans)itting an$ recei-ing a((aratus0 The (hysical stress an$ $anger confronting the na-igator at such an altitu$e are -ery great an$ he .oul$ 7e li2ely to lose his life or 7e (er)anently inHure$0 ,n their recent recor$ flights +oelfs an$ >chroe$er ha-e foun$ that at a height of a7out si' )iles all their force .as -irtually e'hauste$0 ,t .oul$ not ha-e ta2en )uch )ore to ter)inate their careers fatally0 ,f <rof0 To$$ .ants to 7ra-e these (erils he .ill ha-e to (ro-i$e s(ecial )eans of (rotection an$ these .ill 7e an o7stacle to his o7ser-ations0 ,t is )ore li2ely8 ho.e-er8 that he )erely $esires to loo2 at the (lanet through a telesco(e in the ho(e of $iscerning so)ething ne.0 3ut it is 7y no )eans certain this instru)ent .ill 7e efficient un$er such con$itions0
1-"0-1"-11: %eEelo$ments in 5ra(ti(e and Art of Tele$,otogra$,y by Nikola Tesla

Electrical !evie" The recent successful e'(eri)ents 7y "$ouar$ 3elin of <aris in the trans)ission of (hotogra(hs 7et.een 1e. Dor2 City an$ >t0 #ouis8 a $istance of 1555 )iles8 ha-e naturally arouse$ ne. interest in this rather ol$ art0 /r0 3elin's a((aratus has 7een e'a)ine$ .ith a 2no.le$ge of (re-ious efforts in that $irection8 an$ it )ust 7e a$)itte$ that the French in-entor has achie-e$ a )ar2e$ i)(ro-e)ent0 ,t is true that his a((aratus in )any of its features is ol$ an$ .ell 2no.n8 7ut all the $etails ha-e 7een .or2e$ out s2ilfully an$ his (hotogra(hic re(ro$uctions are not only goo$ li2enesses of the originals 7ut are e'(ressi-e in no s)all $egree0 ,n co))on .ith other arts the trans)ission of (ictures to a $istance has 7een 7rought to its (resent state of (erfection 7y slo. an$ gra$ual i)(ro-e)ents effecte$ in the course of ** years0 The literature on the su7Hect is quite -olu)inous an$ $ifficult to (eruse8 as the articles are (u7lishe$ in -arious languages an$ scattere$ through nu)erous (erio$icals0 ;nly one co)(lete an$ e'hausti-e .or2 has 7een (u7lishe$ in Ger)an 7y =r0 Arthur :orn of /unich an$ =r0 3runo GlatBel0 F,+>T <AT"1T> TA:"1 ;CT /A1D D"A+> AG; The original i$ea is $ue to Ale'an$er 3ain8 a >cotch )echanician8 .ho secure$ a 3ritish (atent $isclosing the in-ention in 18630 His (lan conte)(late$ the trans)ission of (rinte$ letters8 $ra.ings an$ (ictures in the follo.ing .ayI At the sen$ing station a hol$er .ith insulate$ )etal (oints .as arrange$ to gli$e in the $irection of the lines o-er a fra)e resting on the (rinte$ (age to 7e re(ro$uce$ at a $istance0 &ithin this fra)e8 an$ at right angles to its (lane8 a nu)7er of short .ires .ere i)7e$$e$ in sealing .a'8 their lo.er en$s 7eing in contact .ith the letters .hich in turn .ere all electrically connecte$0 As the hol$er )o-e$ 7ac2 an$ forth the insulate$ )etal (oints .oul$ 7e 7rought in an$ out of contact .ith the u((er en$s of the short .ires8 thus controlling the flo. of the current through the)0 "ach )etal (oint .as Hoine$ 7y a s(ecial line to the recei-ing station .here there .as a si)ilar hol$er )a$e to sli$e o-er che)ically (re(are$ (a(er lai$ on a groun$e$ )etal (late0 &hen a 7attery at the trans)itting en$ .as connecte$ .ith one of its (oles to the letters an$ the other to the groun$ the current i)(ulses tra-ersing the line .ires an$ the che)ical (a(er .oul$ cause changes of color in the latter8 thus re(ro$ucing the characters0 A great nu)7er of (oints an$ line .ires .ere require$ to attain satisfactory results an$8 realiBing this o7Hection8 3ain (ro(ose$ to a-ail hi)self of only one .ire8 7ut $i$ not gi-e full infor)ation in this regar$0 >u7sequently 3onnelli an$ other in-entors )a$e i)(ro-e)ents in his a((aratus8 re$ucing the nu)7er of the .ires to a fe.0 There is no $ou7t that8 $es(ite the )anifest cru$ity of this syste)8 it .as quite ca(a7le of 7eing use$ co))ercially in the trans)ission of ty(e as .ell as $ra.ings an$ (ictures an$ )ay yet 7e foun$ -alua7le0 The first (ractical success .as achie-e$ 7y an "nglish)an8 Fre$eric2 Collier 3a2e.ell8 .ho secure$ a 3ritish (atent in 186* on a (rocess8 so)e features of .hich ha-e (ro-e$ to 7e in$is(ensa7le in later years0 He e)(loye$ as a trans)itter a cylin$er on .hich the characters .ere .ritten .ith insulating in20 A )etal (oint 7ore on the cylin$er an$ a$-ance$ slightly .ith each re-olution of the sa)e e'actly as in the ol$er for) of (honogra(h0 A si)ilar cylin$er co-ere$ .ith che)ical (a(er an$ equi((e$ .ith a sli$ing (oint .as (ro-i$e$ at the recei-ing station0 The cylin$ers 7eing groun$e$ an$ a 7attery inclu$e$ in the line .ire connecting the trans)itting an$ recei-ing (oints8 the (assage of the current resulte$ in a $iscoloration of the (a(er an$ re(ro$uction of the .ritten characters at the recei-ing en$0 Consi$ering the (erio$ 3a2e.ell's a((aratus .as sur(risingly (erfect8 (articularly in the feature of )aintaining the rotating cylin$ers in synchronis) for .hich (ur(ose he (ro-i$e$ an auto)atic as .ell as a han$ correction0 A contro-ersy .as .age$ 7et.een 3a2e.ell an$ 3ain for the honour of (riority8 7ut in this res(ect there can 7e no )ista2e0 3ain .as the originator of the i$ea .hile 3a2e.ell .as the first to carry it out successfully0 C>" ;F CH"/,CA# <A<"+ C;1>,="+"= ,/<+ACT,CA# The use of che)ical (a(er .as consi$ere$ o7Hectiona7le8 an$ in 1841 Hi(( eli)inate$ it8 (ro$ucing the i)(ressions at the recei-er .ith a )agnet actuate$ 7y the trans)itte$ i)(ulses0 ,t is curious8 though8 to o7ser-e that the )o$ern art $e(en$s entirely on this -ery $e-ice0 ,n 1844 Casselli )o$ifie$ the 3a2e.ell a((aratus 7y e)(loying carefully synchroniBe$ (en$ulu)s at the trans)itting an$ recei-ing stations8 thus re(lacing the rotary )otion 7y a to9an$9fro )o-e)ent as in the 3ain arrange)ent0 Casselli see)s to ha-e ha$ )ore enter(rise than his (re$ecessors8 an$ the a((aratus .hich he (erfecte$ in 18%5 .as actually use$ .ith so)e success for a short ti)e in ser-ice 7et.een <aris an$ se-eral other cities in France0 ,ts a7an$on)ent .as (ro7a7ly $ue to the slo.ness of trans)ission an$ lac2 of $e)an$ for this 2in$ of facility0 ,t is singular that )any treatises on (hysics
an$ other te't 7oo2s )ention Casselli .hile ignoring 3ain an$ 3a2e.ell0 >hortly after this /eyer (erfecte$ a syste) .hich .as use$ .ith success in France8 an$ )ay 7e fairly consi$ere$ as the first thoroughly (ractical a((lication of i$eas in this fiel$0 A curious i)(ro-e)ent .as )a$e 7y Gerar$ .ho8 in 18%48 (ro(ose$ the use of flat $is2s in (lace of the cylin$ers of 3a2e.ell0 "-er since one .ire .as a$o(te$ for the trans)ission it 7eca)e an i)(erati-e necessity to )aintain (erfect synchronis) 7et.een the trans)itter an$ recei-er8 an$ )any in-entors $e-ote$ their energy to this tas20 ='Arlincourt resorte$ to tuning for2s8 an$ his i$ea .as su7sequently carrie$ out in a )ore (erfect )anner 7y #acour0 At a7out this ti)e the in-ention reache$ A)erica8 an$ in 18*5 >a.yer 7rought his ingenuity to 7ear on the e-olution of a (rocess in .hich he e)(loye$ Binc cliches0 These .ere -ery relia7le an$ constitute$ a signal a$-ance0 ,n 1885 "$ison $e-ise$ an a((aratus on the (rinci(le of that use$ 7y >a.yer8 e'ce(t that the i)(ressions .ere (ro$uce$ on (a(er in 7as9relief0 This i$ea .as carrie$ further 7y =ennison in instru)ents of the reci(rocating ty(e0 Through the intro$uction of the Tesla alternating syste) of (o.er trans)ission a no-el )eans .as affor$e$ for o(erating trans)itters an$ recei-ers0 The use of synchronous )otors .as (ro(ose$ first in 1893 7y >heehy0 ="G"#;</"1T> <"+/,T C>" ;F <H;T;G+A<H,C F,#/> ,n all cases .ithout e'ce(tion it .as necessary to (ro-i$e an actual (rint8 $ra.ing or s2etch to 7e trans)itte$ until #enoir intro$uce$ (hotogra(hic fil)s into the art8 )a2ing (ossi7le the trans)ission of any 2in$ of (icture0 This .as a great ste( for.ar$8 7ut the honour of the first (ractical success 7elongs to an A)erican engineer8 10 A)stutB8 .ho use$ (hotogra(hic sen$ing cliches in relief for the first ti)e an$ .ith co)(lete success0 A)stutB .as a true (ioneer8 an$ his i)(ro-e)ent is essential in the carrying out of the )o$ern (rocesses0 ,t is true that as early as 18%48 a French)an8 Hu7ert8 ha$ suggeste$ the use of letters .ritten .ith thic2 in28 7ut this .as of little -alue8 an$ A)stutB .as un$ou7te$ly the first to "(ro$uce an$ use the cliches on .hich the u(9to9$ate art -itally $e(en$s0 <erfectly satisfactory $e)onstrations .ere )a$e .ith his $e-ices in this country )ore than !5 years ago8 .hen (ictures .ere trans)itte$ o-er telegra(h .ires to great $istances0 >a)(les of his .or2 ha-e 7een (reser-e$ .hich clearly sho. ho. )uch 7e .as ahea$ of his ti)e0 Follo.ing A)stutB8 =unlany8 <al)er8 /ills an$ other A)erican in-entors too2 u( (icture trans)ission .ith )ore or less success0 3y this ti)e the necessity (resente$ itself for increasing the ra(i$ity of the (rocess 7y greater s(ee$ of the $e-ices as .ell as )ulti(le' trans)ission0 The 3elgian in-entor8 Car7onelle8 )a$e an i)(ortant i)(ro-e)ent in this $irection .hen he intro$uce$ the tele(hone $ia(hrag) carrying a stylus for )a2ing the i)(ressions0 ;f all in-entors8 ho.e-er8 =r0 :orn .as the )ost successful as .ell as (rolific in the suggestion of i)(ro-e)ents8 his (hotogra(hic )etho$ of recor$ing carrie$ out in 1953 7eing the )ost significant0 The general i$ea of (hotogra(hic recor$ing ha$ 7een alrea$y a$-ance$ 7y George #ittle8 an$ a fe. years later =illon too2 out a (atent in-ol-ing the use of sensitiBe$ (a(er an$ a )irror reflecting a 7ea) of light on the sa)e0 3ut it is o7-ious that at that ti)e it .oul$ ha-e 7een har$ly (ractica7le to use this suggestion8 as (hotogra(hy .as not sufficiently a$-ance$0 ,n illustration of this it )ay 7e )entione$ that in 189! the attention of the scientific .orl$ .as $irecte$ to a .on$erfully sensiti-e recei-er8 consisting of an electron strea) )aintaine$ in a $elicately 7alance$ con$ition in a -acuu) 7ul78 7y )eans of .hich it .as (ro(ose$ to use (hotogra(hy in the trans)ission of telegra(hic an$ tele(honic )essages through the Atlantic ca7les8 an$ later also 7y .ireless0 This (ro(osal .as )et 7y unsur)ounta7le o7Hections to the (hotogra(hic )etho$0 ,n$ee$8 the 3elin (rocess has 7een ren$ere$ (ossi7le largely through the great i)(ro-e)ents in the sensiti-e fil)s .hich ha-e 7een e-ol-e$ in res(onse to the urgent $e)an$s of the )otion (icture an$ also un$er the sti)ulus of the recent .ar0 >"#"1,C/ C"## A1= GACCC/ TC3" C>"= T; T+A1>/,T A1= +"C",G" ,n the a((aratus in-ente$ 7y =r0 :orn a seleniu) cell is use$ at the trans)itter to -ary the intensity of the sen$ing current8 an$ at the recei-ing station he e)(loys a -acuu) tu7e of high intensity .hich thro.s its light through a fine slot on a sensiti-e (late0 The tu7e is e'cite$ 7y high9frequency currents su((lie$ fro) a Tesla transfor)er an$ )ay 7e flashe$ u( )any thousan$ ti)es (er secon$0 The )otion of the recei-er ele)ent is effecte$ either 7y a .ire gal-ano)eter8 oscillogra(h or tele(hone $ia(hrag)0 The :orn syste) has 7een use$ for so)e years (ast .ith success in Ger)any an$ other countries0 ,n fact8 it has 7een o(erate$ for so)e ti)e e-en 7y .ireless0 <atents on this )o$e of trans)ission ha-e 7een grante$ in 1898 an$ 1899 to :iister an$ G0 &illia)s8 7ut the arrange)ents in-ol-e$ the e)(loy)ent of HertB .a-es an$ .ere i)(ractica7le0 #ater Fre$eric2 3raun8 <ansa an$ :nu$sen secure$ (atents .hich8 ho.e-er8 are equally $efecti-e0 >uccess in this $irection has 7een achie-e$ so far only 7y :orn8 3erHonneau an$ T0 3a2er0 ,n-aria7ly the in-entors e)(loy a .ire gal-ano)eter .hich is es(ecially suita7le for great s(ee$0 Telautogra(hic trans)ission 7y si)ilar )eans through .ires as .ell as .ireless is no. co))on an$ is effecte$ 7y e)(loying a trans)itter of t.o co)(onents8 the
original i$ea of .hich is $ue to an "nglish)an8 Eones8 .ho )a$e that suggestion as early as 18440 <+">"1T ="G"#;</"1T> ,1G;#G" /A1D ;#= <+,1C,<#"> To this short story of (icture trans)ission 3elin has contri7ute$ the latest cha(ter0 The (rocess he has finally a$o(te$ after )any years of (ersistent effort in-ol-es the use of t.o cylin$ers rotating in synchronis) K one for trans)itting an$ the other for re(ro$ucing0 The for)er is of co((er an$ is (re(are$ for o(eration 7y ha-ing its surface coate$ .ith a thin shellac solution8 .ra((ing a car7on (rint of the (hotogra(h a7out it .ith its face to the cylin$er an$ i))ersing the .hole in hot .ater8 this causing the gelatine to a$here to the cylin$er surface in (ro(ortion to the $egree of 7lac2ness so that a li2eness of the (rint in 7as9relief is o7taine$0 ;n this cylin$er 7ears the stylus of a )icro(hone $ia(hrag) .hich is slo.ly )o-e$ for.ar$ 7y the re-olution of the cylin$er as in a (honogra(h0 ,n this )anner the (ressure of the car7on contacts is -arie$ in confor)ity .ith the changes of the surface8 an$ the )icro(hone currents (ass o-er the trans)itting .ire to the recei-ing station .here they cause corres(on$ing $eflections of a )irror for)ing (art of a highly sensiti-e $ea$97eat oscillogra(h0 A strong 7ea) of light reflecte$ fro) the )irror tra-erses a screen gra$uate$ fro) full trans(arency to o(acity an$ is le$ through a )icrosco(ic o(ening to the sensiti-e fil) .ra((e$ aroun$ the recei-ing cylin$er0 >(ecial (ro-isions are )a$e to 2ee( the cylin$ers e'actly in ste( as this is in$is(ensa7le to goo$ (erfor)ance0 The fil) is8 of course8 (rotecte$ against the e'ternal light8 an$ .hen the o(eration is co)(lete$ it is $e-elo(e$ as usual so that either a (ositi-e or negati-e (rint is o7taine$ accor$ing to the (osition of the screen0 There is nothing in his a((aratus .hich is fun$a)entally no-elJ in fact8 e-ery feature of the sa)e has 7een $isclose$ in the (rior art0 "-en the gratuate$ screen8 .hich is one of the )ost essential (arts8 has 7een e)(loye$ 7efore 7y =r0 :orn0 3ut /r0 3elin has $is(laye$ consi$era7le ingenuity an$ s2ill in all the $etails8 an$ his re(ro$uce$ (hotogra(hs are )ost e'cellent0 There is e-ery reason to 7elie-e that his efforts .ill 7e re.ar$e$ 7y an e'tensi-e (ractical a((lication of his $e-ices0 T"#"G,>,;1 T; 3" 1"]T >T"< ,1 <+;G+">> ;F T+A1>/,>>,;1 The trans)ission of (hotogra(hs constitutes only the first ste( to.ar$s the i))easura7ly greater achie-e)ent of tele-ision0 3y this is )eant instantaneous trans)ission of -isual i)(ressions to any $istance 7y .ire or .ireless0 ,t is a su7Hect to .hich , ha-e $e-ote$ )ore than !4 years of close stu$y0 T.o of the i)(e$i)ents .hich years ago see)e$ insur)ounta7le ha-e 7een successfully o-erco)e8 7ut great $ifficulties are still in the .ay0 These are encountere$ in the inertia of the sensiti-e cells an$ the enor)ous s(ee$ require$ to )a2e (ossi7le the -ision of (ersons8 o7Hects or scenes as in life0 ,t is the (ro7le) of constructing a trans)itter analogous to the lens an$ retina of the eye8 (ro-i$ing a )e$iu) of con-eyance corres(on$ing to the o(tic ner-e8 an$ a recei-er organiBe$ si)ilarly to the 7rain0 ,t is a gigantic tas28 7ut , a) confi$ent that the .orl$ .ill .itness its actual acco)(lish)ent in the near future0
1-"1-0--"/: :nter$lanetary Communi(ation by Nikola Tesla

Electrical #orld To the "$itors of the "lectrical &orl$I There are countless .orl$s such as ours in the uni-erse 9 (lanets re-ol-ing aroun$ their suns in elli(tical or7its an$ s(inning on their a'es li2e gigantic to(s0 They are co)(ose$ of the sa)e ele)ents an$ su7Hect to the sa)e forces as the earth0 ,ne-ita7ly at so)e (erio$ in their e-olution light8 heat an$ )oisture are 7oun$ to 7e (resent8 .hen inorganic )atter .ill 7egin to run into organic for)s0 The first i)(ulse is (ro7a7ly gi-en 7y heliotro(is)J then other influences assert the)sel-es8 an$ in the course of ages8 through continuous a$Hust)ent to the en-iron)ent8 auto)ata of inconcei-a7le co)(le'ity of structure result0 ,n the .or2sho( of nature these auto)atic engines are turne$ out in all essential res(ects ali2e an$ e'(ose$ to the sa)e e'ternal influences0 The i$entity of construction an$ sa)eness of en-iron)ent result in a concor$ance of action8 gi-ing 7irth to reasonJ thus intelligence8 as the hu)an8 is gra$ually $e-elo(e$0 The chief controlling agent in this (rocess )ust 7e ra$iant energy acting u(on a sense organ as the eye8 .hich con-eys a true conce(tion of for)0 &e )ay therefore conclu$e .ith certitu$e that8 ho.e-er constructi-ely $ifferent )ay 7e the auto)ata on other (lanets8 their res(onse to rays of light an$ their (erce(tions of the outsi$e .orl$ )ust 7e si)ilar to a $egree so that the $ifficulties in the .ay of )utual un$erstan$ing shoul$ not 7e insu(era7le0 ,rres(ecti-e of astrono)ical an$ electrical e-i$ences8 such as ha-e 7een o7taine$ 7y the late <erci-al #o.ell an$ )yself8 there is a soli$ foun$ation for a syste)atic atte)(t to esta7lish co))unication .ith one of our hea-enly neigh7ours8 as /ars8 .hich through so)e in-entions of )ine is re$uce$ to a co)(arati-ely si)(le (ro7le) of electrical engineering0 ;thers )ay scoff at this suggestion or treat it as a (ractical Ho2e8 7ut , ha-e 7een in $ee( earnest a7out it e-er since , )a$e the first o7ser-ations at )y .ireless (lant in Colora$o >(rings fro) 1889 to 19550 Those .ho are intereste$ in the su7Hect )ay 7e referre$ to )y articles in the Century /agaBine of Eune8 19558 Collier's &ee2ly of Fe70 98 19518 the Har-ar$ ,llustrate$ /agaBine of /arch8 195*8 the 1e. Dor2 Ti)es of /ay !38 19598 an$ the 1e. Dor2 Heral$ of ;ct0 1!8 19190 At the ti)e , carrie$ on those in-estigations there e'iste$ no .ireless (lant on the glo7e other than )ine8 at least none that coul$ (ro$uce a $istur7ance (erce(ti7le in a ra$ius of )ore than a fe. )iles0 Further)ore8 the con$itions un$er .hich , o(erate$ .ere i$eal8 an$ , .as .ell traine$ for the .or20 The arrange)ent of )y recei-ing a((aratus an$ the character of the $istur7ances recor$e$ (reclu$e$ the (ossi7ility of their 7eing of terrestrial origin8 an$ , also eli)inate$ the influence of the sun8 )oon an$ Genus0 As , then announce$8 the signals consiste$ in a regular re(etition of nu)7ers8 an$ su7sequent stu$y con-ince$ )e that they )ust ha-e e)anate$ fro) /arsJ this (lanet ha-ing 7een Hust then close to the earth0 >ince 1955 , ha-e s(ent a great $eal of )y ti)e in trying to $e-elo( a thoroughly (ractical a((aratus for the (ur(ose an$ ha-e e-ol-e$ nu)erous $esigns0 ,n one of these , fin$ that an acti-ity of 15855585558555 h( in effecti-e .a-e energy coul$ 7e attaine$0 Assu)ing the )ost unfa-oura7le con$itions 9 na)ely8 half9s(herical (ro(agation 9 then at a $istance of 3685558555 )iles the energy rate .oul$ 7e a7out 1/*358555 h( (er square )ile8 .hich is far )ore than necessary to affect a (ro(erly $esigne$ recei-er0 ,n fact8 a((aratus si)ilar to that use$ in the trans)ission of (ictures coul$ 7e o(erate$8 an$ in this )anner )athe)atical8 geo)etrical an$ other accurate infor)ation coul$ 7e con-eye$0 , .as naturally -ery )uch intereste$ in re(orts gi-en out a7out t.o years ago that si)ilar o7ser-ations ha$ 7een )a$e8 7ut soon ascertaine$ that these su((ose$ (lanetary signals .ere nothing else than interfering un$ertones of .ireless trans)itters8 an$ since , announce$ this fact other e'(erts ha-e a((arently ta2en the sa)e -ie.0 These $istur7ances , o7ser-e$ for the first ti)e fro) 195% to 195*0 At that ti)e they occurre$ rarely8 7ut su7sequently they increase$ in frequency0 "-ery trans)itter e)its un$ertones8 an$ these gi-e 7y interference long 7eats8 the .a-e length 7eing anything fro) 45 )iles to 355 or 655 )iles0 ,n all (ro7a7ility they .oul$ ha-e 7een o7ser-e$ 7y )any other e'(eri)enters if it .ere not so trou7leso)e to (re(are recei-ing circuits suita7le for such long .a-es0 The i$ea that they .oul$ 7e use$ in inter(lanetary signalling 7y any intelligent 7eings is too a7sur$ to 7e seriously co))ente$ u(on0 These .a-es ha-e no suita7le relation to any $i)ensions8 (hysical constants or succession of e-ents8 such as .oul$ 7e naturally an$ logically consi$ere$ in an intelligent atte)(t to co))unicate .ith us8 an$ e-ery stu$ent fa)iliar .ith the fun$a)ental theoretical (rinci(les .ill rea$ily see that
such .a-es .oul$ 7e entirely ineffecti-e0 The acti-ity 7eing in-ersely as the cu7e of the .a-e length8 a short .a-e .oul$ 7e i))ensely )ore efficient as a )eans for (lanetary signalling8 an$ .e )ust assu)e that any 7eings .ho ha$ )astere$ the art .oul$ also 7e (ossesse$ of this 2no.le$ge0 ;n careful reflection , fin$8 ho.e-er8 that the $istur7ances as re(orte$8 if they ha-e 7een actually note$8 cannot 7e anything else 7ut force$ -i7rations of a trans)itter an$ in all li2elihoo$ 7eats of un$ertones0 &hile , a) not (re(are$ to $iscuss the -arious as(ects of this su7Hect at length8 , )ay say that a s2ilful e'(eri)enter .ho is in the (osition to e'(en$ consi$era7le )oney an$ ti)e .ill un$ou7te$ly $etect .a-es of a7out !486*58555 )0 1i2ola Tesla 1e. Dor2 City0
1-"1-0--"6: Ni.ola Tesla on *le(tri(al Transmission by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Evening 3ost To the "$itor of the 1e. Dor2 "-ening <ostI >irI Dour issue of the 16th inst0 contains a re(ort relati-e to an e'(eri)ental $e)onstration at the <ittsfiel$ (lant of the General "lectric Co)(any in .hich a (ressure of one )illion -olts .as use$ for trans)ission of (o.er 7y alternating currents0 This is sai$ to 7e the result of )ore than thirty years' .or2 an$ to constitute a $ra)atic a$-ance in electrical $e-elo()ent so )uch8 in$ee$8 that it .as $ee)e$ (ro(er to recor$ the ti)e of its consu))ation .ith greater (recision than that .hen Eoshua co))an$e$ the sun to stan$ still o-er Gi7eon an$ the )oon in the Galley of AHalon0 3ut the (rosaic fact is that , ha-e long ago (erfecte$ an$ (atente$ the in-ention instru)ental in this achie-e)ent an$ a((lie$ it successfully in the (ro$uction of (ressures a)ounting to )any )illions of -olts0 ,t )ay not 7e a)iss to state further)ore that a license .as offere$ to the General "lectric Co)(any un$er )y 7asic (atent .hich 7ears the 1o0 181198*3! an$ .as grante$ =ece)7er 18 19168 the original a((lication ha-ing 7een file$ Eanuary 1%8 195!0 The econo)ic trans)ission of electrical energy at great $istances necessitates the e)(loy)ent of -ery high (ressures an$ at the outset t.o serious $ifficulties .ere encountere$ in their a((lication0 ;ne .as the 7rea2ing $o.n of the insulation un$er the e'cessi-e stress0 C(on careful in-estigation of the causes8 , foun$ that this .as $ue to the (resence of air or gas 7u77les .hich .ere heate$ 7y the action of the currents an$ i)(aire$ the resisting quality of the $ielectric0 The trou7le .as $one a.ay .ith entirely 7y a (rocess of )anufacture $e-elo(e$ 7y )e .hich has 7een uni-ersally a$o(te$0 3ut the secon$ o7stacle .as )uch har$er to o-erco)e0 ,t .as )et in the a((arent i)(ossi7ility of confining the high tension flo. to the con$uctors0 ,n )y early e'(eri)ents , co-ere$ the) .ith the 7est insulating )aterial8 se-eral inches thic28 7ut it .as of no a-ail0 Finally )y efforts .ere re.ar$e$ an$ , foun$ a si)(le an$ (erfect re)e$y0 An i$ea of the un$erlying (rinci(le of the in-ention an$ its (ractical significance )ay 7e con-eye$ 7y an analogue0 Alternating currents trans)itte$ through a .ire can 7e li2ene$ to (ulses of so)e liqui$8 as .ater8 force$ through a .o-en hose >o long as the (ressure is )o$erate the flui$ entering one en$ .ill 7e integrally $ischarge$ at the other8 7ut if the (ressure is increase$ 7eyon$ a certain critical -alue the hose .ill lea2 an$ a large (ortion of the flui$ )ay thus 7e .aste$0 >i)ilarly in electric trans)ission8 .hen the -oltage 7eco)es e'cessi-e the (rison .alls of the $ielectric yiel$ an$ the charge esca(es0 The loss of energy occasione$ there7y8 although e)(hasiBe$ 7y engineers8 is not a fatal $ra.7ac2J the real har) lies in the li)itation thus i)(ose$ to the attain)ent of )any results of i))ense -alue0 1o.8 .hat , $i$ .as equi-alent to )a2ing the hose ca(a7le of .ithstan$ing any $esire$ (ressure8 ho.e-er great0 This .as acco)(lishe$ 7y so constructing the trans)itting con$uctor that its outer surface has itself a large ra$ius of cur-ature or is co)(ose$ of se(arate (arts .hich8 irres(ecti-e of their o.n cur-ature8 are arrange$ in (ro'i)ity to one another an$ on an i$eal en-elo(ing sy))etrical surface of large ra$ius0 These (arts )ay 7e in the sha(e of shells8 hoo$s8 $iscs8 cylin$ers8 or stran$s8 accor$ing to the require)ent in each s(ecial case8 7ut it is al.ays essential that the aggregate outer con$ucting area 7e consi$era7le0 , 7elie-e that )any arts an$ in$ustries .ill 7e re-olutioniBe$ through the a((lication of the enor)ous electric (ressures .hich are easily (ro$uci7le 7y this )eans8 7ut (erha(s the (urely scientific results .ill 7e )ore i)(ortant than the co))ercial0 10 Tesla 1e. Dor28 >e(te)7er !30
1-""-00-00: Farden(lyffe 7ore(losure A$$eal 5ro(eedings
1**
1i2ola Tesla for =efen$antK=irect0 A0 Des0 Dou see the un$ergroun$ .or2 is one of the )ost e'(ensi-e (arts of the to.er0 ,n this syste) that , ha-e in-ente$ it is necessary for the )achine to get a gri( of the earth8 other.ise it cannot sha2e the earth0 ,t has to ha-e a gri( on the earth so that the .hole of this glo7e can qui-er8 an$ to $o that it is necessary to carry out a -ery e'(ensi-e construction0 , ha$ in fact in-ente$ s(ecial )achines0 3ut , .ant to say this un$ergroun$ .or2 7elongs to the to.er0 3y /r0 Ha.2ins I A0 Anything that .as there8 tell us a7out0 A0 There .as8 as your honour states8 a 7ig shaft a7out ten 7y t.el-e feet goes $o.n a7out one hun$re$ an$ t.enty feet an$ this .as first co-ere$ .ith ti)7er an$ the insi$e .ith steel an$ in the center of this there .as a .in$ing stairs going $o.n an$ in the center of the stairs there .as a 7ig shaft again through .hich the current .as to (ass8 an$ this shaft .as so figure$ in or$er to tell e'actly .here the no$al (oint is8 so that , coul$ calculate e-ery (oint of $istance0 For instance , coul$ calculate e'actly the siBe of the earth or the $ia)eter of the earth an$ )easure it e'actly .ithin four feet .ith that )achine0 A0 An$ that .as a necessary a((urtenance to your to.erF A0 A7solutely necessary0 An$ then the real e'(ensi-e .or2 .as to connect that central (art .ith the earth8 an$ there , ha$ s(ecial )achines rigge$ u( .hich .oul$ (ush the iron (i(e8 one length after another8 an$ , (ushe$ these iron (i(es8 , thin2 si'teen of the)8 three hun$re$ feet8 an$ then the current through these (i(es ta2es hol$ of the earth0 1o. that .as a -ery e'(ensi-e (art of the .or28 7ut it $oes not sho. on the to.er8 7ut it 7elongs to the to.er0
1-"9-0"-"5: A Biant *ye to See #ound t,e Forld

Albany Telegram Ho. 1i2ola Tesla's 1e.est ,n-ention ,s to "na7le Cs to >ee the >truggles of the Arctic "'(lorer8 the Clash of 3attles an$ the Fantastic #i-es of Cn2no.n /illions0 Thin2 of it8 a great )echanical eye8 create$ of finest te)(ere$ steel8 en$o.e$ .ith electric (o.er an$ seeing to all (arts of the earthI ">cience8 in the (erson of 1i2ola Tesla announces it as a realiBe$ achie-e)ent0 ,t affor$s a fantastic (icture8 a su(er7 i)aginati-e flight for the )echanical or7 .ill follo. in (rinci(le the e'quisite an$ fla.less construction of the hu)an eye0 Tesla8 the creator8 is a 1o7el (riBe .inner an$ the )an .ho harnesse$ 1iagara Falls0 He $escri7es his all9seeing eye as follo.sI "/y electrical eye co)es as the result of years of stu$y an$ e'(eri)ent0 Three stages )ar2 its construction an$ the first t.o an$ )ost $ifficult ha-e alrea$y 7een co)(lete$0 , a) certain that /an .ill soon (ossess this )achine in co)(lete$ for) an$ .ill 7e a7le to see at .ill to any (art of the earth0 ,n (lanning its construction , ha-e ta2en the hu)an eye as a )o$el an$ ha-e follo.e$ the (rinci(les .hich nature use$ in $e-elo(ing the hu)an eye0 /y )echanical eye .ill 7e one of a grou( of associate$ )achines8 Hust as the hu)an eye is (art of the 7o$y an$ can only function in coo(eration .ith other (arts of the 7o$y0" +ecently .ireless tele(hony 7eca)e a fact fro) one si$e of the Atlantic to the other an$ soon )an .ill 7e a7le to sen$ his -oice aroun$ the earth 7y .ireless0 The arri-al of Tesla's )echanical eye .ill )ean that the )an in 1e. Dor2 can see his 7usiness associate in >hanghai as he tal2s to hi) 7y .ireless0 The eye resting on a (i-ot8 .ill 7e s.ung a7out an$ 7rought to 7ear on the e'(lorer8 fighting his .ay o-er the froBen .astes of the Arctic circleJ the fiery interior of the earth .ill gi-e u( its secrets to the eye8 an$ the 7attles of )en .ill 7e re-eale$ to all other )en in their cruelty an$ sa-agery0 The eye .ill teach /an to un$erstan$ /an0 &hen you hear that your neigh7our has 7een run o-er an$ inHure$ 7y an auto)o7ile you e'(ress sy)(athy 7ecause you 2no. hi)0 The $eath of a fa)ous fil) star touches the hearts of )illions 7ecause they 2no. hi)0 3ut 458555 )en8 .o)en an$ chil$ren )ay star-e to $eath in China8 .hile ne.s(a(er rea$ers in 1e. Dor28 Doungsto.n8 ;hio8 an$ <hoeni'8 AriBona8 re)ain un)o-e$ 7ecause the -icti)s are only nu)7ers0 The a$-ent of the all9seeing eye .ill change all that8 Tesla 7elie-es0 He has la7oure$ in the ho(e that the re-ealing of the secret (laces of the earth .ill unloc2 the secret (laces of the heart an$ hel( to 7ring )an2in$ together in un$erstan$ing an$ consi$eration0 To un$erstan$ the )echanical eye an$ the .or2 that has (rece$e$ it you )ust 2no. so)ething of Tesla0 This tall8 gaunt electrical .iBar$8 .ho has )a$e so )any fantastic $rea)s co)e true8 is as strange as so)e of his in-entions0 He li-es on one of the to( floors of the >t0 +egis8 one of 1e. Dor2's )ost e'clusi-e hotels0 There he has his .or2roo)s8 )ysterious (laces ne-er -isite$ 7y outsi$ers0 There the eye )achine rests8 .aiting for the $ay8 soon to co)e8 .hen Tesla asserts he .ill -i-ify it an$ turn it o-er to his fello.9)en for o(eration0 Tesla slee(s only t.o hours a night an$ eats only t.o -ery light )eals a $ay0 Al)ost all his ti)e an$ energy go into the creation of electrical in-entions0 He has $isco-ere$ an$ in-ente$ a syste) of arc lighting8 a syste) of alternating current (o.er trans)ission8 the Tesla coil or transfor)er8 a syste) of trans)ission of (o.er .ithout .ires8 a syste) of .ireless telegra(hy an$ nu)erous other )o$ern .on$ers0 Tesla 7elie-es a7solutely in his )echanical eye an$ its .or2a7ility0 ,n (lanning it he has (atente$ the sa)e )etho$s that ha-e turne$ out so successfully .ith other in-entionsJ that is8 he has .or2e$ out his )achine in his )in$ to the last $etail8 .ithout (lanning it on (a(er or 7y )eans of a )o$el0 "As in the case of )y other in-entions8" he e'(laine$8 "there .as a long (erio$ of incu7ation $uring .hich , turne$ o-er in )y )in$ the i$ea of creating a )echanical eye0 As , ca)e to an o7struction8 , .oul$ sto(8 (ut the i$ea a.ay in )y su7conscious )in$8 an$ return to it later0 3it 7y 7it .ays of reaching the $ifferent ste(s of the solution .ere reache$0 They .oul$ flash su$$enly fro) )y su7conscious )in$8 Hust as all )y i$eas for in-entions ha-e $one0 ",t stan$s to reason that )an )ust create 0in ti)e so)e )eans of seeing through su7stances an$ to any $istances0 He has annihilate$ $istance in other .ays an$ the creation of )y eye .ill 7e Hust a (art of the large
(lan for 7ringing )an2in$ closer together0" ,t is interesting to note that at a7out the sa)e ti)e that =r0 Tesla announce$ his in-ention of the )echanical eye an electrical engineer in <asa$ena8 California8 asserte$ that he .as a7le to )a2e )etals8 roc2s8 or any o(aque )aterial lu)inous 7y )eans of an electrical ray8 the )ost (o.erful 2no.n to )an0 He )a$e no clai)s that the ray .oul$ (enetrate great $istances into the earth8 7ut the (rinci(le is -ery si)ilar to the one on .hich Tesla is .or2ing0 The Tesla e'(eri)ents on the giant )echanical eye are thought to $ate 7ac2 to the $ays .hen he 7uilt his )ystery to.er an$ .or2house at >horeha)8 #ong ,slan$8 %5 )iles fro) 1e. Dor20 The to.er .as constructe$ a7out !5 years ago0 E0 <ier(ont /organ8 >r08 7ac2ing Tesla in the e'(eri)ent0 The to.er ha$ a circular to( an$ ha$ shafts running 155 feet into the earth0 1ear it .as an e'(eri)ental station fille$ .ith strange )achinery0 For a long (erio$ Tesla -isite$ the station each $ay an$ ha$ a s)all ar)y of .or2)en at his 7ec2 an$ call0 ,t .as .his(ere$ that he .as struggling .ith the (ro7le) of inter(lanetary co))unication8 a)ong other things0 This .as not -erifie$8 ho.e-er8 an$ scientists an$ the general (u7lic coul$ only guess the reason for the )ystery to.er0 Then Tesla an$ his .or2)en $e(arte$ one $ay as su$$enly as they ha$ co)e0 A .atch)an stoo$ guar$ o-er the to.er an$ .or2sho( for a year8 then he8 too8 .ent a.ay an$ the (lant 7eca)e 2no.n as "Tesla's )illion $ollar folly0" 1eigh7orhoo$ 7oys (laye$ u( an$ $o.n the la$$er an$ ste(s of the )ystery to.er an$ finally it .as sol$0 =uring the .ar it .as torn $o.n .hen the go-ern)ent thought there .as $anger of it 7eing use$ as a secret .ireless station 7y ene)ies of the country0 1o. it is 7elie-e$ the )ystery to.er not only )eant an atte)(t on Tesla's (art to co))unicate .ith /ars8 7ut also sa. his first e'(eri)ents .ith the )echanical eye0 Tesla .ill not -enture to (re$ict .hether the )echanical eye .ill carry sufficient (o.er to (ierce the at)os(here so that )an can o7tain a goo$ -ie. of life on /ars0 He 7elie-es that /ars is inha7ite$ an$ that the /artians are struggling $es(erately to co))unicate .ith the earth0 ", ha-e a $ee( con-iction8" he sai$8 "that highly intelligent 7eings0e'ist on /ars0 , 7elie-e they ha-e reache$ a 0)echanical stage of ci-iliBation )uch )ore a$-ance$ than ours0 Ho.e-er8 it is quite li2ely that all racial $istinctions an$ i$eals ha-e 7een e'tinguishe$ there an$ life has 7eco)e si)(ly a $es(erate struggle for e'istance0 The (o(ulation )ay ha-e 7een re$uce$ to a fe. highly s(ecialiBe$ in$i-i$uals0 "T.enty9t.o years ago8 .hile e'(eri)enting in Colora$o .ith a .ireless (o.er (lant8 , o7taine$ e'traor$inary e'(eri)ental e-i$ence of the e'istence of life on /ars0 , ha$ (erfecte$ a .ireless recei-er of e'traor$inary sensiti-eness8 far 7eyon$ anything 2no.n8 an$ , caught signals .hich , inter(rete$ as )eaning 199!9939960 , 7elie-e the /artians use$ nu)7ers for co))unication 7ecause nu)7ers are uni-ersal0 "/y $isco-ery .as announce$ at the ti)e an$ , a) li-ing in the ho(e' that )y -ision .as true an$ .ill 7e confir)e$ 7y future generations0 The use of the )echanical eye to (ierce )atter an$ $istance )ay hasten that $ay0" =r0 Tesla 7elie-es that )an has store$ .ithin hi) the creati-e genius for anything he requires an$ that after a certain (erio$ of incu7ation an$ .hen the nee$ is great enough the in-ention for a gi-en nee$ su$$enly a((ears0 ", 2no.8" he e'(laine$8 "that , can create any )achine necessary for )y nee$s si)(ly 7y (utting )y8 )in$ to the (ro7le)0 ,t is easy once 1ature has gi-en you the gift for creati-e .or20 , ha-e 7een a7le to create a syste) of .ireless telegra(hy8 an$ .ireless tele(hony is no. a fact0" ,t is also his 7elief8 an$ the 7elief of )any other fa)ous scientists8 that the sources of electrical (o.er an$ light ha-e 7een only scratche$ so far0 1ot only light to (ierce the earth8 7ut .ireless (o.er to go-ern agriculture an$ to o7tain che)icals an$ e-en foo$ fro) the air .ill co)e in the future8 he (re$icts0 "The hu)an 7eing is an auto)atic heat )achine8" he e'(lains8 "requiring for its $aily functioning a su((ly of fuel .hich it ta2es in the for) of ani)al an$ -egeta7le foo$0 1o. all (lants an$ ani)als are $irectly or in$irectly nourishe$ 7y the soilJ hence )an $ra.s his energy fro) the soil0 "As (o(ulation increases )ore an$ )ore of the fuel )ust 7e su((lie$0 An$ .e )ay therefore conclu$e .ith certitu$e that as ti)e goes on this (recious su((ly .ill 7e stea$ily increase$ 7y intensi-e culti-ation of e-ery a-aila7le s(ot0 "lectricity .ill 7e instru)ental in this $e-elo()ent in )any .ays8 an$ (o.er .ill 7e trans)itte$ for tilling the groun$ an$ (erfor)ing all sorts of agricultural .or20 /an .hen he goes to far corners of the earth .ill carry co)(act instru)ents to (ro-i$e hi) .ith heat an$ (o.er an$ .ith telegra(hic co))unication0 ""lectrical (o.er .ill 7e use$ for accelerating )any things on .hich .e are )ore or less $e(en$entJ fertiliBers
.ill 7e o7taine$ fro) the at)os(here in great quantities an$ all sorts of che)icals .ill 7e )anufacture$ electrically fro) (ri)ary ele)ents0 3ut so)e ti)e8 after a la(se of years8 a li)it )ay 7e reache$0 "Artificial foo$8 )anufacture$ 7y the sun's (o.er8 )ay then affor$ relief8 7ut it is $ifficult to foresee Hust ho. far the hu)an race can )a2e itself in$e(en$ent of the (ro$ucts of the soil0 &e are the results of ages of a$a(tation to the en-iron)ent an$ our organs .oul$ ha-e to 7e (rofoun$ly change$ to ena7le us to e'ist on artificial foo$ alone0 "Ho.e-er8 that is a (ro7le) for the $istant future0 At (resent )an has enough to $o in un-eiling nature's )ysteries so he can trans)it (o.er 7y .ireless an$ co))unicate s.iftly .ith $istant (arts of the earth 7y -oice8 eye an$ .ritten .or$0"
1-"6-01-90: F,en Foman is ;oss An intervie" "ith Nikola Tesla by 8ohn 4. 6ennedy
2olliers The life of the 7ee .ill 7e the life of our race8 says 1i2ola Tesla8 .orl$9fa)e$ scientist0 A 1"& se' or$er is co)ing99.ith the fe)ale as su(erior0 Dou .ill co))unicate instantly 7y si)(le -est9(oc2et equi()ent0 Aircraft .ill tra-el the s2ies8 un)anne$8 $ri-en an$ gui$e$ 7y ra$io0 "nor)ous (o.er .ill 7e trans)itte$ great $istances .ithout .ires0 "arthqua2es .ill 7eco)e )ore an$ )ore frequent0 Te)(erate Bones .ill turn frigi$ or torri$0 An$ so)e of these a.e9ins(iring $e-elo()ents8 says Tesla8 are not so -ery far off0
AT >,]TD9",GHT years of age 1i2ola Tesla sits quietly in his stu$y8 re-ie.ing the .orl$ that he has hel(e$ to
change8 foreseeing other changes that )ust co)e in the on.ar$ stri$e of the hu)an race0 He is a tall8 thin8 ascetic )an .ho .ears so)7er clothes an$ loo2s out at life .ith stea$y8 $ee(9set eyes0 ,n the )i$st of lu'ury he li-es )eagerly8 selecting his $iet .ith a (recision al)ost e'tre)e0 He a7stains fro) all 7e-erages sa-e .ater an$ )il2 an$ has ne-er in$ulge$ in to7acco since early )anhoo$0 He is an engineer8 an in-entor an$8 a7o-e these as .ell as 7asic to the)8 a (hiloso(her0 An$8 $es(ite his o7session .ith the (ractical a((lication of .hat a gifte$ )in$ )ay learn in 7oo2s8 he has ne-er re)o-e$ his gaBe fro) the $ra)a of life0 This .orl$8 a)aBe$ )any ti)es $uring the last thro77ing century8 .ill ru7 its eyes an$ stan$ 7reathless 7efore greater .on$ers than e-en the (ast fe. generations ha-e seenJ an$ fifty years fro) no. the .orl$ .ill $iffer )ore fro) the (resent9$ay than our .orl$ no. $iffers fro) the .orl$ of fifty years ago0 1i2ola Tesla ca)e to A)erica in early )anhoo$8 an$ his in-enti-e genius foun$ quic2 recognition0 &hen fortune .as his through his re-olutionary (o.er9trans)ission )achines he esta7lishe$ (lants8 first in 1e. Dor28 then Colora$o8 later on #ong ,slan$8 .here his innu)era7le e'(eri)ents resulte$ in all )anner of i)(ortant an$ )inor a$-ances in electrical science0 #or$ :el-in sai$ of hi) (7efore he .as forty that he ha$ contri7ute$ )ore than any other )an to the stu$y of electricity0 "Fro) the ince(tion of the .ireless syste)8" he says8 ", sa. that this ne. art of a((lie$ electricity .oul$ 7e of greater 7enefit to the hu)an race than any other scientific $isco-ery8 for it -irtually eli)inates $istance0 The )aHority of the ills fro) .hich hu)anity suffers are $ue to the i))ense e'tent of the terrestrial glo7e an$ the ina7ility of in$i-i$uals an$ nations to co)e into close contact0 "&ireless .ill achie-e the closer contact through trans)ission of intelligence8 trans(ort of our 7o$ies an$ )aterials an$ con-eyance of energy0 "&hen .ireless is (erfectly a((lie$ the .hole earth .ill 7e con-erte$ into a huge 7rain8 .hich in fact it is8 all things 7eing (articles of a real an$ rhyth)ic .hole0 &e shall 7e a7le to co))unicate .ith one another instantly8 irres(ecti-e of $istance0 1ot only this8 7ut through tele-ision an$ tele(hony .e shall see an$ hear one another as (erfectly as though .e .ere face to face8 $es(ite inter-ening $istances of thousan$s of )ilesJ an$ the instru)ents through .hich .e shall 7e a7le to $o his .ill 7e a)aBingly si)(le co)(are$ .ith our (resent tele(hone0 A )an .ill 7e a7le to carry one in his -est (oc2et0 "&e shall 7e a7le to .itness an$ hear e-ents99the inauguration of a <resi$ent8 the (laying of a .orl$ series ga)e8 the ha-oc of an earthqua2e or the terror of a 7attle99Hust as though .e .ere (resent0 "&hen the .ireless trans)ission of (o.er is )a$e co))ercial8 trans(ort an$ trans)ission .ill 7e re-olutioniBe$0 Alrea$y )otion (ictures ha-e 7een trans)itte$ 7y .ireless o-er a short $istance0 #ater the $istance .ill 7e illi)ita7le8 an$ 7y later , )ean only a fe. years hence0 <ictures are trans)itte$ o-er .ires99they .ere telegra(he$ successfully through the (oint syste) thirty years ago0 &hen .ireless trans)ission of (o.er 7eco)es general8 these )etho$s .ill 7e as cru$e as is the stea) loco)oti-e co)(are$ .ith the electric train0 WomanBB!ree and &egal
A## railroa$s .ill 7e electrifie$8 an$ if there are enough )useu)s to hol$ the) the stea) loco)oti-es .ill 7e grotesque antiques for our i))e$iate (osterity0 "<erha(s the )ost -alua7le a((lication of .ireless energy .ill 7e the (ro(ulsion of flying )achines8 .hich .ill carry no fuel an$ .ill 7e free fro) any li)itations of the (resent air(lanes an$ $irigi7les0 &e shall ri$e fro) 1e. Dor2 to "uro(e in a fe. hours0 ,nternational 7oun$aries .ill 7e largely o7literate$ an$ a great ste( .ill 7e )a$e to.ar$ the unification an$ har)onious e'istence of the -arious races inha7iting the glo7e0 &ireless .ill not only )a2e (ossi7le the su((ly of energy to region8 ho.e-er inaccessi7le8 7ut it .ill 7e effecti-e (olitically 7y har)oniBing international interestsJ it .ill create un$erstan$ing instea$ of $ifferences0 "/o$ern syste)s of (o.er trans)ission .ill 7eco)e antiquate$0 Co)(act relay stations one half or one quarter the siBe of our )o$ern (o.er (lants .ill 7e the 7asis of o(eration99in the air an$ un$er the sea8 for .ater .ill effect s)all loss in con-eying energy 7y .ireless0" /r0 Tesla foresees great changes in our $aily life0 "<resent .ireless recei-ing a((aratus8" says he8 ".ill 7e scra((e$ for )uch si)(ler )achinesJ static an$ all for)s of interference .ill 7e eli)inate$8 so that innu)era7le trans)itters an$ recei-ers )ay 7e o(erate$ .ithout interference0 ,t is )ore than (ro7a7le that the househol$'s $aily ne.s(a(er .ill 7e (rinte$ '.irelessly' in the ho)e $uring the night0 =o)estic )anage)ent99the (ro7le)s of heat8 light an$ househol$ )echanics99.ill 7e free$ fro) all la7or through 7eneficent .ireless (o.er0 ", foresee the $e-elo()ent of the flying )achine e'cee$ing that of the auto)o7ile8 an$ , e'(ect /r0 For$ to )a2e large contri7utions to.ar$ this (rogress0 The (ro7le) of (ar2ing auto)o7iles an$ furnishing se(arate roa$s for co))ercial an$ (leasure traffic .ill 7e sol-e$0 3elte$ (ar2ing to.ers .ill arise in our large cities8 an$ the roa$s .ill 7e )ulti(lie$ through sheer necessity8 or finally ren$ere$ unnecessary .hen ci-iliBation e'changes .heels for .ings0 The .orl$'s internal reser-oirs of heat8 in$icate$ 7y frequent -olcanic eru(tions8 .ill 7e ta((e$ for in$ustrial (ur(oses0 ,n an article , .rote t.enty years ago , $efine$ a (rocess for continuously con-erting to hu)an use (art of the heat recei-e$ fro) the sun 7y the at)os(here0 "'(erts ha-e Hu)(e$ to the conclusion that , a) atte)(ting to realiBe a (er(etual9)otion sche)e0 3ut )y (rocess has 7een carefully .or2e$ out0 ,t is rational0" /r0 Tesla regar$s the e)ergence of .o)an as one of the )ost (rofoun$ (ortents for the future0 ",t is clear to any traine$ o7ser-er8" he says8 "an$ e-en to the sociologically untraine$8 that a ne. attitu$e to.ar$ se' $iscri)ination has co)e o-er the .orl$ through the centuries8 recei-ing an a7ru(t sti)ulus Hust 7efore an$ after the &orl$ &ar0 "This struggle of the hu)an fe)ale to.ar$ se' equality .ill en$ in a ne. se' or$er8 .ith the fe)ale as su(erior0 The )o$ern .o)an8 .ho antici(ates in )erely su(erficial (heno)ena the a$-ance)ent of her se'8 is 7ut a surface sy)(to) of so)ething $ee(er an$ )ore (otent fer)enting in the 7oso) of the race0 ",t is not in the shallo. (hysical i)itation of )en that .o)en .ill assert first their equality an$ later their su(eriority8 7ut in the a.a2ening of the intellect of .o)en0 "Through countless generations8 fro) the -ery 7eginning8 the social su7ser-ience of .o)en resulte$ naturally in the (artial atro(hy or at least the here$itary sus(ension of )ental qualities .hich .e no. 2no. the fe)ale se' to 7e en$o.e$ .ith no less than )en0 The Iueen is the Center of .ife "3CT the fe)ale )in$ has $e)onstrate$ a ca(acity for all the )ental acquire)ents an$ achie-e)ents of )en8 an$ as generations ensue that ca(acity .ill 7e e'(an$e$J the a-erage .o)an .ill 7e as .ell e$ucate$ as the a-erage )an8 an$ then 7etter e$ucate$8 for the $or)ant faculties of her 7rain .ill 7e sti)ulate$ to an acti-ity that .ill 7e all the )ore intense an$ (o.erful 7ecause of centuries of re(ose0 &o)an .ill ignore (rece$ent an$ startle ci-iliBation .ith their (rogress0 "The acquisition of ne. fiel$s of en$ea-our 7y .o)en8 their gra$ual usur(ation of lea$ershi(8 .ill $ull an$ finally $issi(ate fe)inine sensi7ilities8 .ill cho2e the )aternal instinct8 so that )arriage an$ )otherhoo$ )ay 7eco)e
a7horrent an$ hu)an ci-iliBation $ra. closer an$ closer to the (erfect ci-iliBation of the 7ee0" The significance of this lies in the (rinci(le $o)inating the econo)y of the 7ee99the )ost highly organiBe$ an$ intelligently coor$inate$ syste) of any for) of nonrational ani)al life99the all9go-erning su(re)acy of the instinct for i))ortality .hich )a2es $i-inity out of )otherhoo$0 The center of all 7ee life is the queen0 >he $o)inates the hi-e8 not through here$itary right8 for any egg )ay 7e hatche$ into a reigning queen8 7ut 7ecause she is the .o)7 of this insect race0 We Can (nly ,it and Wonder TH"+" are the -ast8 $ese'ualiBe$ ar)ies of .or2ers .hose sole ai) an$ ha((iness in life is har$ .or20 ,t is the (erfection of co))unis)8 of socialiBe$8 coo(erati-e life .herein all things8 inclu$ing the young8 are the (ro(erty an$ concern of all0 Then there are the -irgin 7ees8 the (rincess 7ees8 the fe)ales .hich are selecte$ fro) the eggs of the queen .hen they are hatche$ an$ (reser-e$ in case an unfruitful queen shoul$ 7ring $isa((oint)ent to the hi-e0 An$ there are the )ale 7ees8 fe. in nu)7er8 unclean of ha7it8 tolerate$ only 7ecause they are necessary to )ate .ith the queen0 &hen the ti)e is ri(e for the queen to ta2e her nu(tial flight the )ale 7ees are $rille$ an$ regi)ente$0 The queen (asses the $rones .hich guar$ the gate of the hi-e8 an$ the )ale 7ees follo. her in rustling array0 >trongest of all the inha7itants of the hi-e8 )ore (o.erful than any of her su7Hects8 the queen launches into the air8 s(iraling u(.ar$ an$ u(.ar$8 the )ale 7ees follo.ing0 >o)e of the (ursuers .ea2en an$ fail8 $ro( out of the nu(tial chase8 7ut the queen .ings higher an$ higher until a (oint is reache$ in the far ether .here 7ut one of the )ale 7ees re)ains0 3y the infle'i7le la. of natural selection he is the strongest8 an$ he )ates .ith the queen0 At the )o)ent of )arriage his 7o$y s(lits asun$er an$ he (erishes0 The queen returns to the hi-e8 i)(regnate$8 carrying .ith her tens of thousan$s of eggs99a future city of 7ees8 an$ then 7egins the cycle of re(ro$uction8 the concentration of the tee)ing life of the hi-e in unceasing .or2 for the 7irth of a ne. generation0 ,)agination falters at the (ros(ect of hu)an analogy to this )ysterious an$ su(er7ly $e$icate$ ci-iliBation of the 7eeJ 7ut .hen .e consi$er ho. the hu)an instinct for race (er(etuation $o)inates life in its nor)al an$ e'aggerate$ an$ (er-erse )anifestations8 there is ironic Hustice in the (ossi7ility that this instinct8 .ith the continuing intellectual a$-ance of .o)en8 )ay 7e finally e'(resse$ after the )anner of the 7ee8 though it .ill ta2e centuries to 7rea2 $o.n the ha7its an$ custo)s of (eo(les that 7ar the .ay to such a si)i(ly an$ scientifically or$ere$ ci-iliBation0 &e ha-e seen a 7eginning of this in the Cnite$ >tates0 ,n &isconsin the steriliBation of confir)e$ cri)inals an$ (re9)arriage e'a)ination of )ales is require$ 7y la.8 .hile the $octrine of eugenics is no. 7ol$ly (reache$ .here a fe. $eca$es ago its a$-ocacy .as a statutory offense0 ;l$ )en ha-e $rea)e$ $rea)s an$ young )en ha-e seen -isions fro) the 7eginning of ti)e0 &e of to$ay can only sit an$ .on$er .hen a scientist has his say0
1-"<-10-16: Forld System of Fireless Transmission of *nergy 4y Nikola Tesla

Telegra*h and Telegra*h Age
The trans)ission of (o.er .ithout .ires is not a theory or a )ere (ossi7ility8 as it a((ears to )ost (eo(le8 7ut a
fact $e)onstrate$ 7y )e in e'(eri)ents .hich ha-e e'ten$e$ for years0 1or $i$ the i$ea (resent itself to )e all of a su$$en8 7ut .as the result of a -ery slo. an$ gra$ual $e-elo()ent an$ a logical consequence of )y in-estigations .hich .ere earnestly un$erta2en in 1893 .hen , ga-e the .orl$ the first outline of )y syste) of 7roa$casting .ireless energy for all (ur(oses0 ,n se-eral $e)onstrati-e lectures 7efore scientific societies $uring the (rece$ing three years8 , sho.e$ that it .as not necessary to use t.o .ires in trans)itting electrical energy8 7ut that one only )ight 7e e)(loye$ equally .ell0 /y e'(eri)ents .ith currents of high frequencies .ere the first e-er (erfor)e$ in (u7lic an$ elicite$ the 2eenest interest on account of the (ossi7ilities they o(ene$ u( an$ stri2ing character of the (heno)ena0 Fe. of the e'(erts fa)iliar .ith the u(9to9$ate a((liances .ill a((reciate the $ifficulty of )y tas2 .ith the ele)entary $e-ices , ha$ then at co))an$8 as accurate a$Hust)ents for resonance ha$ to 7e )a$e in e-ery e'(eri)ent0 The trans)ission of energy through a single con$uctor .ithout return ha-ing 7een foun$ (ractica7le it occurre$ to )e that (ossi7ly e-en that one .ire )ight 7e $is(ense$ .ith an$ the earth use$ to con-ey the energy fro) the trans)itter to the recei-er0 4igh !requency %ynamo and Tesla Coil /anifestly8 currents such as .ere or$inarily e)(loye$ in the arts an$ in$ustries .ere unsuita7le an$ , ha$ to $e-ise s(ecial generators an$ transfor)ers for furnishing i)(ulses of the requisite quality0 First8 , (erfecte$ high frequency $yna)os .hich .ere of t.o ty(es8 one .ith a $irect current fiel$ e'citation an$ the other in .hich the )agnet .as energiBe$ 7y alternating currents of $ifferent (hase8 (ro$ucing a rotating )agnetic fiel$0 3oth of these ha-e foun$ e)(loy)ent in connection .ith )y 7roa$casting .ireless syste)0 ,n the first )achine , e'hi7ite$ an efficiency of ninety (er cent0 .as attaine$8 7ut it .as necessary to run it in hy$rogen or rarefie$ air to )ini)iBe the other.ise (rohi7iti-e .in$age loss an$ $eafening noise0 ,n or$er to o-erco)e the inherent li)itations of such )achines , ne't concentrate$ )y efforts on the (erfection of a (eculiar transfor)er consisting of se-eral tune$ circuits in in$ucti-e relation .hich recei-e$ the (ri)ary energy fro) oscillatory $ischarges of con$ensers0 This a((aratus8 originally i$entifie$ .ith )y na)e an$ consi$ere$ 7y the lea$ing scientific )en )y 7est achie-e)ent8 is no. use$ in e-ery .ireless trans)itter an$ recei-er throughout the .orl$0 ,t has ena7le$ )e to o7tain currents of any $esire$ frequency8 electro)oti-e force an$ -olu)e8 an$ to (ro$uce a great -ariety of electrical8 che)ical8 ther)al8 light an$ other effects8 +oentgen8 catho$ic an$ other rays of transcen$ing intensities0 , ha-e e)(loye$ it in )y in-estigations of the constitution of )atter an$ ra$ioacti-ity8 (u7lishe$ fro) 189% to 1898 in the "lectrical +e-ie. in .hich it .as $e)onstrate$8 (rior to the $isco-ery of +a$iu) 7y /)e0 >2lo$o.s2a an$ <ierre Curie8 that ra$io9acti-ity is a co))on (ro(erty of )atter an$ that such 7o$ies e)it s)all (articles of -arious siBes an$ great -elocities8 a -ie. .hich .as recei-e$ .ith incre$ulity 7ut finally recogniBe$ as true0 ,t has 7een (ut to innu)era7le uses an$ (ro-e$ in the han$s of others a -erita7le la)( of Ala$$in0 As , thin2 of )y earliest coils8 .hich .ere nothing )ore than scientific toys8 the su7sequent $e-elo()ent a((ears to )e li2e a $rea)0 The L'agnifying TransmitterL and -arth &esonance &hile , .as (erfectly con-ince$8 fro) the outset8 that success .oul$ 7e ulti)ately achie-e$8 it .as not until 7y slo. i)(ro-e)ent , e-ol-e$ the so9calle$ "/agnifying Trans)itter" that , o7taine$ con-incing e-i$ence of the feasi7ility of .ireless (o.er trans)ission on a -ast scale for all in$ustrial (ur(oses0 The chief $isco-ery8 .hich satisfie$ )e thoroughly as to the (ractica7ility of )y (lan8 .as )a$e in 1899 at Colora$o >(rings8 .here , carrie$ on tests .ith a generator of fifteen hun$re$ 2ilo.att ca(acity an$ ascertaine$ that un$er certain con$itions the current .as ca(a7le of (assing across the entire glo7e an$ returning fro) the anti(o$es to its origin .ith un$i)inishe$ strength0 ,t .as a result so un7elie-a7le that the re-elation at first al)ost stunne$ )e0 , sa. in a flash that 7y (ro(erly organiBe$ a((aratus at sen$ing an$ recei-ing stations8 (o.er -irtually in unli)ite$ a)ounts coul$ 7e con-eye$ through the earth at any $istance8 li)ite$ only 7y the (hysical $i)ensions of the glo7e8 .ith an efficiency as high as ninety9nine an$ one9half (er cent0 The )o$e of (ro(agation of the currents fro) )y trans)itter through the terrestrial glo7e is )ost e'traor$inary
consi$ering the s(rea$ of the electrification of the surface0 The .a-e starts .ith a theoretically infinite s(ee$8 slo.ing $o.n first -ery quic2ly an$ after.ar$ at a lesser rate until the $istance is a7out si' thousan$ )iles8 .hen it (rocee$s .ith the s(ee$ of light0 Fro) there on it again increases in s(ee$8 slo.ly at first8 an$ then )ore ra(i$ly8 reaching the anti(o$e .ith a((ro'i)ately infinite -elocity0 The la. of )otion can 7e e'(resse$ 7y stating that the .a-es on the terrestrial surface s.ee( in equal inter-als of ti)e o-er equal area8 7ut it )ust 7e un$erstoo$ that the current (enetrates $ee( into the earth an$ the effects (ro$uce$ on the recei-ers are the sa)e as if the .hole flo. .as confine$ to the earth's a'is Hoining the trans)itter .ith the anti(o$e0 The )ean surface s(ee$ is thus a7out 6*18!55 2ilo)eters (er secon$99fifty9se-en (er cent0 greater than that of the so9 calle$ HertB .a-es99.hich shoul$ (ro(agate .ith the -elocity of light if they e'ist0 The sa)e constant .as foun$ 7y the note$ A)erican astrono)er8 Ca(t0 E0T0T0 >ee8 in his )athe)atical in-estigations8 for the s)allest (articles of the ether .hich he fittingly $esignates as "etherons0" 3ut .hile in the light of his theory this s(ee$ is a (hysical reality8 the s(rea$ of the currents at the terrestrial surface is )uch li2e the (assage of the )oon's sha$o. o-er the glo7e0 ,t .ill 7e $ifficult for )ost (eo(le engage$ in (ractical (ursuits to )easure or e-en to for) an a$equate conce(tion of the intensity of ins(iration an$ force , $eri-e fro) that (art of )y .or2 .hich has (asse$ into history0 , ha-e e-ery reason to consi$er )yself one of the )ost fortunate )en8 for , e'(erience incessantly a feeling of ine'(ressi7le satisfaction that )y alternating syste) is uni-ersally e)(loye$ in the trans)ission an$ $istri7ution of heat8 light an$ (o.er an$ that also )y .ireless syste)8 in all its essential features8 is use$ throughout the .orl$ for con-eying intelligence0 3ut )y (ioneer efforts in this later fiel$ are still grossly )isun$erstoo$0 ,hort Wave 0roadcasting and L0eamL Transmission 1othing illustrates this 7etter than the recent $e)onstrations of a nu)7er of e'(erts .ith -ery short .a-es8 .hich ha-e create$ the i)(ression that (o.er .ill 7e e-entually trans)itte$ 7y such )eans0 ,n reality8 e'(eri)ents of this 2in$ are the -ery $enial of the (ossi7ility of econo)ic trans)ission of energy0 , ha-e in-estigate$ this s(ecial su7Hect e'(eri)entally $uring a great nu)7er of years8 using so)eti)es .a-es as short as one )illi)eter8 an$ ha-e foun$ e-en these unsuita7le for such a (ur(ose8 not to say that their (ro$uction is inse(ara7le fro) great .aste0 ,n or$er to secure goo$ results 7y this )etho$ it .oul$ 7e necessary to e)(loy ra$iations of a .a-e length inco)(ara7ly s)aller than the $i)ensions of the reflector8 as ra$iant heat8 light8 infra9re$ or ultra9-iolet rays0 1ot.ithstan$ing )y re(eate$ e'(lanations e'(erts $o not see) to realiBe that no concentration of energy such as , attain in )y .ireless (o.er syste) can or .ill e-er 7e achie-e$ through the instru)entality of reflectors8 for in trans)itting energy in this )anner the recei-er can collect only an a)ount (ro(ortionate to the area e'(ose$ to the rays8 .hile in )y syste) it $ra.s the energy fro) an i))ense reser-oir in e-er so )uch greater quantity0 >i)ilar consi$erations a((ly to $irectional trans)ission 7y short reflecte$ .a-es or "7ea)s0" ,f .e coul$ (ro$uce econo)ically electric -i7rations of a frequency a((ro'i)ating that of ra$iant heat .a-es8 efficient reflectors .ithout a((recia7le $is(ersion8 an$ (re-ent a7sor(tion99then such a )o$e of trans)itting energy )ight 7eco)e of great i)(ortance0 3ut atte)(ts to acco)(lish this (ur(ose .ith relati-ely -ery lo. frequencies are sure to (ro-e futile0 /ore than t.enty9fi-e years ago )y efforts to trans)it large a)ounts of (o.er through the at)os(here resulte$ in the $e-elo()ent of an in-ention of great (ro)ise8 .hich has since 7een calle$ the "=eath +ay8" an$ attri7ute$ to =r0 Grin$ell /athe.s8 an ingenious an$ s2illful "nglish electrician0 The un$erlying i$ea .as to ren$er the air con$ucting 7y suita7le ioniBing ra$iations an$ to con-ey high tension currents along the (ath of the rays0 "'(eri)ents8 con$ucte$ on a large scale8 sho.e$ that .ith (ressures of )any )illions of -olts -irtually unli)ite$ quantities of energy can 7e (roHecte$ to a s)all $istance8 as a fe. hun$re$ feet8 .hich )ight 7e satisfactory if the (rocess .ere )ore econo)ical an$ the a((aratus less e'(ensi-e0 >ince that ti)e , ha-e )a$e i)(ortant i)(ro-e)ents an$ $isco-ere$ a ne. (rinci(le .hich can 7e successfully a((lie$ .ithout $ifficulty for -arious (ur(oses in (eace an$ .ar0 ,f , ha-e un$erstoo$ the re(orts correctly8 in the "7ea) trans)ission" .ith .a-es of a fe. )eters length8 an oscillating circuit8 consisting of a straight -ertical con$uctor8 is (lace$ in the focal line of a (ara7olic surface on .hich are (lace$ )any secon$ary straight .ires (arallel to the (ri)ary con$uctor0 1o.8 this $is(osition is entirely faulty an$ to all e-i$ence inefficient8 as the secon$ary syste) $oes not o(erate in the )anner of a (ara7olic reflector 7ut )erely (ro$uces a confuse$ echo0 The correct arrange)ent .oul$ require (ri)ary an$ secon$ary con$uctors situate$ in t.o -ertical (arallel (lanes se(arate$ 7y a $istance equal to one quarter of the .a-e length0 3ut e-en in this 7est for) such a trans)itter can only 7e of $ou7tful (ractical -alue0 The t.o .a-e trains 7ehin$ the reflecting8 or rather echoing8 syste) $o not co)(letely neutraliBe an$ there is consi$era7le lateral $issi(ation0 The energy of the (ri)ary syste) $i)inishes .ith the square of the $istance8 an$ this 7eing
also true of the secon$ary8 the useful .a-es fro) the latter .ill suffer $i)inution of energy in (ro(ortion to the fourth (o.er of their length0 This )eans that only a -ery short .a-e can 7e use$ .hich8 )oreo-er8 is unchangea7le an$ $ifficult to regulate0 ;ne )ust 7e shortsighte$ not to (ercei-e that 7etter results .ill 7e o7taine$ if the ca(ital is all in-este$ in a single $irectional syste) of (ro(er $esign for the (o.er a-aila7le increases )uch )ore ra(i$ly than the cost of the (lant0 Assu)ing e-en that the 7ea) arrange)ent .or2s .ith i$eal (erfection8 it )ust still 7e inferior8 since the requisite ra$iant energy is (ro$uci7le at s)aller e'(ense .ith the single syste)8 .hich has the further a$-antages that it can 7e a$a(te$ to any .a-elength8 is equally effecti-e in t.o $irections an$ therefore of greater earning ca(acity0 >o (al(a7ly unsoun$ is this sche)e that , a) at a loss to un$erstan$ ho. it coul$ (ass the scrutiny of co)(etent e'(erts such as =r0 &0 #0 Austin an$ Eohn >tone >tone0 The LWorld ,ystemL >ince , 7egan the construction of the first (o.er (lant in 1899 , ha-e e'(resse$ )yself re(eate$ly in regar$ to it an$ the (lans , ha$ (re-iously for)e$ through the )e$iu) of the "lectrical +e-ie.8 "lectrical &orl$8 "lectrical "'(eri)enter8 >cience an$ ,n-ention an$ other (erio$icals8 nota7ly the Century /agaBine of Eune8 19558 to .hich , contri7ute$ a lengthy article on the "<ro7le) of ,ncreasing Hu)an "nergy"J 7ut certain facts )ust still 7e tol$0 ,n the first (lace the fun$a)ental $ifference 7et.een the 7roa$casting syste) as no. (ractice$ an$ the one , e'(ect to inaugurate is that at (resent the trans)itter e)its energy in all $irections8 .hile in the syste) , ha-e $e-ise$ only force is con-eye$ to all (oints of the earth8 the energy itself tra-eling in $efinite (aths $eter)ine$ 7eforehan$0 <erha(s the )ost .on$erful feature is that the energy tra-els chiefly along an ortho$ro)ic line8 that is8 the shortest $istance 7et.een t.o (oints at the surface of the glo7e8 an$ reaches the recei-er .ithout the slightest $is(ersion8 so that an inco)(ara7ly greater a)ount is collecte$ than is (ossi7le 7y ra$iations0 , ha-e thus (ro-i$e$ a (erfect )eans for trans)itting (o.er in any $esire$ $irection far )ore econo)ically an$ .ithout any such qualitati-e an$ quantitati-e li)itations as the use of reflectors .oul$ necessarily in-ol-e0 Another $istinction is that )y syste) is 7ase$ entirely on resonance8 .hile in (resent (ractice reliance is (lace$ chiefly on a)(lification 7y au'iliary $e-ices generally consisting of -arious for)s of -acuu) tu7es .hich ha-e 7een 7rought to re)ar2a7le (erfection0 The foun$ation to their use .as lai$ 7y >ir &illia) Croo2es8 .ho $isco-ere$ in 18*% that a highly heate$ con$uctor e)its electrifie$ (articles0 ,n 188! a young French electrician8 Gissiere 7y na)e8 o7ser-e$ that a current issues fro) the fila)ent of an incan$escent la)( an$ )a$e careful )easure)ents .ith s(ecially (re(are$ 7ul7s8 so)e of .hich , ha$ o((ortunity to .itness in ,-ry9sur9>eine8 a su7ur7 of <aris8 at that ti)e0 3ut these (heno)ena foun$ no a((lication in the art until in 189! , (ro$uce$ a -acuu) tu7e $etector su(erior in sensiti-eness to any other for) of .hich , ha-e 2no.le$ge0 A)aBing (rogress has 7een since then achie-e$8 7ut the e)(loy)ent of the )o$e) -acuu) $etectors an$ a)(lifiers is an i)(e$i)ent to a$-ance in the right $irection an$ )ost of the trou7les e'(erience$ in 7roa$casting are $ue to this cause0 Cntil quite recently the trans)itte$ .a-es .ere lac2ing in unifor)ity of length8 ren$ering accurate attune)ent i)(ossi7le0 This $efect has 7een in a )easure re)e$ie$ 7y control through quartB crystals8 an$ no.8 for the first ti)e8 it is (ractica7le to carry out i)(ortant refine)ents for 7ettering the ser-ice0 The electro9)echanical (rocess of (ro$ucing isochronous oscillations is one of )y earliest in-entions an$ , ha-e a((lie$ it in )any .ays .ith great success0 ,ts a((lication to the o(eration of e'isting (lants secures i)(ortant a$-antages8 7ut in s(ite of this an$ other i)(ro-e)ents a change in the (resent a((aratus an$ )etho$ of 7roa$casting is 7eco)ing $aily )ore i)(erati-e an$ for this reason , a) an'ious to resu)e the intro$uction of )y "&orl$ >yste)" .ith no-el trans)itters of great effecti-eness an$ recei-ers of ele)entary si)(licity0 ,n )y a((aratus the isochronis) is so (erfect an$ attune)ent shar( to such a $egree that in the trans)ission of s(eech8 (ictures or si)ilar o(erations8 the frequency or .a-elength is -arie$ only through a )inute range .hich nee$ not 7e )ore than one hun$re$th of one (er cent0 if $esire$0 >tatics an$ all other interferences are co)(letely eli)inate$ an$ the ser-ice is unaffecte$ 7y .eather8 seasonal or $iurnal changes of any 2in$0 The syste) len$s itself (articularly to &orl$ &ireless Tele(hony an$ Telegra(hy as the current fro) the trans)itter can 7e 2e(t -irtually constant an$ the control effecte$ 7y a si)(le )icro(hone .ithout the ela7orate )eans no. e)(loye$0 Any reasona7le nu)7er of si)ultaneous an$ non9interfering )essages is (ractica7le an$ a s(ee$ of )any thousan$s of .or$s (er )inute can 7e attaine$ in telegra(hic trans)ission0 The sa)e (rinci(les are also a((lica7le to o(eration through .ires an$ ca7les0 ,n 1953 , (ro(ose$ to the &estern Cnion an$ <ostal Telegra(h co)(anies such )ulti(le' trans)ission for their lines 7ut recei-e$ no encourage)ent )ainly 7ecause the -olu)e of 7usiness $i$ not call for a great increase of .or2ing ca(acity0 At a later $ate )y i)(ro-e)ents .ere intro$uce$ as "&ire$ &ireless0" A quite ina((ro(riate na)e inas)uch as the .a-es ra$iate$ fro) the .ire are co)(letely lost an$ of no effect on the recei-er0 /y (lans for a (o.er (lant ha-e 7een $e-elo(e$ to the (oint of a((lication8 7ut , a) still una7le to say .hen ,
shall 7egin acti-e .or20 There are no such $ifficulties in the .ay as confronte$ )e fro) the outset8 for at that ti)e , .as aloneJ no. )any are con-ince$ that )y un$erta2ing is rational an$ (ractical0 1ee$less to say that , a) using e-ery effort to gi-e to the .orl$ )y 7est an$ )ost i)(ortant .or2 as soon as (ossi7le an$ free of all 7le)ish an$ fla.0 , ha-e in -ie. a nu)7er of (laces .hich see) .ell suite$ for the (ur(ose8 7ut )y .ar)est .ish is to trans)it (o.er fro) 1iagara Falls8 .here the first triu)(h .ith )y alternating syste) .as achie-e$0 ;ne of the )ost i)(ortant uses of .ireless energy .ill 7e un$ou7te$ly for the (ro(ulsion of flying )achines to .hich (o.er can 7e rea$ily su((lie$ .ithout groun$ connection8 for although the flo. of the currents is confine$ to the earth an electro )agnetic fiel$ is create$ in the at)os(here surroun$ing it0 ,f con$uctors or circuits accurately attune$ an$ (ro(erly (ositione$ are carrie$ 7y the (lane8 energy is $ra.n into these circuits )uch the sa)e as a flui$ .ill (ass through a hole create$ in the container0 &ith an in$ustrial (lant of great ca(acity sufficient (o.er can 7e $eri-e$ in this )anner to (ro(el any 2in$ of aerial )achine0 This , ha-e al.ays consi$ere$ as the 7est an$ (er)anent solution of the (ro7le)s of flight0 1o fuel of any 2in$ .ill 7e require$ as the (ro(ulsion .ill 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y light electric )otors o(erate$ at great s(ee$0 1e-ertheless8 antici(ating slo. (rogress8 , a) $e-elo(ing a no-el ty(e of flying )achine .hich see)s to 7e .ell suite$ for )eeting the (resent necessity of a safe8 s)all an$ co)(act "aerial fli-er" ca(a7le of rising an$ $escen$ing -ertically0 Tele-ision8 as concei-e$ 7y )e in 18938 .ill 7e another -alua7le an$ ti)ely a((lication0 At that ti)e , a$-ance$ the i$ea that the for)ation of a clear )ental i)age of e'ternal o7Hects is acco)(anie$ 7y a refle' action on the retina8 )a2ing it (ossi7le to rea$ thoughts an$ e-en to (roHect the i)ages concei-e$ on a screen an$ ren$er the) -isi7le to an au$ience0 This .oul$ 7e of inesti)a7le consequence on all hu)an relations 7ut the i$ea can not 7e realiBe$ until so)e .ay is foun$ to lay 7are the retina0 Continue$ reflections on this su7Hect le$ )e to e-ol-e a((aratus for trans)itting instantaneously true -ision .ithout any )o-ing $e-ices8 an$ in 1955 , ha$ alrea$y sol-e$ three of the (ro7le)s .hich confronte$ )e8 na)elyI to in$i-i$ualiBe an$ isolate a -ery great nu)7er of channels or "ner-es"J to con-ey to the recei-ing a((aratus energy in sufficient a)ount8 an$8 to )a2e the -ision of the )o-ing i)ages in$e(en$ent of $istance0 "-entually also , ho(e to o-erco)e the shortco)ings of the seleniu) cell 7y a $ifferent $e-ice0 , a) )ost intereste$8 ho.e-er8 in the (erfection of 7roa$casting .hich is no. carrie$ on .ith unfit a((aratus an$ on a co))ercially $efecti-e (lan0 The trans)itters ha-e to 7e greatly i)(ro-e$ an$ the recei-ers si)(lifie$ an$ in the $istri7ution of .ireless energy for all (ur(oses the (rece$ent esta7lishe$ 7y the telegra(h8 tele(hone an$ (o.er co)(anies )ust 7e follo.e$8 for .hile the )eans are $ifferent the ser-ice is of the sa)e character0 Technical in-ention is a2in to architecture an$ the e'(erts )ust in ti)e co)e to the sa)e conclusions , ha-e reache$ long ago0 >ooner or later )y (o.er syste) .ill ha-e to 7e a$o(te$ in its entirety an$ so far as , a) concerne$ it is as goo$ as $one0 ,f , .ere e-er assaile$ 7y $ou7t of ulti)ate success , .oul$ $is)iss it 7y re)e)7ering the .or$s of that great (hiloso(her8 #or$ :el-in8 .ho after .itnessing so)e of )y e'(eri)ents sai$ to )e .ith tears in his eyesI ", a) sure you .ill $o it0"
1-"--0--"": Ni.ola Tesla Tells of New #adio T,eories An intervie" "ith Nikola Tesla
Ne" -ork (erald Tribune Does Not 4elieve in (ert; #aves and (eaviside %ayer+ Intervie" Discloses The )o$el of a "Tesla Coil" .hich .ill 7e feature$ in the historic e'hi7it of the ra$io sho. rea.a2ens interest in its in-entor0 ,t is not generally a((reciate$ that this curious a((aratus8 often associate$ .ith (retty or s(ectacular $e)onstrations of high -oltage electricity8 is really a fun$a)ental (art of )o$ern ra$io0 For all the tuning a((aratus an$ circuits in e-ery trans)itting an$ recei-ing set are si)(ly -ariations of Tesla coils an$ Tesla coil circuits0 ,t .as for this in-ention8 an$ other in-entions an$ (rinci(les concerne$ .ith tuning8 hetero$yning8 an$ the generation of continuous .a-es8 .hich .ere )a$e at least se-eral years 7efore the -ery first e'(eri)ents of /arconi8 that )any of our )ost re(uta7le engineers ha-e conce$e$ to 1i2ola Tesla the title of "Father of +a$io"0 /r0 Tesla8 still acti-ely .or2ing8 .as inter-ie.e$ last .ee2 to get his i$eas regar$ing the (ros(ects of the ra$io of 19358 an$ 7eyon$0 As a (ro(het8 ho.e-er8 he 7al2e$0 He ha$ re(eate$ ti)e an$ again his -isions for the future0 As far 7ac2 as 19558 he ha$ conte)(late$ a .orl$9.ireless syste) .hich inclu$e$ 7roa$casting8 (icture trans)ission8 international ti)e ser-ice8 an$ in a$$ition tele-ision an$ the $istri7ution of electrical (o.er0 <art of this early (ro(hecy has 7een realiBe$ 9 .hat re)aine$8 still stoo$ as his (re$iction00 %isputes 4ert@ Waves &hat8 then8 a7out (o.er trans)ission 7y ra$ioF #aurence /0 Coc2a$ay8 the technical e$itor of this ra$io section8 ha$ e'(resse$ the o(inion se-eral .ee2s ago that8 .ith (resent a((aratus at least8 it .as har$ly feasi7le0 /r0 Tesla agree$ to $iscuss the (oint at length0 As a result8 he )a$e (u7lic for the first ti)e one of the )ost e'traor$inary conclusions 9 that HertB .a-es $o not e'istY ,f his theory is true8 there )ay 7e foun$ in it )ore a$equate e'(lanations of "$ea$ s(ots"8 fa$ing8 reflection an$ a $oBen other (ro7le)s that ha-e al.ays (uBBle$ the (rofession0 The in-entor 7egan 7y referring to Coc2a$ay's articleI ", ha-e rea$ the article8 an$ , quite agree .ith the o(inion e'(resse$ 9 that .ireless (o.er trans)ission is i)(ractical .ith (resent a((aratus0 This conclusion .ill 7e naturally reache$ 7y any one .ho recogniBes the nature of the agent 7y .hich the i)(ulses are trans)itte$ in (resent .ireless (ractice0 "&hen =r0 Heinrich HertB un$ertoo2 his e'(eri)ents fro) 188* to 1889 his o7Hect .as to $e)onstrate a theory (ostulating a )e$iu) filling all s(ace8 calle$ the ether8 .hich .as structureless8 of inconcei-a7le tenuity an$ yet soli$ an$ (ossesse$ of rigi$ity inco)(ara7ly greater than that of the har$est steel0 He o7taine$ certain results an$ the .hole .orl$ acclai)e$ the) as an e'(eri)ental -erification of that cherishe$ theory0 3ut in reality .hat he o7ser-e$ ten$e$ to (ro-e Hust its fallacy0 ", ha$ )aintaine$ for )any years 7efore that such a )e$iu) as su((ose$ coul$ not e'ist8 an$ that .e )ust rather acce(t the -ie. that all s(ace is fille$ .ith a gaseous su7stance0 ;n re(eating the HertB e'(eri)ents .ith )uch i)(ro-e$ an$ -ery (o.erful a((aratus8 , satisfie$ )yself that .hat he ha$ o7ser-e$ .as nothing else 7ut effects of longitu$inal .a-es in a gaseous )e$iu)8 that is to say8 .a-es8 (ro(agate$ 7y alternate co)(ression an$ e'(ansion0 He ha$ o7ser-e$ .a-es in the ether )uch of the nature of soun$ .a-es in the air0 "C( to 189%8 ho.e-er8 , $i$ not succee$ in o7taining a (ositi-e e'(eri)ental (roof of the e'istence of such a )e$iu)0 3ut in that year , 7rought out a ne. for) of -acuu) tu7e ca(a7le of 7eing charge$ to any $esire$ (otential8 an$ o(erate$ it .ith effecti-e (ressures of a7out 685558555 -olts0 , (ro$uce$ catho$ic an$ other rays of transcen$ing intensity0 The effects8 accor$ing to )y -ie.8 .ere $ue to )inute (articles of )atter carrying enor)ous electrical charges8 .hich8 for .ant of a 7etter
na)e8 , $esignate$ as )atter not further $eco)(osa7le0 >u7sequently those (articles .ere calle$ electrons0 ";ne of the first stri2ing o7ser-ations )a$e .ith )y tu7es .as that a (ur(lish glo. for se-eral feet aroun$ the en$ of the tu7e .as for)e$8 an$ , rea$ily ascertaine$ that it .as $ue to the esca(e of the charges of the (articles as soon as they (asse$ out into the airJ for it .as only in a nearly (erfect -acuu) that these charges coul$ 7e confine$ to the)0 The coronal $ischarge (ro-e$ that there )ust 7e a )e$iu) 7esi$es air in the s(ace8 co)(ose$ of (articles i))easura7ly s)aller than those of air8 as other.ise such a $ischarge .oul$ not 7e (ossi7le0 ;n further in-estigation , foun$ that this gas .as so light that a -olu)e equal to that of the earth .oul$ .eigh only a7out one9 t.entieth of a (oun$0 "The -elocity of any soun$ .a-e $e(en$s on a certain ratio 7et.een elasticity an$ $ensity8 an$ for this ether or uni-ersal gas the ratio is 855855585558555 ti)es greater than for air0 This )eans that the -elocity of the soun$ .a-es (ro(agate$ through the ether is a7out 3558555 ti)es greater than that of the soun$ .a-es in air8 .hich tra-el at a((ro'i)ately 18584 feet a secon$0 Consequently the s(ee$ in ether is 9558555 ' 18584 feet8 or 18%8555 )iles8 an$ that is the s(ee$ of light0 "As the .a-es of this 2in$ are all the )ore (enetrati-e the shorter they are8 , ha-e for years urge$ the .ireless e'(erts to use such .a-es in or$er to get goo$ results8 7ut it too2 a long ti)e 7efore they settle$ u(on this (ractice0 "Although the .orl$ is still s2e(tical as to the feasi7ility of )y un$erta2ing8 , note that so)e a$-ance$ e'(erts8 at least8 share )y -ie.s8 an$ , ho(e that 7efore long .ireless (o.er trans)ission .ill 7e as co))on as trans)ission 7y .ires0" Accor$ing to /r0 Tesla8 the (resent 7roa$casting station $oes not (ro(agate HertBian .a-es8 as has al.ays 7een su((ose$8 7ut acts )ore li2e an "ether .histle" 9 trans)itting .a-es through the ether si)ilar to the .a-es trans)itte$ 7y an or$inary .histle through the air0 He also e'(resse$ his $is7elief in the Hea-isi$e layer8 an$ clai)e$ that the reflection of .a-es 7ac2 to.ar$ the earth .as $ue to the change of )e$iu) encountere$ at the -acuous 7oun$ary of the at)os(here0 At Colora$o >(rings8 a7out thirty years ago8 this scientist ha$ a Tesla coil se-enty9fi-e feet in $ia)eter .hich (ro$uce$ -oltages a7o-e 1!855585558 an$ s(ar2s o-er 155 feet long0 "lectrical flashes .ere create$ .hich .ere the nearest a((roach to lightning that )an has e-er )a$e0 =uring his e'(eri)ents there8 of o-er a year8 Tesla clai)s that he trans)itte$ a consi$era7le a)ount of electrical current to the other si$e of the earth0 ,t .as u(on these8 an$ later e'(eri)ents that he 7ases his (resent (re$iction0
1-"--11-"-: Mr& Tesla S$ea.s Out by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork #orld To the "$itor of the &orl$I <er)it )e a fe. .or$s of co))ent relati-e to The &orl$ e$itorial of ;ct0 !1 in .hich , a) $irectly concerne$0 "$ison's .or2 on the incan$escent la)( an$ $irect9current syste) of $istri7ution .as )ore li2e the (erfor)ance of an e'traor$inarily energetic an$ horse9sense$ (ioneer than that of an in-entorJ it .as (ro$igious in a)ount8 7ut not creati-e0 The la)( itself8 consisting of a car7on fila)ent in an e'hauste$ glo7e8 .as .ell 2no.n an$ e-en (atente$ years 7efore0 Croo2es ha$ e)(loye$ incan$escent con$uctors .ith lea$ing9in (latinu) .ires seale$ in the glass an$ o7taine$ e'tre)ely high -acuaI the )ulti(le9arc arrange)ent .as frequently sho.n at institutions of learning8 $is(lay .in$o.s an$ e'hi7itions .ith Geissler tu7esJ electric generators ha$ 7een constructe$8 )eans for regulating current an$ -oltage $escri7e$ an$ canaliBation of electricity .as as o7-ious as that of .ater8 gas8 co)(resse$ air or other co))o$ity0 ,rres(ecti-e of this8 ho.e-er8 his (ri)iti-e sche)e of lighting .as su7Hect to fatal econo)ic li)itations an$ coul$ ha-e ne-er (ro-e$ a co))ercial success in co)(etition0 ,n$ee$8 $uring the (ast thirty9fi-e years it has 7een al)ost .holly $is(lace$ 7y a )ore (ractical an$ efficient syste) 7ase$ on )y rotating )agnetic fiel$8 a $isco-ery .hich e-en har$9hea$e$ engineers an$ (atent la.yers ha-e $eclare$ to 7e "one of the greatest triu)(hs of the hu)an )in$0" To con-ey an i$ea of the e'tent of its use , only nee$ to quote =r0 30 A0 3ehren$8 one of the fore)ost electrical e'(erts8 .ho in his 7oo2 on the in$uction )otor saysI "&ere .e to eli)inate fro) our in$ustrial .orl$ the results of /r0 Tesla's .or2 the .heels of in$ustry .oul$ cease to turn8 our electric trains an$ cars .oul$ sto(8 our to.ns .oul$ 7e $ar28 our )ills $ea$ an$ i$le0 >o far9reaching is this .or2 that it has 7eco)e the .ar( an$ .oof of in$ustry0" "$ison an$ his associates 7itterly o((ose$ the intro$uction of )y syste)8 raising a cla)our against the "$ea$liness" of the alternating current8 .hich (ro-e$ -ery effecti-e an$ le$ to the a$o(tion of a co))ercial ty(e of )achine in electrocution of cri)inals8 an a((aratus )onstrously unsuita7le8 for the (oor .retches are not $es(atche$ in a )erciful )anner 7ut literally roaste$ ali-e0 To the o7ser-er their sufferings see) to 7e of short $urationJ it )ust 7e 7orne in )in$8 though8 that an in$i-i$ual un$er such con$itions8 .hile .holly 7ereft of the conciousness of the la(se of ti)e8 retains a 2een sense of (ain8 an$ a )inute of agony is equi-alent to that through all eternity0 Ha$ the "$ison co)(anies not finally a$o(te$ )y in-ention they .oul$ ha-e 7een .i(e$ out of e'istence8 an$ yet not the slightest ac2no.le$ge)ent of )y la7ours has e-er 7een )a$e 7y any of the)8 a )ost re)ar2a7le instance of the (ro-er7ial unfairness an$ ingratitu$e of cor(orations0 3ut the reason is not far to see0 ;ne of their (ro)inent )en tol$ )e that they are s(en$ing ^1585558555 e-ery year to 2ee( "$ison's na)e 7efore the (u7lic8 an$ he a$$e$ that it is .orth )ore to the)0 ;f course8 in all that unceasing an$ $eafening shouting fro) the houseto(s any -oice raise$ to a((rise (eo(le of the real state of things is li2e the chir( of a little s(arro. in the roar of 1iagara0 >o it co)es that -ery fe. ha-e a clear i$ea of the situation0 ,n truth8 )y syste) has not only (ro-i$e$ energy for all (ur(oses throughout the .orl$ 7ut also re-olutioniBe$ electric lighting an$ )a$e it a great co))ercial success 7y re$ucing the cost of (o.er an$ increasing enor)ously the $istance of trans)ission0 The greater (art of the ^%5855585558555 .hich8 accor$ing to <resi$ent Hoo-er's state)ent8 re(resente$ the -alue of electric 7usiness8 can 7e trace$ to )y syste) an$ its effect on the lighting an$ other in$ustries0 ,n -ie. of this , feel that , also ha-e $one )uch to $is(el $ar2ness0 >urely8 )y syste) is )ore i)(ortant than the incan$escent la)(8 .hich is 7ut one of the 2no.n electric illu)inating $e-ices an$ a$)itte$ly not the 7est0 Although greatly i)(ro-e$ through che)ical an$ )etallurgical a$-ances an$ s2ill of artisans it is still inefficient8 an$ the glaring fila)ent e)its hurtful rays res(onsi7le for )illions of 7al$ hea$s an$ s(oile$ eyes0 ,n )y o(inion8 it .ill soon 7e su(erse$e$ 7y the electro$eless -acuu) tu7e .hich , 7rought out thirty9eight years ago8 a la)( )uch )ore econo)ical an$ yiel$ing a light of in$escri7a7le 7eauty an$ softness0 The technical resources of that ti)e .ere ina$equate to )a2e it a (ractical success8 7ut )ost of the $ifficulties .ill 7e o-erco)e .hen chea( quartB glass 7eco)es a-aila7le0 1o a)ount of (raise is too )uch to 7esto. u(on "$ison for his -igourous (ioneer .or28 7ut all he $i$ .as .rought in 2no.n an$ (assing for)s0 &hat , contri7ute$ constitutes a ne. an$ lasting a$$ition to hu)an 2no.le$ge0 #i2e his la)(8 )y in$uction )otor )ay 7e $iscar$e$ an$ forgotten in the continuous e-olution of the
arts8 7ut )y rotating fiel$ .ith its )ar-ellous (heno)ena an$ )anifestations of force .ill li-e as long as science itself0 1,:;#A T">#A 1e. Dor28 1o-0 4
1-90-09-00: 5ossi1ilities of *le(tro-Stati( Benerators 4y Nikola Tesla

... The 2no.le$ge of static electricity $ates 7ac2 to the earliest $a.n of ci-iliBation 7ut for ages it re)aine$ )erely an interesting an$ )ystifying (heno)enon0 Girtually nothing .as $one to.ar$s the $e-elo()ent an$ useful a((lication of the (rinci(le0 The first $istinct sti)ulus in this $irection .as gi-en 7y the $isco-eries of Fran2lin an$ #ey$en in the latter (art of the 18th Century0 ,n 1*** Ca-allo $e-ise$ a cylin$rical friction )achine an$ fro) that ti)e on there .as a slo. 7ut stea$y e-olution of friction an$ influence )achines until the )o$ern &i)shurst8 HoltB8 Toe(ler8 an$ other ty(es .ere (ro$uce$0 A)ong these )achines the one in-ente$ 7y &o))els$orf 35 years ago .as8 (ro7a7ly8 the )ost effecti-e0 ,t yiel$e$ a current of si'9tenths of a )illi9a)(ere an$ in the (resent state of science it coul$ 7e successfully e)(loye$ for charging large aerial ca(acities an$ ste((ing u( its ter)inal tension of 1458555 to )any )illions of -olts0 1u)erous atte)(ts ha-e also 7een )a$e to generate static electricity 7y friction of flui$s an$ soli$ (articles 7ut fro) the earliest recor$s to this $ay the 7elt has (ro-e$ to 7e the si)(lest an$ )ost con-enient )eans for the (ur(ose0 >tatic electricity fro) this source gaine$ in i)(ortance .hen e-i$ences accu)ulate$ that it .as ca(a7le of interfering seriously .ith o(erations an$ causing acci$ents in (a(er factories8 flour )ills8 an$ si)ilar esta7lish)ents0 ,n the early nineties )y electro$eless -acuu) tu7es 7eca)e e'tre)ely (o(ular an$ .ere frequently lighte$ fro) 7elts an$ later +oentgen tu7es .ere o(erate$ in the sa)e )anner0 ,t is quite easy to i)(ro-ise such a generator an$ o7tain interesting results un$er fa-ora7le at)os(heric con$itions0 A re)ar2a7le $e-ice of this 2in$8 e)7o$ying ne. features8 has 7een recently $e-elo(e$ 7y =r0 +0 E0 Gan $e Graaff at the /assachusetts ,nstitute of Technology8 an$ is attracting e'traor$inary attention0 >&ee *age 1Q+ 9ebruary+ 11:<+ &2IENTI9I2 A/E!I2AN. , Ed.@ ,t is haile$ as a re-olutionary in-ention .ith .hich .on$ers .ill 7e achie-e$0 The technical (a(ers refer to it as a Colossus8 a /aster :ey e'(ecte$ to unloc2 the secrets of nature0 1aturally enough i)aginati-e scri7es ha-e 7uilt >(anish castles on this foun$ation0 >o it co)es that e-en such an a7ly e$ite$ (a(er as The 1ear Dor2 Ti)es infor)s its rea$ers of a conte)(late$ use of this generator for long $istance trans)ission of (o.er0 Accor$ing to a 7ona fi$e re(ort in its issue of =ece)7er 48 19338 "the (ossi7ilities of the colossal generator ha-e 7een .or2e$ out in theory an$ it no. re)ains to a((ly it in (ractice0" Ho.e-er -isionary this sche)e )ay a((ear it is not a7solutely i)(ossi7le0 A .ise /ace$onian 2ing sai$I "1o .all is so high that a )ule loa$e$ .ith gol$ coul$ not Hu)( o-er it0" &ith unli)ite$ ca(ital an$ regar$less of returns8 it )ight 7e carrie$ out0 ,n -ie. of )any articles an$ e$itorials .ritten in the sa)e -ein8 .hich ha-e a)aBe$ the lay)an an$ a)use$ the e'(ert8 it )ay not 7e a)iss to e'a)ine the )erits of this o$$ contri-ance in the light of .ell $e)onstrate$ scientific facts0 3ut first , .ant to (oint out an a((arent $iscre(ancy in the $escri(ti-e re(orts an$ (hotogra(hs sho.ing the a((aratus in action8 .hich is illustrate$ in the acco)(anying (hotogra(hs8 an$ consists of t.o alu)inu) s(heres 14 feet in $ia)eter su((orte$ on insulating colu)ns si' feet in $ia)eter0 "lecricity is su((lie$ to the s(heres 7y (a(er 7elts charge$ fro) a "s(rayer0" &ith ter)inals of such $i)ensions )uch higher -oltages shoul$ 7e o7taine$0 ,n )ost of the treatises it is assu)e$ that the surface $ensity8 that is8 the quantity of electricity store$ (er square centi)eter of a s(herical con$uctor8 can not e'cee$ eight electrostatic units .ithout 7rea29$o.n of the surroun$ing air0 As a )atter of fact the $ensity can 7e (ushe$ u( to !5 units 7efore (o.er9 consu)ing strea)ers a((ear0 This 7eing the case8 the li)iting -oltage of a s(here ha-ing a $ia)eter of 14 feet shoul$ 7e 1%89%68*55 an$8 consequently8 the (otential $ifference 7et.een t.o such o((ositely charge$ s(heres8 -ery far a(art is 3389!98655 -olts0 ,t )ay 7e useful to state8 ho.e-er8 that such large s(heres (lace$ at a $istance of 44 feet 7et.een centers8 as conte)(late$8 .ill influence each other to a consi$era7le e'tent8 increasing their ca(acities0 At this $istance the increase .ill 7e a7out 1% (ercent8 .hich shoul$ 7e ta2en into consi$eration .hen esti)ating the charge0 The $esire$ $ifference of (otential coul$ 7e o7taine$ .ith )uch s)aller s(heres an$ it .oul$ see) (refera7le to e)(loy the) as they .oul$ yiel$ s(ar2s in quic2er succession0 >o)e of the (hotogra(hs un$er the ter)inal (ressure of *85558555 -olts are (uBBling 7ecause the surface $ensity in this case .as only a little o-er 6 electrostatic units0 Further)ore8 s(ar2s are sho.n to (ass co(iously along the insulating su((orts0 This is a serious $ifficulty encountere$ in .or2ing .ith -ery high tensions 7ut 7y (ro(erly sha(ing the un$er si$e of the s(here an$ resting it on a su((ort .ell u( in its interior8 7esi$es (ro-i$ing a li7eral si$e clearance8 the $ischarges are (re-ente$ fro) follo.ing the colu)n an$ no further trou7le is e'(erience$ e-en .ith the highest (otentials0 /y .ireless to.er on #ong ,slan$8 erecte$ in 195!8 carrie$ a s(here .hich ha$ a $ia)eter of %*! feet an$ .as
)ounte$ in this )anner0 ,t .as to 7e charge$ to 3585558555 -olts 7y a si)(le $e-ice for su((lying static electricity an$ (o.er0 /ost (eo(le8 an$ not a fe. electricians8 .ill thin2 that -ery long an$ noisy s(ar2s are in$icati-e of great energy8 .hich is far fro) 7eing the case0 An i)(ressi-e $is(lay of this 2in$8 at se-eral )illion -olts8 can 7e rea$ily o7taine$ .ith any .i$e leather or fa7ric 7elt in $ry .eather0 The only require)ent is that the out.ar$ surfaces of the highly charge$ ca(acity ele)ents 7e arrange$ along an i$eal 7oun$ary e-ery.here of s)all cur-ature0 3ut the electrical energy is trifling an$ this a((lies to all electrostatic generators .hich ha-e 7een (ro(ose$8 irres(ecti-e of siBe0 ;ne $oes not nee$ 7e an e'(ert to un$erstan$ that a $e-ice of this 2in$ is not a (ro$ucer of electricity8 li2e a $yna)o8 7ut )erely a recei-er or collector .ith a)(lifying qualities0 All its energy is $eri-e$ fro) electricity .hich is generate$ through friction or su((lie$ 7y the s(rayer an$ (u)(e$ into the ter)inals 7y the 7elts0 ,f the colu)ns .ere as tall as the ")(ire >tate 3uil$ing an$ the s(heres 455 feet in $ia)eter the )onstrous )achine coul$ not ha-e any )ore energy than is su((lie$ to it 7y the electrifie$ 7elts an$ no )atter ho. )uch i)(ro-e$8 this ty(e is fatally $oo)e$ to s)all out(ut an$ lo. efficiency on account of the e'isting li)itations an$ the .astefulness of the (rocess of con-eying the charges fro) their sources to the ter)inals0 As the .riters of articles regar$ing the "Colossus" confine the)sel-es to controlling its siBe8 -oltage an$ (ossi7ilities8 7ut gi-e little hint regar$ing its )o$e of o(eration an$ (o.er (erfor)ance8 , shall en$ea-our to a$-ance the nee$e$ 2no.le$ge0 &ith this o7Hect let it 7e assu)e$ that the s(heres are (lace$ at a $istance of 44 feet fro) center to center an$ that the (otential $ifference 7et.een the) is 1585558555 -olts0 ;r$inarily8 the electric ca(acity of such a s(here is equal to its ra$ius8 na)ely !!4 centi)eters8 7ut as 7efore e'(laine$8 1% (ercent shoul$ 7e a$$e$ to this 8 )a2ing !%1 centi)eters equi-alent to 50555!9 )icrofara$0 Consequently8 .hen the regi)e is esta7lishe$8 each s(here 7eing at a (otential of 485558555 -olts8 the electricity store$ on each .ill 7e 5055164 coulo)70 ,f this quantity .ere su((lie$ e-ery secon$8 the current .oul$ 7e 5055164 a)(ere0 An incan$escent la)( of !4 .atts requires a current 145 ti)es )ore intense0 ,n esti)ating the a)ount of electricity furnishe$ to each ter)inal (er secon$8 only the s(rayer nee$ 7e consi$ere$ as it su((lies )uch )ore than coul$ 7e generate$ 7y friction of the 7elts0 The $e-ice use$ has not 7een clearly $escri7e$ 7ut it is sufficient for the (ur(ose of this $issertation to 2no. that it o(erates at !58555 -olts an$ energiBes8 through ro.s of (oints8 the t.o 7elts .hich are sai$ to 7e four feet8 or 1!5 centi)eters8 .i$e0 Assu)ing that they are run at a s(ee$ of 155 feet or 38555 centi)eters (er secon$8 the area co-ere$ in this ti)e inter-al .oul$ 7e 1!5 ' 38555 L 3%58555 square centi)eters0 ,f it .ere (ossi7le to charge the 7elts unifor)ly to a surface $ensity anything li2e that e'isting on an electrifie$ (article8 the out(ut of the )achine .oul$ 7e -ery great0 3ut this can ne-er 7e realiBe$0 The follo.ing a((ro'i)ate esti)ate .ill sho. .hat )ay 7e reasona7ly e'(ecte$0 The $ischarge'of electricity fro) (oints has 7een e'tensi-ely in-estigate$ an$ fro) the $ata a-aila7le an$ )y o.n o7ser-ations , fin$ that the current through each (oint at !58555 -olts .ill 7e a7out 505551%44 a)(ere0 1o a$-antage .oul$ 7e gaine$ 7y a -ery close s(acing of the (oints on account of their )utual reaction 7ut , shall )a2e allo.ance for as great a nu)7er as see)s (ractica7le8 say8 !558 in .hich case the integral current .oul$ 7e !55 ' 505551%44 L 505331 a)(ere0 1o.8 electricity is transferre$ fro) the (oints to the 7elt 7y )inute 7o$ily carriers 9 the )olecules of the air0 &hen such an electrifie$ (article co)es in contact .ith a large con$ucting 7o$y it gi-es u( al)ost all of its charge to the sa)e8 7ut to an insulator8 as the 7elt8 it can i)(art only a -ery s)all (ortion o.ing to the strong re(ulsion 7et.een the charge $e(osite$ an$ that re)aining on the (article0 Fro) theoretical consi$erations it a((ears that the (art usefully a((lica7le .ill8 in all (ro7a7ility8 not e'cee$ 1/145 of the .hole charge on any (article thro.n against the 7elt0 The current fro) the s(rayer is 505331 a)(ere8 that is to say8 it con-eys a total charge of 505331 coulo)7 (er secon$ an$ of this the 7elt .ill carry off only 50555!! coulo)7 equi-alent to a current of 50555!! a)(ere0 This )eans that 99033 (ercent of the energy su((lie$ 7y the s(rayer is lost8 an$ illustrates the a((alling inefficiency of this )etho$ of electrification0 As .ill 7e seen8 the $e-ice $eli-ers to each 7elt energy at the insignificant rate of 606 .atts an$ is8 therefore8 -irtually of no effect on the (o.er out(ut of the )achine e'ce(t that it i)(oses a li)it to the sa)e0 This is i)(ortant to re)e)7er in -ie. of the general i)(ression create$ 7y the earlier re(orts that all energy is $ra.n fro) the s(rayer0 >ince the quantity of electricity store$ on the s(heres re)ains constant it is e-i$ent that the o-erflo. current 7et.een the) un$er nor)al .or2ing con$itions )ust 7e 50555!! a)(ere so that at the (otential $ifference of 1585558555 -olts the )achine shoul$ $e-elo( !!55 .atts0 As the su((ly fro) the e'citer is entirely negligi7le the questions .ill 7e as2e$I &hence co)e energy an$ (o.erF Ho. is it (ro$uce$F The ans.er is si)(le0 ,t is $eri-e$ fro) the 7elts .hich (erfor) the .or2 of trans(orting the charges i)(arte$ to the) agains the re(ulsion e'erte$ 7y the s(heres0 This force can 7e a((ro'i)ately $eter)ine$0 The (er)anent charge on a s(here .ill 7e8 as sho.n a7o-e8 5055164 coulo)7 or 683458 555 electrostatic units0 3ut 1% (ercent of this quantity is "7oun$" an$ shoul$ 7e left out of consi$eration0 &ith $ue regar$ to the o(ening on the un$ersi$e8 the free ca(acity of each ter)inal )ay 7e esti)ate$ !!! centi)eters8 so that at fi-e )illion -olts A L !!! '
485558555/355 L 38*558555 electrostatic units0 The )o-ing charge .ill 7e $istri7ute$ o-er a length of the 7elt a7out equal to the height of the insulating colu)n an$ .ith so)e allo.ances it )ay 7e ta2en at !6 feet0 Assu)ing a 7elt s(ee$ of %555 feet (er )inute this $istance .ill 7e tra-erse$ in 50!6 of a secon$ an$8 consequently the 7elt charge to 7e consi$ere$ is 50!6 of the .hole carrie$ (er secon$J that is8 5055554!8 coulo)7 or 1488655 electrostatic units0 The u((er en$ of the charge$ area is * 1/! feet an$ the lo.er 31 1/! feet fro) the center of the s(here0 The for)er is thus r L !!4 c0)0 an$ the latter $ L 964 c0)0 The charge$ area of the 7elt 7eing 1!5 ' *!5 L 8%655 c0)08 it follo.s that the $ensity of the charge is 148655/8%655 L 108333 electrostatic units0 Accor$ingly8 if the $istri7ution of the charge is (erfectly unifor) a trans-ersal stri( of the 7elt one centi)eter long .ill contain a quantity q L 1!5 ' 108333 L !!5 e0s0u0 Consi$ering no. a surface ele)ent of -anishing length $'8 the charge on the sa)e .ill 7e q$' L !!5 $' e0s0 units of quantity an$ that on the s(here 7eing A L 38*5558555 e0s0 units8 the re(ulsi-e force acting on the surface ele)ent at a $istance ' fro) the center of the s(here8 .ill 7e Aq/! $'0 ,ntegrating this e'(ression 7et.een the li)its r an$ $8 an$ su7stituting the -alues for A an$ q8 the force re(elling the charge$ si$e of the 7elt is foun$ to 7e F0L Aq($9r /r$ L !8*4%86!5 $ynes or !081593 2ilogra)s0 At a s(ee$ of 155 feet or 35 )eters (er secon$ the .or2 is 8603!*9 2ilogra) )eters (er secon$8 equi-alent to 508!%91 2ilo.att0 3oth 7elts .ill therefore (erfor) the .or2 of 10%438! 2ilo.atts0 This is 33 (ercent less than the theoretical electrical acti-ity of the )achine an$ as the (o.er $e-elo(e$ 7y the 7elts )ust 7e8 at least8 equal to the electric (o.er one is a(t to reach the conclusion that the suc2ing (oints $o not $ra. off the entire charge8 as has 7een tacitly assu)e$8 an$ the current8 instea$ of 7eing 50555!! .ill 7e (ro(ortionately s)aller8 that is8 505551%46 a)(ere0 3ut this -ie. is foun$ untena7le for the li)it to (erfor)ance is i)(ose$ 7y natural la. an$ not 7y the $efects of a $e-ice .hich8 )oreo-er8 coul$ 7e rea$ily i)(ro-e$0 The $iscre(ancy 7et.een the calculate$ (o.er of the 7elts an$ the electric acti-ity of the )achine .as all the )ore (uBBling as the t.o quantities coul$ not 7e har)oniBe$ 7y i)agining any 2in$ of theoretical .or2ing con$itions0 Finally8 ho.e-er8 , recogniBe$ that the charge can not 7e unifor)ly $istri7ute$ on the 7elt 7ut )ust increase fro) the lo.er to the u((er (ortion of the sa)e0 ,n$ee$8 such an effect )ight ha-e 7een e'(ecte$ although the surface charge on an insulating 7o$y is not -ery )o7ile0 >u((osing that the 7elt carrie$ a fil) of oil )eeting .ith a $o.n.ar$ current of air0 The o7-ious result .oul$ 7e a thic2ening of the fil) to.ar$ the to(0 >i)ilarly8 the electric fil) on the 7elt is "thic2ene$" through the re(ulsion e'erte$ 7y the ter)inal an$ the atten$ant (iling u( of the charge an$ it is only so that the e'act 7alance 7et.een the )echanical an$ electrical (o.er can 7e8 un$er all con$itions8 auto)atically esta7lishe$0 (>ee e'(lanatory note on (age 1%40 The equality of these t.o quantities is an a7solute an$ ine-ita7le consequence of the la. of conser-ation of energy8 the re)ar2a7le feature of this (rocess of $yna)o9electric transfor)ation 7eing that it is effecte$ .ith the highest efficiency8 a((arently .ithout e-olution of heat0 ;f course8 there are great losses in the o(eration of the )achine8 7ut they $o not concern the (rocess itself0 ,n an instru)ent $esigne$ (ri)arily for scientific in-estigation8 the efficiency is of relati-ely s)all i)(ortance an$ , shall $.ell on it for the sole (ur(ose of sho.ing that in any a((lication as a (o.er (ro$ucer such a generator .oul$ 7e ho(elessly han$ica((e$0 The air friction of the 7elts at a s(ee$ of 35 )eters (er secon$ .ill require a7out 30*3 2ilo.att0 &ith the re(ulsion .or28 the loa$ on the) .ill 7e 4093 2ilo.att0 Cn$er the .or2ing con$itions as outline$8 the 7elt $ri-e )ay ha-e an efficiency of 95 (ercent an$ the )otor 84 (ercent so that energy .ill 7e $ra.n fro) the electric )ains at the rate of *0*4 2ilo.att0 The net (erfor)ance of the s(rayer at !58555 -olts .ill 7e 103!6 2ilo.att 7ut ta2ing into account the efficiency of the .hole a((aratus8 at least 10% 2ilo.att )ust 7e assu)e$0 There are also $ielectric8 )agnetic8 an$ ra$iation losses8 )a2ing the total (o.er in(ut8 (erha(s8 904 2ilo.att .hile the out(ut is only !0! 2ilo.att0 ,f this esti)ate is reasona7ly a((ro'i)ate8 an0 o-er9all efficiency of !3 (ercent is a7out as high as can 7e e'(ecte$ fro) any electrostatic generator of this 2in$0 ,t .as sho.n that the charge on each s(here at 485558555 -olts is 5055164 coulo)7 7ut as only 50555!! coulo)7 can 7e furnishe$ (er secon$8 it .ill ta2e a7out %0% secon$s to charge the s(heres to the full (otential0 , ha-e assu)e$ that the current fro) the s(rayer is continuous an$ not a rectifie$ one8 in .hich case the efficiency .ill 7e a((recia7ly s)aller0 The strea)ers fro) (ointe$ electro$es are generally9consi$ere$ as a sort of corona in-ol-ing an insignificant loss of energy8 7ut this -ie. is erroneous0 >uch a $ischarge is -ery concentrate$8 a((ro'i)ating an arc in intensity8 so )uch8 in fact8 that the heat e-ol-e$ so)eti)es i)(oses a li)it to the use of (oints0 ,n the a7sence of a $etaile$ $escri(tion8 the (erfor)ance of this sensational generator can not 7e closely $eter)ine$ an$ the actual results )ay 7e $ifferent fro) those , ha-e in$icate$8 7ut not greatly so0 &hile the energy su((ly )ay 7e increase$ 7y raising the tension of the s(rayer an$ increasing the nu)7er of the $ischarging an$ suc2ing (oints8 there are li)itations in this res(ect an$ it is (erfectly e-i$ent that8 no )atter ho. 7ig8 such a contri-ance is nothing )ore than a toy co)(are$ .ith the co))ercial )achines e)(loye$ in the transfor)ation an$ trans)ission of electrical energy0 ,n -ie. of this8 an$ the lo. efficiency8 its a((lication .ill 7e confine$ to scientific e'(eri)ents in .hich useful results )ay 7e achie-e$ either 7y a fee7le .or2ing current un$er high tension or 7y successi-e e'(losions0 The latter )etho$ see)s )ore (ro)ising 7ecause un$er (ro(er con$itions it is (ossi7le to $ischarge s(heres in a
ti)e inter-al inco)(ara7ly shorter than consu)e$ in charging the) an$ so a)(lify enor)ously the intensity of the actions0 Any $e-ice $e(en$ing on static electricity carrie$ 7y a 7elt .ill fail in $a)( .eather an$ .ill ha-e to 7e o(erate$ in a close$ s(ace in .hich the air is (ro(erly con$itione$0 Also8 the 7elts are a(t to $eteriorate ra(i$ly through the action of oBone8 nitrous an$ nitric aci$ (ro$uce$ 7y the (oint $ischarge0 Although there is nothing ra$ically ne. in-ol-e$ in the construction an$ .or2ing of this high -oltage generator8 it is8 ne-ertheless8 a $istinct a$-ance o-er its (re$ecessors8 the result of a scholarly effort to.ar$s (ro$ucing an instru)ent suita7le for scientific research8 , thin2 though8 that .hate-er can 7e acco)(lishe$ .ith it 7y -irtue of the continuity of action8 can 7e e-en 7etter achie-e$ 7y the use of cos)ic rays0 /oreo-er8 the ti)e consu)e$ in the (assage of a charge$ (article fro) one to the other en$ of the tu7e is so 7rief that it )a2es (ractically no $ifference .hether the current is $irect or alternating0 ,n a-ailing ousel-es of the latter .e are $oing a.ay .ith all the li)itations as to -oltage an$ strength of the current an$8 consequently8 the intensity of the effects .hich it is the chief o7Hect to (ro$uce0 As far 7ac2 as 1899 , )a$e e'(eri)ents .ith 1885558555 -olts an$ in so)e tests , .as a7le to (ass a current of 1155 a)(eres through the air0 &ith )y transfor)ers a (otential $ifference of 3585558555 -olts8 or )ore8 coul$ 7e easily o7taine$ an$ in the (resent state of the technical arts a tu7e or other $e-ice ca(a7le of ta2ing u( -ery great energy )ight 7e )anufacture$0 , $o not say this in $is(arage)ent of electrostatic generatorsJ on the contrary8 , 7elie-e that .hen ne. ty(es are $e-elo(e$ an$ sufficiently i)(ro-e$ a great future .ill 7e assure$ to the)0 At first thought it )ight a((ear that the (erfor)ance of such a generator coul$ 7e $ou7le$ 7y using the free si$e of the 7elt for carrying a.ay electricity of o((osite sign0 ,n this case the re(ulsion on one si$e of the 7elt .oul$ 7e 7alance$ 7y the attraction on the other so that80 theoretically8 the s(heres coul$ 7e charge$ .ithout e'(en$iture of (o.er0 3ut this is contrary to fun$a)ental la.s of nature an$ it )ay8 therefore8 7e safely inferre$ that such a (lan .oul$ not .or20 >tatic electricity )ay 7e e-entually harnesse$ for $ri-ing )otors an$ this (ros(ect is attracti-e on account of the enor)ous (o.er out(ut of such a )achine at -ery high -oltages0 The efficient generation an$ control of these is the chief i)(e$i)ent in this $irection0 As an interesting e'(eri)ent the t.o units of the generator $escri7e$ )ight 7e se(arate$ an$ so an electric $ri-e i)(ro-ise$0 ,t .oul$ 7e o(erati-e 7ut inefficient0 &hile it is quite e-i$ent that e'ce(tionally fa-ora7le con$itions for accurate o7ser-ation .ill 7e realiBe$ in this instru)ent8 it is highly (ro7a7le that the atte)(ts to s)ash the ato)ic nucleus an$ to trans)ute ele)ents .ill yiel$ results of $ou7tful -alue0 Certainly8 )uch of the ingenuity an$ s2ill no. $e-ote$ to these illusionary tas2s )ight 7e 7etter e)(loye$0 The nucleous is a neutral 7o$y consisting of tightly (ac2e$ (articles of the sa)e 2in$ .hich .ere originally (ositi-e an$ negati-e0 &hen the 7o$y is s)ashe$ the (articles again acquire their charges8 .ithout $istinction an$ instantly for) neutral (airs so that .e ha-e nothing for our (ains0 ,t is folly to e'(ect useful results fro) trans)utation 7rought a7out through such 7o)7ar$ing of targets0 ,f anything of consi$era7le (ractical -alue is e-er achie-e$ in this $irection it .ill 7e 7y the use of quasi9intelligent agent causing a sorting an$ regi)entation of the (articles an$ their or$erly arrange)ent as require$ in the for)ation of a ne. structure0 >uch a (o.er is (ossesse$ 7y a catalyst an$ it .ill 7e e-entually harnesse$ an$ controlle$ successfully for all sorts of (ur(oses0 Aut,or2s #eferen(e The re)uired increment of density can be determined by a sim*le calculation. At the s*raying *oints+ due to their constant action+ there can be no change in the value 1.0::: found before+ but from there on the density "ill increase and at the very to* of the charged area it may be 1.0::: R a. &ince the la" of variation is )uite immaterial to this argument it may be assumed that the increment is *ro*ortionate to the distance from the s*raying *oints+ ex*ecially as this is most likely to be the case. Dnder such conditio.ns+ a transversal stri* of the belt one centimeter long and at a distance L from the center of the s*here+ "ill contain a charge ) = 1?=M1.0:::Ra >d,x@S>d,r@N e.s.u. (ence the re*elling force exerted by the charge T on the terminal "ill be
F = Q R 1"0G18333 . +
r
d x dx H This integral can be readily solved by ex*anding and yields the value d r x"
9 = ?.KQ:K? R 1=00:Q.a dynes. The mechanical "ork at the normal belt s*eed of :=== centimeters *er second "ill+ conse)uently+ be e)uivalent to # = =.0?Q1=KQ R =.:?QK1=1a kilo"att seconds and must be e)ual to the electrical "ork of the machine "ith an overflo" current of =.===?? am*ere under a tension of K+===+=== volts namely+ 1.1 kilo"att seconds for each terminal so that a = >1.1 , =.0?Q1=KQ@S=.:?QK1=1 = =+0:Q< electro,static units. #ith this excess density and distribution of the charge as set forth+ the net *o"er of both belts+ ex*ressed in electrical units+ "ill be ?.? kilo"atts "hich is exactly the *erformance of the generator "ith the overflo" current of =.===?? am*ere and terminal tension of 1= ===+=== volts. It is evident that Pust as "ater finds its level so this
balance is instantly established under all "orking conditions and is effected by a varying sli* of the charge that is to say+ by reduction or increase of its translatory velocity according to the changes of the load.
1-90-0/-19: 'etter to *ditor On Mar(oni2s feat by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork #orld To the "$itor of The &orl$I The &orl$ e$itorial /arch !8 )ust ha-e instille$ a holy fear in the )in$s of so)e of your rea$ers0 ;f course /arconi coul$ not hel( astoun$ing (eo(le8 7ut surely it .as .rong of hi) at this critical ti)e to scare the Cnite$ >tates 1a-y 7y the state)ent that he coul$ halt the (rogress of electrically $ri-en $rea$noughts8 .hich .oul$ )ean certain $oo) in an engage)ent .ith the ene)y0 The thought that )y 7eautiful in$uction )otors use$ in their (ro(ulsion )ight 7e consigne$ to =a-y Eones' loc2er in this easy )anner cause$ )e so)e an'iety until , satisfie$ )yself 7y a little calculation that the )a'i)u) (o.er trans)itte$ 9 e'(resse$ in units )ore a((ro(riate than the con-entional 9 $i$ not e'cee$ one9)illionth of a ")ouse9(o.er0" "'ce(t to the lay)an there .as nothing re)ar2a7le in the (erfor)ance8 consi$ering that sea .ater has only one fi-e9hun$re$ths of the resistance of soli$ groun$ an$ that there .ere no to.ering o7Hects in the -icinity8 thus re$ucing -ery )uch the siBe of the (lant8 /arconi acco)(lishe$ nothing )ore than .as 2no.n 7efore0 The infinitesi)al currents recei-e$ .ere a)(lifie$8 relaye$ re(eate$ly an$ )a$e to actuate local )eans8 as usual0 This can 7e 7rought a7out in )ore than one .ayJ 7ut as a rule8 a for) of a)(lifying three9electro$e tu7es is e)(loye$ .hich , $escri7e$ in )y e'(eri)ental lectures 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ 1ational "lectric #ight Association early in 18930 The )o$ern tu7es e)7o$ying the sa)e (rinci(le are )ar-els of .or2)anshi(8 7ut less sensiti-e8 7ecause they len$ the)sel-es only to relati-ely s)all -oltages0 ,f suita7le )eans .ere (ro-i$e$8 any .ireless a)ateur coul$ )agnify as fee7le a $istur7ance as the (atter of feet of a fly sufficiently to (reci(itate a -erita7le earthqua2e at the anti(o$es0 The shre.$ ,talian $i$ not gi-e a $escri(tion of his a((aratus8 7ut fro) his (re-ious recor$s one )ay safely infer that it is ol$ an$ .ell 2no.n0 ,t is gratifying8 ho.e-er8 that he has a7an$one$ the ri$iculous arrange)ent of a "7ea) syste)8" .hich he clai)e$ to offer "li)itless (ossi7ilities0" Dour reference to this first announce)ent thirty years ago has stirre$ u( in )y )e)ory un(leasant recollections0 To the (u7lic the trans)ission of a .ea2 .ireless signal across the Atlantic a((eare$ al)ost li2e a )iracle8 7ut8 e-en if a fact8 it .as a (altry engineering achie-e)ent8 for , ha$ alrea$y sho.n 7y e'(eri)ent o-er a year 7efore that the earth )ay 7e e'cite$ li2e a .ire of s)all $i)ensions an$ that8 current i)(ulse fro) a (o.erful trans)itter coul$ tra-el through it as )uch as a )illion ti)es 7efore its energy .as e'hauste$0 3ut this is i))aterial0 , only .ish to call the attention of your rea$ers to the circu)stances0 >o)e ti)e after the e'(eri)ents .ith the classical HertB $e-ices con$ucte$ un$er the aus(ices of the ,)(erial <ost ;ffice in "nglan$8 >ir &illia) <reece8 then hea$ of the $e(art)ent8 .rote )e a letter con-eying the infor)ation that the tests ha$ 7een a7an$one$ as of no -alue8 7ut that he 7elie-e$ goo$ results (ossi7le 7y )y syste)0 ,n re(ly , offere$ to (re(are t.o sets for trial an$ as2e$ hi) to gi-e )e the technical (articulars necessary to the $esign0 Eust then /arconi ca)e out .ith the e)(hatic assertion that he ha$ trie$ out rely a((aratus an$ that it $i$ not .or20 "-i$ently he succee$e$ in his (ur(ose8 for nothing .as $one in regar$ to )y (ro(osal0 He further)ore $eclare$ at a later $ate that .ireless co))unication across the Atlantic .as i)(ossi7le 7ecause there .as a .all of .ater se-eral )iles high 7et.een the t.o continents .hich the rays coul$ not tra-erse0 3ut su7sequent $e-elo()ents sho.e$ that he ha$ use$ )y syste) in secret all the ti)e8 recei-e$ the (lau$its of the .orl$ an$ acce(te$ stoli$ly e-en )y o.n congratulations8 an$ it .as only a long ti)e after that he a$)itte$ it0 1,:;#A T">#A0 1e. Dor28 A(ril 110
1-90-0<-06: Man2s Breatest A(,ieEement by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork American &hen a chil$ is 7orn its sense9organs are 7rought in contact .ith the outer .orl$0 The .a-es of soun$8 heat8 an$ light 7eat u(on its fee7le 7o$y8 its sensiti-e ner-efi7res qui-er8 the )uscles contract an$ rela' in o7e$ienceI a gas(8 a 7reath8 an$ in this act a )ar-ellous little engine8 of inconcei-a7le $elicacy an$ co)(le'ity of construction8 unli2e any on earth8 is hitche$ to the .heel9.or2 of the Cni-erse0 The little engine la7ours an$ gro.s8 (erfor)s )ore an$ )ore in-ol-e$ o(erations8 7eco)es sensiti-e to e-er su7tler influences an$ no. there )anifests itself in the fully $e-elo(e$ 7eing 9 /an 9 a $esire )ysterious8 inscruta7le an$ irresisti7leI to i)itate nature8 to create8 to .or2 hi)self the .on$ers he (ercei-es0 ,ns(ire$ in this tas2 he searches8 $isco-ers an$ in-ents8 $esigns an$ constructs8 an$ enriches .ith )onu)ents of 7eauty8 gran$eur an$ a.e8 the star of his 7irth0 He $escen$s into the 7o.els of the glo7e to 7ring forth its hi$$en treasures an$ to unloc2 its i))ense i)(risone$ energies for its use0 He in-a$es the $ar2 $e(ths of the ocean an$ the aBure regions of the s2y0 He (eers into the inner)ost noo2s an$ recesses of )olecular structure an$ lays 7are to his gaBe .orl$s infinitely re)ote0 He su7$ues an$ (uts to his ser-ice the fierce8 $e-astating s(ar2 of <ro)etheus8 the titanic forces of the .aterfall8 the .in$ an$ the ti$e0 He ta)es the thun$ering 7olt of Eo-e an$ annihilates ti)e an$ s(ace0 He )a2es the great >un itself his o7e$ient toiling sla-e0 >uch is the (o.er an$ )ight that the hea-ens re-er7erate an$ the .hole earth tre)7les 7y the )ere soun$ of his -oice0 &hat has the future in store for this strange 7eing8 7orn of a 7reath8 of (erisha7le tissue8 yet i))ortal8 .ith his (o.ers fearful an$ $i-ineF &hat )agic .ill 7e .rought 7y hi) in the en$F &hat is to 7e his greatest $ee$8 his cro.ning achie-e)entF #ong ago he recogniBe$ that all (erce(ti7le )atter co)es fro) a (ri)ary su7stance8 of a tenuity 7eyon$ conce(tion an$ filling all s(ace 9 the A2asa or lu)iniferous ether 9 .hich is acte$ u(on 7y the life9gi-ing <rana or creati-e force8 calling into e'istence8 in ne-er en$ing cycles8 all things an$ (heno)ena0 The (ri)ary su7stance8 thro.n into infinitesi)al .hirls of (ro$igious -elocity8 7eco)es gross )atterJ the force su7si$ing8 the )otion ceases an$ )atter $isa((ears8 re-erting to the (ri)ary su7stance0 Can /an control this gran$est8 )ost a.e9ins(iring of all (rocesses in natureF Can he harness her ine'hausti7le energies to (erfor) all their functions at his 7i$$ing8 )ore still 9 can he so refine his )eans of control as to (ut the) in o(eration si)(ly 7y the force of his .illF ,f he coul$ $o this he .oul$ ha-e (o.ers al)ost unli)ite$ an$ su(ernatural0 At his co))an$8 .ith 7ut a slight effort on his (art8 ol$ .orl$s .oul$ $isa((ear an$ ne. ones of his (lanning .oul$ s(ring into 7eing0 He coul$ fi'8 soli$ify an$ (reser-e the ethereal sha(es of his i)agining8 the fleeting -isions of his $rea)s0 He coul$ e'(ress all the creations of his )in$8 on any scale8 in for)s concrete an$ i)(erisha7le0 He coul$ alter the siBe of this (lanet8 control its seasons8 gui$e it along any (ath he )ight choose through the $e(ths of the Cni-erse0 He coul$ )a2e (lanets colli$e an$ (ro$uce his suns an$ stars8 his heat an$ light0 He coul$ originate an$ $e-elo( life in all its infinite for)s0 To create an$ annihilate )aterial su7stance8 cause it to aggregate in for)s accor$ing to his $esire8 .oul$ 7e the su(re)e )anifestation of the (o.er of /an's )in$8 his )ost co)(lete triu)(h o-er the (hysical .orl$8 his cro.ning achie-e)ent .hich .oul$ (lace hi) 7esi$e his Creator an$ fulfil his ulti)ate $estiny0
1-91-0<-"0: Tesla at <5 by Nikola Tesla

Time (Follo.ing is a su))ary of the reference article ;n the occasion of his *4th 7irth$ay8 Tesla tal2e$ a7out ne. $e-elo()ents0 ", a) .or2ing no. u(on t.o things8" he sai$0 "First8 an e'(lanation 7ase$ u(on (ure )athe)atics of certain things .hich <rofessor "instein has also atte)(te$ to e'(lain0 /y conclusions in certain res(ects $iffer fro) an$ to that e'tent ten$ to $is(ro-e the "instein Theory 0000/y e'(lanations of natural (heno)ena are not so in-ol-e$ as his0 They are si)(ler8 an$ .hen , a) rea$y to )a2e a full announce)ent it .ill 7e seen that , ha-e (ro-e$ )y conclusions0 ">econ$ly8 , a) .or2ing to $e-elo( a ne. source of (o.er0 &hen , say a ne. source8 , )ean that , ha-e turne$ for (o.er to a source .hich no (re-ious scientist has turne$8 to the 7est of )y 2no.le$ge0 The conce(tion8 the i$ea .hen it first 7urst u(on )e .as a tre)en$ous shoc20 ",t .ill thro. light on )any (uBBling (heno)ena of the cos)os8 an$ )ay (ro-e also of great in$ustrial -alue8 (articularly in creating a ne. an$ -irtually unli)ite$ )ar2et for steel0" Tesla sai$ it .ill co)e fro) an entirely ne. an$ unsus(ecte$ source8 an$ .ill 7e for all (ractical (ur(oses constant $ay an$ night8 an$ at all ti)es of the year0 The a((aratus for ca(turing the energy an$ transfor)ing it .ill (arta2e 7oth of )echanical an$ electrical features8 an$ .ill 7e of i$eal si)(licity00000000 Tesla has alrea$y concei-e$ a )eans that .ill )a2e it (ossi7le for )an to trans)it energy in large a)ounts8 thousan$s of horse(o.er8 fro) one (lanet to another8 a7solutely regar$less of $istance0 He consi$ere$ that nothing can 7e )ore i)(ortant than inter(lanetary co))unication0 ,t .ill certainly co)e so)e $ay8 an$ the certitu$e that there are other hu)an 7eings in the uni-erse8 .or2ing8 suffering8 struggling8 li2e oursel-es8 .ill (ro$uce a )agic effect on )an2in$ an$ .ill for) the foun$ation of a uni-ersal 7rotherhoo$ that .ill last as long as hu)anity itselfn He recei-e$ 7irth$ay greetings fro) >ir ;li-er #o$ge8 "rnst Fre$eri2 &erner Ale'an$erson8 #ee =e Forest8 Eohn Hays Ha))on$8 Er08 +o7ert An$re.s /illi2an8 >ecretary of Co))erce +o7ert <atterson #a)on$8 Henry Her)an &estinghouse8 an$ )any another0 Their greetings in$icate$ the ho(e if not the confi$ence that "in a fe. )onths" or "a fe. years" the fla)e of 1i2ola Tesla's genius .oul$ .el$ one )ore astoun$ing ne. $e-ice for )an2in$n
1-91-11-00: 7aster T,an 'ig,t 4y (ugo 5ernsback

Everyday &cience and mechanics
,t )ay co)e as a shoc28 to )ost stu$ents of science8 to learn that there are still in the .orl$ so)e scientists .ho 7elie-e that there are s(ee$s greater than that of light0 >ince the a$-ent of "instein8 )ost scientists an$ (hysicists ha-e ta2en it for grante$ that s(ee$s greater than 18%8355 )iles (er secon$ are i)(ossi7le in the uni-erse0 ,n$ee$8 one of the (rinci(al tenets of the relati-ity theory is that the )ass of a 7o$y increases .ith its s(ee$8 an$ .oul$ 7eco)e infinite at the -elocity of light0 Hence8 a greater -elocity is i)(ossi7le0 A)ong those .ho $eny that this is true8 there is 1i2ola Tesla8 .ell 2no.n for his hun$re$s of i)(ortant in-entions0 The in$uction )otor an$ the syste) of $istri7uting alternating current are 7ut a fe. of his great contri7utions to )o$ern science0 ,n 189!8 he )a$e his historic e'(eri)ents in Colora$oJ .here he )anufacture$8 for the first ti)e8 artificial lightning 7olts 155 feet long8 an$ .here he .as a7le8 7y )eans of high9 frequency currents8 to light electric la)(s at a $istance of three )iles .ithout the use of any .ires .hatsoe-er0 Tal2ing to )e a7out these e'(eri)ents recently8 =r0 Tesla re-eale$ that he ha$ )a$e a nu)7er of sur(rising $isco-eries in the high9frequency electric fiel$ an$ that8 in the course of these e'(eri)ents8 he ha$ 7eco)e con-ince$ that he (ro(agate$ frequencies at s(ee$s higher than the s(ee$ of light0 ,n his (atent 1o0 *8*861!8 file$ /ay 1%8 19558 Tesla sho.e$ that the current of his trans)itter (asse$ o-er the earth's surface .ith a s(ee$ of !9!8835 )iles (er secon$8 .hile ra$io .a-es (rocee$ .ith the -elocity of light Tesla hol$s8 ho.e-er8 that our (resent "ra$io" .a-es are not true HertBian .a-es8 7ut really soun$ .a-es0 He infor)s )e8 further8 that he 2no.s of s(ee$s se-eral ti)es greater than that of light8 an$ that he has $esigne$ a((aratus .ith .hich 7e e'(ects to (roHect so9calle$ electrons .ith a s(ee$ equal to t.ice that of light0 Co)ing fro) so e)inent a source8 the state)ent shoul$ 7e gi-en $ue consi$eration0 After all8 a7stract )athe)atics is one thing8 an$ actual e'(eri)entation is another0 1ot so )any years ago8 one of the .orl$'s greatest scientists of the ti)e (ro-e$0 )athe)atically that it is i)(ossi7le to fly a hea-ier9than9air )achine0 Det .e are flying (lenty of air9(lanes to$ay0 Tesla contra$icts a (art of the relati-ity theory e)(hatically8 hol$ing that )ass is unaltera7leJ other.ise8 energy coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ fro) nothing8 since the 2inetic energy acquire$ in the fall of a 7o$y .oul$ 7e greater than that necessary to lift it at a s)all -elocity0 ,t is .ithin the 7oun$s of (ossi7ility that "instein's )athe)atics of s(ee$s greater than light )ay 7e .rong0 Tesla has 7een right )any ti)es $uring the (ast8 an$ he )ay 7e (ro-en right in the future0 ,n any e-ent8 the state)ent that there are s(ee$s faster than light is a tre)en$ous one8 an$ o(ens u( entirely ne. -istas to science0 &hile it is 7elie-e$ 7y )any scientists8 to$ay8 that the force of gra-itation is )erely another )anifestation of electro)agnetic .a-es8 there ha-e8 as yet8 7een no (roofs of this0 There are8 of course8 )any o7scure things a7out gra-itation that .e ha-e not8 as yet8 fatho)e$0 At one ti)e8 it .as 7elie-e$ 7y )any scientists that the s(ee$ of gra-itation is instantaneous throughout the uni-erse0 This is si)(ly another .ay of (utting it that there are s(ee$s greater than light0 Det8 fro) a strictly scientific -ie.(oint8 no one to$ay has any i$ea ho. fast gra-itational .a-es K al.ays (ro-i$ing that the force is in .a-es K tra-el0 ,f the )oon8 for instance8 .ere to e'(lo$e at a gi-en )o)ent8 ho. long .oul$ it 7e 7efore the gra-itational $istur7ance .oul$ 7e felt on earthF &oul$ the gra-itational i)(ulse or .a-es tra-el at the s(ee$ of light K that is8 18%8555 )iles (er secon$ K or .oul$ the effect 7e instantaneousF &e $o not 2no.0 The entire su7Hect .ill no $ou7t arouse a tre)en$ous interest in scientific circles0 ,t is ho(e$ that other scientists .ill 7e encourage$ to in-estigate =r0 Tesla's far9reaching assertionsJ either to $efinitely (ro-e or to $is(ro-e the)0
1-91-11-0<: No 0ig,-S$eed 'imit) Says Tesla

The %iterary Digest >9ollo"ing is a summary of the referenced article.@ =r0 1i2ola Tesla asserte$ in an inter-ie. .ith Hugo Gerns7ac2 that s(ee$s greater than that of light8 .hich are consi$ere$ i)(ossi7le 7y the "instein theory of relati-ity8 ha-e 7een (ro$uce$0 >tating that the "instein theory is erroneous in )any res(ects8 =r0 Tesla state$ as early as 19558 in his (atent *8*861!8 that the current of his ra$io(o.er trans)itter (asse$ o-er the surface of the earth .ith a s(ee$ of !9!8835 )iles a secon$0 Accor$ing to the "instein theory8 the highest (ossi7le s(ee$ is 18%8355 )iles a secon$0 Tesla in$icate$ 2no.le$ge of s(ee$s se-eral ti)es greater than light8 an$ ha$ a((aratus $esigne$ to (roHect so9 calle$ electrons .ith a s(ee$ equal to t.ice that of light0 Tesla $isagree$ .ith the (art of the "instein theory .hich states that the )ass of an o7Hect increases .ith its s(ee$0 The )ass of a 7o$y is unaltera7le8 conten$e$ =r0 Tesla8 Accor$ing to the article8 "other.ise energy coul$ 7e (ro$uce$ fro) nothing8 since the 2inetic energy acquire$ in the fall of a 7o$y .oul$ 7e greater than that necessary to lift it at a s)all -elocity0"
1-91-1"-00: Our 7uture MotiEe 5ower 4y Nikola Tesla

Everyday &cience and /echanics The )aterial as .ell as intellectual (rogress of /an is 7eco)ing e-er )ore $e(en$ent on the natural forces an$ energies he is (utting to his ser-ice0 &hile not e'actly a true )easure of .ell 7eing an$ enlighten)ent8 the a)ount of (o.er use$ is a relia7le in$ication of the $egree of safety8 co)fort an$ con-enience8 .ithout .hich the hu)an race .oul$ 7e su7Hect to increasing suffering an$ .ant an$ ci-iliBation )ight (erish0 Girtually all of our energies are $eri-e$ fro) the sun8 an$ the greatest triu)(h .e ha-e achie-e$ in the utiliBation of its un$ying fire is the harnessing of .aterfalls0 The hy$ro9electric (rocess8 no. uni-ersally e)(loye$8 ena7les us to o7tain as )uch as eighty9fi-e (ercent of the solar energy .ith )achines of ele)entary si)(licity .hich8 7y resorting to the latest i)(ro-e)ents in the technical arts8 )ight 7e )a$e ca(a7le of en$uring for centuries0 These a$-antages are entirely e'ce(tional8 -ery serious han$ica(s an$ great8 una-oi$a7le losses confronting us in all other transfor)ations of the forces of nature0 ,t is8 therefore8 $esira7le in the interest of the .orl$ as a .hole8 that this (recious resource shoul$ 7e e'(loite$ to the li)it0 Eu$ging fro) the a-erage height of the .ater $ischarge$ annually fro) the clou$s8 an$ the )ean fall o-er the aggregate lan$ surface8 the total terrestrial .ater (o.er )ay 7e theoretically esti)ate$ at ten 7illions of horse (o.er0 ;f course8 only a (art of that is suite$ for (ractical $e-elo()ent an$ relati-ely little is actually utiliBe$Kt.enty9fi-e (ercent8 (erha(s8 in the )ost a$-ance$ countries8 less in others8 an$ there are so)e in .hich not e-en the groun$ has 7een 7ro2en0 Great .aterfalls e'ist in )any inaccessi7le regions of the glo7e an$ ne. ones are 7eing $isco-ere$8 all of .hich .ill 7e e-entually harnesse$ .hen the .ireless trans)ission of energy is co))ercialiBe$0 There is foun$ation for ho(e8 ho.e-er8 that our (resent li)itations in the a)ount of a-aila7le (o.er )ay 7e re)o-e$ in the future0 Three9 quarters of the earth's surface are co-ere$ 7y the oceans an$ the rainfall o-er all this -ast area is useless for our (ur(ose0 /uch thought has 7een gi-en to artificial (ro$uction of rain8 7ut none of the )eans (ro(ose$ offers the slightest chance of success0 3esi$es8 so far only the (reci(itation in a li)ite$ region .as conte)(late$8 lea-ing the total quantity of )oisture for the QFQuntire$ lan$ unchange$ e'ce(t as )o$ifie$ through the natural ten$ency of the oceans to $i-ert )ore an$ )ore .ater fro) the continents0 The real an$ i)(ortant (ro7le) for us to sol-e is not to 7ring a7out (reci(itation in any chosen locality8 7ut to re-erse this natural (rocess8 $ra. the -a(ors fro) the seas an$ there7y increase8 at .ill8 the rainfall on the lan$0 Can this 7e $oneF
The arrange)ent of one of the great terrestrial (o.er (lants of the future0 &ater is circulate$ to the 7otto) of the shaft8 returning as stea) to $ri-e the tur7ine8 an$ then returne$ to liqui$ for) in the con$enser8 in an unen$ing cycle0
The sun raises the .ater to a height .here it re)ains in a state of $elicate sus(ension until a $istur7ance8 of relati-ely insignificant energy8 causes con$ensation at a (lace .here the 7alance is )ost easily $istur7e$0 The action8 once starte$8 s(rea$s li2e a conflagration for a -acuu) is for)e$ an$ the air rushing in8 7eing coole$ 7y e'(ansion8 enhances further con$ensation in the surroun$ing )asses of the clou$0 All life on the glo7e is a7solutely $e(en$ent on this gigantic trigger )echanis) of nature an$ )y e'ten$e$ o7ser-ations ha-e sho.n that the co)(le' effects of lightning are8 in )ost cases8 the chief controlling agents0 This theory8 for)ulate$ 7y )e in 189!8 .as 7orne out in so)e later e'(eri)ents , )a$e .ith artificial lightning 7olts o-er 155 feet long8
accor$ing to .hich it a((ears (ossi7le8 7y great (o.er (lants suita7ly $istri7ute$ an$ o(erate$ at the (ro(er ti)es8 to $ra. unli)ite$ quantities of .ater fro) the oceans to the continents0 The )achines 7eing $ri-en 7y the .aterfalls8 all the .or2 .oul$ 7e (erfor)e$ 7y the sun8 .hile .e .oul$ ha-e )erely to release the trigger0 ,n this )anner .e )ight o7tain sufficient energy fro) falling .ater to (ro-i$e for all our necessities0 /ore than this8 .e coul$ create ne. la2es an$ ri-ers8 in$uce a lu'uriant flora an$ fauna an$ con-ert e-en the ari$ san$s of $eserts into rich8 fertile soil0 3ut the full realiBation of this i$ea is -ery re)ote0 The har$ fact is that unless ne. resources are o(ene$ u(8 energy $eri-e$ fro) fuel .ill re)ain our chief reliance0 The ther)o9$yna)ic (rocess is .asteful an$ 7ar7arous8 es(ecially .hen 7urning coal8 the )ining of .hich8 $es(ite of )o$ern i)(ro-e)ents8 still in-ol-es $angers to the unfortunates .ho are con$e)ne$ to toil $ee( in the 7o.els of the earth0 ;il an$ natural gas are i))ensely su(erior in this an$ other res(ects an$ their use is ra(i$ly e'ten$ing0 ,t is quite e-i$ent8 though8 that this squan$ering cannot go on in$efinitely8 for geological in-estigations (ro-e our fuel stores to 7e li)ite$0 >o great has 7een the $rain on the) of late years that the s(ecter of e'haustion is loo)ing u( threateningly in the $istance8 an$ e-ery.here the )in$s of engineers an$ in-entors are 7ent u(on increasing the efficiency of 2no.n )etho$s an$ $isco-ering ne. sources of (o.er0 1ature has (ro-i$e$ an a7un$ant su((ly of energy in -arious for)s .hich )ight 7e utiliBe$ if (ro(er )eans an$ .ays can 7e $e-ise$0 The sun's rays falling u(on the earth's surface re(resent a quantity of energy so enor)ous that 7ut a s)all (art of it coul$ )eet all our $e)an$s0 3y nor)al inci$ence the rate is )echanically equi-alent to a7out 94 foot (oun$s (er square foot (er secon$8 or nearly *355 horse (o.er (er acre of groun$0 ,n the equatorial regions the )ean annual rate is a((ro'i)ately !3!% an$ in our latitu$es 1*3* horse (o.er for the sa)e area0 3y using the heat to generate stea) an$ o(erating a tur7ine un$er high -acuu) (ro7a7ly !55 horse (o.er (er acre coul$ 7e o7taine$ as net useful (o.er in these (arts0 This .oul$ 7e -ery satisfactory .ere it not for the cost of the a((aratus .hich is greatly increase$ 7y the necessity of e)(loying a storage (lant sufficient to carry the loa$ al)ost three9quarters of the ti)e0
The a)7itious sche)e (ro(ose$ here $ra.s (o.er fro) the $e(ths of the sea8 utiliBing the .ar)th of one layer8 7rought into contact .ith the col$ of another8 to o(erate great (o.er (lants0 ,ts (ractica7ility as .ell as the theory of its o(eration8 is analyBe$ in this re)ar2a7le article0
The energy of light rays8 constituting a7out 15i of the total ra$iation8 )ight 7e ca(ture$ 7y a col$ an$ highly efficient (rocess in (hoto9electric cells .hich )ay 7eco)e8 on this account8 of (ractical i)(ortance in the future0 >o)e (rogress in this $irection has alrea$y 7een achie-e$0 3ut for the ti)e 7eing it a((ears fro) a careful esti)ate8 that solar (o.er $eri-e$ fro) ra$iant heat an$ light8 e-en in the tro(ics8 offers s)all o((ortunities for (ractical e'(loitation0 The e'isting han$ica(s .ill 7e largely re)o-e$ .hen the .ireless )etho$ of (o.er trans)ission co)es into use0 /any (lants situate$ in hot Bones8 coul$ then 7e o(erati-ely connecte$ in a great su(er9(o.er syste) to su((ly energy8 at a constant rate8 to all (oints of the glo7e0 The sun e)its8 ho.e-er8 a (eculiar ra$iation of great energy .hich , $isco-ere$ in 18990 T.o years (re-ious , ha$ 7een engage$ in an in-estigation of ra$io9acti-ity .hich le$ )e to the conclusion that the (heno)ena o7ser-e$ .ere not $ue to )olecular forces resi$ing in the su7stances the)sel-es8 7ut .ere cause$ 7y a cos)ic ray of e'traor$inary (enetrati-eness0 That it e)anate$ fro) the sun .as an o7-ious inference8 for although )any hea-enly 7o$ies are un$ou7te$ly (ossesse$ of a si)ilar (ro(erty8 the total ra$iation .hich the earth
recei-es fro) all the suns an$ stars of the uni-erse is only a little )ore than one9quarter of one (ercent of that it gets fro) our lu)inary0 Hence8 to loo2 for the cos)ic ray else.here is )uch li2e chercher le )i$i $ans les en-irons $e quatorBe heures0 /y theory .as stri2ingly confir)e$ .hen , foun$ that the sun $oes8 in$ee$8 e)it a ray )ar-elous in the inconcei-a7le )inuteness of its (articles an$ transcen$ing s(ee$ of their )otion8 -astly e'cee$ing that of light0 This ray8 7y i)(inging against the cos)ic $ust generates a secon$ary ra$iation8 relati-ely -ery fee7le 7ut fairly (enetrati-e8 the intensity of .hich is8 of course8 al)ost the sa)e in all $irections0 Ger)an scientists .ho in-estigate$ it in 1951 assu)e$ that it ca)e fro) the stars an$ since that ti)e the fantastic i$ea has 7een a$-ance$ that it has its origin in ne. )atter constantly create$ in interstellar s(aceYY &e )ay 7e sure that there is no (lace in the uni-erse .here such a flagrant -iolation of natural la.s8 as the flo.ing of .ater u(hill8 is (ossi7le0 <erha(s8 so)e ti)e in the future .hen our )eans of in-estigation .ill 7e i))easura7ly i)(ro-e$8 .e )ay fin$ .ays of ca(turing this force an$ utiliBing it for the attain)ent of results 7eyon$ our (resent i)agining0 The ti$es are often consi$ere$ as a source of )oti-e (o.er an$ not a fe. engineers ha-e e'(resse$ the)sel-es fa-ora7ly in regar$ to their use0 3ut as a )atter of fact8 the energy is8 in )ost (laces8 insignificant8 the harnessing of the .aterfall o-er an acre of groun$ yiel$ing 7ut little )ore than one horse (o.er0 ;nly in e'ce(tional locations can the (o.er of the ti$es 7e (rofita7ly $e-elo(e$0 ,t has 7een the $rea) of )any an in-entor to utiliBe the energy of ocean .a-es8 .hich is consi$era7le0 3ut although nu)erous sche)es ha-e 7een a$-ance$ an$ )uch ingenuity sho.n in $e-ising the )echanical )eans8 nothing of co))ercial -alue has so far resulte$ an$ the (ros(ects are -ery (oor on account of technical $ifficulties an$ the erratic character of this (o.er source0 The force of the .in$ can 7e )uch )ore easily (ut to our ser-ice an$ has 7een in (ractical use since ti)es i))e)orial0 ,t is in-alua7le in shi( (ro(ulsion an$ the .in$)ill )ust 7e seriously regar$e$ as a (o.er generator0 ,f the cost of this co))o$ity shoul$ greatly increase .e .ill 7e li2ely to see the countries $otte$ .ith these ti)e9 honoure$ contri-ances0 Cnfortunately8 the -alue of all this resources is -ery )uch re$uce$ 7y (erio$ic an$ casual -ariations8 an$ .e are $ri-en to search for a source of constant t.enty9four hour (o.er co)(ara7le to that of a .aterfall0 Thus .e are le$ to consi$er terrestrial heat as a (ossi7le fountain of un-arying energy su((ly0 Terrestrial -nergy ,t is note.orthy that alrea$y in 184! #or$ :el-in calle$ attention0to natural heat as a source of (o.er a-aila7le to /anI0 3ut8 contrary of his ha7it of going to the 7otto) of e-ery su7Hect of his in-estigations8 he conten$e$ hi)self .ith the )ere suggestion0 #ater8 .hen the la.s of ther)o9$yna)ics 7eca)e .ell un$erstoo$8 the (ros(ects of utiliBing te)(erature $ifferences in the ocean8 soli$ earth or the at)os(here8 ha-e 7een often e'a)ine$0 ,t is .ell92no.n that there e'ists8 in tro(ical seas8 a $ifference of 45\ F 7et.een the surface .ater an$ that three )iles 7elo.0 The te)(erature of the for)er8 7eing su7Hect to -ariations8 a-erages 8!\ F8 .hile that of the latter is nor)ally at least8 at 3!\ F8 or nearly so8 as the result of the slo.ly influ' of the ice9col$ (olar strea)0 ,n soli$ lan$ these relations are re-erse$8 the te)(erature increasing a7out one $egree Fahr0 for e-ery %6 feet of $escent0 Gery great $ifferences are also 2no.n to e'ist in the at)os(here8 the te)(erature $i)inishing .ith the $istance a7o-e the earth's surface accor$ing to a co)(le' function0 3ut .hile all this .as of co))on 2no.le$ge for at least *4 years an$ the utiliBation of the heat of the earth for (o.er (ur(oses a su7Hect of s(eculation8 no $eci$e$ atte)(t to this en$ see)s to ha-e 7een )a$e until an A)erican engineer8 .hose na)e , ha-e 7een una7le to ascertain8 (ro(ose$ to o(erate engines 7y stea) generate$ in high -acuu) fro) the .ar) surface .ater an$ con$ense$ 7y the col$ .ater (u)(e$ fro) a great $e(th0 A fully an$ carefully .or2e$ out (lan of this 2in$8 su((orte$ 7y figures an$ esti)ates8 .as su7)itte$ 7y hi) to (ro)inent ca(italists an$ 7usiness )en of 1e. Dor2 a7out 45 years ago0 He not only conte)(late$ the (ro$uction an$ $istri7ution of (o.er for general use 7ut inten$e$ e-en to (ro(el 7oats 7y energy $eri-e$ in the sa)e )anner8 using8 (refera7ly8 ether as .or2ing flui$0 ;n account of his $eath8 or for other reasons8 the (roHect .as not carrie$ into (ractice0 ;f this , learne$ )uch later .hen , intereste$ in )y alternating syste) Alfre$ >0 3ro.n8 a .ell 2no.n technical e'(ert8 calle$ u(on to e'a)ine the )erits of )y in-estigations8 an$ C0 F0 <ec28 a $istinguishe$ la.yer8 .ho organiBe$ a co)(any for their co))ercial intro$uction0 These )en .ere a)ong the first a((roache$ 7y the engineer an$ consi$ere$ his (lan rational in (rinci(le8 7ut the (i(e lines8 (u)(s8 engines8 7oilers an$ con$ensers in-ol-e$ too great an outlay an$8 7esi$es8 a (rofita7le $is(osal of the (o.er .as $ifficult an$ uncertain0 /y $isco-ery of the rotating )agnetic fiel$ 7rought a7out a change in the situation an$ in their attitu$e0 They thought that if the energy coul$ 7e econo)ically trans)itte$ to $istant (laces 7y )y syste) an$ the cost of the ocean (lant su7stantially re$uce$8 this ine'hausti7le source )ight 7e successfully e'(loite$0 /r0 <ec2 ha$ influential connections8 a)ong the) Eohn C0 /oore8 the foun$er of the 7an2ing house 7earing his
na)e0 &ith the e'ce(tion of the late E0 < 0 /organ8 .ho to.ere$ a7o-e all the &all >treet (eo(le li2e >a)son o-er the <hilistines8 /oore .as (ro7a7ly the strongest (ersonality0 , .as gi-en to un$erstan$ that if , coul$ e-ol-e a (lan satisfactory to /r0 3ro.n an$ other engineers8 all the ca(ital require$ for an enter(rise on a -ery large scale8 as conte)(late$ 7y the)8 .oul$ 7e (ro)(tly furnishe$0 1o encourage)ent fro) )y associates .as nee$e$ for $eter)ining )e to un$erta2e the tas28 as the i$ea a((eare$8 at first8 .on$erfully (ro)ising an$ attracti-e although there .as nothing a7out it fun$a)entally ne.0 Cn$ou7te$ly8 the essential con$itions require$ to o(erate a stea) or other ther)o9$yna)ic engine coul$ 7e fulfille$8 a consi$era7le te)(erature $ifference 7eing a-aila7le at all ti)es0 1o (roof ha$ to 7e furnishe$ that heat .oul$ flo. fro) a higher to a lo.er le-el an$ coul$ 7e transfor)e$ into )echanical .or20 1or .as it necessary to sho. that the surface .ater8 although )uch 7elo. its nor)al 7oiling (oint of !1!\ F8 can 7e rea$ily con-erte$ into stea) 7y su7Hecting it to a -acuu) .hich causes e7ullition at any te)(erature ho.e-er lo.0 ,t is of co))on 2no.le$ge that8 $ue to this sa)e effect8 7eans cannot 7e coo2e$ or eggs har$97oile$ on high )ountains0 Also8 for a li2e reason tur7ines ha-e 7een .rec2e$ in stea) (o.er (lants .ith the 7oilers co)(letely shut off8 the slightly .ar) .ater in the syste) of connecting (i(es 7eing e-a(orate$ un$er a high -acuu) ina$-ertently a((lie$0 This 7eha-iour of .ater8 or liqui$s in general8 .as long 7efore 7eautifully e'e)(lifie$ in the classical $e-ice calle$ _cryo(horos` consisting of t.o co))unicating an$ e'hauste$ 7ul7s (artially fille$ .ith liqui$8 .hich is e-a(orate$ in one an$ con$ense$ in the other0 ,t .as in-ente$ 7y &0 H0 &ollaston8 a great "nglish scientific )an an$ in-estigator (1*%%918!8 8 .ho first co))ercialiBe$ (latinu) an$ .as cre$ite$ 7y so)e to ha-e antici(ate$ Fara$ay in the $isco-ery of electro)agnetic rotation0 The original instru)ent 7rought out at the 7eginning of the nineteenth century ha$ one of the 7ul7s (ac2age$ in ice .ith the result of freeBing .ater in the other0 Confor)a7ly to the -ie.s of that ti)e it .as thought that the col$ of the ice .as carrie$ to the .ater an$ so the Gree2 na)e8 )eaning _col$9carrier`8 .as gi-en to the $e-ice0 3ut no. .e 2no. that the (rocess is of o((osite character8 the freeBing 7eing 7rought a7out 7y the trans(ort of the latent heat of e-a(oration fro) the .ar) to the col$ 7ul70 ;ne .oul$ naturally infer that the o(eration .oul$ cease as soon as the .ater is froBen at the surface8 7ut curiously enough the ice itself continues to yiel$ stea) an$ it is only 7ecause of this that all of the .ater is soli$ifie$0 &e )ay i)agine ho. (uBBling this (heno)enon a((eare$ )ore than one century agoY
The _cryo(horus` is .ell92no.n as a scientific toy8 e'e)(lifying also the (rinci(le of refrigerating )achinery0
The ocean (lant (ro(ose$ 7y the engineer .as nothing else 7ut &ollaston's $e-ice of huge (ro(ortions8 a$a(te$ for continuous o(eration an$ ha-ing an engine inter(ose$ 7et.een the t.o co))unicating -essels0 ,n esti)ating its ther)o9$yna)ic (erfor)ance the first results , arri-e$ at through the )e$iu) of (a$ an$ (encil fairly 7e.il$ere$ )e0 To illustrate 7y an e'a)(le8 su((ose that equal quantities8 say8 one9half (oun$ of the .ar) an$ of the col$ .ater8 res(ecti-ely8 at 8!\ an$ 3!\ Fahrenheit8 are )i'e$ or (ut in ther)al equili7riu) other.ise0 The first .ill then gi-e u( to the secon$ 1!04 heat units8 )echanically equi-alent to 9*!4 foot (oun$sKthe sa)e energy .hich .oul$ 7e $e-elo(e$ in the fall of one (oun$ fro) so great an altitu$e as 9*!4 feet0 The $rea) of )y life ha$ 7een to harness 1iagara8 7ut here .as a fall si'ty ti)es higher an$ of unli)ite$ -olu)e0 To raise the col$ .ater to the surface fro) any $e(th .hate-er8 require$ 7ut a trifling effort an$ as other losses also see)e$ negligi7le , conclu$e$ that if only a s)all (ortion of this hy(othetical fall coul$ 7e utiliBe$8 one of the greatest (ro7le)s confronting hu)anity .oul$ 7e sol-e$ for all ti)es to co)e0 , 2ne. that it .as to goo$ to 7e true8 ne-ertheless , follo.e$ this ignis fatuus for years until8 little 7y little8 through close reasoning8 calculation an$ e'(eri)ent8 , got the true 7earings in the s.a)( of )y ignorance an$ $ou7t0 Then this sche)e of harnessing the ocean re-eale$ itself to )y )in$ as one of the cru$est i)agina7le0 Eust to trans(ort a little heat8 .ater has to 7e (u)(e$ an$ $is(ose$ of in quantities so enor)ous that a large installation of this ty(e .oul$ (resent ne. (ro7le)s in engineering0 Contrary to the o(inion , ha$ (re-iously for)e$8 this in-ol-e$ the e'(en$iture of a great a)ount of energy0 Then , realiBe$ that the gases containe$ in the .ater can 7e only (artially e'tracte$ an$ ha-e to 7e continuously re)o-e$ fro) the con$enser to (re-ent the rise of 7ac2
(ressure .hich )ight re$uce the s(ee$ an$ e-entually sto( the engine0 Further)ore8 $ue to certain con$itions8 the $ee( sea .ater )ust enter the (i(e .ar)er than it shoul$ confor)a7ly to soun$ings8 so that the full te)(erature $ifference cannot 7e o7taine$8 an$ , $isco-ere$ other (eculiar causes .hich8 after so)e ti)e8 )ight seriously interfere .ith the (ro(er functioning of the )echanis)0 The stea)8 raise$ $irectly fro) the surface .ater8 is of the (oorest quality8 )ere )ist un$er s)all (ressure8 an$ its consu)(tion (er horse(o.er hour .as li2ely to 7e t.enty ti)es greater than in )o$e) (lants0 ,n hy$ro9 electric stations8 as 7efore state$8 eighty9fi-e (ercent of the energy of falling .ater )ay 7e ca(ture$8 .hile in this case har$ly )ore than t.o9tenths of one (ercent of the theoretical fall can 7e utiliBe$0 &orst of all8 the siBe an$ cost of the equi()ent is utterly out of (ro(ortion to the greatest (ossi7le returns0 These an$ other li)itations an$ $ifficulties force$ the)sel-es u(on )e in stu$ying the (lans as first su7)itte$0 The intro$uction of )y alternating syste) starte$ a scra)7le for the )ost -alua7le .ater (o.er sites an$ no atte)(t .as )a$e to harness the ocean0 3ut )y interest .as arouse$ to such a $egree that , continue$ the .or2 an$ )a$e a nu)7er of i)(ro-e)ents .hich are thought to (ossess so)e )erit0 >atisfie$ that (i(es su((orte$ 7y floats or hung in su7)arine a7ysses .ere i)(ractica7le8 , (ro(ose$ a slo(ing tunnel8 line$ .ith heat insulating ce)ent8 affor$ing a s)ooth an$ un7ro2en (assage for the $ee( sea .ater0 , foun$ .ays of si)(lifying an$ chea(ening the a((aratus an$ )a2ing it )ore effecti-e 7y re$ucing the )oisture of the stea) an$ other.ise8 an$ these a$-ances )ay e-entually (ro-e of (ractical -alue0 To con$uce to a )ore rea$y un$erstan$ing of the e-olution of the ocean (o.er (lant fro) the cryo(horos an$ of the nature of so)e of )y i)(ro-e)ents8 reference )ay 7e )a$e to the $ra.ings in .hich Fig0 1 re(resents the original $e-ice of &ollaston8 co)(rising t.o highly e'hauste$ -essels 3 an$ C8 res(ecti-ely8 the 7oiler an$ con$enser8 connecte$ through a channel A0 The first na)e$ -essel 7eing (artly fille$ .ith .ater or other liqui$ an$ the secon$ (ac2e$ in a freeBing )i'ture8 the -acuu) causes the .ater .hen slightly .ar)e$ to 7oil furiously an$ the .ell 2no.n effect is o7ser-e$0 As the stea) generate$ in the 7oiler rushes into the con$enser .ith great s(ee$8 it is ca(a7le of (ro$ucing a consi$era7le )echanical effort0
Fig0 !I <lan of a syste) .here7y the transfer of -a(or 7et.een t.o -essels at $ifferent te)(eratures $ri-es the ar)ature of electrical generator0
Fig0! illustrates ho. the ther)o9$yna)ic transfor)ation of energy )ay 7e effecte$ to o7tain useful e'ternal .or20 This (articular arrange)ent is chosen in or$er to $is(ense .ith the necessity of a connection to the outsi$e .hich .oul$ call for the e)(loy)ent of a -acuu) (u)(0 A steel ar)ature a8 of a $ia)eter nearly equal to that of the channel A8 connecting -essels 3 an$ C8 an$ sha(e$ li2e a fan8 is su((orte$ in -irtually frictionless 7earings 7 an$ c8 of .hich the latter )ay 7e $esigne$ for ta2ing u( the thrust0 >urroun$ing the ar)ature8 or tur7ine rotor8 an$ in close (ro'i)ity to the sa)e8 are soft9iron (roHections as $ an$ e8 .oun$ .ith coils f an$ 9 an$ for)ing (art of a (er)anent )agnet h0 The ra(i$ rotation of the ar)ature results in a (erio$ic shifting of )agnetic lines fro) one to the other set of (roHections8 this in$ucing in the coils currents .hich )ay 7e utiliBe$0 The ne't ste( is to a$a(t the $e-ice for continuous o(eration0 This )ay 7e $one in t.o .aysI 7y su((lying the e-a(orating an$ con$ensing .ater $irectly to the -essels 3 an$ C8 or 7y )erely trans)itting an$ a7stracting heat through their .alls8 in .hich case the .or2ing flui$ is entirely se(arate$ an$ circulate$ in a close$ circuit0
Fig0 3I A )ore co)(lete s2etch of the ther)o$yna)ic syste)8 in .hich the necessary $egree of -acuu) is (ro$uce$ 7y the suction (u)( "0
The first (lan is $iagra))atically sho.n in Fig030 The -essels 3 an$ C are cylin$ers Hoine$ 7y a tur7ine = through suita7le (i(e connections0 A suction (u)( "8 constructe$ for (ro$ucing a -ery high -acuu)8 is attache$ to the con$enser C an$ )ay 7e $ri-en 7y the tur7ine through a gear or8 as in$icate$8 7y an in$uction )otor energiBe$ .ith alternating currents fro) the $yna)o F cou(le$ to the tur7ine0 The .ater 7eing un$er at)os(heric (ressure .oul$ flo. into the e-acuate$ -essels at too great a s(ee$ occasioning corres(on$ing losses8 an$ for this reason it is necessary to su((ly an$ $rain it through 7alancing 7aro)etric colu)ns ii an$ 22 of (ro(er height there7y insuring the $esire$ circulation8 the $irection of .hich is in$icate$ 7y arro.s0 >ince the latent heat a7sor7e$ in e-a(oration an$ set free in con$ensation is -ery great8 an i))ense quantity of .ater )ust 7e circulate$ through the -essels in or$er to (re-ent changes of te)(erature sufficient to seriously re$uce the (erfor)ance of the a((aratus0 ,n a$$ition to the $e-ices sho.n8 se(arators )ust 7e e)(loye$ for e'tracting gases fro) the .ater 7efore its entrance into the 7oiler an$ con$enser0 These cannot 7e of the effecti-e centrifugal ty(e as they .oul$ entail too great a loss of energy0 The only 2in$ (ractica7le is that use$ fro) the earliest 7eginnings of )o$ern hy$raulic8 the action of .hich is 7ase$ on a slo. re-ersal of $irection of flo. an$ acco)(lishes only (artial $egasification0 ,t shoul$ 7e note$ that the gases8 7y ra(i$ e'(ansion an$ atten$ant cooling8 i)(air greatly the quality of the stea) an$ also8 )ore or less8 the -acuu) in the -essels0 ;ne of )y i)(ro-e)ents is to su((ly the .ater in the for) of Hets8 as re(resente$8 .hich furnish the necessary e-a(orating an$ con$ensing surface .hile at the sa)e ti)e carrying a.ay gases .hich .oul$ 7e li7erate$ if the .ater .ere a$)itte$ as usual0
Fig0 6I Here the .ater8 or other flui$ o(erating the tur7ine = is 2e(t in a close$ syste)8 circulating through con$ensers i))erse$ in .ater of $ifferent te)(eratures0
A careful stu$y of the sche)e illustrate$ in Fig0 3 has satisfie$ )e that it is8 for a nu)7er of reasons8 $isa$-antageous an$ less (ractica7le than that sho.n in Fig0 60 ,n this instance the -essels 3 an$ C are surface con$ensers of or$inary $esign 7ut of -ery great acti-e areas in -ie. of the e'cessi-e stea) consu)(tion an$ s)all $ifferences of te)(erature su((lie$0 They )ay 7e of the sa)e siBe8 for although the (assage of heat fro) the hot to the col$ .ater ta2es (lace through the stea)8 the la. of )i'tures is o7eye$8 the )a'i)u) transfer occurring .hen the quantities of 7oth are equal0 &ere it not for that the (erfor)ance )ight 7e a((recia7le i)(ro-e$ 7y su((lying the hot .ater8 .hich has to (ass only through short (i(es8 in greater quantity0 The -essels
are connecte$ through a tur7ine = cou(le$ to a generator F8 as 7efore8 an$ 7esi$es the suction (u)( " a $ee( .ell (u)( G is e)(loye$ to force the con$ensate into the 7oiler0 The .ater shoul$ 7e s.eet an$ thoroughly $egasifie$ yiel$ing stea) of goo$ quality an$ greatly re$ucing the .or2 of the (u)(s8 an$ 7oth 7oiler an$ con$enser shoul$ 7e co)(letely i))erse$ in the circulating )e$ia to )ini)iBe the heat losses0 The i)(ortant (ractical a$-antages of this (lan are that any suita7le .or2ing flui$s an$ units of -ery great ca(acity )ay 7e use$0 Technical e'(erts .ho )ay e'a)ine the )erits of the ocean (o.er sche)e .ill 7e a(t to $is)iss lightly the loss of energy in-ol-e$ in the (ro(ulsion of the hot an$ col$ .ater .hich in reality8 )ay 7e -ery serious on account of the lift a7o-e the )ean ocean le-el0 The outlets are una-oi$a7ly -ery large an$ if their centers are fro) three to four feet a7o-e the )ean le-el to insure nor)al functioning at high ti$e the (u)(ing losses .ill 7e consi$era7le0 Further)ore8 the .ater is su7Hecte$ to re(eate$ changes in $irection an$ -elocity an$ suffers a frictional loss of hea$8 es(ecially in the long con$uit8 all of .hich )ay 7e equi-alent to an a$$itional life of a fe. feet8 )a2ing the total8 say8 * feet8 conser-ati-ely esti)ate$0 1o.8 in the Gulf of /e'ico or in Cu7an .aters8 .here )y associates inten$e$ to 7uil$ (lants8 the te)(erature $ifference 7et.een the hot an$ col$ .ater .ill 7e har$ly )ore than 3%\ F as an annual a-erage8 an$ .ith the (oor stea) o7taina7le the circulation )ay 7e as )uch as 1! ,7s0 of each (er horse (o.er (er secon$0 Consequently8 the )echanical .or2 )ay 7e esti)ate$ at 158 foot (oun$s (er secon$ an$ this figure )ust 7e al)ost $ou7le$ 7ecause the o-erall efficiency of in$uction )otor9$ri-en (u)( units8 .hich ha-e to 7e e)(loye$8 is not )uch a7o-e fifty (ercent8 as a rule0 >ince one horse (o.er is a rate of 445 foot (oun$s (er secon$ this )eans a loss of a7out 65 (ercent0 3esi$es8 the o(eration of the $egasifiers8 -acuu) an$ $ee( .ell (u)(s8 .ill consu)e energy .hich has to 7e su((lie$ fro) the tur7o9generator an$ ta2en at nearly t.ice its -alue for the reason (ointe$ out0 All these losses )ay 7e re$uce$ in -arious .ays 7ut not to a -ery great e'tent8 an$ the e'a)(le clearly sho.s the $esira7ility of $oing a.ay .ith the)0 This argu)ent is a((lica7le8 e-en .ith greater force8 to the cost of the (u)(ing outfits of .hich , .ill en$ea-our to con-ey an i$ea 7y assu)ing that a 358555 horse (o.er (lant is installe$8 requiring not less than 3558555 (oun$s of hot an$ of col$ .ater (er secon$8 .hich )eans8 a((ro'i)ately8 68*55 cu7ic feet of each0 As a -elocity of 3 feet (er secon$ shoul$ not 7e e'cee$e$8 t.o (u)(s of )eeting the require)ents .oul$ ha-e inta2e an$ outlet o(enings of 1855 square feet8 .ith the usual allo.ances0 "-i$ently such )onstrous )achines coul$ not 7e use$8 for one reason8 not to )ention others8 that the lift .oul$ 7e -ery great an$ the loss incurre$ (rohi7iti-e0 This 7rings to light a 7a$ feature of the sche)e illustrate$ in Fig0 38 na)ely8 that it is i)(ractica7le to ha-e recourse to -ery large units an$ there7y secure the custo)ary a$-antages0 A great nu)7er of s)all units )ust 7e of necessity use$ an$ it follo.s that the larger the (lant the (oorer it .ill 7e0 ,nstea$ of the t.o (u)(s each .ith o(enings of 1855 square feet8 at least one hun$re$ )otor9$ri-en (u)(s .ith orifices of 3% square feet an$ a corres(on$ing nu)7er of 7oilers an$ con$ensers .ith enor)ous inlet an$ outlet (i(es .oul$ ha-e to 7e e)(loye$8 an$ at a staggering cost0
Fig0 4I The 7asins H an$ , are fille$ an$ e)(tie$ 7y the ti$e8 sa-ing )uch of the energy other.ise e'(en$e$ in (u)(ing0
These an$ other si)ilar consi$erations ha-e (ro)(te$ )e to $e-ise the (lan sche)atically sho.n in Fig04 in .hich , $o a.ay entirely .ith the .ater (u)(s 7y relying .holly on e77 an$ ti$e to 7ring a7out the require$ circulation of the heating an$ cooling )e$ia8 thus si)(lifying the (lant an$ o7-iating great losses an$ e'(en$itures0 The installation co)(rises t.o -ery large 7asins line$ .ith heat insulating ce)ent $esignate$ 7y H an$ , an$ (ro-i$e$ .ith suita7le su((orts for heat9insulating roofs or co-ers the function of .hich is to )ini)iBe losses 7y ra$iation an$ influ' of heat8 res(ecti-ely8 fro) the hot an$ to the col$ .ater0 "ach of the 7asins has a controlla7le o(ening8 res(ecti-ely : an$ # situate$ close to the 7otto)8 .here also the 7oiler 3 an$ con$enser C8 are locate$0 The latter are connecte$ through a tur7ine = cou(le$ to a generator F8 constituting a unit of large ca(acity0 As in the case 7efore $escri7e$8 a suction (u)( " an$ a $ee( .ell (u)( G are (ro-i$e$8 $ri-en 7y in$uction )otors energiBe$ fro) the generator0 All this )achinery is (lace$ on a co))on foun$ation8 as in$icate$0 The 7asins are fille$ at high ti$e an$ the outflo. $uring the (erio$ of e77 is controlle$ so as to secure the 7est results0 Although the (o.er (lant is su7Hect to (erio$ic -ariations8 the (lant can 7e o(erate$ satisfactorily .ithout the e)(loy)ent of 7atteries or other )eans of storage an$ thus the cost of this co))o$ity )ay 7e greatly re$uce$0
Fig0 %I A floating ther)o9electric (o.er (lant8 in .hich the con$enser C is sus(en$e$ 7eneath the 7oiler 3 an$ the con$ensate circulates -ertically0
Another .ay of $eri-ing (o.er fro) the te)(erature $ifferences in the ocean .ithout the use of .ater (u)(s is illustrate$ in Fig0 %0 The a((aratus co)(rises the sa)e essential (arts .hich ha-e 7een alrea$y $escri7e$8 na)ely8 a tu7ular 7oiler 3 an$ li2e con$enser C connecte$ through a tur7ine = $ri-ing a generator F8 a high -acuu) (u)( " an$ a s)all reci(rocating $ee(9.ell (u)( G for lifting the con$ensate fro) the con$enser into the 7oiler0 The latter is su((orte$ in the .ar) surface .ater 7y a floating structure carrying all the )achinery 8 .hile the for)er is sus(en$e$ at a suita7le $e(th in the col$ .ater0 3oth of these (arts are arrange$ .ith the tu7es in -ertical (osition insuring a goo$ circulation of the heating an$ cooling )e$ia0 This arrange)ent is -ery si)(le an$ effecti-e 7ut the raising of the con$ensate 7y (u)( G consu)es consi$era7le .or20 , ha-e $esigne$ .ireless (o.er (lants on this (lan .ith (ractical o7Hects in -ie. an$ they )ay (erha(s fin$ -alua7le uses in the future0
Fig0 *I =esign of a -essel to 7e (ro(elle$ 7y energy $eri-e$ fro) te)(erature $ifferences in the .ater0 The sy)7ols $esignating the o(erating )echanis) are e'(laine$ in the te't0
Fig0 * re(resents a (artial -ie. of a 7oat .ith a((aratus for (ro(elling it solely 7y the heat energy a7stracte$ fro) the .ater0 , .as not infor)e$ Hust ho. the A)erican engineer inten$e$ to (ro(el his -essel an$ the sche)e illustrate$ is )y o.n0 T.o rotary (u)(s / an$ 1 are e)(loye$ to force the .ar) an$ col$ .ater8 res(ecti-ely8 through the tu7es of the 7oiler 3 an$ con$enser c0 This a((aratus is (lace$ slightly 7elo. the .aterline for )ini)iBing the losses in-ol-e$ in the circulation of the heating an$ cooling )e$ia0 The (u)(s are su((ose$ to 7e $ri-en 7y in$uction )otors8 as illustrate$8 an$ are connecte$ to the $ischarge (i(es an$ other (arts in such a .ay that the .ater cannot enter the hol$ of the -essel0 The 7oiler inta2e ; is near the oceans surface .hile that of the con$enser is at the requisite $e(thJ a strea)line sha(e$ $uct ; 18 o(en in front8 7eing e)(loye$ for the (ur(ose0 As the te)(erature of the .ater $i)inishes -ery ra(i$ly through a li)ite$ $istance fro) the surface of the ocean8 sufficient energy can 7e a7stracte$ fro) the .ater using a $uct of fifty feet length to (ro(el the 7oat 7y the strea)s esca(ing through the $ischarge (i(es0 1o other )eans of (ro(ulsion is necessary an$ e-en the steering can 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y suita7ly regulating the -olu)e of the t.o strea)s $ischarge$ astern as sho.n0 The tur7ine =8 generator F8 high -acuu) (u)( "8 $ee(.ell (u)( G an$ other (arts ser-e the sa)e (ur(oses as 7efore0 >o)e store$ energy )ust 7e (ro-i$e$ to start the -acuu) (u)( an$ there7y initiate the o(eration of the a((aratus0 The ocean (o.er (lan of the illustration on (age !58 see)s -ery in-iting .hen consi$ering that the energy o7taine$ is (ro(ortionate to the quantity of the .ater (u)(e$ an$8 therefore8 -irtually unli)ite$0 3ut it )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that the true )erit of such a sche)e can only 7e )easure$ 7y the returns0 &e ha-e still greater an$ )ore rea$ily a-aila7le resources .hich are unuse$ 7ecause they are un(rofita7le0 ;n closer in-estigation )any $iscouraging facts are unearthe$0 The $ee( sea .ater is8 nor)ally8 at a lo. te)(erature 7ut at any ti)e a .ar) current of .ater )ay 7e (ro$uce$ an$ ren$er the (lant useless0 ,t has 7een o7ser-e$ that there )ay 7e $ifferences of 34\ F or e-en )ore in the te)(erature of .ater at the sa)e $e(th0 Eust as con-ection currents occur in the air so they )ay also 7e (ro$uce$ in the ocean an$ this is an e-er (resent )enace to an un$erta2 ing of this 2in$0 ,t also a((ears the actually o7taina7le te)(erature $ifference )ust 7e al.ays a((recia7ly s)aller than )ight 7e inferre$ fro) soun$ings0 The raising of the $enser .ater 7elo. a certain ni-eau into the less $ense a7o-e it in-ol-es a (erfor)ance of .or2 .hich )ust 7e $one 7y the (u)( 7ut is not lost as the -olu)e of the .ater $ischarge$ at the to( of the $ee(9sea $uct is corres(on$ingly increase$0 This $oes not hol$ true of the .ater a7o-e the ni-eau an$8 consequently8 the flo. into the inta2e of the $uct ta2es (lace (re(on$eratingly fro) a7o-e8 that is8 in the $irection of the $o.n.ar$ con-ection current0 ;.ing to this8 .ar) .ater fro) a7o-e enters the inta2e thus re$ucing the te)(erature $ifference0 Another curious fact cannot 7e ignore$0 The sea is $ensely (o(ulate$ .ith organis)s .hich are su7Hect to changes cause$ 7y age0 As they gro. ol$er the life strea) $e(osits )ore an$ )ore soli$ )atter8 they 7eco)e s(ecifically hea-ier an$ sin2 gra$ually until finally at great $e(ths life is e'tinct0 ,f this floating )atter coul$ 7e re)o-e$ 7y the (u)( at a constant rate8 as the .ater8 it .oul$ gi-e relati-ely little trou7le0 3ut as .ater is re)o-e$ the concentration of this )atter continuously increases an$ )ay 7eco)e so great as to interfere seriously .ith the o(eration of the (lant0 ,)(air)ent of (erfor)ance8 if not interru(tion8 )ight also 7e 7rought a7out 7y rust an$ $e(osits in the (i(es8
loosening of Hoints an$ other )isha(s an$ for this reason , consi$er a tunnel as the (ractica7le )eans for trans(orting the col$ .ater0 , ha-e stu$ie$ this (lan of (o.er (ro$uction fro) all angles an$ ha-e $e-ise$ a((aratus for 7ringing $o.n all losses to .hat , )ight call the irre$uci7le )ini)u) an$ still , fin$ the (erfor)ance too s)all to ena7le successful co)(etition .ith the (resent )etho$s0 The utiliBation of te)(erature $ifferences in the soli$ earth (resents se-eral i)(ortant a$-antages0 ,t .oul$ )a2e it unnecessary to go to the tro(ics .here (o.er is of s)aller -alue0 ,n$ee$8 the col$er the cli)ate the 7etter0 A shaft coul$ 7e sun2 in the )i$st of a $ensely (o(ulate$ $istrict an$ a great sa-ing effecte$ in the cost of $istri7ution0 The shaft .oul$ 7e costly8 of course8 7ut the a((aratus chea(8 si)(le an$ efficient0 The first $ra.ing8 on (age !588 illustrates its essential (arts co)(rising a 7oiler at a great $e(th8 a con$enser8 coole$ 7y ri-er or other .ater a-aila7le8 on the groun$8 a tur7ine cou(le$ to a generator8 an$ a )otor9$ri-en high -acuu) (u)(0 The stea) or -a(or generate$ in the 7oiler is con-eye$ to the tur7ine an$ con$enser through an insulate$ central (i(e .hile another s)aller (i(e8 li2e.ise (ro-i$e$ .ith an a$iather)anous co-ering ser-es to fee$ the con$ensate into the 7oiler 7y gra-ity (see also ">ea <o.er <lant =esigne$ 7y Tesla" 0 All that is necessary to o(en u( unli)ite$ resources of (o.er throughout the .orl$ is to fin$ so)e econo)ic an$ s(ee$y .ay of sin2ing $ee( shafts0
OOOOO
&hether .e shall ha-e to rely on (o.er $eri-e$ fro) terrestrial heat )ust 7e left to the future0 ,f .e shoul$ e'haust our (resent resources .ithout o(ening u( ne. ones8 this (ossi7ility )ight arise0 Cn$ou7te$ly8 our stores of coal an$ oil .ill 7e e-entually use$ u( an$ there is not enough .ater (o.er to su((ly our nee$s0 The i$ea of o7taining )oti-e energy fro) ato)s or change of ele)ents is unscientific an$ illusionary an$ cannot 7e con$e)ne$ too e)(hatically0 The sa)e is true of the sche)e of harnessing the energy su((ose$ to 7e li7erate$ at such te)(eratures as 6585558555 $egrees C (Centigra$e recently suggeste$0 The fun$a)ental fallacy in all these (ro(osals is that it ta2es )ore energy to $isintegrate than can 7e usefully reco-ere$ e-en in an i$eal (rocess0 Glaringly fallacious theories are res(onsi7le for such chi)erical ho(es0 <ro7a7ly the .orst of these is the electron theory0 ;f the four or fi-e ato)ic structures .hich ha-e 7een suggeste$ not a single one is (ossi7le0 1ot )ore than one in a thousan$ )en of science 2no.s that an electron 9.hate-er it 7eKcan only e'ist in the (erfect -acuu) of inter)olecular an$ interstellar s(aces or highly e'hauste$ tu7es an$ that the nucleus stri((e$ of electrons8 is $e-oi$ of energy0 ,t .as clear to )e )any years ago that a ne. an$ 7etter source of (o.er ha$ to 7e $isco-ere$ to )eet the e-er increasing $e)an$s of )an2in$0 ,n a lecture $eli-ere$ 7efore the A)erican ,nstitute of "lectrical "ngineers at Colu)7ia Cni-ersity /ay !58 18918 , sai$I _&e are .hirling through en$less s(ace .ith inconcei-a7le s(ee$8 all aroun$ us e-erything is s(inning8 e-erything is )o-ing8 e-ery.here is energy0 There )ust 7e so)e .ay of a-ailing oursel-es of this energy )ore $irectly0 Then8 .ith the light o7taine$ fro) the )e$iu)8 .ith the (o.er $eri-e$ fro) it8 .ith e-ery for) of energy o7taine$ .ithout effort8 fro) the store fore-er ine'hausti7le8 hu)anity .ill a$-ance .ith giant stri$es0` , ha-e thought an$ .or2e$ .ith this o7Hect in -ie. unre)ittingly an$ a) gla$ to say that , ha-e sufficient theoretical an$ e'(eri)ental e-i$ence to fill )e .ith ho(e8 not to say confi$ence8 that )y efforts of years .ill 7e re.ar$e$ an$ that .e shall ha-e at our $is(osal a ne. source of (o.er8 su(erior e-en to the hy$ro9electric8 .hich )ay 7e o7taine$ 7y )eans of si)(le a((aratus e-ery.here an$ in al)ost constant an$ unli)ite$ a)ount0
OOOOO
"'cer(t fro) ">ea <o.er <lant =esigne$ 7y Tesla8" "0 0 0 .hile the con$ense$ .ater flo.s 7y gra-ity through another (i(e reaching to $e(th at .hich the te)(erature of the groun$ e'cee$s that of the con$ensate0 3y circulating the stea) in great -olu)e through the tur7ine an$ con$enser , a) a7le to )aintain a consi$era7le te)(erature $ifference 7et.een the groun$ an$ the interior of the shaft8 so that a -ery great quantity of heat flo.s into the sa)e continuallyJ to 7e transfor)e$ into )echanical .or20 The only requisite is a sufficient -olu)e of cooling .ater0 "3y this )etho$ it is (ractica7le to su((ly all the (o.er .hich a s)all co))unity )ay require fro) a shaft of )o$erate $e(th8 certainly less than a )ile0 An$ for isolate$ $.ellings a fe. hun$re$ feet $e(th .oul$ 7e a)(le8 (articularly if such a flui$ such as ether is e)(loye$ for running the tur7ine0" ? Ne" -ork Times8 1o-0 88 19310@
1-9"-0"-06: %r& Tesla Frites of 6arious 5,ases of ,is %is(oEery by Nikola Tesla
Ne" -ork Times To the "$itor of The 1e. Dor2 Ti)esI Dou ha-e gi-en consi$era7le s(ace to the su7Hect of cos)ic rays8 .hich see)s to ha-e arouse$ general attention to an unusual $egree0 ,nas)uch as , $isco-ere$ this .on$erful (heno)enon an$ in-estigate$ it long 7efore others 7egan their researches8 your rea$ers )ay (erha(s 7e intereste$ in )y o.n fin$ings0 The original i$ea .as a$-ance$ an$ $iscusse$ 7y )e in a series of articles on +ontgen rays an$ ra$ioacti-ity8 (u7lishe$ fro) 189% to 1898 in the "lectrical +e-ie.0 The results of )y $isco-eries .ere re(orte$ all o-er the .orl$ through the Associate$ <ress an$ foun$ a (o.erful echo0 3ut at that ti)e scientific )en .ere e)(hatically o((ose$ to )y theories8 hol$ing that the ne. actions .ere $ue to so)e 2in$ of .a-e )otion8 .hile8 accor$ing to )y o7ser-ations8 they .ere (ro$uce$ 7y electrifie$ (articles of )atter (roHecte$ .ith great -elocity0 ,t .as only years later that the -ie.s , then (ro(oun$e$ .ere gra$ually acce(te$0 The e'(eri)ents0 , un$ertoo2 in 189% .ere greatly facilitate$ through )y in-ention of a no-el for) of -acuu) tu7e suita7le for o(eration 7y currents of )any )illions of -olts an$ yiel$ing effects of transcen$ing intensities0 This instru)ent has since 7een a$o(te$ 7y other in-estigators an$ )ost of the (rogress in se-eral fiel$s .as achie-e$ 7y its use0 &hen ra$ioacti-ity .as $isco-ere$8 it .as thought to 7e an entirely ne. )anifestation of energy li)ite$ to a fe. su7stances0 , o7taine$ sufficient e-i$ence to con-ince )e that such actions .ere general an$ in nature the sa)e as those e'hi7ite$ 7y )y tu7es0 ,n these8 )inute cor(uscles8 regar$ing .hich .e are still in $ou7t8 are shot fro) a highly electrifie$ ter)inal against a target .here they generate +ontgen or other rays 7y i)(act0 1o.8 accor$ing to )y theory8 a ra$ioacti-e 7o$y is si)(ly a target .hich is continuously 7o)7ar$e$ 7y infinitesi)al 7ullets (roHecte$ fro) all (arts of the uni-erse8 an$ if this8 then un2no.n8 cos)ic ra$iation coul$ 7e .holly interce(te$8 ra$ioacti-ity .oul$ cease0 , )a$e so)e (rogress in sol-ing the )ystery until in 1899 , o7taine$ )athe)atical an$ e'(eri)ental (roofs that the sun an$ other hea-enly 7o$ies si)ilarly con$itione$ e)it rays of great energy .hich consist of inconcei-a7ly s)all (articles ani)ate$ 7y -elocities -astly e'cee$ing that of light0 >o great is the (enetrati-e (o.er of these rays that they can tra-erse thousan$s of )iles of soli$ )atter .ith 7ut slight $i)inution of -elocity0 ,n (assing through s(ace8 .hich is fille$ .ith cos)ic $ust8 they generate$ a secon$ary ra$iation of constant intensity8 $ay an$ night8 an$ (ouring u(on the earth equally fro) all $irections0 As the (ri)ary rays (roHecte$ fro) the suns an$ stars can (ass through $istances )easure$ in light9years .ithout great $i)inution of -elocity8 it follo.s that .hether a secon$ary ray is generate$ near a sun or at any $istance fro) it8 ho.e-er great8 its intensity is the sa)e0 Consequently8 if our sun8 or any other8 .oul$ 7e snuffe$ out of e'istence8 it .oul$ ha-e no a((recia7le effect on the secon$ary ra$iation0 The latter is not -ery (enetrati-e an$ is (artly a7sor7e$ 7y the at)os(here0 Accor$ing to )y $eter)inations its intensity 7eyon$ the at)os(here is a7out 45 (er cent greater than at sea le-el0 The .hole at)os(here 7eing equi-alent to a7out 3% inches of lea$8 it is easy to $eter)ine the intensity of this ra$iation 7y )a2ing a )easure)ent of the (enetration at any 2no.n altitu$e0 This theory is 7orne out stri2ingly in e'(eri)ents .ith )y -acuu) tu7es8 7ut e-en if , $i$ not ha-e such (roofs , .oul$ consi$er it (lausi7le0 &hile the e'(loration of the u((er regions of the at)os(here )ay yiel$ )any i)(ortant results in other fiel$s8 , $o not thin2 that it .ill contri7ute consi$era7ly to our 2no.le$ge of the cos)ic rays0 ,n -ie. of this8 , 7elie-e that .e .ill )a2e )uch )ore ra(i$ (rogress if those .ho are no. ta2ing interest in it .ill acce(t )y theory an$ 7uil$ further on this foun$ation8 instea$ of e)7ar2ing on useless erran$s in quest of )ythical rays co)ing fro) no.here0 1i2ola Tesla 1e. Dor28 Fe70 68 193!
1-9"-0/-15: Statement of Tesla #elating to 7or(e and Matter by Nikola Tesla

Dnkno"n The follo.ing is Tesla's state)ent relating to force an$ )atter8 to "instein's theories8 an$ Tesla's o.n theory of gra-itation0 Courtesy of 1i2ola Tesla <a(ers8 +are 3oo2 an$ /anuscri(t #i7rary8 Colu)7ia Cni-ersity0 &e rea$ a great $eal a7out )atter 7eing change$ into force an$ force 7eing change$ into )atter 7y the cos)ic rays0 This is a7sur$0 ,t is the sa)e as saying that the 7o$y can 7e change$ into the )in$8 an$ the )in$ into the 7o$y0 &e 2no. that the )in$ i's a functioning of the 7o$y8 an$ in the sa)e )anner force is a function of )atter0 &ithout the 7o$y there can 7e no )in$8 .ithout )atter there can 7e no force0 "instein has for years $e-elo(e$ for)ulas e'(laining the )echanis) of the cos)os0 ,n $oing this he o-erloo2e$ an i)(ortant factor8 na)ely the fact that so)e of the hea-enly 7o$ies are increasing in $istance fro) the sun0 This is the sa)e as .riting a 7usiness letter an$ forgetting the su7Hect you .ish to .rite a7out0 ,n or$er to e'(lain this (heno)enon "instein has in-ente$ the quantity "la)7$a"0 /y theory of gra-itation e'(lains this (heno)enon (erfectly0 10 T0 A(ril 148 193!
1-9"-0<-10: Tesla) <6) #e$orts 0is Talents at 5ea.

Ne" -ork Times >ays His 1e. ,n-ention8 Al)ost =one8 &ill Co)e as "1558555 Tru)(ets of A(ocaly(se0" &ill 3enefit >teel Tra$e >econ$ =isco-ery &oul$ :noc2 =o.n "&alls of Eericho" 9 Hol$s ,nter(lanetary Contact 1ear 1i2ola Tesla8 $ean of A)erican ,n-entors8 either .as *% years ol$ yester$ay or .ill 7e to$ay (he $oes not 2no. .hich 7ecause he .as 7orn on the stro2e of )i$night 8 an$ in a self9$e(recatory inter-ie. last night at a )i$to.n hotel8 .here he li-es8 he tol$ a little of his acti-ities of the last year an$ his ho(es for the future0 He e'(ects that future to 7e long an$ (ro$ucti-e8 7ecause it is no unco))on thing for the country)en of his 7irth(lace8 >)ilHan8 in the )ountains of CBechoslo-a2ia8 to li-e to 115 or 1!58 an$ he 7elie-es that he has )ore energy an$ alertness than e-er 7efore in his life0 ", ha-e ha$ a -ery successful year8" he sai$ .ith the enthusias) of one a thir$ of his years0 ", ha-e )a$e t.o in-entions8 a)ong the )ost i)(ortant of )y life0 "&hen they are announce$8 one .ill 7e li2e the 1558555 tru)(ets of the A(ocaly(se0 The other .ill 7e less sensational8 7ut it8 too8 .ill 7e i)(ortant0 ,t .ill 7e li2e the shout .ith .hich Eose(h's ar)y 7rought $o.n the .alls of Eericho0 ", a) elate$0 The (ractical success of these in-entions is al)ost achie-e$0 , ho(e to 7e a7le to )a2e the) 2no.n .ithin the ne't year0" ,n-ention &oul$ Ai$ >teel Tra$e =r0 Tesla .oul$ not $isclose the nature of these in-entions in $etail0 He inti)ate$ that the )ore i)(ortant of the) ha$ to $o .ith )olecular (hysics an$ that it .oul$ 7e of the ut)ost 7enefit to the steel in$ustry0 "&hen a((lie$ in certain .ays8" he sai$8 "it .ill yiel$ greatly i)(ro-e$ (ro$ucts an$ o7-iate )uch .aste0" The other in-ention .oul$ result in a sa-ing of energy8 he sai$0 ,t ha$ nothing to $o8 he e'(laine$8 .ith the (ro7le) on .hich he has long 7een .or2ing 9 the ta((ing of a tre)en$ous an$ thus far unuse$ source of energy0 He has 7een .or2ing on that $uring the last year8 he sai$8 an$ has )a$e great a$-ances 7oth in its (ractical a((lication an$ in the theory un$erlying it0 As to this ne. source of (o.er8 he sai$J "&hen the ti)e is ri(e , (ro(ose first to announce the scientific (rinci(les un$erlying it only0 #ater , shall sho. its (ractical a((lication through the for)s of (o.er generating a((aratus0 ,f , succee$8 the .orl$ .ill see )achines against .hich the largest tur7o9$yna)os of to$ay .ill 7e )ere (laythings0" ,n res(onse to questioning8 =r0 Tesla sai$ that one in-ention on .hich he ha$ 7een .or2ing recently .oul$ (er)it the generation of all 2in$s of rays of al)ost unli)ite$ intensities8 an$ .oul$ affor$ a chec2 on .hether the (resent theories of ato)ic structure are true an$ .or2a7le or )erely a fa7ric of the i)agination0 +ecalls His Douth The in-entor of the arc lighting syste)8 of the syste) of alternating current (o.er trans)ission8 the Tesla coil8 of a syste) of .ireless co))unication an$ of .ireless (o.er trans)ission syste)s8 allo.e$ his thoughts to ro-e 7ac2 o-er the 7eginning of his career an$ .hen he .as a s)all0 7oy on the Austro9Hungarian 7or$er0 Then he allo.e$ the) to loo2 into the future8 in .hich8 .ithin the lifeti)e of the younger generation he is con-ince$ there .ill 7e co))unication a)ong the (lanets0 "&hen , .as 9 years ol$8" he relate$8 ", 7uilt a tur7ine in a )ountain strea) on )y father's lan$ an$ connecte$ it u( .ith 7olts to all sorts of )achinery0 , tol$ )y uncle8 '>o)e $ay ,') going to A)erica an$ , .ill run a 7ig .heel at 1iagara Falls0' , ha$ rea$ a7out 1iagara Falls an$ it fascinate$ )e0 /y uncle $i$n't ta2e it seriously0 'Dou'll ne-er see 1iagara Falls8' he tol$ )e0 "3ut , $i$ co)e to A)erica8 an$ , $i$ (ut a 7ig .heel in 1iagara Falls0" =r0 Tesla8 at the height of his career8 $esigne$ the great (o.er syste) at 1iagara8 an$ (erha(s no 7oyhoo$ $rea) e-er .as )ore tre)en$ously fille$ than his0 The in-entor's con-iction of )any years' stan$ing that there is life on other (lanets in the solar syste) an$ that so)e $ay .e .ill co))unicate .ith other (lanets has not lessene$0 /eans of co))unication .ill rea$ily 7e
foun$8 he sai$8 an$ there .ill 7e no $ifficulty in esta7lishing an intelligent e'change of i$eas0 He in$icate$ that this )ight 7e $one through so)e sort of tele-ision .hich .oul$ trans)it i$eas )uch as )o-ing (ictures tell their stories to races of $i-erse languagesn ", ha-e a sense that .e are on the e-e of a great re-elation8" he sai$8 s(ea2ing of the (ossi7ility of inter(lanetary9co))unication0 "&hether , .ill li-e to see it is a question8 7ut you8 as a younger )an8 .ill see it0 An$ the ne.s of it .ill 7e the greatest sensation in the .orl$'s history0"
1-9"-0<-10: Tesla Cosmi( #ay Motor May Transmit 5ower N#ound *art,
4rooklyn Eagle 9amed &cientist+ on Eve of .Qth 4irthday+ &ays (e (as &ucceeded in (arnessing C3enetrating !aysC to '*erate &mall /otive Device 3y Eohn E0 A0 ;'1eill8 >cience "$itor of the "agle
_, ha-e harnesse$ the cos)ic rays an$ cause$ the) to o(erate a )oti-e $e-ice8` $eclare$ 1i2ola Tesla8 fa)ous
scientist8 in an inter-ie. last e-ening on the e-e of his *%th 7irth$ay0 Tesla8 .ho all his life has .or2e$ in seclusion an$ struggles to a-oi$ (u7licity .ith all the -igour .ith .hich )o-ie stars court it8 (er)its a han$ful of _science .riters` to -iolate the rules as a sort of 7irth$ay (arty0 ,t is -ery )uch of an or$eal to the tall8 straight8 )eticulously attire$ gentle)an .hose in-entions ha-e 7een e(och9)a2ing an$ .ho is una7le to un$erstan$ .hy the (u7lic shoul$ 7e intereste$ in hi)0
_Cos)ic ray in-estigation is a su7Hect that is -ery close to )e0 , .as the first to $isco-er these rays an$ ,
naturally feel to.ar$ the) as , .oul$ to.ar$ )y o.n flesh an$ 7loo$8` sai$ =r0 Tesla0 His state)ent is 7orne out 7y reference to cli((ings of inter-ie.s .ith hi) )ore than a quarter of a century ago in .hich he $iscusse$ _(enetrating rays` an$ to .hich not )uch attention .as gi-en as no one .as a7le to co)(rehen$ the nature of the) as he $iscusse$ the)0
_, ha-e a$-ance$ a theory of the cos)ic rays an$ at e-ery ste( of )y in-estigations , ha-e foun$ it co)(letely
Hustifie$0` sai$ =r0 Tesla0 *ot 'uch +ower /et =r0 Tesla state$ that the a)ount of (o.er he .as a7le to $e-elo( in the $e-ice .as insignificant0 , as2e$ hi) if its (o.er out(ut .as of the sa)e )agnitu$e as that of Croo2es' ra$io)eter8 the $e-ice .ith four -anes in a glass tu7e that are rotate$ 7y sunlight8 an$ .hich is often seen in He.elers' .in$o.s0 He state$ that the (o.er out(ut .as )any thousan$ ti)es that of a Croo2es' ra$io)eter0
_The attracti-e features of the Cos)ic rays is their constancy0 They sho.er $o.n on us throughout the .hole !6
hours8 an$ if a (lant is $e-elo(e$ to use their (o.er it .ill not require $e-ices for storing energy as .oul$ 7e necessary .ith $e-ices using .in$8 ti$e or sunlight0` -"ceed 1elocity of .ight
_All of )y in-estigations see) to (oint to the conclusion that they are s)all (articles8 each carrying so s)all a
charge that .e are Hustifie$ in calling the) neutrons0 They )o-e .ith great -elocity8 e'cee$ing that of light0
_/ore than !4 years ago , 7egan )y efforts to harness the cos)ic rays an$ , can no. state that , ha-e
succee$e$ in o(erating a )oti-e $e-ice 7y )eans of the)0` , .as a7le to (re-ail u(on =r0 Tesla to gi-e )e so)e i$ea of the (rinci(le u(on .hich his cos)ic ray )otor .or2s0
_, .ill tell you in the )ost general .ay8` he sai$0 _The cos)ic ray ioniBes the air8 setting free )any chargesKions
an$ electrons0 These charges are ca(ture$ in a con$enser .hich is )a$e to $ischarge through the circuit of the )otor0 4opes to 0uild .arge 'otor
_, ha-e ho(es of 7uil$ing )y )otor on a large scale8 7ut circu)stances ha-e not 7een fa-ora7le to carrying out
)y (lan0` , as2e$ =r0 Tesla if his (lan for trans)ission of (o.er 7et.een (lanets in-ol-e$ the use of cos)ic rays8 an$ he state$ that the t.o (roHects ha-e no connection .hate-er0 He state$ that he has continue$ his e'(eri)ental .or2 in the la7oratory on the inter(lanetary (o.er trans)ission (roHect an$ is certain of its feasi7ility0 , also as2e$ hi) if he is still at .or2 on the (roHect .hich he inaugurate$ in the '95's of trans)itting (o.er .irelessly any.here on earth0 He is at .or2 on it8 he sai$8 an$ it coul$ 7e (ut into o(eration0
Cited Two +rinciples He at that ti)e announce$ t.o (rinci(les .hich coul$ 7e use$ in this (roHect0 ,n one the ioniBing of the u((er air .oul$ )a2e it as goo$ a con$uctor of electricity as a )etal0 ,n the other the (o.er .oul$ 7e trans)itte$ 7y creating _stan$ing .a-es` in the earth 7y charging the earth .ith a giant electrical oscillator that .oul$ )a2e the earth -i7rate electrically in the sa)e .ay a 7ell -i7rates )echanically .hen it is struc2 .ith a ha))er0
_, $o not use the (lan in-ol-ing the con$ucti-ity of the u((er strata of the air8` he sai$8 _7ut , use the con$ucti-ity
of the earth itself8 an$ in this , nee$ no .ires to sen$ electrical energy to any (art of the glo7e0`
1-9"-08-10: C,ewing Bum More 7atal T,an #um) Says Tesla by Nikola Tesla
Ne" -ork #orld Telegram >Nikola Tesla+ dean of inventors at .Q and *ioneer of radio+ believes it is essential for the "elfare of the country that *rohibition end soon. In this article+ "hich he "rote for the #orld,Telegram+ he ex*resses some"hat unusual arguments against it.@ /uch has 7een sai$ a7out (rohi7ition an$ its $isastrous consequences8 7ut the sheer folly an$ (erniciousness of this )easure cannot 7e fully a((reciate$ until it is consi$ere$ fro) the scientific (oint of -ie.0 ,t then a((ears not only unsoun$ in (rinci(le 7ut utterly $e-oi$ of -ali$ity0 Chiefly as a result of $ry (ro(agan$a (eo(le ha-e 7een le$ to 7elie-e that alcoholic 7e-erages cause serious inHuries to )in$ an$ 7o$y8 .hile other sti)ulants8 as tea an$ coffee8 are al)ost har)less0 , 2no. fro) careful o7ser-ation an$ lifelong e'(erience that the re-erse is )ore nearly true0 3eginning .ith the enact)ent of the Golstea$ la. , ha-e 7een a )o$erate consu)er of alcohol an$ it ne-er hurt )e in the least0 ;n the contrary it hel(e$ )e )any ti)es effecti-ely o-er the (ea2 of the effort0 ,t is in stri2ing contrast in its )e$icinal an$ $ietetic -alue to all other sti)ulants .hich8 .ithout e'ce(tion8 are inHurious0 "-en s)o2ing8 snuffing or che.ing to7acco .ill e-entually i)(air the health8 though not quite so )uch as che.ing gu)8 .hich8 7y e'haustion of the sali-ary glan$s8 (uts )any a foolish -icti) into an early gra-e0 3ut 7y far the greatest nu)7er of -icti)s are clai)e$ 7y tea an$ coffee0 =r0 Ale'an$er Haig8 fore)ost authority on uric aci$ an$ foun$er of his fa)ous $iet8 says of the for)erI 9 "Tea $rin2ing is Hust li2e $rug ta2ing8 in fact8 an$ has Hust as terri7le an$ fatal results0" &o)en8 in (articular8 shoul$ shun tea as it is a )eans of co))itting 7eauty suici$e0 ,n this res(ect coffee is the -ery o((osite8 i)(arting so)eti)es to the face a fascinating aristocratic (allor0 , ha-e rea$ 7oo2s an$ articles $e(icting the horri7le effect of alcohol on hu)an 7eings8 7ut al.ays foun$ that the fe. in$i-i$uals un$er o7ser-ations .ere either ho(eless $run2ar$s or ha$ 7een .ea2ene$ 7y here$ity an$ en-iron)ent0 ;7-iously e-ery for) of e'cess is inHurious0 >uch an in-estigation8 to 7e of -alue8 shoul$ 7e li)ite$ to )o$erate $rin2ers .ho nu)7er in legions an$ e'(erience no ill effects0 They are8 as a rule8 long li-e$ an$ consi$ere$ 7y life insurance co)(anies the safest (olicy hol$ers0 Alcohol is not a (oison8 nor is it a $rug0 ,t is not classe$ as a (oison in 7oo2s on che)istry0 The truth a7out alcohol is that it acts as a caustic an$ a sol-ent0 ,n s)all quantities it cleans an$ steriliBes the ali)entary channelsJ there7y (re-enting infections8 an$ (ro-es a 7eneficial sti)ulant to thought8 s(eech an$ (hysical e'ertion0 Alcohol is (ro$uce$ in the nor)al che)ical reactions of the sto)ach an$ can 7e foun$ in e-ery (art of the 7o$y8 e-en in the 7rain of a total a7stainer0 ,t is for)e$8 not as a to'ic ini)ical to life8 7ut as a su7stance in$is(ensa7le to -ital (rocesses0 To illustrate (rohi7itions's utter folly an$ $anger it is only necessary to (oint out that a su$$en change of $iet or the o)ission of an essential ele)ent8 es(ecially in a$-ance$ years8 )ay in$uce high 7loo$ (ressures8 cause )alnutrition or other.ise i)(eril life0 &hen the Golstea$ act 7eca)e a la. , realiBe$ that8 accusto)e$ as , .as to alcohol8 it .oul$ 7e -ery $ifficult for )e to 7rea2 off0 ;nly a fe. $ays of a7stinence )a$e )e a -ery sic2 )an an$ )y health 7eca)e (recarious0 Finally8 after se-eral )onths of suffering8 little 7y little , gaine$ an$ e-er since ha-e 7een a total a7stainer0 ,f an atte)(t is )a$e to enforce such a la. as (rohi7ition an$ there7y su7Hect a citiBen to suffering8 $anger an$ (ossi7le loss of life he or his relati-es shoul$ 7e entitle$ to su7stantial re(aration an$ these suits once 7egun .oul$ soon e'haust the treasury0 The Golstea$ act (ut the country into (anic an$ un(rece$ente$ $istressI This is 7ut an una-oi$a7le result of $e(ri-ing the nation of a re-enue of a7out ^!5585558555 a year an$ co)(elling it 7esi$es to (ay to 7ootleggers nearly t.ice that su) annually0 The tyrannical rule is 2illing 7usiness in so)e of its )ost i)(ortant $e(art)ents0 The hotels an$ si)ilar institutions are 7eing ra(i$ly force$ to the .all0 , re)e)7er that in Austria a la. co)(elle$ e-ery co))unity to 2ee( fires going in the streets $uring an
e(i$e)ic of cholera0 ,n the se-enties .hen , )yself contracte$ the $isease all the streets of the city .ere fille$ .ith s)o2e an$ stench0 1e-ertheless the inha7itants $ie$ in hea(s0 ,t .as (asse$ 7y legislators unacquainte$ .ith -ital facts of life out of their o.n s(here0 ,n i)(osing this )easure the legislati-e 7o$ies ha-e e-i$ently e'cee$e$ their authority0 Cn$er such circu)stance , fail to see .hy a re(eal shoul$ 7e require$0 1othing )ore nee$ 7e $one than to forget the la. an$ so (er)it it to (ass to a state of innocuous $esuetu$e0
1-9"-0--11: 5ioneer #adio *ngineer BiEes 6iews On 5ower 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald Tribune Tesla &ays #ireless #aves Are Not Electromagnetic+ 4ut &ound In Nature (olds &*ace Not 2urved3redicts 3o"er Transmission to 'ther 3lanets The assu)(tion of the /a'.ellian ether .as thought necessary to e'(lain the (ro(agation of light 7y trans-erse -i7rations8 .hich can only occur in a soli$0 >o fascinating .as this theory that e-en at (resent it has )any su((orters8 $es(ite the )anifest i)(ossi7ility of a )e$iu)8 (erfectly )o7ile an$ tenuous to a $egree inconcei-a7le8 an$ yet e'tre)ely rigi$8 li2e steel0 As a result so)e illusionary i$eas ha-e 7een for)e$ an$ -arious (heno)ena erroneously inter(rete$0 The soKcalle$ HertB .a-es are still consi$ere$ a reality (ro-ing that light is electrical in its nature8 an$ also that the ether is ca(a7le of trans)itting trans-erse -i7rations of frequencies ho.e-er lo.0 This -ie. has 7eco)e untena7le since , sho.e$ that the uni-ersal )e$iu) is a gaseous 7o$y in .hich only longitu$inal (ulses can 7e (ro(agate$8 in-ol-ing alternating co)(ressions an$ e'(ansions si)ilar to those (ro$uce$ 7y soun$ .a-es in the air0 Thus8 a .ireless trans)itter $oes not e)it HertB .a-es .hich are a )yth8 7ut soun$ .a-es in the ether8 7eha-ing in e-ery res(ect li2e those in the air8 e'ce(t that8 o.ing to the great elastic force an$ e'tre)ely s)all $ensity of the )e$iu)8 their s(ee$ is that of light0 ,uggested ,hort Waves -arly >ince .a-es of this 2in$ are all the )ore (enetrating8 the shorter they are8 , ha-e urge$ the e'(erts engage$ in the co))ercial a((lication of the .ireless art to e)(loy -ery short .a-es8 7ut for a long ti)e )y suggestions .ere not hee$e$0 "-entually8 though8 this .as $one8 an$ gra$ually the .a-elengths .ere re$uce$ to 7ut a fe. )eters0 ,n-aria7ly it .as foun$ that these .a-es8 Hust as those in the air8 follo. the cur-ature of the earth an$ 7en$ aroun$ o7stacles8 a (eculiarity e'hi7ite$ to a )uch lesser $egree 7y trans-erse -i7rations in a soli$0 +ecently8 ho.e-er8 ultrashort .a-es ha-e 7een e'(eri)ente$ .ith an$ the fact that they also ha-e the sa)e (ro(erty .as haile$ as a great $isco-ery8 offering the stu(en$ous (ro)ise to )a2e .ireless trans)ission infinitely si)(ler an$ chea(er0 ,t is of interest to 2no. .hat .ireless e'(erts ha-e e'(ecte$8 2no.ing that .a-es a fe. )eters long are trans)itte$ clear to the anti(o$es0 ,s there any reason that they .oul$ 7eha-e ra$ically $ifferent .hen their length is re$uce$ to a7out half of one )eterF Waves #o Around World As the general 2no.le$ge of this su7Hect see)s -ery li)ite$8 , )ay state8 that e-en .a-es only one or t.o )illi)eters long8 .hich , (ro$uce$ thirty9three years ago8 (ro-i$e$ that they carry sufficient energy8 can 7e trans)itte$ aroun$ the glo7e0 This is not so )uch $ue to refraction an$ reflection as to the (ro(erties of a gaseous )e$iu) an$ certain (eculiar action8 .hich , shall e'(lain so)e ti)e in the future0 At (resent it )ay 7e sufficient to call attention to an i)(ortant fact in this connection8 na)ely8 that this 7en$ing of the 7ea) (roHecte$ fro) reflector $oes not affect in the least its 7eha-iour in other res(ects0 As regar$s $eflection in a horiBontal (lane8 it acts Hust as though it .ere straight0 To 7e e'(licit the horiBontal $e-iations are co)(arati-ely slight0 ,n a (ro(ose$ ultrashort .a-e trans)ission8 the -ertical 7en$ing8 far fro) 7eing an a$-antage8 is a serious $ra.7ac28 as it increase$ greatly the lia7ility of $istur7ances 7y o7stacles at the earthNs surface0 The $o.n.ar$ $eflection al.ays occurs8 irres(ecti-e of .a-elength8 an$ also if the 7ea) is thro.n u(.ar$ at an angle to the horiBontal8 an$ this ten$ency is8 accor$ing to )y fin$ing8 all the )ore (ronounce$ the 7igger the (lanet0 ;n a 7o$y as large as the sun8 it .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7le to (roHect a $istur7ance of this 2in$ to any consi$era7le $istance e'ce(t along the surface0 ,t )ight 7e inferre$ that , a) allu$ing to the cur-ature of s(ace su((ose$ to e'ist accor$ing to the teachings of relati-ity8 7ut nothing coul$ 7e further fro) )y )in$0 , hol$ that s(ace cannot 7e cur-e$8 for the si)(le reason that it can ha-e no (ro(erties0 ,t )ight as .ell 7e sai$ that Go$ has (ro(erties0 He has not8 7ut only attri7utes an$ these are of our o.n )a2ing0 ;f (ro(erties .e can only s(ea2 .hen $ealing .ith )atter filling the s(ace0 To say that in the (resence of large 7o$ies s(ace 7eco)es cur-e$8 is equi-alent to stating that so)ething can act u(on nothing0 ,8 for one8 refuse to su7scri7e to such a -ie.0 *eed &adio Channels
The chief o7Hect of e)(loying -ery short .a-es is to (ro-i$e an increase$ nu)7er of channels require$ to satisfy the e-er9gro.ing $e)an$ for .ireless a((liances0 3ut this is only 7ecause the trans)itting an$ recei-ing a((aratus8 as generally e)(loye$8 is ill9concei-e$ an$ not .ell a$a(te$ for selection0 The trans)itter generates se-eral syste)s of .a-es8 all of .hich8 e'ce(t one8 are useless0 As a consequence8 only an infinitesi)al a)ount of energy reaches the recei-er an$ $e(en$ence is (lace$ on e'tre)e a)(lification8 .hich can 7e easily affecte$ 7y the use of the so9calle$ three9electro$e tu7es0 This in-ention has 7een cre$ite$ to others8 7ut as a )atter of fact8 it .as 7rought out 7y )e in 189!8 the (rinci(le 7eing $escri7e$ an$ illustrate$ in )y lecture 7efore the Fran2lin ,nstitute an$ 1ational "lectric #ight Assof*iation0 ,n )y original $e-ice , (ut aroun$ the incan$escent fila)ent a con$ucting )e)7er8 .hich , calle$ a _sie-e0` This $e-ice is connecte$ to a .ire lea$ing outsi$e of the 7ul7 an$ ser-es to )o$ify the strea) of (articles (roHecte$ fro) the fila)ent accor$ing to the charge i)(arte$ to it0 ,n this )anner a ne. 2in$ of $etector8 rectifier an$ a)(lifier .as (ro-i$e$0 /any for)s of tu7es on this (rinci(le .ere constructe$ 7y )e an$ -arious interesting effects o7taine$ 7y their )eans sho.n to -isitors in )y la7oratory fro) 1893 to 18998 .hen , un$ertoo2 the erection of an e'(eri)ental .orl$Ksyste) .ireless (lant at Colora$o >(rings0 =uring the last thirty9t.o years these tu7es ha-e 7een )a$e -erita7le )ar-els of )echanical (erfection8 7ut .hile hel(ful in )any .ays they ha-e $ra.n the e'(erts a.ay fro) the si)(ler an$ )uch su(erior arrange)ent8 .hich , atte)(te$ to intro$uce in 19510 /y (lans in-ol-e$ the use of a highly effecti-e an$ efficient trans)itter con-eying to any recei-er at .hate-er $istance8 a relati-ely large a)ount of energy0 The recei-er is itself a $e-ice of ele)entary si)(licity (arta2ing of the characteristics of the ear8 e'ce(t that it is i))ensely )ore sensiti-e0 ,n such a syste) resonant a)(lification is the only one necessary an$ the selecti-ity is so great that any $esire$ nu)7er of se(arate channels can 7e (ro-i$e$ .ithout going to .a-es shorter than a fe. )eters0 For this reason8 an$ 7ecause of other shortco)ings8 , $o not attach )uch i)(ortance to the e)(loy)ent of .a-es8 .hich are no. 7eing e'(eri)ente$ .ith0 3esi$es8 , a) conte)(lating the (ractical use of another (rinci(le8 .hich , ha-e $isco-ere$ an$ .hich is al)ost unli)ite$ in the nu)7er of channels an$ in the energy three9electro$e tu7es0 This in-ention has 7een cre$ite$ to others8 7ut as a )atter of fact8 it .as 7rought out 7y )e in 189!8 the (rinci(le 7eing trans)itte$0 ,t shoul$ ena7le us to o7tain )any i)(ortant results heretofore consi$ere$ i)(ossi7le0 &ith the 2no.le$ge of the facts 7efore )e8 , $o not thin2 it haBar$ous to (re$ict that .e .ill 7e ena7le$ to illu)inate the .hole s2y at night an$ that e-entually .e .ill flash (o.er in -irtually unli)ite$ a)ounts to (lanets0 ,t .oul$ not sur(rise )e at all if an e'(eri)ent to trans)it thousan$s of horse(o.er to the )oon 7y this ne. )etho$ .ere )a$e in a fe. years fro) no.0
$;76B$AB$7E The -ternal ,ource of -nergy of the Universe, (rigin and Intensity of Cosmic &ays 3y 1i2ola Tesla A little o-er one century ago )any astrono)ers8 inclu$ing #a(lace still thought that the syste) of hea-enly
7o$ies .as unaltera7le an$ that they .oul$ (erfor) their )otions in the sa)e )anner through an eternity0 3ut the gra$ual (erfection of instru)ents an$ refine)ent of )etho$s of in-estigation8 achie-e$ since that ti)e8 has le$ to the recognition that there is a continuous change going on in the celestial regions su7Hecting all 7o$ies to e-er -arying influence0 &here this change is lea$ing to8 an$ .hat is to 7e its final (hase8 ha-e 7eco)e questions of su(re)e scientific interest0 ,n a co))unication to the +oyal >ociety of "$in7urgh $ate$ A(ril 198 184! an$ the <hiloso(hical /agaBine of ;cto7er of the sa)e year8 #or$ :el-in $re. attention to the general ten$ency in nature to.ar$s $issi(ation of )echanical energy8 a fact 7orne out in $aily o7ser-ation of ther)o9$yna)ic an$ $yna)o9ther)ic (rocesses an$ one of o)inous significance0 ,t )eant that the $ri-ing force of the uni-erse .as stea$ily $ecreasing an$ that ulti)ately all of its )oti-e energy .ill 7e e'hauste$ none re)aining a-aila7le for )echanical .or20 ,n the )acro9cos)os8 .ith its countless conce(tion8 this (rocess )ight require 7illion of years for its consu))ationJ 7ut in the infinitesi)al .orl$s of the )icro9cos)os it )ust ha-e 7een quic2ly co)(lete$0 >uch 7eing the case then8 accor$ing to an e'(eri)ental fin$ings an$ $e$uctions of (ositi-e science8 any )aterial su7stance (coole$ $o.n to the a7solute Bero of te)(erature shoul$ 7e $e-oi$ of an internal )o-e)ent an$ energy8 so to s(ea28 $ea$0 This i$ea of the great (hiloso(her8 .ho later honoure$ )e .ith his frien$shi(8 ha$ a fascinating effect on )y )in$ an$ in )e$itating o-er it , .as struc2 7y the thought that if there is energy .ithin the su7stance it can only co)e fro) .ithout0 This truth .as so )anifest to )e that , e'(resse$ it in the follo.ing a'io)I "There is no energy in )atter e'ce(t that a7sor7e$ fro) the )e$iu)0" #or$ :el-in ga-e us a (icture of a $ying uni-erse8 of a cloc2.or2 .oun$ u( an$ running $o.n8 ine-ita7ly $oo)e$ to co)e to a full sto( in the far8 far off future0 ,t .as a gloo)y -ie. inco)(ati7le .ith artistic8 scientific an$ )echanical sense0 , as2e$ )yself again an$ again8 .as there not so)e force .in$ing u( the cloc2 as it runs $o.nF The a'io) , ha$ for)ulate$ ga-e )e a clue0 ,f all energy is su((lie$ to )atter fro) .ithout then this all i)(ortant function )ust 7e (erfor)e$ 7y the )e$iu)0 Des997ut ho.F , (on$ere$ o-er this ol$est an$ greatest of all ri$$les of (hysical science a long ti)e in -ain8 $es(airingly re)in$ of the .or$s of the (oetI &o fass ich $ich unen$liche 1aterF "uch 3ruste .o ,hr Auellen alles #e7ens An $enen Hi))el un$ "r$c hangt0 0 0 &here8 7oun$less nature8 can , hol$ you fastF An$ .here you 7reastsF &ells that sustain All life99the hea-en an$ the earth are nurse$0 Goethe0 Faust &hat , stro-e for see)e$ unattaina7le8 7ut a 2in$ fate fa-ore$ )e an$ a fe. ins(ire$ e'(eri)ents lifte$ the -eil0 ,t .as a re-elation .on$erful an$ incre$i7le e'(laining )any )ysteries of nature an$ $isclosing as in a lightening flash the illusionary character of so)e )o$e) theories inci$entally also 7earing out the uni-ersal truth of the a7o-e a'io)0 &hen ra$io9acti-e rays .ere $isco-ere$ their in-estigators 7elie-e$ the) to 7e $ue to li7eration of ato)ic energy in the for) of .a-es0 This 7eing i)(ossi7le in the light of the (rece$ing , conclu$e$ that they .ere (ro$uce$ 7y so)e e'ternal $istur7ance an$ co)(ose$ of electrifie$ (articles0 /y theory .as not seriously ta2en although it a((eare$ si)(le an$ (lausi7le0 >u((ose that 7ullets are fire$ against a .all0 &here a )issile stri2es the )aterial is crushe$ an$ s(atters in all $irections ra$ial fro) the (lace of i)(act ,n this e'a)(le it is (erfectly clear that the energy of the flying (ieces can only 7e $eri-e$ fro) that of the 7ullets0 3ut in )anifestation of ra$io9acti-ity no such (roof coul$ 7e a$-ance$ an$ it .as8 therefore8 of the first i)(ortance to $e)onstrate e'(eri)entally the e'istence of this )iraculous $istur7ance in the )e$iu)0 , .as re.ar$e$ in these efforts .ith quic2 success largely 7ecause of the efficient )etho$ , a$o(te$ .hich consiste$ in $eri-ing fro) a great )ass of air8 ioniBe$ 7y the $istur7ance8 a current8 storing its energy in a con$enser an$ $ischarging the sa)e through an in$icating $e-ice0 This (lan $i$ a.ay .ith the li)itations an$ incertitu$e of the electrosco(e first e)(loye$ an$
.as $escri7e$ 7y )e in articles an$ (atents fro) 1955 to 19540 ,t .as logical to e'(ect8 Hu$ging fro) the 7eha-iour of 2no.n ra$iations8 that the chief source of the ne. rays .oul$ 7e the sun8 7ut this su((osition .as contra$icte$ 7y o7ser-ations an$ theoretical consi$erations .hich $isclose$ so)e sur(rising facts in this connection0 #ight an$ heat rays are a7sor7e$ in their (assage through a )e$iu) in a certain (ro(ortion to its $ensity0 The ether8 although the )ost tenuous of all su7stances8 is no e'ce(tion to this rule0 ,ts $ensity has 7een first esti)ate$ 7y #or$ :el-in an$ confor)a7ly to his fin$ing a colu)n of one square centi)eter cross section an$ of a length such that light8 tra-eling at a rate of three hun$re$ thousan$s 2ilo)eters (er secon$8 .oul$ require one year to tra-erse it8 shoul$ .eigh 608 gra)s0 This is Hust a7out the .eigh of a (ris) of or$inary glass of the sa)e cross section an$ t.o centi)eters length .hich8 therefore8 )ay 7e assu)e$ as the equi-alent of the ether colu)n in a7sor(tion0 A colu)n of the ether one thousan$ ti)es longer .oul$ thus a7sor7 as )uch light as t.enty )eters of glass0 Ho.e-er8 there are suns at $istances of )any thousan$s of light years an$ it is e-i$ent that -irtually no light fro) the) can reach the earth0 3ut if these suns e)it rays i))ensely )ore (enetrati-e than those of light they .ill 7e slightly $i))e$ an$ so the aggregate a)ount of ra$iations (ouring u(on the earth fro) all si$es .ill 7e o-er.hel)ingly greater than that su((lie$ to it 7y our lu)inary0 ,f light an$ heat rays .oul$ 7e as (enetrati-e as the cos)ic8 so fierce .oul$ 7e the (er(etual glare an$ so scorching the heat that life on this an$ other (lanets coul$ not e'ist0 +ays in e-ery res(ect si)ilar to the cos)ic are (ro$uce$ 7y )y -acuu) tu7es .hen o(erate$ at (ressures of ten )illions of -olts or )ore8 7ut e-en if it .ere not confir)e$ 7y e'(eri)ent8 the theory , a$-ance$ in 189* .oul$ affor$ the si)(lest an$ )ost (ro7a7le e'(lanation of the (heno)ena0 ,s not the uni-erse .ith its infinite an$ i)(enetra7le 7oun$ary a (erfect -acuu) tu7e of $i)ensions an$ (o.er inconcei-a7leF Are not its fiery suns electro$es at te)(eratures far 7eyon$ any .e can a((ly in the (uny an$ cru$e contri-ances of our )a2ingF ,s it not a fact that the suns an$ stars are un$er i))ense electrical (ressures transcen$ing any that )an can e-er (ro$uce an$ is this not equally true of the -acuu) in celestial s(aceF Finally8 can there 7e any $ou7t that cos)ic $ust an$ )eteoric )atter (resent an infinitu$e of targets acting as reflectors an$ transfor)ers of energyF ,f un$er i$eal .or2ing con$itions8 an$ .ith a((aratus on a scale 7eyon$ the gras( of the hu)an )in$8 rays of sur(assing intensity an$ (enetrati-e (o.er .oul$ not 7e generate$8 then8 in$ee$8 nature has )a$e an unique e'ce(tion to its la.s0 ,t has 7een suggeste$ that the cos)ic rays are electrons or that they are the result of creation of ne. )atter in the interstellar $eserts0 These -ie.s are too fantastic to 7e e-en for a )o)ent seriously consi$ere$0 They are natural outcro((ings of this age of $ee( 7ut unrational thin2ing8 of i)(ossi7le theories8 the latest of .hich )ight8 (erha(s8 $eal .ith the cur-ature of ti)e0 &hat this .orl$ of ours .oul$ 7e if ti)e .ere cur-e$I As there e'ists consi$era7le $ou7t in regar$ to the )anner in .hich the intensity of the cos)ic rays -aries .ith altitu$e the follo.ing si)(le for)ula $eri-e$ fro) )y early e'(eri)ental $ata )ay 7e .elco)e to those .ho are intereste$ in the su7Hect0 , L (&M< / (&M( ,n this e'(ression & is the .eight in 2ilogra)s of a colu)n of lea$ of one square centi)eter cross section an$ one hun$re$ an$ eighty centi)eters length8 < the nor)al (ressure of the at)os(here at sea le-el in 2ilogra)s (er square centi)eter8 ( the at)os(heric (ressure at the altitu$e un$er consi$eration an$ in li2e )easure an$ , the intensity of the ra$iation in ter)s of that at sea le-el .hich is ta2en as unit0 >u7stituting the actual -alues for & an$ <8 res(ecti-ely 109859 an$ 105133 2ilogra)s8 the for)ula re$uces to , L !0996!1 / (109859 M ( ;7-iously8 at sea le-el ( L < hence the intensity is equal to 18 this 7eing the unit of )easure)ent0 ;n the other han$8 at the e'tre)e li)it of the at)os(here ( L 5 an$ the intensity , L 1041140 The )a'i)u) increase .ith height is8 consequently8 a little o-er fifty9one (ercent0 This for)ula8 7ase$ on )y fin$ing that the a7sor(tion is (ro(ortionate to the $ensity of the )e$iu) .hate-er it 7e8 is fairly accurate0 ;ther in-estigators )ight fin$ $ifferent -alues for & 7ut they .ill un$ou7te$ly o7ser-e the sa)e character of $e(en$ence8 na)ely8 that the intensity increases (ro(ortionately to the height for a fe. 2ilo)eters an$ then at a gra$ually lessening rate0 Q Tesliana8 s(ec0 e$ition8 3elgra$e8 DC8 199408 (0 4% 9 490
1-99-06-05: Mr& Tesla Frites 4y Nikola Tesla

N. -. Evening 3ost To the "$itor of the "-ening <ostI >ir 9 /any of your rea$ers8 li2e )yself8 .ill feel in$e7te$ to you for your courageous an$ telling e$itorials relating to the in-estigation of the affairs of E0 <0 /organ O Co0 Dou ha-e con$e)ne$ these unfair (rocee$ings in ter)s none too strong0 Their un$ignifie$ character is 7rought into e-i$ence )ore an$ )ore8 an$ it is 7eco)ing a((arent e-en to the $ullest o7ser-er that the honour an$ re(utation of this fa)ous 7an2ing house is resting on a foun$ation as soli$ as the +oc2 of Gi7raltar0 <erha(s it is fortunate that this in-estigation has 7een (ushe$ so far8 for in these ti)es .hen confi$ence is )ost nee$e$8 the /organs8 in )eeting these attac2s8 )ay 7e ren$ering the country ser-ice of inesti)a7le -alue0 The general (u7lic has not e-en a re)ote i$ea of the (osition of this fir) as a factor in the $e-elo()ent of A)erica0 /ore than any other force8 they .ere instru)ental in the furtherance of A)erican interests throughout the .orl$ an$ in the 7uil$ing u( of this country's (o.er an$ (restige0 >cores an$ scores of -ast enter(rises coul$ not ha-e 7een carrie$ out 7ut for their financial assistance0 They hel(e$ "$ison in co))ercialiBing his in-entions an$ contri7ute$ to )y o.n scientific researches .ith (rincely generosity0 "$ison an$ )yself .ere only t.o a)ong hun$re$s of in-entors8 engineers8 artists an$ scientific )en .hose .or2 they )a$e (ossi7le0 They a$-ance$ ca(ital .hen all other $oors .ere close$8 sta7iliBe$ the )ar2ets an$ fought $e(ressions8 not half9 hearte$ly li2e others 7ut .ith all their energies an$ resources8 an$ at a (eril to the)sel-es0 &hat they ha-e a$$e$ to national .ealth staggers i)agination0 , .as inti)ately acquainte$ .ith the foun$er of this great house an$ 2no. that his s(irit is still .ith his successors0 He set the e'a)(le an$ they are en$ea-ouring to e)ulate hi) .ith al)ost religious fer-our0 <ersons .orthy of res(ect can 7e foun$ e-ery.here8 7ut , ha-e o7ser-e$ in the House of /organ a largeness8 no7ility an$ fir)ness of character the li2e of .hich is -ery scarce in$ee$ , can only s)ile .hen , rea$ of the atte)(ts to fin$ so)ething $iscre$ita7le in the transactions of E0 <0 /organ O Co0 1ot a hun$re$ of such in-estigations .ill e-er unco-er anything .hich an un(reHu$ice$ Hu$ge .oul$ not consi$er strictly honoura7le8 fair8 $ecent an$ in e-ery .ay confor)ing to the high i$eals an$ ethical stan$ar$s of 7usiness0 , .oul$ 7e .illing to sta2e )y life on it0 1,:;#A T">#A0 1e. Dor28 Eune !8 19330
1-99-0--10: Tremendous New 5ower Soon To ;e =nleas,ed 4y 2arol 4ird

6ansas 2ity 8ournal,3ost 1i2ola Tesla8 >tarting His *8th Dear8 &or2s on +e-olutionary <o.er <roHect an$ Also is Co)(leting <rocess for <hotogra(hing Thought <ro-ing his theory that a )an's efficiency an$ acco)(lish)ents shoul$ increase8 an$ not $i)inish .ith )ello. age'8 1i2ola Tesla8 in-entor8 (hysicist8 an$ one of the .orl$'s lea$ing electrical technicians8 enters his se-enty9 eighth year 7usily engage$ on three or four great scientific (roHects0 >e-eral of these in-entions or $isco-eries .ill 7e loo2e$ u(on as ")iracles" 7y )any (eo(le8 for /r0 Tesla has long 7een a scientist years ahea$ of his ti)e8 one .hose a$-ance$ theories ha-e alternately sta)(e$ hi) a ")a$)an" an$ a .iBar$0 Eust as (eo(le ri$icule$ Co(ernicus' theory of the (lanetary syste)8 the unenlightene$ Heere$ Tesla's acco)(lish)ent8 years ago8 regar$ing cos)ic rays0 The (athfin$er an$ the (ioneer 9 an$ /r0 Tesla is 7oth 9 are al.ays con$e)ne$ 7y the )asses0 1i2ola Tesla8 tall8 lean8 .ith the face of an aesthetic an$ $ee(9$ash set eyes8 .hose e'(ression $enotes concentration on a can-as of .or2 too 7ig for )ost (eo(le's co)(rehension8 (artially $escri7e$ a ne. an$ ine'hausti7le source of (o.er he has $isco-ere$ after years of research8 re-olutioniBing )o$ern (hysical science0 At the sa)e ti)e he touche$ on his o.n reser-oir of energy .hich )a2es such )onu)ental $isco-eries (ossi7le at his a$-ance$ age0 Ho. $oes he ta( 7oth these $ee( .ellsF &hat is the secret of fine health8 2een )in$8 unusual -itality an$ )ental force at **8 the ti)e of life .hen )ost )en are sitting in the sun .ith sha.ls o-er their 2nees or8 alasI lying 7eneath the so$F /r0 Tesla is the father of the alternating syste) of (o.er trans)ission an$ ra$io8 the in$uction )otor an$ Tesla coil0 As2e$ a7out his startling ne. scientific $isco-eries8 one of .hich concerns the "(hotogra(hing of thought8" .hich .ill8 he )aintains8 7ring a7out a tre)en$ous social re-olution8 he sai$I "/y first an$ )ost i)(ortant $isco-ery concerns the harnessing of a ne. source of (o.er8 hitherto una-aila7le8 to 7e $e-elo(e$ through fun$a)entally no-el )achines of )y in-ention0 ", a) not yet (re(are$ to $.ell on the $etails of the (roHect8 for they )ust 7e chec2e$ 7efore )y fin$ings can 7e for)ally announce$0 , ha-e .or2e$ on the $e-elo()ent of the un$erlying (rinci(les for )any years0 Fro) the (ractical (oint of -ie. of the engineer engage$ in (o.er $e-elo()ent8 the first in-est)ent .ill 7e relati-ely -ery great8 7ut once a )achine is installe$ it )ay 7e $e(en$e$ on to function in$efinitely8 an$ the cost of o(eration .ill 7e ne't to nothing0 "/y (o.er generator .ill 7e of the si)(lest 2in$ 9 Hust a 7ig )ass of steel8 co((er an$ alu)iniu)8 co)(rising a stationary an$ rotating (art8 (eculiarly asse)7le$0 , a) (lanning to $e-elo( electricity an$ trans)it it to a $istance 7y )y alternating syste) no. uni-ersally esta7lishe$0 The $irect current syste) coul$ also 7e e)(loye$ if the heretofore insu(era7le $ifficulties of insulating the trans)ission lines can 7e o-erco)e0 ">uch a source of (o.er o7taina7le e-ery.here .ill sol-e )any (ro7le)s .ith .hich the hu)an race is confronte$0 /y alternating syste) has 7een the )eans of harnessing 3585558555 horse(o.er of .ater(o.er8 an$ there are (roHects no. going on all o-er the .orl$ .hich .ill e-entually $ou7le that a)ount0 3ut8 unfortunately8 there is not enough .ater (o.er to satisfy the (resent nee$s8 an$ e-ery.here in-entors an$ engineers are en$ea-ouring to unloc2 so)e a$$itional store of energy0" 3eyon$ a$$ing that the ne. for) of energy .hich he has 7een in-estigating )any years .oul$ 7e a-aila7le at any (lace in the .orl$ in unli)ite$ quantities8 an$ that the )achinery for harnessing it .oul$ last )ore than 48555 years0 /r0 Tesla .oul$ say little )ore on the su7Hect0 Eust .hen the (o.er .ill 7eco)e a-aila7le for (ractical (ur(oses he coul$ not (re$ict .ith any $egree of (recision0 ,n a fe. years8 (erha(s8 he -enture$ to say0 /r0 Tesla then tal2e$ of se-eral (roHects on .hich he has 7een .or2ing 7y .ay of relief fro) too )uch concentration on the )ain (iece of .or20 He $escri7e$ one of his other interests8 one highly $ra)atic8 .hich stirs
the i)agination an$ .hich8 $ou7tless8 .ill soun$ too re-olutionary to )ost (eo(le0 3ut it )ust not 7e forgotten8 as /r0 Tesla (oints out8 that the i$eas of tele-ision an$ ra$io an$ air(lane .ere scoffe$ at in their infancy 0 ", e'(ect to (hotogra(h thoughts8" announce$ /r0 Tesla cal)ly8 in the sa)e tone of -oice that a (erson occu(ie$ .ith so)e tri-ial things in the sche)e of life )ight announce that it .as going to rain0 Continue$ /r0 TeslaI ",n 18938 .hile engage$ in certain in-estigations8 , 7eca)e con-ince$ that a $efinite i)age for)e$ in thought )ust8 7y refle' action8 (ro$uce a corres(on$ing i)age on the retina8 .hich )ight (ossi7ly 7e rea$ 7y suita7le a((aratus0 This 7rought )e to )y syste) of tele-ision8 .hich , announce$ at that ti)e0 "/y i$ea .as to e)(loy an artificial retina recei-ing the i)age of the o7Hect seen8 an 'o(tic ner-e' an$ another such retina at the (lace of re(ro$uction0 These t.o retinas .ere to 7e constructe$ after the fashion of a chec2er7oar$ .ith )any se(arate little sections8 an$ the so9calle$ o(tic ner-e .as nothing )ore than a (art of the earth0 "An in-ention of )ine ena7les )e to trans)it si)ultaneously8 an$ .ithout any interference .hatsoe-er8 hun$re$s of thousan$s of $istinct i)(ulses through the groun$ Hust as though , ha$ so )any se(arate .ires0 , $i$ not conte)(late using any )o-ing (art 9 a scanning a((aratus or a catho$ic ray8 .hich is a sort of )o-ing $e-ice8 the use of .hich , suggeste$ in one of )y lectures0 "1o. if it 7e true that a thought reflects an i)age on the retina8 it is a )ere question of illu)inating the sa)e (ro(erty an$ ta2ing (hotogra(hs8 an$ then using the or$inary )etho$s .hich are a-aila7le to (roHect the i)age on a screen0 ",f this can 7e $one successfully8 then the o7Hects i)agine$ 7y a (erson .oul$ 7e clearly reflecte$ on the screen as they are for)e$8 an$ in this .ay e-ery thought of the in$i-i$ual coul$ 7e rea$0 ;ur )in$s .oul$ then8 in$ee$8 7e li2e o(en 7oo2s0" 3esi$es his $isco-eries concerning the harnessing of the ne. energy8 tele-ision an$ thought (hotogra(hy8 /r0 Tesla is .or2ing to (ro$uce a ty(e of ra$io trans)itter .hich .ill insure the strictest (ri-acy in .ireless co))unication regar$less of the nu)7er of su7scri7ers8 an$ he is $e-elo(ing so)e i)(ortant $isco-eries in )olecular (hysics .hich .ill re-olutioniBe the science of )etallurgy an$ greatly i)(ro-e )etals0 After a $iscussion of his ne. scientific fin$ings8 /r0 Tesla turne$ to the su7Hect of his (ersonal source of energy an$ .hat he consi$ers the real -alues of life0 ";ne of the )ost fun$a)ental an$ also one of the sa$$est facts in hu)an life is .ell 7rought out in a French (ro-er7 .hich8 freely translate$8 )eansI ',f youth ha$ the 2no.le$ge an$ age the (o.er of $oing8"' sai$ /r0 Tesla "our con$ition of 7o$y an$ )in$ in ol$ age if )erely a certificate of ho. .e ha-e s(ent our youth0 The secret of )y o.n strength an$ -itality to$ay is that in )y youth , le$ .hat you )ight call a -irtuous life0 ", ha-e ne-er $issi(ate$0 &hen , .as a young )an , un$erstoo$ .ell the significance of that ol$ French (ro-er78 although , $ou7t that , ha$ e-en hear$ it then0 3ut , see) to ha-e a clear un$erstan$ing .hile still young that , )ust control )y (assions an$ a((etites if , .ante$ to )a2e so)e of )y $rea)s co)e true0 ">o .ith this in -ie.8 quite early in life , set a7out $isci(lining )yself8 (lanning out a (rogra) of li-ing for .hat , consi$ere$ the )ost sane an$ .orth.hile life0 ">ince , lo-e )y .or2 a7o-e all things8 it is only natural that , shoul$ .ish to continue it until , $ie0 , .ant no -acation 9 no surcease fro) )y la7ours0 ,f (eo(le .oul$ select a life .or2 co)(ati7le .ith their te)(era)ents8 the su) total of ha((iness .oul$ 7e i))easura7ly increase$ in the .orl$0 "/any are sa$$ene$ an$ $e(resse$ 7y the 7re-ity of life0 '&hat is the use of atte)(ting to acco)(lish anythingF' they say0 '#ife is so short0 &e )ay ne-er life to see the co)(letion of the tas20' &ell8 (eo(le coul$ (rolong their li-es consi$era7ly if they .oul$ 7ut )a2e the effort0 Hu)an 7eings $o so )any things that (a-e the .ay to an early gra-e0 "First of all8 .e eat too )uch 8 7ut this .e ha-e hear$ sai$ often 7efore0 An$ .e eat the .rong 2in$s of foo$s an$ $rin2 the .rong 2in$s of liqui$s0 /ost of the har) is $one 7y o-ereating an$ un$er e'ercising8 .hich 7ring a7out to'ic con$itions in the 7o$y an$ )a2e it i)(ossi7le to thro. off the accu)ulate$ (oisons0 "/y regi)e for the goo$ life an$ )y $ietF &ell8 for one thing8 , $rin2 (lenty of )il2 an$ .ater0 "&hy o-er7ur$en the 7o$ies that ser-e usF , eat 7ut t.o )eals a $ay8 an$ , a-oi$ all aci$9(ro$ucing foo$s0 Al)ost e-eryone eats too )any (eas an$ 7eans an$ other foo$s containing uric aci$ an$ other (oisons0 , (arta2e li7erally of fresh -egeta7les8 fish an$ )eat s(aringly8 an$ rarely0 Fish is re(ute$ as fine 7rain foo$8 7ut
has a -ery strong aci$ reaction8 as it contains a great $eal of (hos(horus0 Aci$ity is 7y far the .orst ene)y to fight off in ol$ age0 "<otatoes are s(len$i$8 an$ shoul$ 7e eaten at least once a $ay0 They contain -alua7le )ineral salts an$ are neutraliBing0 ", 7elie-e in (lenty of e'ercise0 , .al2 eight or ten )iles e-ery $ay8 an$ ne-er ta2e a ca7 or other con-eyances .hen , ha-e the ti)e to use leg (o.er0 , also e'ercise in )y 7ath $aily8 for , thin2 that this is of great i)(ortance0 , ta2e a .ar) 7ath8 follo.e$ 7y a (rolonge$ col$ sho.er00 ">lee(F , scarcely e-er slee(0 , co)e of a longLli-e$ fa)ily8 7ut it is note$ for its (oor slee(ers0 , e'(ect to )atch the recor$s of )y ancestors an$ li-e to 7e at least 1550 "/y slee(lessness $oes not .orry )e0 >o)eti)es , $oBe for an hour or so0 ;ccasionally8 ho.e-er8 once in a fe. )onths8 , )ay slee( for four or fi-e hours0 Then , a.a2en -irtually charge$ .ith energy8 li2e a 7attery0 1othing can sto( )e after such a night0 , feel great strength then0 There is no $ou7t a7out it 7ut that slee( is a restorer8 a -italiser8 that it increases energy0 3ut on the other han$8 , $o not thin2 it is essential to one's .ell 7eing8 (articularly if one is ha7itually a (oor slee(er0 "To$ay8 at **8 as a result of a .ell regulate$ life8 slee(lessness not.ithstan$ing8 , ha-e an e'cellent certificate of health0 , ne-er felt 7etter in )y life0 , a) energetic8 strong8 in full (ossession of all )y )ental facilities0 ,n )y (ri)e , $i$ not (ossess the energy , ha-e to$ay0 An$ .hat is )ore8 in sol-ing )y (ro7le)s , use 7ut a s)all (art of the energy , (ossess8 for , ha-e learne$ ho. to conser-e it0 3ecause of )y e'(erience an$ 2no.le$ge gaine$ through the years8 )y tas2s are )uch lighter0 Contrary to general 7elief8 .or2 co)es easier for ol$er (eo(le if they are in goo$ health8 7ecause they ha-e learne$ through years of (ractice ho. to arri-e at a gi-en (lace 7y the shortest (ath0"
1-99-11-0": Tesla 20arnesses2 Cosmi( *nergy

3hiladel*hia 3ublic %edger ,n-entor Announces =isco-ery of <o.er to =is(lace Fuel in =ri-ing /achinery Calls >un /ain >ource A (rinci(le 7y .hich (o.er for $ri-ing the )achinery of the .orl$ )ay 7e $eri-e$ fro) the cos)ic energy .hich o(erates the uni-erse8 has 7een $isco-ere$ 7y 1i2ola Tesla8 note$ (hysicist an$ in-entor of scientific $e-ices8 he announce$ to$ay0 This (rinci(le8 .hich ta(s a source of (o.er $escri7e$ as "e-ery.here (resent in unli)ite$ quantities" an$ .hich )ay 7e trans)itte$ 7y .ire or .ireless fro) central (lants to any (art of the glo7e8 .ill eli)inate the nee$ of coal8 oil8 gas or any other of the co))on fuels8 he sai$0 =r0 Tesla in a state)ent to$ay at his hotel in$icate$ the ti)e .as not far $istant .hen the (rinci(le .oul$ 7e rea$y for (ractical co))ercial $e-elo()ent0 As2e$ .hether the su$$en intro$uction of his (rinci(le .oul$ u(set the (resent econo)ic syste)8 =r0 Tesla re(lie$8 ",t is 7a$ly u(set alrea$y0" He a$$e$ that no. as ne-er 7efore .as the ti)e ri(e for the $e-elo()ent of ne. resources0 &hile in its (resent for) the theory calls for the $e-elo()ent of the energy in central (lants requiring -ast )achinery8 =r0 Tesla sai$ he )ight 7e a7le to .or2 out a (lan for its use 7y in$i-i$uals0 The central source of cos)ic energy for the earth is the sun8 =r0 Tesla sai$8 7ut "night .ill not interru(t the flo. of the ne. (o.er su((ly0"
1-9/-09-00: 5ossi1ilities of *le(tro-Stati( Benerators 4y Nikola Tesla

&cientific American
The Gan $e Graaff generator8 sho.n house$ in an aircraft hangar8 is $iscusse$ 7y =r0 Tesla in the acco)(anying article0
The 2no.le$ge of static electricity $ates 7ac2 to the earliest $a.n of ci-iliBation 7ut for ages it re)aine$ )erely an interesting an$ )ystifying (heno)enon0 Girtually nothing .as $one to.ar$s the $e-elo()ent an$ useful a((lication of the (rinci(le0 The first $istinct sti)ulus in this $irection .as gi-en 7y the $isco-eries of Fran2lin an$ #ey$en in the latter (art of the 18th Century0 ,n 1*** Ca-allo $e-ise$ a cylin$rical friction )achine an$ fro) that ti)e on there .as a slo. 7ut stea$y e-olution of friction an$ influence )achines until the )o$ern &i)shurst8 HoltB8 Toe(ler8 an$ other ty(es .ere (ro$uce$0 A)ong these )achines the one in-ente$ 7y &o))els$orf 35 years ago .as8 (ro7a7ly8 the )ost effecti-e0 ,t yiel$e$ a current of si'9tenths of a )illi9a)(ere an$ in the (resent state of science it coul$ 7e successfully e)(loye$ for charging large aerial ca(acities an$ ste((ing u( its ter)inal tension of 1458555 to )any )illions of -olts0
1u)erous atte)(ts ha-e also 7een )a$e to generate static electricity 7y friction of flui$s an$ soli$ (articles 7ut fro) the earliest recor$s to this $ay the 7elt has (ro-e$ to 7e the si)(lest an$ )ost con-enient )eans for the (ur(ose0 >tatic electricity fro) this source gaine$ in i)(ortance .hen e-i$ences accu)ulate$ that it .as ca(a7le of interfering seriously .ith o(erations an$ causing acci$ents in (a(er factories8 flour )ills8 an$ si)ilar esta7lish)ents0 ,n the early nineties )y electro$eless -acuu) tu7es 7eca)e e'tre)ely (o(ular an$ .ere frequently lighte$ fro) 7elts an$ later +oentgen tu7es .ere o(erate$ in the sa)e )anner0 ,t is quite easy to i)(ro-ise such a generator an$ o7tain interesting results un$er fa-oura7le at)os(heric con$itions0
#oo2ing u( through one of the insulating colu)ns of the Gan $e Graaff generator8 sho.ing the en$less (acer 7elt
A re)ar2a7le $e-ice of this 2in$8 e)7o$ying ne. features8 has 7een recently $e-elo(e$ 7y =r0 +0 E0 Gan $e Graaff at the /assachusetts ,nstitute of Technology8 an$ is attracting e'traor$inary attention0 (>ee (age 9%8 Fe7ruary8 19368 >C,"1T,F,C A/"+,CA10 9 "$0 ,t is haile$ as a re-olutionary in-ention .ith .hich .on$ers .ill 7e achie-e$0 The technical (a(ers refer to it as a Colossus8 a /aster :ey e'(ecte$ to unloc2 the secrets of nature0 1aturally enough i)aginati-e scri7es ha-e 7uilt >(anish castles on this foun$ation0 >o it co)es that e-en such an a7ly e$ite$ (a(er as The 1ear Dor2 Ti)es infor)s its rea$ers of a conte)(late$ use of this generator for long $istance trans)ission of (o.er0 Accor$ing to a 7ona fi$e re(ort in its issue of =ece)7er 48 19338 "the (ossi7ilities of the colossal generator ha-e 7een .or2e$ out in theory an$ it no. re)ains to a((ly it in (ractice0" Ho.e-er -isionary this sche)e )ay a((ear it is not a7solutely i)(ossi7le0 A .ise /ace$onian 2ing sai$I "1o .all is so high that a )ule loa$e$ .ith gol$ coul$ not Hu)( o-er it0" &ith unli)ite$ ca(ital an$
regar$less of returns8 it )ight 7e carrie$ out0 ,n -ie. of )any articles an$ e$itorials .ritten in the sa)e -ein8 .hich ha-e a)aBe$ the lay)an an$ a)use$ the e'(ert8 it )ay not 7e a)iss to e'a)ine the )erits of this o$$ contri-ance in the light of .ell $e)onstrate$ scientific facts0 3ut first , .ant to (oint out an a((arent $iscre(ancy in the $escri(ti-e re(orts an$ (hotogra(hs sho.ing the a((aratus in action8 .hich is illustrate$ in the acco)(anying (hotogra(hs8 an$ consists of t.o alu)iniu) s(heres 14 feet in $ia)eter su((orte$ on insulating colu)ns si' feet in $ia)eter0 "lectricity is su((lie$ to the s(heres 7y (a(er 7elts charge$ fro) a "s(rayer0" &ith ter)inals of such $i)ensions )uch higher -oltages shoul$ 7e o7taine$0 ,n )ost of the treatises it is assu)e$ that the surface $ensity8 that is8 the quantity of electricity store$ (er square centi)etre of a s(herical con$uctor8 can not e'cee$ eight electrostatic units .ithout 7rea29$o.n of the surroun$ing air0 As a )atter of fact the $ensity can 7e (ushe$ u( to !5 units 7efore (o.er9 consu)ing strea)ers a((ear0
Another -ie. of the high9-oltage generator0 Trac2s are (ro-i$e$ so the equi()ent )ay 7e rolle$ into the o(en
This 7eing the case8 the li)iting -oltage of a s(here ha-ing a $ia)eter of 14 feet shoul$ 7e 1%89%68*55 an$8 consequently8 the (otential $ifference 7et.een t.o such o((ositely charge$ s(heres8 -ery far a(art is 3389!98655 -olts0 ,t )ay 7e useful to state8 ho.e-er8 that such large s(heres (lace$ at a $istance of 44 feet 7et.een centres8 as conte)(late$8 .ill influence each other to a consi$era7le e'tent8 increasing their ca(acities0
At this $istance the increase .ill 7e a7out 1% (ercent8 .hich shoul$ 7e ta2en into consi$eration .hen esti)ating the charge0 The $esire$ $ifference of (otential coul$ 7e o7taine$ .ith )uch s)aller s(heres an$ it .oul$ see) (refera7le to e)(loy the) as they .oul$ yiel$ s(ar2s in quic2er succession0 >o)e of the (hotogra(hs un$er the ter)inal (ressure of *85558555 -olts are (uBBling 7ecause the surface $ensity in this case .as only a little o-er 6 electrostatic units0 Further)ore8 s(ar2s are sho.n to (ass co(iously along the insulating su((orts0 This is a serious $ifficulty encountere$ in .or2ing .ith -ery high tensions 7ut 7y (ro(erly sha(ing the un$er si$e of the s(here an$ resting it on a su((ort .ell u( in its interior8 7esi$es (ro-i$ing a li7eral si$e clearance8 the $ischarges are (re-ente$ fro) follo.ing the colu)n an$ no further trou7le is e'(erience$ e-en .ith the highest (otentials0 /y .ireless to.er on #ong ,slan$8 erecte$ in 195!8 carrie$ a s(here .hich ha$ a $ia)eter of %*! feet an$ .as )ounte$ in this )anner0 ,t .as to 7e charge$ to 3585558555 -olts 7y a si)(le $e-ice for su((lying static electricity an$ (o.er0 /ost (eo(le8 an$ not a fe. electricians8 .ill thin2 that -ery long an$ noisy s(ar2s are in$icati-e of great energy8 .hich is far fro) 7eing the case0 An i)(ressi-e $is(lay of this 2in$8 at se-eral )illion -olts8 can 7e rea$ily o7taine$ .ith any .i$e leather or fa7ric 7elt in $ry .eather0 The only require)ent is that the out.ar$ surfaces of the highly charge$ ca(acity ele)ents 7e arrange$ along an i$eal 7oun$ary e-ery.here of s)all cur-ature0 3ut the electrical energy is trifling an$ this a((lies to all electrostatic generators .hich ha-e 7een (ro(ose$8 irres(ecti-e of siBe0 ;ne $oes not nee$ 7e an e'(ert to un$erstan$ that a $e-ice of this 2in$ is not a (ro$ucer of electricity8 li2e a $yna)o8 7ut )erely a recei-er or collector .ith a)(lifying qualities0 All its energy is $eri-e$ fro) electricity .hich is generate$ through friction or su((lie$ 7y the s(rayer an$ (u)(e$ into the ter)inals 7y the 7elts0 ,f the colu)ns .ere as tall as the ")(ire >tate 3uil$ing an$ the s(heres 455 feet in $ia)eter the )onstrous )achine coul$ not ha-e any )ore energy than is su((lie$ to it 7y the electrifie$ 7elts an$ no )atter ho. )uch i)(ro-e$8 this ty(e is fatally $oo)e$ to s)all out(ut an$ lo. efficiency on account of the e'isting li)itations an$ the .astefulness of the (rocess of con-eying the charges fro) their sources to the ter)inals0 As the .riters of articles regar$ing the "Colossus" confine the)sel-es to controlling its siBe8 -oltage an$ (ossi7ilities8 7ut gi-e little hint regar$ing its )o$e of o(eration an$ (o.er (erfor)ance8 , shall en$ea-our to a$-ance the nee$e$ 2no.le$ge0 &ith this o7Hect let it 7e assu)e$ that the s(heres are (lace$ at a $istance of 44 feet fro) centre to centre an$ that the (otential $ifference 7et.een the) is 1585558555 -olts0 ;r$inarily8 the electric ca(acity of such a s(here is equal to its ra$ius8 na)ely !!4 centi)etres8 7ut as 7efore e'(laine$8 1% (ercent shoul$ 7e a$$e$ to this 8 )a2ing !%1 centi)etres equi-alent to 50555!9 )icrofara$0 Consequently8 .hen the regi)e is esta7lishe$8 each s(here 7eing at a (otential of 485558555 -olts8 the electricity store$ on each .ill 7e 5055164 coulo)70 ,f this quantity .ere su((lie$ e-ery secon$8 the current .oul$ 7e 5055164 a)(ere0 An incan$escent la)( of !4 .atts requires a current 145 ti)es )ore intense0 ,n esti)ating the a)ount of electricity furnishe$ to each ter)inal (er secon$8 only the s(rayer nee$ 7e consi$ere$ as it su((lies )uch )ore than coul$ 7e generate$ 7y friction of the 7elts0 The $e-ice use$ has not 7een clearly $escri7e$ 7ut it is sufficient for the (ur(ose of this $issertation to 2no. that it o(erates at !58555 -olts an$ energiBes8 through ro.s of (oints8 the t.o 7elts .hich are sai$ to 7e four feet8 or 1!5 centi)etres8 .i$e0 Assu)ing that they are run at a s(ee$ of 155 feet or 38555 centi)etres (er secon$8 the area co-ere$ in this ti)e inter-al .oul$ 7e 1!5 ' 38555 L 3%58555 square centi)etres0 ,f it .ere (ossi7le to charge the 7elts unifor)ly to a surface $ensity anything li2e that e'isting on an electrifie$ (article8 the out(ut of the )achine .oul$ 7e -ery great0 3ut this can ne-er 7e realiBe$0 The follo.ing a((ro'i)ate esti)ate .ill sho. .hat )ay 7e reasona7ly e'(ecte$0 The $ischarge of electricity fro) (oints has 7een e'tensi-ely in-estigate$ an$ fro) the $ata a-aila7le an$ )y o.n o7ser-ations , fin$ that the current through each (oint at !58555 -olts .ill 7e a7out 505551%44 a)(ere0 1o a$-antage .oul$ 7e gaine$ 7y a -ery close s(acing of the (oints on account of their )utual reaction 7ut , shall )a2e allo.ance for as great a nu)7er as see)s (ractica7le8 say8 !558 in .hich case the integral current .oul$ 7e !55 ' 505551%44 L 505331 a)(ere0 1o.8 electricity is transferre$ fro) the (oints to the 7elt 7y )inute 7o$ily carriers 9 the )olecules of the air0 &hen such an electrifie$ (article co)es in contact .ith a large con$ucting 7o$y it gi-es u( al)ost all of its charge to the sa)e8 7ut to an insulator8 as the 7elt8 it can i)(art only a -ery s)all (ortion o.ing to the strong re(ulsion 7et.een the charge $e(osite$ an$ that re)aining on the (article0 Fro) theoretical consi$erations it a((ears that the (art usefully a((lica7le .ill8 in all (ro7a7ility8 not e'cee$ 1/145 of the .hole charge on any (article thro.n against the 7elt0 The current fro) the s(rayer is 505331 a)(ere8 that is to say8 it con-eys a total charge of 505331 coulo)7 (er secon$ an$ of this the 7elt .ill carry off only 50555!! coulo)7 equi-alent to a current of 50555!!
a)(ere0 This )eans that 99033 (ercent of the energy su((lie$ 7y the s(rayer is lost8 an$ illustrates the a((alling inefficiency of this )etho$ of electrification0 As .ill 7e seen8 the $e-ice $eli-ers to each 7elt energy at the insignificant rate of 606 .atts an$ is8 therefore8 -irtually of no effect on the (o.er out(ut of the )achine e'ce(t that it i)(oses a li)it to the sa)e0 This is i)(ortant to re)e)7er in -ie. of the general i)(ression create$ 7y the earlier re(orts that all energy is $ra.n fro) the s(rayer0 >ince the quantity of electricity store$ on the s(heres re)ains constant it is e-i$ent that the o-erflo. current 7et.een the) un$er nor)al .or2ing con$itions )ust 7e 50555!! a)(ere so that at the (otential $ifference of 1585558555 -olts the )achine shoul$ $e-elo( !!55 .atts0 As the su((ly fro) the e'citer is entirely negligi7le the questions .ill 7e as2e$I &hence co)e energy an$ (o.erF Ho. is it (ro$uce$F The ans.er is si)(le0 ,t is $eri-e$ fro) the 7elts .hich (erfor) the .or2 of trans(orting the charges i)(arte$ to the) against the re(ulsion e'erte$ 7y the s(heres0 This force can 7e a((ro'i)ately $eter)ine$0 The (er)anent charge on a s(here .ill 7e8 as sho.n a7o-e8 5055164 coulo)7 or 683458 555 electrostatic units0 3ut 1% (ercent of this quantity is "7oun$" an$ shoul$ 7e left out of consi$eration0 &ith $ue regar$ to the o(ening on the un$ersi$e8 the free ca(acity of each ter)inal )ay 7e esti)ate$ !!! centi)etres8 so that at fi-e )illion -olts A L !!! ' 485558555/355 L 38*558555 electrostatic units0 The )o-ing charge .ill 7e $istri7ute$ o-er a length of the 7elt a7out equal to the height of the insulating colu)n an$ .ith so)e allo.ances it )ay 7e ta2en at !6 feet0 Assu)ing a 7elt s(ee$ of %555 feet (er )inute this $istance .ill 7e tra-erse$ in 50!6 of a secon$ an$8 consequently the 7elt charge to 7e consi$ere$ is 50!6 of the .hole carrie$ (er secon$J that is8 5055554!8 coulo)7 or 1488655 electrostatic units0 The u((er en$ of the charge$ area is * 1/! feet an$ the lo.er 31 1/! feet fro) the centre of the s(here0 The for)er is thus r L !!4 c0)0 an$ the latter $ L 964 c0)0 The charge$ area of the 7elt 7eing 1!5 ' *!5 L 8%655 c0)08 it follo.s that the $ensity of the charge is 148655/8%655 L 108333 electrostatic units0 Accor$ingly8 if the $istri7ution of the charge is (erfectly unifor) a trans-ersal stri( of the 7elt one centi)etre long .ill contain a quantity q L 1!5 ' 108333 L !!5 e0s0u0 Consi$ering no. a surface ele)ent of -anishing length $'8 the charge on the sa)e .ill 7e q$' L !!5 $' e0s0 units of quantity an$ that on the s(here 7eing A L 38*5558555 e0s0 units8 the re(ulsi-e force acting on the surface ele)ent at a $istance ' fro) the centre of the s(here8 .ill 7e Aq/! $'0 ,ntegrating this e'(ression 7et.een the li)its r an$ $8 an$ su7stituting the -alues for A an$ q8 the force re(elling the charge$ si$e of the 7elt is foun$ to 7e F0L Aq($9r /r$ L !8*4%86!5 $ynes or !081593 2ilogra)s0 At a s(ee$ of 155 feet or 35 )eters (er secon$ the .or2 is 8603!*9 2ilogra) )eters (er secon$8 equi-alent to 508!%91 2ilo.att0 3oth 7elts .ill therefore (erfor) the .or2 of 10%438! 2ilo.atts0 This is 33 (ercent less than the theoretical electrical acti-ity of the )achine an$ as the (o.er $e-elo(e$ 7y the 7elts )ust 7e8 at least8 equal to the electric (o.er one is a(t to reach the conclusion that the suc2ing (oints $o not $ra. off the entire charge8 as has 7een tacitly assu)e$8 an$ the current8 instea$ of 7eing 50555!! .ill 7e (ro(ortionately s)aller8 that is8 505551%46 a)(ere0 3ut this -ie. is foun$ untena7le for the li)it to (erfor)ance is i)(ose$ 7y natural la. an$ not 7y the $efects of a $e-ice .hich8 )oreo-er8 coul$ 7e rea$ily i)(ro-e$0 The $iscre(ancy 7et.een the calculate$ (o.er of the 7elts an$ the electric acti-ity of the )achine .as all the )ore (uBBling as the t.o quantities coul$ not 7e har)oniBe$ 7y i)agining any 2in$ of theoretical .or2ing con$itions0 Finally8 ho.e-er8 , recogniBe$ that the charge can not 7e unifor)ly $istri7ute$ on the 7elt 7ut )ust increase fro) the lo.er to the u((er (ortion of the sa)e0 ,n$ee$8 such an effect )ight ha-e 7een e'(ecte$ although the surface charge on an insulating 7o$y is not -ery )o7ile0 >u((osing that the 7elt carrie$ a fil) of oil )eeting .ith a $o.n.ar$ current of air0 The o7-ious result .oul$ 7e a thic2ening of the fil) to.ar$ the to(0 >i)ilarly8 the electric fil) on the 7elt is "thic2ene$" through the re(ulsion e'erte$ 7y the ter)inal an$ the atten$ant (iling u( of the charge an$ it is only so that the e'act 7alance 7et.een the )echanical an$ electrical (o.er can 7e8 un$er all con$itions8 auto)atically esta7lishe$0 (>ee e'(lanatory note on (age 1%40 The equality of these t.o quantities is an a7solute an$ ine-ita7le consequence of the la. of conser-ation of energy8 the re)ar2a7le feature of this (rocess of $yna)o9electric transfor)ation 7eing that it is effecte$ .ith the highest efficiency8 a((arently .ithout e-olution of heat0 ;f course8 there are great losses in the o(eration of the )achine8 7ut they $o not concern the (rocess itself0 ,n an instru)ent $esigne$ (ri)arily for scientific in-estigation8 the efficiency is of relati-ely s)all i)(ortance an$ , shall $.ell on it for the sole (ur(ose of sho.ing that in any a((lication as a (o.er (ro$ucer such a generator .oul$ 7e ho(elessly han$ica((e$0 The air friction of the 7elts at a s(ee$ of 35 )eters (er secon$ .ill require a7out 30*3 2ilo.att0 &ith the re(ulsion .or28 the loa$ on the) .ill 7e 4093 2ilo.att0 Cn$er the .or2ing con$itions as outline$8 the 7elt $ri-e )ay ha-e an efficiency of 95 (ercent an$ the )otor 84 (ercent so that energy .ill 7e $ra.n fro) the electric )ains at the rate of *0*4 2ilo.att0 The net (erfor)ance of the s(rayer at !58555 -olts .ill 7e 103!6 2ilo.att 7ut ta2ing into account the efficiency of the .hole a((aratus8 at least 10% 2ilo.att )ust 7e assu)e$0 There are also $ielectric8 )agnetic8 an$ ra$iation losses8 )a2ing the total (o.er in(ut8 (erha(s8 904 2ilo.att .hile the out(ut is only !0! 2ilo.att0 ,f this esti)ate is reasona7ly a((ro'i)ate8 an0 o-er9all efficiency of
!3 (ercent is a7out as high as can 7e e'(ecte$ fro) any electrostatic generator of this 2in$0 ,t .as sho.n that the charge on each s(here at 485558555 -olts is 5055164 coulo)7 7ut as only 50555!! coulo)7 can 7e furnishe$ (er secon$8 it .ill ta2e a7out %0% secon$s to charge the s(heres to the full (otential0 , ha-e assu)e$ that the current fro) the s(rayer is continuous an$ not a rectifie$ one8 in .hich case the efficiency .ill 7e a((recia7ly s)aller0 The strea)ers fro) (ointe$ electro$es are generally9consi$ere$ as a sort of corona in-ol-ing an insignificant loss of energy8 7ut this -ie. is erroneous0 >uch a $ischarge is -ery concentrate$8 a((ro'i)ating an arc in intensity8 so )uch8 in fact8 that the heat e-ol-e$ so)eti)es i)(oses a li)it to the use of (oints0 ,n the a7sence of a $etaile$ $escri(tion8 the (erfor)ance of this sensational generator can not 7e closely $eter)ine$ an$ the actual results )ay 7e $ifferent fro) those , ha-e in$icate$8 7ut not greatly so0 &hile the energy su((ly )ay 7e increase$ 7y raising the tension of the s(rayer an$ increasing the nu)7er of the $ischarging an$ suc2ing (oints8 there are li)itations in this res(ect an$ it is (erfectly e-i$ent that8 no )atter ho. 7ig8 such a contri-ance is nothing )ore than a toy co)(are$ .ith the co))ercial )achines e)(loye$ in the transfor)ation an$ trans)ission of electrical energy0 ,n -ie. of this8 an$ the lo. efficiency8 its a((lication .ill 7e confine$ to scientific e'(eri)ents in .hich useful results )ay 7e achie-e$ either 7y a fee7le .or2ing current un$er high tension or 7y successi-e e'(losions0 The latter )etho$ see)s )ore (ro)ising 7ecause un$er (ro(er con$itions it is (ossi7le to $ischarge s(heres in a ti)e inter-al inco)(ara7ly shorter than consu)e$ in charging the) an$ so a)(lify enor)ously the intensity of the actions0 Any $e-ice $e(en$ing on static electricity carrie$ 7y a 7elt .ill fail in $a)( .eather an$ .ill ha-e to 7e o(erate$ in a close$ s(ace in .hich the air is (ro(erly con$itione$0 Also8 the 7elts are a(t to $eteriorate ra(i$ly through the action of oBone8 nitrous an$ nitric aci$ (ro$uce$ 7y the (oint $ischarge0 Although there is nothing ra$ically ne. in-ol-e$ in the construction an$ .or2ing of this high -oltage generator8 it is8 ne-ertheless8 a $istinct a$-ance o-er its (re$ecessors8 the result of a scholarly effort to.ar$s (ro$ucing an instru)ent suita7le for scientific research8 , thin2 though8 that .hate-er can 7e acco)(lishe$ .ith it 7y -irtue of the continuity of action8 can 7e e-en 7etter achie-e$ 7y the use of cos)ic rays0 /oreo-er8 the ti)e consu)e$ in the (assage of a charge$ (article fro) one to the other en$ of the tu7e is so 7rief that it )a2es (ractically no $ifference .hether the current is $irect or alternating0 ,n a-ailing oursel-es of the latter .e are $oing a.ay .ith all the li)itations as to -oltage an$ strength of the current an$8 consequently8 the intensity of the effects .hich it is the chief o7Hect to (ro$uce0 As far 7ac2 as 1899 , )a$e e'(eri)ents .ith 1885558555 -olts an$ in so)e tests , .as a7le to (ass a current of 1155 a)(eres through the air0 &ith )y transfor)ers a (otential $ifference of 3585558555 -olts8 or )ore8 coul$ 7e easily o7taine$ an$ in the (resent state of the technical arts a tu7e or other $e-ice ca(a7le of ta2ing u( -ery great energy )ight 7e )anufacture$0 , $o not say this in $is(arage)ent of electrostatic generatorsJ on the contrary8 , 7elie-e that .hen ne. ty(es are $e-elo(e$ an$ sufficiently i)(ro-e$ a great future .ill 7e assure$ to the)0 At first thought it )ight a((ear that the (erfor)ance of such a generator coul$ 7e $ou7le$ 7y using the free si$e of the 7elt for carrying a.ay electricity of o((osite sign0 ,n this case the re(ulsion on one si$e of the 7elt .oul$ 7e 7alance$ 7y the attraction on the other so that80 theoretically8 the s(heres coul$ 7e charge$ .ithout e'(en$iture of (o.er0 3ut this is contrary to fun$a)ental la.s of nature an$ it )ay8 therefore8 7e safely inferre$ that such a (lan .oul$ not .or20 >tatic electricity )ay 7e e-entually harnesse$ for $ri-ing )otors an$ this (ros(ect is attracti-e on account of the enor)ous (o.er out(ut of such a )achine at -ery high -oltages0 The efficient generation an$ control of these is the chief i)(e$i)ent in this $irection0 As an interesting e'(eri)ent the t.o units of the generator $escri7e$ )ight 7e se(arate$ an$ so an electric $ri-e i)(ro-ise$0 ,t .oul$ 7e o(erati-e 7ut inefficient0 &hile it is quite e-i$ent that e'ce(tionally fa-oura7le con$itions for accurate o7ser-ation .ill 7e realiBe$ in this instru)ent8 it is highly (ro7a7le that the atte)(ts to s)ash the ato)ic nucleus an$ to trans)ute ele)ents .ill yiel$ results of $ou7tful -alue0 Certainly8 )uch of the ingenuity an$ s2ill no. $e-ote$ to these illusionary tas2s )ight 7e 7etter e)(loye$0 The nucleus is a neutral 7o$y consisting of tightly (ac2e$ (articles of the sa)e 2in$ .hich .ere originally (ositi-e an$ negati-e0 &hen the 7o$y is s)ashe$ the (articles again acquire their charges8 .ithout $istinction an$ instantly for) neutral (airs so that .e ha-e nothing for our (ains0 ,t is folly to e'(ect useful results fro) trans)utation 7rought a7out through such 7o)7ar$ing of targets0 ,f anything of consi$era7le (ractical -alue is e-er achie-e$ in this $irection it .ill 7e 7y the use of quasi9intelligent agent causing a sorting an$ regi)entation of the (articles an$ their or$erly arrange)ent as require$ in the for)ation of a ne. structure0
>uch a (o.er is (ossesse$ 7y a catalyst an$ it .ill 7e e-entually harnesse$ an$ controlle$ successfully for all sorts of (ur(oses0 AuthorCs !eference The re)uired increment of density can be determined by a sim*le calculation. At the s*raying *oints+ due to their constant action+ there can be no change in the value 1.0::: found before+ but from there on the density "ill increase and at the very to* of the charged area it may be 1.0::: R a. &ince the la" of variation is )uite immaterial to this argument it may be assumed that the increment is *ro*ortionate to the distance from the s*raying *oints+ es*ecially as this is most likely to be the case. Dnder such conditions+ a transversal stri* of the belt one centimetre long and at a distance L from the centre of the s*here+ "ill contain a charge ) = 1?=M1.0:::Ra >d,x@S>d,r@N e.s.u. (ence the re*elling force exerted by the charge T on the terminal "ill be
F = Q R 1"0G18333 . +
r
d x dx H This integral can be readily solved by ex*anding and yields the value d r x"
9 = ?.KQ:K? R 1=00:Q.a dynes. The mechanical "ork at the normal belt s*eed of :=== centimetres *er second "ill+ conse)uently+ be e)uivalent to # = =.0?Q1=KQ R =.:?QK1=1a kilo"att seconds and must be e)ual to the electrical "ork of the machine "ith an overflo" current of =.===?? am*ere under a tension of K+===+=== volts namely+ 1.1 kilo"att seconds for each terminal so that a = >1.1 , =.0?Q1=KQ@S=.:?QK1=1 = =+0:Q< electro,static units. #ith this excess density and distribution of the charge as set forth+ the net *o"er of both belts+ ex*ressed in electrical units+ "ill be ?.? kilo"atts "hich is exactly the *erformance of the generator "ith the overflo" current of =.===?? am*ere and terminal tension of 1= ===+=== volts. It is evident that Pust as "ater finds its level so this balance is instantly established under all "orking conditions and is effected by a varying sli* of the charge that is to say+ by reduction or increase of its translatory velocity according to the changes of the load.
1-9/-0/-00: Ni.ola Tesla Frites 4y Nikola Tesla

&cientific American "$itor8 >cientific A)ericanI "ngineers attach no i)(ortance .hate-er to static electricity generate$ 7y 7elt friction or other.ise0 They are a(t to $is)iss it .ith the thought that the energy is infinitesi)al0 That is true0 A little .ater (u)(e$ through so)e Hoint in a 7ig lo.9(ressure )ain is of no consequence8 7ut in a (u)( $esigne$ for an e'tre)ely high (ressure an$ -ery s)all $eli-ery it is all9i)(ortant0 "'actly so in the electrical case0 The 7elt or equi-alent $e-ice is si)(ly a (u)( ca(a7le of forcing the )inute quantity of electricity (ro$uce$ into a con$enser against a (ressure an$ increasing the (o.er u( to a li)it of .or2ing ca(acity of the )eans e)(loye$0 Thus )echanical energy8 in any $esire$ a)ount8 can 7e transfor)e$ into electric energy yiel$ing $irect an$ constant currents of )any )illions of -olts0 3esi$es it -alue as an instru)ent of research8 the Gan $e Graaff generator .ill 7e hel(ful in sti)ulating the interest in this neglecte$ fiel$ of science an$ engineering .hich is of great (ro)ise0 /y co))ent u(on it (<age 13!8 /arch8 19368 >C,"1T,F,C A/"+,CA10 9 "$0 .as 7ase$ on (u7lications in .hich the $e-ice .as $escri7e$ in its (ri)iti-e for)0 1o signal i)(ro-e)ents .ere suggeste$ or )ention )a$e of the classical )etho$s for increasing the out(ut0 Accor$ing to the latest re(ort8 the nor)al (erfor)ance is no. !5 2ilo.atts8 fro) .hich , infer that the 7elts are run in a )e$iu) un$er (ressure e'cee$ing that of the at)os(here0 This is e-i$ent since at 15 2ilo.atts (er unit8 the $ensity of the charge on the 7elt8 confor)a7ly to )y calculations8 )ust 7e a7out 1%0%% at the s(raying an$ !60!* at the suc2ing (oints8 .hich is too high for or$inary con$itions0 ,n all (ro7a7ility8 an a7solute (ressure of 35 to 34 (oun$s (er square inch is use$ to (re-ent lea2age of the )o-ing charge0 This )etho$ .as first resorte$ to 7y He)(el in 1884 an$ )ore thoroughly in-estigate$ 7y #eh)ann in 18910 ;ther e'(eri)enters confir)e$ these early fin$ings an$ sho.e$ that the out(ut of a static generator is (ro(ortionate to the (ressure of the gas in .hich it is o(erate$0 A still 7etter .ay8 also 2no.n for )any years8 is to e)(loy a high -acuu) for the sa)e (ur(ose0 3oth of these )etho$s ha-e their $isa$-antages0 Co)(ression increases (ro(ortionately the .in$age loss8 .hile the -acuu) is $estructi-e0 The real li)it8 ho.e-er8 is foun$ in the )echanical strength of the 7elt an$ e-en un$er the 7est con$itions the (erfor)ance of such a )achine8 consi$ering its siBe8 .ill 7e s)all although8 7y the e)(loy)ent of a =iesel $ri-e8 the efficiency )ight 7e raise$ to a satisfactory figure0 The generator8 o(erating .ith 15855 8555 -olts8 .ill accelerate a (article8 as the electron8 to a s(ee$ of 30%%! ' 15 centi)etres8 equal to a7out 501!! ti)es that of light8 7ut if (roHectiles 1855 ti)es hea-ier are use$8 as (ro(ose$8 their stri2ing s(ee$ .ill 7e only 8%3 2ilo)etres .hich is utterly insignificant as co)(are$ .ith that of the cos)ic rays0 1i2ola Tesla 1e. Dor28 Fe7ruary 88 1936
1-9/-0/-08: Tesla Sees *Eiden(e #adio and 'ig,t Are Sound 4y 'rrin E. Dunla*+ 8r.
Ne" -ork Times An ,n-entor's >easone$ ,$eas 1i2ola Tesla8 <ointing to 'Gre-ious "rrors' of the <ast8 "'(lains +a$io as He >ees ,t at Age of ** 9 He "'(ects Tele-ision A tall8 lean in-entor in a cuta.ay .al2e$ into his s2yscra(er (arlor thirty9three floors 'a7o-e the si$e.al2s of 1e. Dor28 lai$ his 7lac2 $er7y on the ta7le8 o(ene$ the .in$o. an$ then .as rea$y to tal2 a7out ra$io's (ast8 (resent an$ future0 He .as 1i2ola Tesla8 the in-entor .hose $isco-ery of the rotary )agnetic fiel$ )a$e (ossi7le the alternating current )otor0 He $escri7e$ a syste) of .ireless trans)ission of energy in 189!0 >e-en )ilestones 7eyon$ three9score an$ ten8 this electrical .iBar$8 .ho ca)e to A)erica in 18868 loo2e$ 7ac2 across the years8 recalle$ .here theorists often chose .rong (aths at the crossroa$s of science an$ then turne$ his thoughts to the future in .hich tele-ision lur2s0 A >(ectacle That Frightens0 "There is so)ething frightening a7out the uni-erse .hen .e consi$er that only our senses of soun$ an$ sight )a2e it 7eautiful8" sai$ /r0 Tesla as his furro.e$ 7ro. in$icate$ he is (uBBle$ .ith its $estiny0 "Eust thin28 the uni-erse is $ar2er than the $ar2est in2J col$er than the col$est ice an$ )ore silent than a silent to)7 .ith all the 7o$ies rushing through it at terrific s(ee$s0 &hat an a.e9ins(iring (icture8 isn't itF Det it is our 7rain that gi-es )erely a (hysical i)(ression0 >ight an$ soun$ are the only a-enues through .hich .e can (ercei-e it all0 ;ften , ha-e .on$ere$ if there is a thir$ sense .hich .e ha-e faile$ to $isco-er0 ,') afrai$ not8" he sai$ after so)e hesitation in thought0 #oo2ing 7ac2 to the )au-e $eca$e8 to the turn of the century .hen the .orl$ .as 7eing thrille$ .ith ne. i$eas an$ $isco-eries8 /r0 Tesla o7ser-es a -ast change in the art of in-ention0 /an8 he fin$s8 in this strea)line$ era of s(ee$8 has little chance to thin20 Fruits of >eclusion The 7ig8 )o$ern research la7oratories are 7ut the incu7ators of i$eas as he has .atche$ the) function0 >el$o)8 if e-er8 he e'(lains8 has an original i$ea of consequence 7een 7orn in an ela7orate la7oratory0 The egg of science is lai$ in the nest of solitu$e0 True8 it )ay later 7e incu7ate$8 hatche$ an$ nurse$ in the )illion $ollar la7oratory0 ",t is (ro-i$ential that the youth or )an of in-enti-e )in$ is not '7lesse$' .ith a )illion $ollars8" sai$ /r0 Tesla0 "He .oul$ fin$ it $ifficult to thin20 The )in$ is shar(er an$ 2eener in seclusion an$ uninterru(te$ solitu$e0 1o 7ig la7oratory is nee$e$ in .hich to thin20 ;riginality thri-es in seclusion free of outsi$e influences 7eating u(on us to cri((le the creati-e )in$0 3e alone8 that is the secret of in-entionJ 7e alone8 that is .hen i$eas are 7orn0 That is .hy )any of the earthly )iracles ha-e ha$ their genesis in hu)7le surroun$ings0" +a$io e'(eri)enters of this age are follo.ing ancient theories8 /r0 Tesla 7elie-es8 an$ he .arns that (rogress .ill 7e )ore ra(i$ .hen they $iscar$ the ol$ an$ a$o( the ne. i$eas0 His $irections for getting on the right trac2 of ra$io8 tele-ision an$ sun$ry other 7ranches of science follo.I "The fascinatiion of the electro9)agnetic theory of light8 a$-ance$ 7y /a'.ell an$ su7sequently e'(eri)entally in-estigate$ 7y HertB8 .as so great that e-en no.8 although contro-erte$8 the scientific )in$s are un$er its s.ay0 This theory su((ose$ the e'istence of a )e$iu) .hich .as soli$8 yet (er)itte$ 7o$ies to (ass through it .ithout resistanceJ tenuous 7eyon$ conce(tion8 an$ yet8 accor$ing to our conce(tions of )echanical (rinci(les an$ ages of e'(erience8 such a )e$iu) .as a7solutely i)(ossi7le0 1e-ertheless8 light .as consi$ere$ essentialy a (heno)enon 7oun$ u( in that 2in$ of a )e$iu)J na)ely8 one ca(a7le of trans)itting trans-erse -i7rations0li2e a soli$0 A Auestion Tesla As2e$0 ",t is true8" sai$ /r0 Tesla8 "that )any scientific )in$s en-isage$ the theory of a gaseous ether8 7ut it .as reHecte$ again an$9again 7ecause in such a )e$iu) longitu$inal .a-es .oul$ 7e (ro(ogate$ .ith infinite -elocity0 #or$ :el-in concei-e$ the so9calle$ contractile ether8 (ossessing (ro(erties .hich .oul$ result in a finite -elocity of longitu$inal .a-es0 ,n 18848 ho.e-er8 an aca$e)ic $issertation .as (u7lishe$ 7y <rof0 =e
Golson &oo$8 an A)erican8 at a Ho7o2en institution8 .hich $ealt .ith a gaseous ether in .hich the elasticity8 $ensity an$ s(ecific heat .ere $eter)ine$ .ith rare aca$e)ic elegance0 3ut8 so far8 e-erything (ertaining to the su7Hect .as (urely theoretical0" &hat8 then can light 7e if it is not a trans-erse -i7rationF That .as the question he as2e$ hi)self an$ set out to fin$ the ans.er0 ", consi$er this e'tre)ely i)(ortant8" sai$ /r0 Tesla0 "#ight cannot 7e anything else 7ut a longitu$inal $istur7ance in the ether8 in-ol-ing alternate co)(ressions an$ rarefactions0 ,n other .or$s8 light can 7e nothing else than a soun$ .a-e in the ether0" This a((ears clearly8 /r0 Tesla e'(laine$8 if it is first realiBe$ that8 there 7eing no /a'.ellian ether8 there can 7e no trans-erse oscillation in the )e$iu)0 The 1e.tonian theory8 he 7elie-es8 is in error8 7ecause it fails entirely in not 7eing a7le to e'(lain ho. a s)all can$le can (roHect (articles .ith the sa)e s(ee$ as the 7laBing sun8 .hich has an i))ensely higher te)(erature0 "&e ha-e )a$e sure 7y e'(eri)ent8" sai$ /r0 Tesla8 "that light (ro(agates .ith the sa)e -elocity irres(ecti-e of the character of the source0 >uch constancy of -elocity can only 7e e'(laine$ 7y assu)ing that it is $e(en$ent solely on the (hysical (ro(erties of the )e$iu)8 es(ecially $ensity an$ elastic force0 /icro9&a-e <ossi7ilities0 Co)ing no. to the .ireless .a-es8 it is still true that they are of the sa)e character as light .a-es8 only they are not trans-ersal 7ut longitu$inal0 As a )atter of fact8 ra$io trans)itters e)it nothing else 7ut soun$ .a-es in the ether8 an$ if the e'(erts .ill realiBe this they .ill fin$ it -ery )uch easier to e'(lain the curious o7ser-ations )a$e in the a((lication of these .a-es0 ",t 7eing a fact that ra$io .a-es are essentially li2e soun$ .a-es in the air8 it is e-i$ent that the shorter the .a-es the )ore (enetrati-e they .oul$ 7e0 ,n 1899 , (ro$uce$ electro)agnetic .a-es fro) one to t.o )illi)eters long an$ o7ser-e$ their actions at a $istance0 There has 7een a great ho(e e'(resse$ 7y -arious .or2ers that intro$uction of these .a-es .ill ha-e a re-olutionary effect8 7ut , a) not sharing the o(inion0 They .ill 7e use$8 of course8 7ut to a -ery li)ite$ e'tent0 ,t is )anifest that a((lications of the -ery short .a-es .ill not (ro$uce any a((recia7le effect u(on the .ireless art0 ""rrors" +etar$ &ireless <o.er0 &hat a7out the (ossi7ilities of (o.er trans)ission 7y .ireless' the inquirer as2e$0 Here again /r0 Tesla 7la)es "a strange )isconce(tion of the e'(erts" an$ "grie-ous errors" for retar$ing the i$ea0 He 7elie-es that .hen it is acco)(lishe$8 the (o.er .ill tra-el on long .a-es0 He sai$ he coul$ -ouch that the sche)e of .ireless (o.er trans)ission is entirely (ractical0 "The a((lication of short .a-es for (o.er (ur(oses8" sai$ /r0 TeslaJ "in-ol-es co)(licate$ an$ e'(ensi-e a((aratus for rectification or frequency transfor)ation8 .hich .oul$ )a2e any serious atte)(t to carry out a (roHect of this 2in$ )uch )ore $ifficult fro) an econo)ical (oint of -ie.0" &hen .ill tele-ision co)e aroun$ the cornerF he .as as2e$0 ",t ought to 7e .ith us soon8 an$ so)e $ay it .ill 7e on a (ar of (erfection .ith 7roa$casting of )usic0" Then .ith a circular s.ee( of his ar) an$ a$$e$8 "There .ill 7e large (ictures thro.n on the .all0"
1-9/-0<-00: #adio 5ower will #eEolutioni?e t,e FO#'% 4y Nikola Tesla As told to A%9!ED A%4E%%I
/odern /echanix and Inventions
Tesla's &orl$ of To)orro. "&e are on the threshol$ of a gigantic re-olution8 7ase$ on the co))ercialiBation of the .ireless trans)ission of (o.er0 "/otion (ictures .ill 7e flashe$ across li)itless s(acesn "The sa)e energy (.ireless trans)ission of (o.er .ill $ri-e air(lanes an$ $irigi7les fro) one central 7ase0 "n,n roc2et9(ro(elle$ )achinesn it .ill 7e (ractica7le to attain s(ee$s of nearly a )ile a secon$ (3%55 )0(0h0 through the rarefie$ )e$iu) a7o-e the stratos(here0 "n&e .ill 7e ena7le$ to illu)inate the .hole s2y at nightn"-entually .e .ill flash (o.er in -irtually unli)ite$ a)ounts to (lanets0 " K 1i2ola Tesla0
&ho ,s TeslaF +a$io <ioneer 1i2ola Tesla .as 7orn in Hungary8 ca)e to the Cnite$ >tates in 1886 an$ has since $e-elo(e$ )ore than 155 $e-ices an$ i)(ro-e)ents in electrical technology0 ;nce associate$ .ith the late Tho)as A0 "$ison8 Tesla sent a ra$io i)(ulse aroun$ the .orl$ al)ost 65 years ago0 He $isco-ere$ the rotating fiel$ (rinci(le in alternating currents an$ is consi$ere$ one of the greatest li-ing electrical scientists an$ ra$io authorities0
&hat A7out To$ay's >cientistsF "The scientists fro) Fran2lin to /orse .ere clear thin2ers an$ $i$ not (ro$uce erroneous theories0 The scientists of to$ay thin2 $ee(ly instea$ of clearly0 ;ne )ust 7e sane to thin2 clearly8 7ut one can thin2 $ee(ly an$ 7e quite insane0 "To$ay's scientists ha-e su7stitute$ )athe)atics for e'(eri)ents an$ they .an$er off through equation after equation an$ e-entually 7uil$ a structure .hich has no relation to reality0" K 1i2ola Tesla0
The .orl$ .ill soon enHoy the 7enefits of electricity trans)itte$ 7y ra$io0 Huge an$ e'(ensi-e trans)ission lines .ill 7e unnecessary0 3ul2y an$ unsightly $istri7ution syste)s .ill 7e $one a.ay .ith0 A little recei-ing $e-ice in your ho)e .ill gi-e you all the (o.er you can use K an$ for only a fraction of (resent9$ay costs0 &e .ill soon 7e co))unicating .ith other (lanets8 .here it is entirely (ossi7le that there is ci-iliBation far ahea$ of ours0 To)orro. .e .ill see roc2et (lanes flying through stratos(here at a s(ee$ of a )ile a secon$ or 3555 )iles an hour0 Fanciful $rea)sF 1oY Eust conclusions 7ase$ u(on 2no.le$ge of .hat has 7een $one8 .hat is 7eing $one an$ .hat can 7e $one in the future0 , s(ea2 along (ractical lines an$ .ith a (ractical 2no.le$ge of .hat , a) tal2ingJ a7out0 <o.er trans)ission 7y ra$io is going to change our (resent ci-iliBation )aterially0 The trans)ission of energy to another (lanet is no. only a )atter of engineering0 , ha-e sol-e$ the (ro7le) so .ell , no longer regar$ it as $ou7tful0 , a) also certain there are creatures on other (lanets .hose .ays are li2e ours0 The ne. era .ill see a)aBing $e-elo()ents in inter(lanetary relations0
"-ery other (lanet has to (ass through the sa)e (hase of e'istence this earth $i$8 an$ life is starte$ on the) $uring that fa-oura7le (hase 7y the rays of so)e sun0 ,t $e-elo(s in the (resence of )oisture8 heat an$ light in )uch the sa)e )anner as life $oes here0 &e 2no. that light (ro(agates in straight lines8 an$ consequently our (erce(tions of the for)s through the i)ages (roHecte$ on the retina )ust 7e true0
3y using ultra short .a-es8 science e'(ects to (enetrate the hea-isi$e layer or gaseous )e$iu) surroun$ing the earth8 an$ esta7lish ra$io co))unication .ilh /ars an$ other $istant (lanets8 as sho.n in $ra.ing a7o-e0
1i2ola Tesla8 electrical .iBar$8 foresees the $ay .hen air(lanes .ill 7e o(erate$ 7y ra$io trans)itte$ (o.er su((lie$ 7y groun$ stations8 as sho.n in the $ra.ing a7o-e0
Therefore8 it shoul$ not 7e har$ to esta7lish intelligent e'change of i$eas 7et.een t.o (lanets0 The earth .e inha7it )ight 7e the 7eneficiary0 ,t is concei-a7le that there is ci-iliBation on other (lanets far ahea$ of ours0 ,f co))unication coul$ 7e esta7lishe$ 7y the earth the 7enefits to hu)an 7eings .oul$ he incalcula7le0 As far 7ac2 as Eune8 19550 in $iscussingJ )y e'(eri)ents at the 7eginningI of the century8 , sai$ that )y )easure)ents anti calculations sho.e$ that it .as (erfectly (ractica7le to (ro$uce on our glo7e an electrical )o-e)ent of such )agnitu$e that8 .ithout the slightest $ou7t8 its effect .oul$ 7e (erce(ti7le on s(ine of our nearer (lanets8 as Genus an$ /ars0 ,nter(lanetary Co))unication <ro7a7le Thus8 front )ere (ossi7ility8 inter(lanetary co))unication has8 entere$ the stage of (ro7a7ility0 ,n fact0 that .e can (ro$uce a $istinct effect on one of these (lanets in this no-el )anner0 na)ely0 7y $istur7ing the electrical con$ition of the earth8 is 7eyon$ any $ou7t0 ,n or$er to )a2e )yself clearer , shall $el-e still further into the (reli)inary $isco-eries )a$e in .hat , call )y (ioneering $ays8 .hich .as long 7efore silly other scientist ha$ )a$e any (rogress in this fiel$0 , ha-e al.ays chosen to re)ain in the 7ac2groun$0 >o)e years ago , urge$ the e'(erts engage$ in the co))ercial a((lication of the .ireless art to e)(loy -ery short .a-es8 7ut for a long ti)e )y suggestions .ere not hee$e$0 "-entually though8 this .as $one8 an$ gra$ually the .a-e lengths .ere re$uce$ to 7ut a fe. )eters0 ,n-aria7ly it .as foun$ that these .a-es8 Hust as those in the air8 follo. the cur-ature of the earth an$ 7en$ aroun$ o7stacles8 a (eculiarity e'hi7ite$ to a )uch lesser $egree 7y trans-erse -i7rations in a soli$0 +ecently8 ho.e-er8 ultra9short .a-es ha-e 7een e'(eri)ente$ .ith an$ the fact that they also ha-e that sa)e (ro(erty .as haile$ as a great $isco-ery8 offering the stu(en$ous (ro)ise of )a2ing .ireless trans)ission
infinitely si)(ler an$ chea(er0 ,t is of interest to 2no. .hat .ireless e'(erts ha-e e'(ecte$8 2no.ing that .a-es a fe. )eters long artJ trans)itte$ clear to the anti(o$es0 ,s there any reason that they shoul$ 7eha-e ra$ically $ifferent .hen their length is re$uce$ to a7out half of one )eterF
1i2ola Tesla is sho.n in his la7oratory .ith late ty(e )ercury arc rectifier tu7es0 &hen o(erating8 these tu7es gi-e off a -iolet glo.0
To( (hoto sho.s8 the fa)ous Tesla coil8 use$ to trans)it early ra$io signals0 3elo. the coil in actual o(eration0
As the 2no.le$ge of this su7Hect see)s -ery li)ite$8 , )ay stale that e-en .a-es only one or t.o )illi)etres long8 .hich , (ro$uce$ thirty9four years ago8 (ro-i$e$ that they carry sufficient energy8 can 7e trans)itte$ aroun$ the glo7e0 This is not so )uch $ue to refraction an$ reflection as to the (ro(erties of a gaseous )e$iu) an$ certain (eculiar action0 >hort &a-es <ro-i$e ,ncrease$ Channels The chief o7Hect of e)(loying -ery short .a-es is to (ro-i$e in increase$ nu)7er of channels require$ to satisfy the e-er9gro.ing $e)an$ for ra$io a((liances0 3ut this is only 7ecause the trans)itting an$ recei-ing a((aratus8 as generally e)(loye$8 is ill9concei-e$ an$ not .ell a$a(te$ for selection0 3ecause of this anti other shortco)ings8 , $o not attach )uch i)(ortance to the e)(loy)ent of .a-es .hich are no. 7eing e'(eri)ente$ .ith0 3esi$es8 , a) conte)(lating the use of another (rinci(le .hich , ha-e $isco-ere$ an$ .hich is al)ost unli)ite$ in the nu)7er of channels an$ in the energy three9electro$e tu7es0 This in-ention has 7een cre$ite$ to others8 7ut as a )atter of fact if .as 7rought out 7y )e in 189!8 the (rinci(leI 7eing trans)itte$0 ,t >houl$ ena7le us to o7tain )any i)(ortant results heretofore 0consi$ere$ i)(ossi7le0 &ills the 2no.le$ge of the facts 7efore )e8 , $o not thin2 it haBar$ous to (re$ict that .e .ill 7e ena7le$ to illu)inate the .hole s2y at night an$ that e-entually .e .ill flash (o.er in -irtually unli)ite$ a)ounts to (lanets0 , .oul$ not 7e sur(rise$ at all if an e'(eri)ent to trans)it thousan$s of horse(o.er to the )oon 7y this ne. )etho$ .ere )a$e in a fe. years fro) no.0 &e )ust esta7lish trans)ission of (o.er in all its innu)era7le a((lications0 This has 7een )y life .or28 an$ although , a) no. close to *88 , unhesitatingly say that , ho(e to see its fruition0 , ha-e 7een fortunate in the e-olution of ne. i$eas8 an$ the thought that a nu)7er of the) .ill 7e re)e)7ere$ 7y (osterity )a2es )e ha((y in$ee$0 , a) confi$ent that )y rotating fiel$ an$ in$uction )otor an$ the .ireless syste) , ha-e gi-en to the .orl$ .ill li-e long after , ha-e gone0 Dou as2 )e a7out ato)ic energyF , e'(eri)ente$ .ith the ato)0 an$ achie-e$ si)ilar en$s8 long 7efore the .a-e of 7allyhoo s.e(t o-er the country in recent years0 The i$ea of ato)ic energy is illusionary 7ut it has ta2en
a (o.erful hol$ on the )in$ an$ there are still so)e .ho 7elie-e it 7e 7e realiBa7le0 Tesla's Gacuu) Tu7e , ha-e $isintegrate$ ato)s in )y e'(eri)ents .ith a high (otential -acuu) tu7e , 7rought out in 189% .hich , consi$er one of )y 7est in-entions0 , ha-e o(erate$ it .ith (ressures ranging fro) 605550555 to 1805550555 -olts0 /ore recently , ha-e $esigne$ an a((aratus for 4505550555 -olts .hich shoul$ (ro$uce )any results of great scientific i)(ortance0 3ut as to ato)ic energy8 )y e'(eri)ental o7ser-ations ha-e sho.n that the (rocess of $isintegration is not acco)(anie$ 7y a li7eration of such energy as )ight 7e e'(ecte$ fro) the (resent theories0 An$ as for the cos)ic rayI , calle$ attention to this ra$iation .hile in-estigating +oentgen rays an$ ra$ioacti-ity0 ,n 1899 , erecte$ a 7roa$casting (lant at Colora$o >(rings8 the first an$ only .ireless (lant in e'istence at that ti)e8 an$ there confir)e$ )y theory 7y actual o7ser-ation8 /y fin$ings are in $isagree)ent .ith the theories )ore recently a$-ance$0 , ha-e satisfie$ )yself that the rays are not generate$ 7y the for)ation of ne. )atter in s(ace8 a (rocess .hich .oul$ 7e li2e .ater running u( hill0 Accor$ing to )y o7ser-ations8 they co)e fro) all the suns of the uni-erse an$ in such a7un$ance that the (art contri7ute$ 7y our o.n sun is -ery insignificant 7y (ercentage0 >o)e of these rays are of such terrific (o.er that they can tra-erse through thousan$s of )iles of soli$ )atter0
<ro(erties of >olar +ays They ha-e8 further)ore8 other e'traor$inary (ro(erties0 This ray8 .hich call the (ri)ary solar ray8 8gi-es rise to a secon$ary ra$iation 7y i)(act against the air an$ the cos)ic $ust scattere$ through s(ace0 ,t is no. co))only calle$ the cos)ic ray8 an$ co)es8 of course8 equally fro) all $irections in s(ace0 ,f ra$iu) coul$ 7e screene$ effecti-ely against this ray it .oul$ cease to 7e ra$ioacti-e0 The scientists fro) Fran2lin to /orse .ere clear thin2ers an$ $i$ not (ro$uce erroneous theories0 The scientists of to$ay thin2 $ee(ly instea$ of clearly8 ;ne )ust 7e sane to thin2 clearly8 7ut one can thin2 $ee(ly an$ 7e quite insane0 To$ay's >cientists ha-e su7stitute$ )athe)atics for e'(eri)ents8 an$ they .an$er uff through equation after equation8 an$ e-entually 7uil$ a structure .hich has no relation to reality0 , .or2 e-ery hour that , a) a.a2e 7ut not .ith a fe-erish te)(o0 Although , li-e in the )i$st of the hustle an$ 7ustle of 1e. Dor28 , $o not ti)e )y scientific e'(eri)ents to the hectic0 HaBB rhyth) of the hysterical )etro(olis0
, .or2 for the future K 7uil$ for the future0 Eust as to$ay , see the realiBation of e'(eri)ents carrie$ on fifty years ago8 l a) no. .or2ing .ith a -ie. to.ar$ still greater achie-e)ents .hich .ill co)e to (ass a half century hence0 That is )y )etho$0 After e'(eriencing a $esire to in-ent a certain thing , go on for $ays8 )onths8 e-en years .ith the i$ea in the 7ac2 of )y hea$0 &hene-er , feel li2e it8 , (lay aroun$ .ith the (ro7le) .ithout gi-ing it any $eli7erate consi$eration0 This is the incu7ation (erio$0 Ho. Tesla &or2s 1e't co)es the stage of $irect effort0 At this (oint the solution is so)e.here in )y su7conscious )in$8 although it )ay ta2e so)e ti)e 7efore it reaches the ,e-el of consciousness0 As )y concei-e$ $e-ice 7egins to ta2e for)8 , )a2e )ental changes in the construction8 i)(ro-e)ents are figure$ out8 an$ , e-en o(erate it0 All of this is (reli)inary .or2 K all in )y )in$0 &hen the )achine itself is finishe$8 , sli( )y i)aginary Ho7 o-er it an$ fin$ they coinci$e to the )inutest $etail0 A great $e-elo()ent can 7e e'(ecte$ in roc2et (ro(elle$ )achines for (ur(oses of (eace an$ .ar0 &ith such )achines it .ill 7e (ractica7le to attain s(ee$s of nearly a )ile a secon$ (3%55 )iles (er hour 8 through the rarefie$ )e$iu) a7o-e the stratos(here0 , antici(ate that such )achines .ill 7e of tre)en$ous i)(ortance in international conflicts of the future0 , foresee that in ti)es not too $istant8 .ars 7et.een -arious countries .ill 7e carrie$ on .ithout a single co)7atant (assing o-er the 7or$er0 ,nternal Gas /achines At this -ery ti)e it is (ossi7le to construct infernal )achines .hich .ill carry any $esire$ quantity of (oison gases an$ e'(losi-es8 ,aunch the) against a target thousan$s of )iles a.ay an$ $estroy a .hole city or co))unity0 ,f .ars are not $one a.ay .ith8 .e are 7oun$ to co)e e-entually to this 2in$ of .arfare8 7ecause it is the )ost econo)ical )eans of Finflicting inHury an$ stri2ing terror in the hearts of the ene)y that has e-er 7een i)agine$0 /y (ara)ount $esire to$ay8 .hich gui$es )e in e-erything , $o8 is an a)7ition to harness theZ forces of nature for the ser-ice of )an2in$0 As , see it8 .e are on the threshol$ of a gigantic re-olution 7ase$ on the co))ercialiBation of the .ireless trans)ission of (o.er0 The (rinci(les for this ha-e 7een $isco-ere$ 7y )e0 As this .ireless energy is con-erte$ into a co))o$ity for the use of the )asses8 trans(ort an$ trans)ission .ill 7e su7Hecte$ to tre)en$ous changes0 /otion (ictures .ill 7e flashe$ across li)itless s(aces 7y )y syste)0 The sa)e energy .ill $ri-e air(lanes an$ $irigi7les fro) one central 7ase0 ,n this ne. era )an .ill 7e a7le to tra-el safely8 an$ at great s(ee$8 to any (art of the .orl$ K the Hungle K the arctic K thee $esert K )ountain to(s K o-er oceans0 The instru)ents 7y .hich these .on$ers .ill 7e achie-e$ .ill 7e a)aBingly si)(le0 These things .ill co)e to (ass0 >onic of the) are alrea$y .ithin the real) of realiBation0 3ut li2e $ose .on$ers .hich , (re$icte$ an$ hel(e$ (erfect nearly fifty years ago K in the early 85's K (o.er trans)ission is Hust aroun$ the corner0 ,t's co)ing0 To$ay , re(eat again .hat , sai$ to conte)(orary scientists of those earlier (ioneering $aysI The scientific )an $oes not ai) at an i))e$iate result0 He $oes not e'(ect that his a$-ance$ i$eas .ill 7e rea$ily ta2en u(0 His .or2 is li2e that of the (lanter K for the future0 His $uty is to lay the foun$ation for those .ho are to co)e8 an$ (oint the .ay0 He li-es an$ la7ours an$ ho(es0
1-9/-0<-00: %eat,-#ay Ma(,ine %es(ri1ed

Ne" -ork &un =r0 Tesla >ays T.o of Four 1ecessary <ieces of A((aratus Ha-e 3een 3uilt A)(lifying his 7irth$ay anni-ersary announce)ent of the (ros(ecti-e in-ention of an electrical $eath9ray8 or force 7ea)8 that .oul$ )a2e any country i)(regna7le in ti)e of .ar8 =r0 1i2ola Tesla says that t.o of the four (ieces of necessary a((aratus alrea$y ha-e 7een constructe$ an$ teste$0 Four )achines co)7ine in the (ro$uction an$ use of this $estructi-e 7ea)8 .hich8 accor$ing to =r0 Tesla .oul$ .i(e out ar)ies8 $estroy air(lanes an$ le-el fortresses at a range li)ite$ only 7y the cur-ature of the earth0 These four areI First8 a((aratus for (ro$ucing )anifestations of energy in free air instea$ of in a high -acuu) as in the (ast0 This8 it is sai$8 has 7een acco)(lishe$0 >econ$8 the $e-elo()ent of a )echanis) for generating tre)en$ous electrical force0 This8 too8 =r0 Tesla says8 has 7een sol-e$0 The (o.er necessary to achie-e the (re$icte$ results has 7een esti)ate$ at 4585558555 -olts0 Thir$8 a )etho$ of intensifying an$ a)(lifying the force $e-elo(e$ 7y the secon$ )echanis)0 Fourth8 a ne. )etho$ for (ro$ucing a tre)en$ous electrical re(elling force0 This .oul$ 7e the (roHector8 or gun of the in-ention0 &hile the latter t.o ele)ents in the (lan ha-e not yet 7een constructe$8 =r0 Tesla s(ea2s of the) as (ractically assure$0 ;.ing to the ela7orate nature of the )achinery in-ol-e$8 he a$)its it is )erely a $efense engine8 though 7attleshi(s coul$ 7e equi((e$ .ith s)aller units an$ thus ar)e$ coul$ s.ee( the seas0 ,n a$$ition to the -alue of this engine for $estruction in ti)e of .ar8 =r0 Tesla sai$ it coul$ 7e utiliBe$ in (eace for the trans)ission of (o.er0 He ha$ not $e-elo(e$ i$eas for recei-ing a((aratus ca(a7le of transfor)ing the $estructi-e 7ea) into .or2 units8 7ut consi$ere$ this )erely a )atter of $etail0 1o suggestion .as )a$e of .hat )ight ha((en if an ene)y (o.er o7taine$ (ossession of one of these recei-ing outfits8 an$ .hen attac2e$ 7y the $estructi-e 7ea) si)(ly (ut it to .or2 in factories )anufacturing )unitions or unifor)s0 Another a$$ition to the anni-ersary )essage of the fa)ous in-entor .as a (ositi-e $eclaration that he e'(ecte$ soon to construct a((aratus that .oul$ $is(ro-e the theories of )o$ern astrono)ers that the sun gra$ually .as cooling off an$ e-entually the earth .oul$ 7e una7le to sustain life8 as it .oul$ gro. too col$0
1-9/-0<-10: Tesla :nEents 5ea(e #ay

Ne" -ork &un Tesla Describes (is 4eam of Destructive Energy ,n-ention of a "7ea) of )atter )o-ing at high -elocity" .hich .oul$ act as a "7ea) of $estructi-e energy" .as announce$ to$ay 7y =r0 1i2ola Tesla8 the in-entor8 in his annual 7irth$ay inter-ie.0 =r0 Tesla is *88 an$ for the (ast se-eral years has )a$e his anni-ersary the occasion for announce)ent of scientific $isco-eries0 The 7ea)8 as $escri7e$ 7y the in-entor to rather 7e.il$ere$ re(orters8 .oul$ 7e (roHecte$ on lan$ fro) (o.er houses set !55 )iles or so a(art an$ .oul$ (ro-i$e an i)(enetra7le .all for a country in ti)e of .ar0 Anything .ith .hich the ray ca)e in contact .oul$ 7e $estroye$8 the in-entor in$icate$0 <lanes .oul$ fall8 ar)ies .oul$ 7e .i(e$ out an$ e-en the s)allest country )ight so insure "security" against .hich nothing coul$ a-ail0 =r0 Tesla announce$ that he (lans to suggest his )etho$ at Gene-a as an insurance of (eace0
1-9/-0<-11: Tesla) At <8) ;ares New 2%eat,-;eam2

Ne" -ork Times ,n-ention <o.erful "nough to =estroy 158555 <lanes at !45 /iles A.ay8 He Asserts =efensi-e &ea(on ;nly >cientist8 ,n ,nter-ie.8 Tells of A((aratus That He >ays &ill :ill &ithout Trace 1i2ola Tesla8 father of )o$ern )etho$s of generation an$ $istri7ution of electrical energy8 .ho .as *8 years ol$ yester$ay8 announce$ a ne. in-ention8 or in-entions8 .hich he sai$8 he consi$ere$ the )ost i)(ortant of the *55 )a$e 7y hi) so far0 He has (erfecte$ a )etho$ an$ a((aratus8 =r0 Tesla sai$ yester$ay in an inter-ie. at the Hotel 1e. Dor2er8 .hich .ill sen$ concentrate$ 7ea)s of (articles through the free air8 of such tre)en$ous energy that they .ill 7ring $o.n a fleet of 158555 ene)y air(lanes at a $istance of !45 )iles fro) a $efen$ing nation's 7or$er an$ .ill cause ar)ies of )illions to $ro( $ea$ in their trac2s0 "=eath93ea)" is >ilent This "$eath97ea)8" =r0 Tesla sai$8 .ill o(erate silently 7ut effecti-ely at $istances "as far as a telesco(e coul$ see an o7Hect on the groun$ an$ as far as the cur-ature of the earth .oul$ (er)it it0" ,t .ill 7e in-isi7le an$ .ill lea-e no )ar2s 7ehin$ it 7eyon$ its e-i$ence of $estruction0 An ar)y of 185558555 $ea$8 annihilate$ in an instant8 he sai$8 .oul$ not re-eal e-en un$er the )ost (o.erful )icrosco(e Hust .hat catastro(he ha$ cause$ its $estruction0 &hen (ut in o(eration =r0 Tesla sai$ this latest in-ention of his .oul$ )a2e .ar i)(ossi7le0 This $eath97ea)8 he asserte$8 .oul$ surroun$ each country li2e an in-isi7le Chinese .all8 only a )illion ti)es )ore i)(enetra7le0 ,t .oul$ )a2e e-ery nation i)(regna7le against attac2 7y air(lanes or 7y large in-a$ing ar)ies0 3ut .hile it .ill )a2e e-ery nation safe against any attac2 7y a .oul$97e in-a$er8 =r0 Tesla a$$e$8 the $eath9 7ea) 7y its nature coul$ not 7e e)(loye$ si)ilarly as a .ea(on for offence0 For this $eath97ea)8 he e'(laine$8 coul$ 7e generate$ only fro) large8 stationary an$ i))o-a7le (o.er (lants8 statione$ in the )anner of ol$ti)e forts at -arious strategic $istances fro) each country's 7or$er0 They coul$ not 7e )o-e$ for the (ur(oses of attac20 An e'ce(tion8 ho.e-er8 he a$$e$8 )ust 7e )a$e in the case of 7attleshi(s8 .hich8 he sai$8 .oul$ 7e a7le to equi( the)sel-es .ith s)aller (lants for generating the $eath97ea)8 .ith enough (o.er to $estroy any air(lane a((roaching for attac2 fro) the air0 3attleshi(s to 3e >u(re)e The net result of the latter8 =r0 Tesla sai$8 .ill 7e to esta7lish the su(re)acy of 9the 7attleshi( o-er the air(lane8 an$ to )a2e the nation .ith the largest an$ 7est equi((e$ 7attleshi(s su(re)e o-er the seas0 >u7)arines .oul$ 7eco)e o7solete8 he asserte$8 as )etho$s for $etecting the) are so (erfecte$ that no a$-antage is gaine$ 7y su7)erging0 An$ once foun$8 he a$$e$8 the $eath97ea) coul$ 7e e)(loye$ to $o its .or2 of $estruction un$er .ater8 though not as effecti-ely as in the air0 The (ro$uction of the $eath97ea)8 =r0 Tesla sai$8 in-ol-es four ne. in-entions8 .hich ha-e not 7een announce$ 7y hi)0 The scientific $etails of these in-entions are to 7e gi-en out 7y hi) 7efore the (ro(er scientific 7o$ies in the near future0 ,n the )eanti)e he ga-e out a general state)ent outlining their nature0 The first in-ention8 he sai$8 co)(rises a )etho$ an$ a((aratus for (ro$ucing rays an$ other )anifestations of energy in free air8 eli)inating the high -acuu) necessary at (resent for the (ro$uction of such rays an$ 7ea)s0 The secon$ is a )etho$ an$ (rocess for (ro$ucing "-ery great electrical force0" The thir$ is a )etho$ for a)(lifying this (rocess in the secon$ in-ention0 The fourth8 he sai$8 is "a ne. )etho$ for (ro$ucing a tre)en$ous electrical re(elling force 0 " The -oltages to 7e e)(loye$ in (ro(elling the $eath97ea) to their o7Hecti-e8 =r0 Tesla sai$8 .ill attain the lightning9li2e (otential of 4585558555 -olts0 &ith this enor)ous -oltage8 hitherto unattaine$ 7y )an9)a$e )eans8 )icrosco(ic (articles of )atter .ill 7e cata(ulte$ on their )ission of $efensi-e $estruction8 =r0 Tesla asserte$0
1-9/-0<-11: ;eam To !ill Army At "00 Miles) Tesla2s Claim On <8 t, ;irt,day 4y 8ose*h #. Also*+ 8r.
Ne" -ork (erald Tribune =eath +ay Also A-aila7le as <o.er Agent in <eace Ti)es8 ,n-entor =eclares =r0 1i2ola Tesla8 in-entor of (oly(hase electric current8 (ioneer in high frequency trans)ission8 (re$ecessor of /arconi .ith the .ireless8 cele7rate$ his se-enty9eighth 7irth$ay yester$ay 7y announcing his in-ention of a 7ea) of force so)e.hat si)ilar to the $eath ray of scientific ro)ance0 ,t is ca(a7le8 he 7elie-es8 of $estroying an ar)y !55 )iles a.ayJ it can 7ring $o.n an air(lane li2e a $uc2 on the .ing8 an$ it can (enetrate all 7ut the )ost enor)ous thic2nesses of ar)or (late0 >ince it )ust 7e generate$ at stationary (o.er (lants 7y )achines .hich in-ol-e four electrical $e-ices of the )ost re-olutionary sort8 =r0 Tesla consi$ers it al)ost .holly a $efensi-e .ea(on0 ,n (eace ti)es8 he says8 the 7ea) .ill also 7e use$ to trans)it i))ense -oltages of (o.er o-er $istances li)ite$ only 7y the cur-ature of the earth0 As an hors $'oeu-re to this Eules Gernean announce)ent8 =r0 Tesla $isclose$ that he has lately (erfecte$ instru)ents .hich flatly $is(ro-e the (resent theory of the high (hysicists that the sun is $estine$ to 7urn itself out until it is a col$ cin$er floating in s(ace0 =r0 Tesla state$ that he is a7le to sho. that all the suns in the uni-erse are constantly gro.ing in )ass an$ heat8 so that the ulti)ate fate of each is e'(losion0 =r0 Tesla refuse$ to $escri7e s(ecifically the instru)ents in question in 7oth $isco-eries8 or e-en to $isclose the (rinci(les u(on .hich they are 7uilt0 He sai$ that at so)e $ate soon he e'(ecte$ to )a2e the full $etails (u7lic in scientific Hournals or 7efore scientific 7o$ies0 >ince he consi$ers the 7ea) of force a $efensi-e an$ therefore a (acifist .ea(on8 he ho(es to 7e a7le to (resent it in full for the first ti)e at the $isar)a)ent conference at Gene-a0 He also sai$ that )inor (arts of each of the $isco-eries are still in the theoretical8 or 7lue(rint stage8 7ut he (ointe$ out that his )etho$ of .or2 has al)ost al.ays 7een (urely )ental0 The aging in-entor8 a tall8 thin8 al)ost s(iritual figure in the sort of 7ro.n cuta.ay suit that ol$er )en .ore 7efore the &orl$ &ar8 recei-e$ inter-ie.ers in one of the (u7lic roo)s in the Hotel 1e. Dor2er8 .here he li-es0 3efore he .oul$ s(ea2 of his (resent .or2 he re-ie.e$ his (ast achie-e)ents8 .hich entitle hi) )ore than "$ison8 >tein)etB or any other8 to 7e calle$ the father of the (o.er age0 He has *55 (atents to his cre$it an$ not a fe. of the) are for e(och9)a2ing $isco-eries8 7ut o-er an$ o-er again he has 7een ri$icule$ as a lunatic0 He recalle$ this an$ his .or2 together as if to (re(are the .ay for his announce)ents0 He ca)e to the i$ea of a 7ea) of force8 he sai$8 7ecause of his 7elief that no .ea(on has e-er 7een foun$ that is not as successful offensi-ely as $efensi-ely0 The (erfect .ea(on of $efence8 he felt8 .oul$ 7e a frontier .all8 i)(enetra7le an$ Ie'ten$ing u( to the li)its of the at)os(here of the earth0 Creates +ays in Free Air >uch a .all8 he 7elie-es8 is (ro-i$e$ 7y his 7ea) of force0 ,t is (ro$uce$ 7y a co)7ination of four electrical )etho$s or a((aratuses0 First an$ )ost i)(ortant is a )echanis) for (ro$ucing rays an$ other energy )anifestations in free air0 Hitherto -acuu) tu7es ha-e al.ays 7een necessary0 >econ$ is an a((aratus for (ro$ucing unhear$9of quantities of electrical current an$ for controlling it .hen (ro$uce$0 The current is necessary as (o.er for the first )echanis)0 &ithout this8 no rays of sufficient strength coul$ 7e (ro$uce$0 The thir$ is a )etho$ of intensifying an$ a)(lifying the secon$ (rocess8 an$ the fourth is a )etho$ of (ro$ucing "tre)en$ous electrical re(ellent force0" "These four in-entions in co)7ination ena7le )an to loose in free air forces 7eyon$ conce(tionJ" =r0 Tesla re)ar2e$ )il$ly0 "3y scientific a((lication .e can (roHect $estructi-e energy in threa$9li2e 7ea)s as far as a telesco(e can $iscern 0an o7Hect0 The range of the 7ea)s is only li)ite$ 7y the cur-ature of the earth0 >houl$ you launch an attac2 in an area co-ere$ 7y these 7ea)s8 shoul$ you8 say8 sen$ in 158555 (lanes or an ar)y of a )illion8 the (lanes .oul$ 7e 7rought $o.n instantly an$ the ar)y $estroye$0 "The (lane is thus a7solutely eli)inate$ as a .ea(onJ it is confine$ to co))erce0 An$ a country's .hole frontier can 7e (rotecte$ 7y one of the (lants (ro$ucing these 7ea)s e-ery !55 )iles0 1or shoul$ they 7e )uch )ore costly than an or$inary (o.er (lant0"
,t ,s an "lectric Gun The 7ea) of force itself8 as =r0 Tesla $escri7e$ it8 is a concentrate$ current 9 it nee$ 7e no thic2er than a (encil 9 of )icrosco(ic (articles )o-ing at se-eral hun$re$ ti)es the s(ee$ of artillery (roHectiles0 The )achine into .hich =r0 Tesla co)7ines his four $e-ices is8 in reality8 a sort of electrical gun0 He illustrate$ the sort of thing that the (articles .ill 7e 7y recalling an inci$ent that occurre$ often enough .hen he .as e'(eri)enting .ith a catho$e tu7e0 Then8 so)eti)es8 a (article larger than an electron8 7ut still -ery tiny8 .oul$ 7rea2 off fro) the catho$e8 (ass out of the tu7e an$ hit hi)0 He sai$ he coul$ feel a shar(8 stinging (ain .here it entere$ his 7o$y8 an$ again at the (lace .here it (asse$ out0 The (articles in the 7ea) of force8 a))unition .hich the o(erators of 0the generating )achine .ill ha-e to su((ly8 .ill tra-el far faster than such (articles as 7ro2e off fro) the catho$e8 an$ they .ill tra-el in concentrations8 he sai$0 As =r0 Tesla e'(laine$ it8 the tre)en$ous s(ee$ of the (articles .ill gi-e the) their $estruction9$ealing qualities0 All 7ut the thic2est ar)oure$ surfaces confronting the) .oul$ 7e )elte$ through in an instant 7y the heat generate$ in the concussion0 >o)e <arts >till Cn)a$e >uch 7ea)s or rays of (articles no. 2no.n to science are co)(ose$ al.ays of frag)ents of ato)s8 .hereas8 accor$ing to =r0 Tesla8 his .oul$ 7e of )icrosco(ic $ust of a suita7le sort0 The chief $ifferentiation 7et.een his an$ the (resent rays .oul$ a((ear to 7e8 ho.e-er8 that his are (ro$uce$ in free air instea$ of in a -acuu) tu7e0 The -acuu) tu7e rays ha-e 7een (roHecte$ out into the air8 7ut there they tra-el only a fe. inches8 an$ they are ca(a7le only of causing 7urns or slight $isintegration of o7Hects .hich they stri2e0 =r0 Tesla $eclare$ that the t.o )ost i)(ortant of the four $e-ices in-ol-e$ in his force 7ea) generator8 the )echanis) for (ro$ucing rays in free air an$ the )echanis) for (ro$ucing great quantities of electrical current ha$ 7oth 7een constructe$ an$ $e)onstrate$ 7y actual e'(eri)ents0 The t.o intensifying an$ a)(lifying a((aratuses are not yet in e'istence 7ut he $is(laye$ the )ost (erfect confi$ence that .hen they are8 they .ill .or2 as he e'(ects the) to $o0 "These effects8" he sai$8 "are of the 2in$ that can 7e calculate$ .ith the )ost (ositi-e accuracy0 #i2e )any other things , ha-e $one they require no (re-ious e'(eri)ent once they are (ro(erly concei-e$0 There are a fe. $etails to 7e finishe$ 9 )y calculation )ight 7e (erha(s 15 (er cent off at (resent 9 an$ then the .hole thing .ill 7e (resente$ to the .orl$0 ,t has al.ays 7een )y (ractice to gi-e the .orl$ a sort of (re-ie. of .hat , a) $oing so that a rece(tion is (re(are$0" ", shoul$ also say8 an$ this is (erha(s as i)(ortant as anything else a7out it8 that in this a((aratus all li)itations as to electric force an$ the quantity of electricity trans)itte$ ha-e 7een re)o-e$0" ,t .as e-i$ent that =r0 Tesla's .or2 on the force 7ea) as a (eace9ti)e )eans of (o.er trans)ission .as far less a$-ance$ than his .or2 on it as a $efensi-e .ea(on0 He $i$ not $escri7e the nature of the recei-er .hich .ill transfor) the force 7ea) into useful (o.er8 though he $eclare$ that he ha$ $esigne$ one8 nor .as he a7le to sho. Hust ho. the $angers of ha-ing such $eath9$ealing 7ut in-isi7le 7ea)s tra-elling through the air coul$ 7e sur)ounte$0 =r0 Tesla .as far less $efinite in his $escri(tion of the e'(eri)ents .hich le$ to his re-olutionary (re$iction of the future of the sun an$ its syste) than he .as .hen tal2ing of the force 7ea)0 He ha$8 he sai$8 $etecte$ "certain )otions in the )e$iu) that fills s(ace8 an$ )easure$ the effects of these )otions0" The results of the e'(eri)ents ha$ le$ his "inesca(a7ly" to the conclusion that such 7o$ies as the sun are ta2ing on )ass )uch )ore ra(i$ly than they are $issi(ating it 7y the $issi(ation of energy in heat an$ light0 "Heat to :ill All <eo(les" He (ointe$ out that his theory )eans a future for the earth as $ifferent fro) the general 7elief as the future of the sun0 ,t is generally hel$ that life on the earth .ill cease .hen the sun gro.s so col$ that the earth te)(erature $ro(s to a (oint .here life can no longer 7e su((orte$0 =r0 Tesla (ro(hesies that life on the earth .ill cease 7ecause the (lanet .ill gro. too .ar) to su((ort life8 an$ he 7elie-es that life .ill then 7egin on outer (lanets no. too col$0 He sai$ that his $isco-ery not only allo.e$ hi) to (re$ict a -ery $ifferent future for the hea-enly 7o$ies fro) that no. generally e'(ecte$ for the)8 7ut also to calculate in a ne. .ay their age0 1or .ere these t.o $isco-eries8 of a force 7ea) an$ a ne. future for the uni-erse8 the only ne. things =r0 Tesla ha$ to offer0 The co)(letely ne. an$ unli)ite$ source of energy .hich he state$ he .as at .or2 on is8 he sai$8 still un$er e'a)ination 7y hi)0 >ince he first s(o2e of it great stri$es ha-e 7een )a$e8 an$ the co)(lete announce)ent of it is to 7e e'(ecte$ in a co)(arati-ely short ti)e0
Finally there .as the electric I7ath0 The i$ea of a 7ath of electricity to cleanse the (erson far )ore co)(letely than .ater e-er coul$ has al.ays 7een at the 7ac2 of =r0 Tesla's )in$0 /any years ago he 7uilt a )achine .hich (erfor)e$ the function successfully8 7ut8 7ecause it cost too )uch an$ .as not .ithout its $angers8 he $ro((e$ it as i)(ractical0 #ately he has i)(ro-e$ it so )uch that he feels it is no. fit for general use0 &or2s T.enty Hours =aily "Dou )ay thin2 this is a lot of .or2 for an ol$ )an li2e )e to ha-e on his han$s8" he sai$ .ith a little s)ile0 "Dou )ay thin2 , ha-e too )any 7ig things 9 , ha-e tol$ you three 9 on )y han$s0 3ut , ha-e .or2e$ for si'ty years no.8 an$ , ha-e such a store of i$eas that , can see clearly0 , ha-e concentrate$ on )y su7Hect0 /y 7rain .or2s 7etter no. than it e-er $i$ .hen , .as a young )an0 , a) ca(a7le of far )ore than , .as in .hat they call 'your (ri)e0" He s)ile$ again0 The .hite8 (arch)enty s2in8 $ra.n tight o-er a finely 7uilt 7ony structure8 crease$ roun$ his eyes an$ )outh0 He a$)itte$ to 7eing a little thinner than last year8 7ut8 he e'(laine$8 e-ery one $ries u(8 as ti)e goes on8 an$ there is nothing in 7eing thin that can interfere .ith .or20 He .as as2e$ a question a7out 7irth$ay cele7rations an$ congratulations0 He ha$ recei-e$ congratulations fro) all o-er the .orl$8 he sai$8 7ut the one .hich (lease$ hi) )ost .as fro) his sister in Eugosla-ia8 /rs0 /arica :osano-ic8 .ho is three years younger than he an$ "the s)artest in all our fa)ily0" He tal2e$ for a .hile of his fa)ily8 recalling all the in-entors there .ere 9 fi-e recor$e$ 9 an$ stu$ents in his ancestry0 "As for cele7ration8" he a$$e$8 ")y only cele7ration is a little .or28 an$ these s)all $isclosures of results0"
1-9/-0<-"/: Tesla on 5ower %eEelo$ment and 7uture MarEels 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork #orld Telegram , a) a rea$er of your e'cellent (a(er an$ frequently (reser-e e'cer(ts of interest to )e for future reference0 ;ne of these is an article 7y &illia) "ngle8 in your issue of Eune !98 19368 $ealing .ith hy$ro9electric $e-elo()ent in .hich the author characteriBes )y recent announce)ent of a ne. ine'hausti7le source of (o.er as "ne7ulous0" A (reli)inary infor)ation is necessarily inco)(lete8 7ut , al.ays )a2e sure that it is 7ase$ on $e)onstrate$ fact an$ accurate as far as it goes0 /y illustrious na)esa2e8 Co(ernicus8 use$ to go t.enty ti)es o-er his scientific state)ents 7efore gi-ing the) outJ ne-ertheless8 co)(are$ .ith the attention , 7esto. u(on )y o.n8 he )ight ha-e 7een consi$ere$ a careless )an0 The author of the article gi-es an eloquent account of .ater (o.er $e-elo()ent8 recalling -i-i$ly to )y )in$ the al)ost )iraculous .ay in .hich success .ith )y alternating syste) .as achie-e$0 As , re-ie. the (ast8 , realiBe ho. fortunate it .as that at the ti)e .hen8 after years of fruitless tal2ing to $eaf ears8 , finally )anage$ t7 7e hear$ 7y a fe.8 there .as a )an in the electrical in$ustry to.ering a7o-e all others8 li2e >a)son o-er the <hilistines0 A genius of the first $egree8 in-enti-e a7ility an$ )astery of 7usiness8 a )an truly great8 of (heno)enal (o.ersKGeorge &estinghouse0 He es(ouse$ )y cause an$ un$ertoo2 to .age a .ar against o-er.hel)ing o$$s0 The alternating current .as co)(letely $iscre$ite$8 $ecrie$ as $ea$ly an$ of no co))ercial -alue0 "$ison thought that the .ires )ight 7e use$ for hanging laun$ry to $ry0 >tein)etB ha$ a -ery (oor o(inion of )y in$uction )otor0 The ol$ interests .ere (o.erful an$ resol-e$ to fight any encroach)ent on their 7usiness 7y all )eans fair or foul0 3ut &estinghouse .as not $is)aye$ an$ thre. all his energy an$ resources into the 7attle of the century0 /ore than once he ca)e near to 7eing snuffe$ out8 7ut finally he route$ his o((onents an$ (ut the ne. in$ustry on a fir) foun$ation0 ,t .as a )onu)ental achie-e)ent un(arallele$ in the history of technical $e-elo()ent0 The ser-ice he ren$ere$ to the .orl$ is 7eyon$ esti)ate0 3ut it too2 another hu)an $yna)o8 a genius of a $ifferent 2in$K>a)uel ,nsullKto enlarge on the .or2 of &estinghouse an$ a((ly the syste) on a colossal scale0 ,nsull concentrate$ his efforts on chea(ening the (ro$uction8 trans)ission an$ $istri7ution of (o.er0 He recogniBe$ early the econo)ic a$-antages of large units an$ (re-aile$ u(on the )anufacturers to su((ly hi) .ith huge tur7o9generators8 regar$less of cost0 He intro$uce$ other i)(ro-e)ents raising the efficiency an$ range of central stations an$ finally realiBe$8 (ractically an$ successfully8 the >u(er <o.er >yste) .hich , ha$ 7arely suggeste$ in 18930 The results he o7taine$ .ere such as to astonish engineers8 an$ his 7ol$ e'a)(le .as quic2ly follo.e$ here as .ell as in other countries8 sa-ing i))ense su)s of )oney to the consu)ers0 At (resent the .or2 of &estinghouse an$ ,nsull is carrie$ further in e-ery corner of the glo7e8 (ro-i$ing ne. resources8 transfor)ing cities an$ co))unities an$ contri7uting to the safety8 co)fort an$ con-enience of hun$re$s of )illions0 #et us than2 the stars that these great (ioneers li-e$ in our ti)e8 as other.ise .e )ight ha-e ha$ to .ait a century for the 7enefits .e no. enHoy0 QQQ Another ite) of interest to )e is your flattering e$itorial of Euly 1!8 19368 .ith a fly in the oint)ent since you state that e'a)ination of (erfor)ance $oes not in recent cases fulfill )y (ro(hecy0 <erha(s not8 7ut on the .hole , ha-e 7een e'traor$inarily successful0 Dou .oul$ 7e sur(rise$ to 2no. ho. )any of )y $isco-eries an$ in-entions are in e'tensi-e use0 To gi-e an illustration8 , )ay refer to )y .ireless syste) of trans)ission of energy .hich is loo2e$ u(on 7y )any as a (i(e $rea)0 These uninfor)e$ (eo(le shoul$ 7e tol$ that ".ireless" is not a single in-ention 7ut an art in-ol-ing the use of )any of the)8 an$ of the) , ha-e contri7ute$ the fun$a)ental an$ )ost essential8 an$ they are uni-ersally e)(loye$0 There is as yet no (ressing necessity for .ireless trans)ission of (o.er in in$ustrial a)ounts8 7ut as soon as it arises the syste) .ill 7e a((lie$ an$ .ith (erfect success0 >till another ite) .hich has intereste$ )e is a re(ort fro) &ashington in the &orl$9Telegra) of Euly 138 19368 to the effect that scientists $ou7t the $eath ray effect0 , a) quite in agree)ent .ith these $ou7ters an$ (ro7a7ly )ore (essi)istic in this res(ect than any7o$y else for , s(ea2 fro) long e'(erience0 +ays of the requisite energy can not 7e (ro$uce$8 an$ then8 again8 their intensity $i)inishes .ith the square of the $istance0 1ot so the agent , e)(loy8 .hich .ill ena7le us to trans)it to a $istant (oint 7illions of ti)es )ore energy than is (ossi7le 7y any 2in$ of ray0 &e are all falli7le8 7ut as , e'a)ine the su7Hect in the light of )y (resent theoretical an$ e'(eri)ental
2no.le$ge , a) fille$ .ith $ee( con-iction that r a) gi-ing to the .orl$ so)ething far 7eyon$ the .il$est $rea)s of in-entors of all ti)e0 1e. Dor20
1-9/-10-"1: Tri1ute To !ing Ale+ander 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork Times To The "$itor of The 1e. Dor2 Ti)esI /uch has 7een sai$ a7out Dugosla-ia an$ its (eo(le8 7ut )any A)ericans )ay 7e un$er a .rong i)(ression for (olitical ene)ies an$ agitators ha-e s(rea$ the i$ea that its inha7itants 7elong to $ifferent nations ani)ate$ 7y )utual hate an$ hel$ together against their .ill8 7y a tyrannical (o.er0 The fact is that all Dugosla-s9>er7ians8 >la-onians8 3osnians8 HerBego-inians8 =al)ations8 /ontenagrins8 Croatians ans >lo-enes 9 are of the sa)e race8 s(ea2 the sa)e language an$ ha-e co))on national i$eals an$ tra$itions0 At the ter)ination of the &orl$ &ar8 Ale'an$er 7rought a7out a (olitical union creating a (o.erful an$ resourceful >tate0 This .as haile$ .ith Hoy 7y all the >la-s of the 3al2ans8 7ut it too2 ti)e 7efore the (eo(le foun$ the)sel-es in the ne. con$itions0 >er7s =i$ the Fighting0 , .as 7orn in Croatia0 The Croatians an$ >lo-enes .ere ne-er in a (osition to fight for their in$e(en$ence0 ,t .as the >er7ians .ho fought the 7attles for free$o) an$ the (rice of li7erty .as (ai$ in >er7ian 7loo$0 All true Croatians an$ >lo-enes re)e)7er that gratefully0 They also 2no. that the >er7ians ha-e an unequalle$ a(titu$e an$ e'(erience in .arfare an$ are 7est qualifie$ to $irect the forces of the country in a crisis0 "-er since unite$ Dugosla-ia ca)e into 7eing through Ale'an$er's efforts8 (olitical ene)ies ha-e $one all they coul$ to $isru(t it 7y so.ing see$s of $iscor$ an$ $isse)inating )alicious re(orts0 An instance of the 2in$ is a 7oo2 7y #ouis A$a)ic8 "The 1ati-e's +eturn8" .hich he is su((ose$ to ha-e .ritten un$er the (ro-isions of the Guggenhei) a.ar$ for literature an$ in .hich he in$ulges in (olitical $efa)ation8 $enunciation of the ruler of the country an$ (ro)ulgation of i$eas as un.elco)e here as in Dugosla-ia0 His $enunciations of the :ing an$ reflections on his character can 7e conte)(tuously (asse$8 7ut one thing cannot 7e ignore$0 The 7oo2 contains state)ents re(resenting the great an$ fearless )an8 .ho has le$ his (eo(le in sanguinary 7attles8 as a .ea2ling in )ortal fear of assassination8 so )uch so that he retire$ e-ery night to a $ifferent roo) an$ $i$ not sho. hi)self until hun$re$s of his ai$es ha$ ', cleare$ the (lace an$ )a$e safe his a((earance0 This has cut $ee( into the heart of e-ery loyal Dugosla-0 =issensions =enie$0 /r0 A$a)ic is -ery lou$ in telling of the hatre$ an$ $issensions 7et.een Croatians an$ >lo-enes an$ the >er7ians8 7ut recent e-ents ha-e $is(ro-e$ his state)ents8 The countries8 .hich accor$ing to his accounts 80 shoul$ 7e in o(en re-olt8 ha-e sho.n the)sel-es as $e-ote$ to the :ing of >er7ia0 This has 7een reflecte$ in se-eral re(orts of The 1e. Dor2 Ti)es8 a)ong .hich is the e'traor$inarily -i-i$ an$ $ra)atic $escri(tion of the o7sequies0 The $eath of the :ing has sha2en the country to its -ery foun$ations8 7ut the ene)ies .ho say that it )eans the $isru(tion of Dugosla-ia .ill ho(e in -ain8 for the no7le 7loo$ of the great )an has only ser-e$ to ce)ent its (arts )ore fir)ly an$ strengthen the national structure0 Ale'an$er .ill li-e long in the )e)ory of his (eo(le8 a heroic figure of i)(osing stature8 7oth the &ashington an$ #incoln of the Dugosla-sJ li2e &ashington an a7le an$ intre(i$ general .ho free$ his country fro) o((ressionJ li2e #incoln a .ise an$ (atriotic lea$er .ho suffere$ )artyr$o)0 1i2ola Tesla8 1e. Dor28 ;ct0 198 1936
1-9/-10-"1: %r& Tesla 6isions t,e *nd Of Air(raft :n Far 4y (elen #elshimer
Every #eek /aga;ine "A)erica "nters &arI" "Cnite$ >tates Eoins AlliesI" "Congress =eclares &arI" The ne.s7oys .ere screa)ing the hea$lines through the rainy A(ril night0 /en an$ .o)en stoo$ on corners8 tal2ing8 tal2ing8 tal2ingn The $rift of the $ays .ent on0 Troo( trains (ulle$ out of the stations8 fro) Centre-ille8 /ississi((i8 u( to 3angor8 /aine0 The $ru)s thro77e$ an$ the tru)(ets 7le.0 The shi(s saile$ an$ the casualty lists ca)e 7ac20 9;ne 7y one the gol$ stars re(lace$ the .hiten An$ 191* $rifte$ into 19180 =r0 1i2ola Tesla .as in his la7oratory trying har$ to sol-e a (ro7le) of ages0 ;nce in a .hile he raise$ his hea$ to listen0 Then he turne$ 7ac2 to his e'(eri)ents0 He .as going to en$ .arI The note$ in-entor8 *8 years ol$ no.8 alrea$y ha$ *55 in-entions to his cre$it0 This .as to 7e his greatest0 Dears )arche$ on0 The fanfare an$ the $ru)s .ere $one0 The $ea$ .ere 7urie$0 The li-ing ca)e ho)e0 1o.8 14 years after the .ar has en$e$8 Tesla8 one of the greatest in-entors of all ti)e8 has announce$ that his in-ention to en$ all .ars8 7y a (erfect )eans of $efence .hich any nation can e)(loy8 is rea$y0 >oon8 he says8 he .ill ta2e it to Gene-a to (resent it to the <eace Conference0 &hether it is a $rea) or reality )ay soon 7e 2no.n0 He clai)s to ha-e create$ a ne. agent8 silent an$ in-isi7le8 .hich 2ills .ithout trace an$ yet (ierces the thic2est ar)our0 ,t is a 7ea) of $eath an$ $estruction for)e$ of )inute (articles of )atter carrying such tre)en$ous energy that they coul$ 7ring $o.n a fleet of 158555 attac2ing (lanes an$ .i(e out an ar)y of )illions at a $istance of !45 )iles0 "The in-ention8" sai$ =r0 Tesla8 ".ill )a2e .ar i)(ossi7le for it .ill surroun$ any country using this )eans .ith an i)(enetra7le8 in-isi7le .all of (rotection0 <lants for the generating of this 7ea) .ill 7e erecte$ along the coasts an$ near cities0 ;ne (lant .ill affor$ (erfect safety .ithin an area of 658555 square )iles0 "The 7ea) .ill 7e effecti-e at any $istance at .hich the o7Hect to 7e $estroye$ can 7e (ercei-e$ through a telesco(e0 "-ery country .ill ha-e to a$o(t this in-ention8 for .ithout it a nation .ill 7e hel(less0 "The 7ea)8 inten$e$ chiefly for $efence8 .ill 7e (roHecte$ fro) an electric (o.er (lant8 rea$y to 7e (ut in action at the first sign of $anger0 The cost of o(eration .ill 7e insignificant8 as the (lant is chiefly inten$e$ for use in e)ergency0 3ut to )a2e the in-est)ent (rofita7le in ti)es of (eace it )ay 7e co))ercially e)(loye$ for a nu)7er of (ur(oses0" =r0 Tesla .ishes it to 7e un$erstoo$ that the )eans he has (erfecte$ has nothing in co))on .ith the so9calle$ "$eath ray0" ",t is i)(ossi7le to $e-elo( such a ray0 , .or2e$ on that i$ea for )any years8" he says8 "7efore )y ignorance .as $is(elle$ an$ , 7eca)e con-ince$ that it coul$ not 7e realiBe$0 This ne. 7ea) of )ine consists of )inute 7ullets )o-ing at a terrific s(ee$8 an$ any a)ount of (o.er $esire$ can 7e trans)itte$ 7y the)0 The .hole (lant is Hust a gun8 7ut one .hich is inco)(ara7ly su(erior to the (resent0" The (icture of the (rotecte$ .orl$8 in .hich )en .ill $e-ote their ti)e in (ursuits of (eace8 is a strangely fascinating one0 ,)agine the )a( of the .orl$8 e-ery country surroun$e$ 7y great (lants .hich .ill offer a7solute (rotection to the nation itself an$ instant $eath to any intru$ers0 ;nly shi(s flying .hite flags of (eace can sail into a foreign har7our0 The (o.er (lants8 rese)7ling forts (lace$ at strategic $istances along a country's 7or$er8 .ill 7e on guar$0 As they are i))o-a7le8 they .ill constitute essentially )eans for $efence8 an$ 7y )a2ing in-asion i)(ossi7le .ill greatly a$-ance the cause of (eace0 ,f8 occasionally8 nations $eci$e that they )ust ha-e .ar Hust for the thrill of a thro77ing $ru) an$ a singing 7ugle8 it can 7e stage$ on the sea8 =r0 Tesla says0 1a-y su(re)acy .ill 7anish aircraft0 "The air(lane .ill cease to 7e use$ as a )eans of offence8" the great in-entor e'(lains0 ",t .ill 7e use$ entirely
for (eace8 as it shoul$ 7e0 An air(lane8 through the -ery nature of its construction8 can not carry .ith it a generating (lant for the 7ea)0 ,f it co)es in contact .ith a country .hich is (rotecte$8 it has no chance0 "The 7attleshi(s .ill ri$e to sea safe fro) air rai$s8 for they .ill 7e equi((e$ .ith s)aller (lants for generating a 7ea) of sufficient (o.er to $estroy any attac2ing air(lane0 3ut they .ill not 7e (er)itte$ to co)e near the shore of a (rotecte$ country an$ attac2 it .ith any chance of success0 "The nation .hich has the 7est equi((e$ 7attleshi(s8 ho.e-er8 .ill gain the su(re)acy of the seas0 >u7)arines .ill 7e o7solete8 for the )etho$s of $etecting the) .ill 7e (erfecte$ to such a $egree that there .ill 7e no longer any a$-antage in su7)erging0 .hen a su7)arine is locate$ the 7ea)s .ill function un$er .ater8 though not quite so effecti-ely as in air0" Four ne. in-entions of =r0 Tesla are in-ol-e$ in the creation of the 7ea)0 "3riefly8 the first co)(rises a )etho$ an$ a((aratus for (ro$ucing rays an$ other )anifestations of energy in free air8 eli)inating the high -acuu) heretofore in$is(ensa7le8" he e'(lains0 "The secon$ one is the (rocess for (ro$ucing electrical force of i))ense (o.er0 "The thir$ )etho$ a)(lifies the (rocess8 an$ the fourth (ro$uces a tre)en$ous electrical re(elling force0" ,n ti)es of (eace such a (lant can 7e use$ to trans)it (o.er in any a)ount u( to its full ca(acity an$ to any (lace on the earth -isi7le through a telesco(e8 accor$ing to its in-entor0 Goltages ne-er 7efore attaine$8 of 4585558555 -olts or )ore8 .ill ha-e to 7e a((lie$0 The )an .ho is res(onsi7le for so )any $isco-eries an$ i)(ro-e)ents has $e-ote$ his entire life to his scientific (ursuits0 Tall8 lean8 reser-e$8 his (ath goes 7et.een the t.o s)all la7oratories an$ the -arious )anufacturing (lants .ith .hich he has contact0 3orn in Dugosla-ia8 Tesla co)es fro) a race of in-entors0 ";n )y )other's si$e8 for three generations8 al)ost all )e)7ers of the fa)ilies .ere in-entors8" he says0 "/y )other .as Georgianna /an$ic8 .ho .as note$ as an in-entor of househol$ a((liances0 ;ne of the things .hich she (erfecte$ .as her o.n .ea-ing )achine0 "Her fa)ily can 7e trace$ 7ac2 to the se-enth century8 9in the historical recor$s0 /y gran$father .as an officer in 1a(oleon's ar)y0" Tesla 7egan to in-ent at the age of si'0 As he gre. u( his interest focuse$ in the la7oratory0 ", slee( a7out one an$ one9half hours a night8" the in-entor says0 ", thin2 that is enough for any )an0 &hen , .as young , nee$e$ )ore slee(0 3ut age $oesn't require so )uch0 There are so )any things to $o , $o not .ant to s(en$ ti)e slee(ing nee$lessly0 ,n )y fa)ily all .ere (oor slee(ers0 Ti)e s(ent in slee( is lost ti)e8 .e al.ays felt0" Tesla8 7usy .ith his *55 in-entions8 ne-er ha$ ti)e for )arriage0 He ne-er ha$ a girl in his young $ays0 He ne-er ha$ a ro)ance0 There .as no leisure for the)0 His $iet is si)(le0 He li-es chiefly on -egeta7les8 cereals an$ )il20 The )enu inclu$es onions8 s(inach8 celery8 carrots8 lettuce8 .ith (otatoes occasionally0 &hites of eggs an$ )il2 co)(lete the $iet0 There is no )eat on his -egeta7le (late0 He ne-er s)o2es or tastes tea8 coffee8 alcoholic 7e-erages or any other sti)ulant0 &hile he is (erfecting the 7ea) .hich .ill $efen$ nations fro) attac28 the in-entor is (laying .ith other i$eas0 He goes fro) one to the other8 he says8 as this or that gains (ara)ount interest or so)e ne. clue is suggeste$0 "3ut .hat is gi-ing )e )ore fun than anything , ha-e $one for a long8 long ti)e8" =r0 Tesla e'(lains8 "is an electric 7ath .hich , ho(e to ha-e rea$y for general use -ery soon0 ",t $oesn't require )uch roo)0 There is a (latfor) on .hich the (erson stan$s0 He turns on the current0 ,nstantly all foreign )aterial such as $ust8 $an$ruff8 scales on the s2in an$ )icro7es is thro.n off fro) the 7o$y0 The ner-es8 too8 are e'hilarate$ an$ strengthene$0 The '7ath' is e'cellent for )e$ical as .ell as for cleaning (ur(oses0" Ho.e-er8 the .ar (icture gi-es the )aster in-entor )ore satisfaction than the )inor in-entions0 He is reHoicing 7ecause his instru)ent of $eath .ill sa-e )illions of li-es an$ inesti)a7le (ro(erty0 His only regret is that there )ay 7e another .ar 7efore the $isco-eries he has )a$e ha-e 7een (lace$ 7efore the =isar)a)ent Conference at Gene-a8 an$ generally a$o(te$ 7y the nations of the .orl$0
"The ne't .ar8 an$ , a) afrai$ that there .ill 7e one 7efore long8" he says8 ".ill 7e fought in the air0 3ut if the 7ea) is a$o(te$ .ar in the air .ill cease0 "&hate-er 7attles there are thereafter .ill 7e confine$ to the sea0 3ut no nation .ill $are to attac2 another nation .hen e-ery country is ar)e$0 There .ill 7e a general feeling of safety throughout the .orl$0"
1-95-00-00: T,e New Art of 5roJe(ting Con(entrated Non-dis$ersiEe *nergy T,roug, Natural Media 4riefly Ex*osed by 1i2ola Tesla
The a$-ances $escri7e$ are the result of )y research carrie$ on for )any years .ith the chief o7Hect of trans)itting electrical energy to great $istances0 The first i)(ortant (ractical realiBation of these efforts .as the alternating current (o.er syste) no. in uni-ersal use0 , then turne$ )y attention to .ireless trans)ission an$ .as fortunate enough to achie-e si)ilar success in this fruitful fiel$8 )y $isco-eries an$ in-entions 7eing e)(loye$ throughout the .orl$0 ,n the course of this .or28 , )astere$ the technique of high (otentials sufficiently for ena7ling )e to construct an$ o(erate8 in 18998 a .ireless trans)itter $e-elo(ing u( to t.enty )illion -olts0 >o)e ti)e 7efore , conte)(late$ the (ossi7ility of trans)itting such high tension currents o-er a narro. 7ea) of ra$iant energy ioniBing the air an$ ren$ering it8 in )easure8 con$ucti-e0 After (reli)inary la7oratory e'(eri)ents8 , )a$e tests on a large scale .ith the trans)itter referre$ to an$ a 7ea) of ultra9-iolet rays of great energy in an atte)(t to con$uct the current to the high rarefie$ strata of the air an$ thus create an auroral such as )ight 7e utiliBe$ for illu)ination8 es(ecially of oceans at night0 , foun$ that there .as so)e -irtue in the (rinci(al 7ut the results $i$ not Hustify the ho(e of i)(ortant (ractical a((lications although8 so)e years later8 se-eral in-entors clai)e$ to ha-e (ro$uce$ a "$eath ray" in this )anner0 &hile the (u7lishe$ re(orts to this effect .ere entirely unfoun$e$8 , 7elie-e that .ith the ne. trans)itter to 7e 7uilt8 this an$ )any other .on$ers .ill 7e achie-e$0 /uch ti)e .as $e-ote$ 7y )e to the trans)ission of ra$iant energy8 in -arious for)s8 7y reflectors an$ , (erfecte$ )eans for increasing enor)ously the intensity of the effects8 7ut .as 7affle$ in all )y efforts to )aterially re$uce $is(ersion an$ 7eca)e fully con-ince$ that this han$ica( coul$ only 7e o-erco)e 7y con-eying the (o.er through the )e$iu) of s)all (articles (roHecte$8 at (ro$igious -elocity8 fro) the trans)itter0 "lectro9static re(ulsion .as the only )eans to this en$ an$ a((aratus of stu(en$ous force .oul$ ha-e to 7e $e-elo(e$8 7ut grante$ that sufficient s(ee$ an$ energy coul$ 7e realiBe$ .ith a single ro. of )inute 7o$ies then there .oul$ 7e no $is(ersion .hate-er e-en at great $istance0 >ince the cross section of the carriers )ight 7e re$uce$ to al)ost )icrosco(ic $i)ensions an i))ense concentration of energy8 irres(ecti-e of $istance8 coul$ 7e attaine$0 &hen , un$ertoo2 to carry out this (lan in (ractice8 the $ifficulties see)e$ insur)ounta7le0 ,n the first (lace8 a close$ -acuu) tu7e coul$ not 7e e)(loye$ as no .in$o. coul$ .ithstan$ the force of the i)(act0 This )a$e it a7solutely necessary to (roHect the (articles in free air .hich )eant that each coul$ hol$ only an insignificant charge0 Thus8 no )atter ho. high the (otential of the ter)inal8 the force of re(ulsion .oul$ 7e necessarily too s)all for the (ur(ose conte)(late$0 0 0 0 3ut 7y the a((lication of )y $isco-eries an$ in-entions it is (ossi7le to increase the force of re(ulsion )ore than a )illion ti)es an$ .hat .as heretofore i)(ossi7le8 is ren$ere$ easy of acco)(lish)ent0 The successful carrying out of the (lan in-ol-es a nu)7er of )ore or less i)(ortant i)(ro-e)ents 7ut the (rinci(al a)ong these inclu$e the follo.ingI 10 A ne. for) of high -acuu) tu7e o(en to the at)os(here0 !0 <ro-isions for i)(arting to a )inute (article an e'tre)ely high charge0 30 A ne. ter)inal of relati-ely s)all $i)ensions an$ enor)ous (otential0 60 An electro9static generator on a ne. (rinci(le an$ of -ery great (o.er0
F,G0 1 ,##C>T+AT,1G ;<"1 GACCC/ TC3"
These $e-ices an$ )etho$s of o(eration .ill 7e e'(laine$ 7y reference to the attache$ $ra.ings in .hich Fig0 1 an$ Fig0 ! re(resent for)s of the ne. o(en tu7e0 ,n Fig0 18 the $e-ice consists of an inner cylin$rical con$uit 18 ce)ente$ to a )etallic soc2et 38 an$ an outer con$uit !8 .hich is tightly scre.e$ to the soc2et 7y a nut 68 an$ has on the o(en si$e a ta(er .ith a cylin$rical en$ 98 of the sa)e insi$e $ia)eter as con$uit 10 The soc2et 38 is 7ore$ out to (ro-i$e a large cha)7er aroun$ the inner con$uit an$ carries a (i(e *8 through .hich thoroughly $esiccate$ air or other gas un$er suita7le (ressure is su((lie$0 The o(en en$ of the inner an$ the ta(ering (art of the outer con$uit are groun$ to for) an e'(an$ing noBBle 88 through .hich the air esca(es into the at)os(here there7y creating a high -acuu) in the inner con$uit0 The soc2et 3 has a s)all central hole an$ is (ro-i$e$ .ith an insi$e e'tension 48 an$ a threa$e$ outsi$e (roHection %8 the latter ser-ing for connection to a container su((lying auto)atically suita7le (articles or )aterial for sa)e .hile the for)er fulfill the (ur(ose of charging the) as they e)erge fro) the hole0 The con$uit 1 an$ !8 )ay 7e )a$e of fuse$ quartB8 (yre' glass or other refractory )aterial an$ it is o7-iously $esira7le that all the (arts of the a((aratus ha-e s)all an$ nearly equal coefficients of ther)al e'(ansion es(ecially .hen the .or2ing )e$iu)8 .hich )ight also 7e su(erheate$ stea)8 is at an ele-ate$ te)(erature0 ,t .ill 7e o7ser-e$ that in this tu7e , $o a.ay .ith the soli$ .all or .in$o. in$is(ensa7le in all ty(es heretofore e)(loye$8 (ro$ucing the high -acuu) require$ an$ (re-enting the inrush of the air 7y a gaseous Het of high -elocity0 "-i$ently8 to secure this result8 the $yna)ic (ressure of the Het )ust 7e at least equal to the e'ternal static (ressure0 "'(resse$ in sy)7olsI G!./!g L < Assu)ing equalityI G L T!g </. in .hich equation G is the s(ee$ of the Het at its entrance to channel 8 in )eters8 g the acceleration of gra-ity li2e.ise in )eters8 < the e'ternal (ressure in 2ilogra)s (er square )eter an$ . the nor)al .eight of the air in 2ilogra)s (er cu7ic )eter0 1o. g L 9081 )eters < L 1533!09 2ilogra)s . L 10!9!9 2ilogra)s These -alues gi-e G L 39% )eters
F,G0 ! >H;&,1G A /;=,F,"= F;+/ ;F ;<"1 GACCC/ TC3"
>o)e allo.ance shoul$ 7e )a$e for the frictional loss in the noBBle an$ the outlet channel an$ also for the $eflection of the Het0 For )ost (ur(oses8 the -elocity nee$ not 7e )uch greater8 7ut as the $egree of rarefaction $e(en$s on the square of G8 it is $esira7le to o7tain as high a -alue as (ractica7le0 Csually8 -acuu)s o7taine$ 7y a )ercury -a(or (u)( are consi$ere$ -ery high0 ,n those8 the -elocity is only !85 )eters (er secon$ 7ut the -a(or is %09 ti)es hea-ier than air0 Therefore to get the sa)e -acuu) in the air Het8 its s(ee$ shoul$ 7e !85 ' ?%09@1/! L *34 )eters0 &ith a .or2ing )e$iu) at high te)(erature an$ (ressure8 7oth .ithin (ractica7le li)its8 this -alue can 7e attaine$ an$ e-en e'cee$e$0 Thus8 a gaseous Het of -ery high -elocity affor$s a )eans for closing the en$ of the tu7e8 )ore (erfectly than any .in$o. that can 7e )a$e .hile at the sa)e ti)e (er)itting an$ facilitating the e'it of the (articles0 +eferring to fig0 !08 it sho.s sche)atically a )o$ifie$ for) of )y tu7e inten$e$ for -arious scientific an$ (ractical uses .hen it )ay 7e (refera7le or necessary not to $ischarge the Het through the o(en en$0 The construction of the $e-ice .ill 7e easily un$erstoo$ in -ie. of the foregoing $escri(tion li2e (arts 7eing si)ilarly $esignate$0 A cylin$rical con$uit 18 is (ro-i$e$ as in fig0 18 7ut the outer cone is re(lace$ 7y a 7loc2 !8 of la-a or other insulating )aterial sha(e$ as in$icate$ an$ fir)ly ce)ente$ to the con$uit 18 .hich is her)etically Hoine$ 7y a nut 68 to a )etallic (lug 38 ha-ing a central hole8 an$ e'tensions 3 an$ %8 ser-ing the (ur(ose state$ a7o-e0 The .or2ing flui$8 as co)(resse$ $esiccate$ air8 is su((lie$ 7y )eans of a (i(e *8 to a large annular s(ace aroun$ con$uit 18 an$ esca(es through an e'(an$ing noBBle 88 for)e$ 7y the ta(ering (art of the 7loc2 an$ the en$ of the con$uit8 into a cha)7er connecte$ 7y a (i(e 158 to a -acuu) (u)( of large ca(acity 9 not sho.n on the $ra.ing 9 for carrying off not only the air issuing fro) the noBBle 7ut also that rushing in fro) the outsi$e through the o(en en$ 90 ,n or$er to )ini)iBe the -olu)e of the latter8 , a-ail )yself of an in-ention of )ine 2no.n as the "-al-ular con$uit" 7y (ro-i$ing the .all of the o(en en$ 98 .ith recesses as in$icate$ gi-ing rise to .hirls an$ e$$ies .hich use u( so)e of the energy of the strea) an$ re$uce its -elocity0 ,n this .ay8 a (ressure of a7out 155 )illi)eters of )ercury can 7e rea$ily )aintaine$ in the cha)7er increasing greatly the e'(ansion ration of the air an$ its s(ee$ through the noBBle0 ,t is har$ly necessary to re)ar2 that )y o(en -acuu) tu7es require )echanical (o.er for o(eration .hich )ay range fro) 15 to !5 h0(08 7ut this $ra.7ac2 is insignificant .hen consi$ering the i)(ortant a$-antages they offer an$ , antici(ate that they .ill 7e e'tensi-ely e)(loye$0 ,t re)ains to 7e e'(laine$ ho. such a tu7e is utiliBe$ for i)(arting to a (article to 7e (roHecte$ a -ery great charge0 ,)agine that the s)all s(herical 7o$y 7e (lace$ in a nearly (erfect -acuu) an$ electrically connecte$ to the large s(here for)ing the high (otential ter)inal of the trans)itter0 3y -irtue of the connection8 the s)all s(here .ill then 7e at the (otential of the large one no )atter .hat its $istance fro) the sa)e 7ut the quantity of electricity store$ on the s)all s(here .ill -ary greatly .ith the $istance an$ 7e (ro(ortionate to the $ifference of its (otential an$ that of the a$Hacent )e$iu)0 ,f the s)all s(here is -ery close to the large one8 this $ifference .ill 7e insignificant an$ so to the chargeJ 7ut if the s)all s(here is at a great $istance fro) the large one .here the (otential i)(arte$ 7y the sa)e to the )e$iu) a((ro'i)ates Bero8 the quantity of electricity store$ on the s)all one .ill 7e relati-ely enor)ous an$ equal to Ar/+0 To illustrate8 if r L 1/155 e0s0 an$ + L 1555 e0s0 an$ A L 158 e0s0 units8 as 7efore assu)e$8 then A L1555 e0s0 units .hich is a hun$re$ thousan$ ti)es )ore than (re-iously o7taina7le0 At a $istance !+ fro) the center of the ter)inal8 at .hich the $ifference 7et.een the (otential of the s)all s(here an$ the a$Hacent )e$iu) .ill 7e half of the total8 or 1485558555 -olts8 A .ill 7e 455 e0s0 units an$ fro) theoretical consi$erations8 it a((ears that the 7est results .ill 7e secure$ if the (article is charge$ in high -acuu) at that $istance0 ,t can 7e acco)(lishe$ all the )ore easily the s)aller the ra$ius of the ter)inal an$ this is one of the reasons .hy )y i)(ro-e)ent8 illustrate$ in Fig0 38 is of great (ractical i)(ortance0
F,G0 3 1"& T"+/,1A# F;+ "]C""=,1G#D H,GH <;T"1T,A#> C;1>,>T,1G ;F ><H"+,CA# F+A/" ATTACH/"1T>
?>ee Fig0 6 for T"+/,1A#0@
=,AG+A/ ,1=,CAT,1G =,>T+,3CT,;1 ;F CHA+G">
As .ill a((ear fro) the ins(ection of the $ra.ing8 the s(herical fra)e of the ter)inal is equi((e$ .ith $e-ices8 one of .hich is sho.n in the enlarge$ -ie. 7elo. an$ co)(rises a 7ul7 !8 of glass or other insulating )aterial an$ an electro$e of thin sheet suita7le roun$e$0 The latter is Hoine$ 7y a su((orting .ire to a )etallic soc2et a$a(te$ for fastening to the fra)e 18 7y )eans of nut 30 The 7ul7 is e'hauste$ to the -ery highest -acuu) o7taina7le an$ the electro$e can 7e charge$ to an i))ense $ensity0 Thus8 it is )a$e (ossi7le to raise the (otential of the ter)inal to any -alue $esire$8 so to s(ea28 .ithout li)it8 an$ the usual losses are a-oi$e$0 , a) confi$ent that as )uch as one hun$re$ )illion -olts .ill 7e reache$ .ith such a trans)itter (ro-i$ing a tool on inesti)a7le -alue for (ractical (ur(oses as .ell as scientific research0
F,G0 6 >CH"/AT,C ,##C>T+AT,;1 ;F 1"& H,GH <;T"1T,A# G"1"+AT;+
<erha(s the )ost i)(ortant of these in-entions is the ne. high (otential electro9static generator8 sche)atically re(resente$ in Fig0 68 .hich is (ro-i$e$ .ith )y i)(ro-e$ ter)inal consisting of a s(herical )etallic fra)e 18 .ith attach)ents !8 a$a(te$ to 7e fastene$ to the for)er 7y nuts 38 as a7o-e $escri7e$0 The ter)inal has a (latfor) 68 in the interior of the fra)e inten$e$ for su((orting )achinery8 instru)ents an$ o7ser-ers8 an$ is carrie$ to a suita7le ele-ation on insulating colu)ns o)itte$ fro) the $ra.ing for the sa2e of si)(licity0 To energiBe the ter)inal8 air un$er (ressure is $ri-en at high s(ee$ through a her)etically close$ channel co)(rising a tur7o co)(ressor 48 .ith inta2e an$ outlet connections8 con$uits * an$ 88 s(ecial fittings 9 an$ 158an$ a short (i(e 110 The con$uits * an$ 88 are (refera7ly co)(ose$ of (ieces of glaBe$ (orcelain 7olte$ tightly together8 the Hoints 7eing )a$e airtight 7y suita7le (ac2ing an$ are corrugate$ on the outsi$e to )ini)iBe electrical lea2age0 The fittings 9 an$ 15 an$ (i(e 118 )ay also 7e of the sa)e 2in$ of )aterial0 The air 7efore entering an$ after lea-ing the co)(ressor8 as .ell as all a((aratus .ithin the airtight enclosure %8 is effecti-ely coole$ an$ )aintaine$ at a constant te)(erature 7y )eans as or$inarily e)(loye$ .hich .as not thought necessary to illustrate0 The o(eration of the )achine .ill 7e un$erstoo$ )ost rea$ily 7y li2ening the )o-ing colu)n of air to a running 7elt0 &hen the air8 lea-ing the co)(ressor8 reaches the $e-ice 1!8 containing $ischarge (oints electrifie$ 7y a $irect current of high tension8 it is ioniBe$ an$ the charge i)(arte$ to it is carrie$ u(.ar$ to the s(ecial fitting 98 .here it is $ra.n off 7y suc2ing (oints an$ charges the ter)inal0 ;n the return to the co)(ressor the air (asses through s(ecial fitting 158 .here it recei-es electricity of the o((osite sign con-eying it to the $e-ice 138 an$ fro) there to the groun$0 These actions are re(eate$ .ith great ra(i$ity0 The generator can 7e )a$e self9e'citing 7y suita7le connections0 For se-eral reasons8 , esti)ate that a )achine as $escri7e$ .ill ha-e an out(ut of )any ti)es greater than a 7elt generator of the sa)e siBe an$8 7esi$es8 it has se-eral other i)(ortant construction an$ o(erati-e a$-antages0 To gi-e an a((ro'i)ate esti)ate of (erfor)ance8 reference is )a$e to $iagra) in Fig0 48 re(resenting a s(herical ter)inal an$ an o(en -acuu) tu7e for (roHecting (articles0 >u((ose that $ 7e the $istance fro) the
center o at .hich a (article of ra$ius r L 1/155 c0)0 is charge$ in -acuu) to the (otential of the ter)inal8 as 7efore e'(laine$8 an$ that = is the $istance fro) center ; at .hich the (article lea-es the -acuous s(ace8 then8 in (assing through the $istance = 9 $ it .ill 7e accelerate$ to a -elocity G1 L T!Aq (=9$ / )$ = centi)eters (er secon$ ,n its transit fro) $istance = to a -ery )uch greater $istance an a$$itional -elocity of G! L T!Aq' / ) = centi)eters (er secon$ q' 7eing8 theoretically8 s)aller than q0 3ut , ha-e foun$ that although the (article in contact .ith air is neutraliBe$ ra(i$ly yet8 on account of its s)all surface8 )agnitu$e of the charge an$ (ro$igious s(ee$8 a -ery great $istance is tra-erse$ .ithout )aterial re$uction of the charge so that8 .ithout a((recia7le error8 q' )ay 7e consi$ere$ equal to q0 Thus8 the total -elocity attaine$ .ill 7e G L G1MG! L T!Aq (=9$ / )$ = M T!Aq' / ) = centi)eters (er secon$ in .hich e'(ression A an$ q are in e0s0 units8 = an$ $ in centi)eters an$ ) the )ass of the (article in gra)s0 3ut the calculation )ay 7e si)(lifie$8 for if the charge is -irtually constant through a great $istance8 the -elocity finally attaine$ .ill 7e G L T!Aq / )$ centi)eters (er secon$ Assu)e no. that the ter)inal is equi-alent to a s(here of ra$ius + L !45 centi)eters .hich heretofore coul$ only 7e charge$ to a (otential of 155 ' !45 L !48555 e0s0 units or *84558555 -olts 7ut8 7y ta2ing a$-antage of )y i)(ro-e)ents8 can 7e rea$ily charge$ to ! ' 154 e0s0 units or % ' 15* -olts in .hich case the quantity of electricity store$ .ill 7e A L ! ' 154 ' !45 L 4 ' 15* e0s0 units0 ,f8 for 7est effect8 the (article is charge$ in -acuu) at a $istance $ L !+ L 455 centi)eters .here the $ifference 7et.een its (otential an$ a$Hacent )e$iu) is 3 ' 15* -olts or 154 e0s0 units8 then q/r L 154 an$ q L 154 L 1555 e0s0 units0 The (article .ill ha-e a -olu)e of 6TT/3 ' 15% cu7ic centi)eters an$ if it 7e tungsten8 it .ill .eigh a7out 6TT ' 18/3 ' 15% L *%8%/1511 gra)0 >u7stituting these -alues G L T! ' 4 ' 15* ' 1555 ' 1511 / 1555 ' *%8% ' 455 L 18%138555 centi)eters or 1%8135 )eters (er secon$0 This fin$ing )ay 7e chec2e$ 7y using the relation 7et.een the Houle's equi-alent an$ the 2inetic energy0 Here the Houles are 3 ' 15* ' 1555 / 3 ' 159 L 15 an$ a((ro'i)ately equal to 15% gra)9centi)eters0 Consequently8 )G! / ! L 15% G! L ! ' 15% ' 1511 / *%8% an$ G L 18%138555 centi)eters or 1%8135 )eters as foun$ a7o-e 7y )y for)ula .hich is al.ays a((lica7le .hile the latter rule is not0 >ince a Houle is equi-alent to a7out 158555 gra)9centi)eters8 the 2inetic energy is equal to 15 4 gra)9 centi)eters or 1 2ilogra)9)eter0 ,n or$er to $eter)ine the (ro7a7le traHectory the air resistance encountere$ 7y the (article has to 7e esti)ate$ fro) (ractical $ata an$ theoretical consi$eration0 Gery e'tensi-e 7allistic tests 7y French e'(erts ha-e esta7lishe$ conclusi-ely that u( to a -elocity of 655 )eters (er secon$8 the resistance increases as the square of the s(ee$ 7ut fro) there on8 to the highest -elocities attaine$8 the increase is $irectly (ro(ortional to the s(ee$0 ;n the other han$8 it has 7een foun$ in tests .ith rifles that an or$inary 7ullet8 8 )illi)eters in $ia)eter an$ three ti)es as long8 fire$ at 655 )eters (er secon$8 encounters a )ean resistance of a7out 505! 2ilogra) an$ fro) these facts8 it can 7e inferre$ that the a-erage resistance of the (article at the )a'i)u) s(ee$ G )ight 7e of the or$er of 1/%68555 of a 2ilogra) an$ if so8 the traHectory shoul$ 7e a((ro'i)ately %68555 )eters or %6 2ilo)eters0 ;7-iously8 resistance $ata cannot 7e accurate8 7ut as the )echanical effects can 7e increase$ )any ti)es8 there shoul$ 7e no $ifficulty in securing the (ractically require$ range .ith a trans)itter as $escri7e$0 ,n
all (ro7a7ility8 .hen the technique is (erfecte$8 results .ill 7e o7taine$ .hich are thought i)(ossi7le at (resent0 >uch a (article8 not.ithstan$ing its )inute -olu)e of 1/!458555 cu7ic centi)eter8 .oul$ 7e -ery $estructi-e0 ,t .oul$ (ierce the usual (rotecting co-ering of aero(lanes8 (ut )achinery out of co))ission an$ ignite fuel an$ e'(losi-es0 To co)7atants8 it .oul$ 7e $ea$ly at any $istance .ell .ithin its full range0 <roHecte$ al)ost si)ultaneously in great nu)7ers8 the (articles .oul$ (ro$uce intense heating effects0 ,n action8 against aero(lanes8 the range .oul$ 7e -ery )uch greater on account of the s)aller $ensity of the air0 "-i$ently8 the s)aller the (articles8 the greater .ill 7e their s(ee$0 For instance8 if r L 1/158555 centi)eter8 a -elocity of 1%58555 )eters (er secon$ .ill 7e attaine$0 An enor)ous increase in s(ee$ an$ range .oul$ 7e secure$ .ith (articles of a $ia)eter s)aller than 855 ti)es the )olecular $ia)eter0 ,t is i)(ortant to $e-ise a thoroughly (ractical an$ si)(le )eans for su((lying (articles an$ , ha-e in-ente$ t.o .hich see) to )eet this require)ent0 ;ne is to fee$ tungsten or other .ire fro) a s(ool in a close$ container Hoine$ her)etically to the (roHector8 the rotation of the s(ool 7eing un$er control of the o(erator0 Csing .ire !/155 centi)eters in $ia)eter8 t.enty cu7ic centi)eters of the sa)e .oul$ (ro-i$e )aterial for 485558555 (articles0 The other $e-ice consists of a close$ container fi'e$ to the (roHector an$ fille$ .ith )ercury .hich can 7e e'(an$e$ 7y e'ternal an$ controlla7le a((lication of heat an$ force$8 un$er great (ressure8 through a )inute hole in the e'tre)e en$ of the e'tension reaching to the $istance $ as 7efore illustrate$ an$ e'(laine$0 The $ro(let torn off an$ (roHecte$ .oul$ ha-e the har$ness of steel o.ing to the great ca(illary (ressure0 ,f )ercury can 7e use$ for the (ur(ose8 this )eans is i$eally si)(le an$ chea(0
1-95-0"-00: A Ma(,ine to *nd Far

A 9amous Inventor+ 3icturing %ife 1== -ears from No"+ !eveals an Astounding &cientific Benture #hich (e 4elieves #ill 2hange the 2ourse of (istory %iberty+ 9ebruary 11:. by Nikola Tesla as told to 5eorge &ylvester Biereck Tesla0 ",t see)s8" he says8 "that , ha-e al.ays 7een ahea$ of )y ti)e0" "$itor's 1oteI 1i2ola Tesla8 no. in his se-enty9eighth year8 has 7een calle$ the father of ra$io8 tele-ision8 (o.er trans)ission8 the in$uction )otor8 an$ the ro7ot8 an$ the $isco-erer of the cos)ic ray0 +ecently he has announce$ a heretofore un2no.n source of energy (resent e-ery.here in unli)ite$ a)ounts8 an$ he is no. .or2ing u(on a $e-ice .hich he 7elie-es .ill )a2e .ar i)(ractica7le0 Tesla an$ "$ison ha-e often 7een re(resente$ as ri-als0 They .ere ri-als8 to a certain e'tent8 in the 7attle 7et.een the alternating an$ $irect current in .hich Tesla cha)(ione$ the for)er0 He .onJ the great (o.er (lants at 1iagara Falls an$ else.here are foun$e$ on the Tesla syste)0 ;ther.ise the t.o )en .ere )erely o((osites0 "$ison ha$ a genius for (ractical in-entions i))e$iately a((lica7le0 Tesla8 .hose in-entions .ere far ahea$ of the ti)e8 arouse$ antagonis)s .hich $elaye$ the fruition of his i$eas for years0 Ho.e-er8 great (hysicists li2e :el-in an$ Croo2es s(o2e of his in-entions as )ar-elous0 "Tesla8" sai$ <rofessor A0 "0 :ennelly of Har-ar$ Cni-ersity .hen the "$ison )e$al .as (resente$ to the in-entor8 "set .heels going roun$ all o-er the .orl$0 0 0 0 &hat he sho.e$ .as a re-elation to science an$ art unto ail ti)e0" "&ere .e8" re)ar2s 30 A0 3ehren$8 $istinguishe$ author an$ engineer8" to seiBe an$ to eli)inate the results of /r0 Tesla's .or28 the .heels of in$ustry .oul$ cease to turn8 our electric cars an$ trains .oul$ sto(8 our to.ns .oul$ 7e $ar28 our )ills .oul$ 7e $ea$ an$ i$le0"
!;+"CA>T,1G is (erilous0 1o )an can loo2 -ery far into the future0 <rogress an$ in-ention e-ol-e in $irections
other than those antici(ate$0 >uch has 7een )y e'(erience8 although , )ay flatter )yself that )any of the $e-elo()ents .hich , forecast ha-e 7een -erifie$ 7y e-ents in the first thir$ of the t.entieth century0 ,t see)s that , ha-e al.ays 7een ahea$ of )y ti)e0 , ha$ to .ait nineteen years 7efore 1iagara .as harnesse$ 7y )y syste)8 fifteen years 7efore the 7asic in-entions for .ireless .hich , ga-e to the .orl$ in 1893 .ere a((lie$ uni-ersally0 , announce$ the cos)ic ray an$ )y theory of ra$io acti-ity in 189%0 ;ne of )y )ost i)(ortant $isco-eriesKterrestrial resonanceK.hich is the foun$ation of .ireless (o.er trans)ission an$ .hich , announce$ in 18998 is not un$erstoo$ e-en to$ay0 1early t.o years after , ha$ flashe$ an electric current aroun$ the glo7e8 "$ison8 >tein)etB8 /arconi8 an$ others $eclare$ that it .oul$ not 7e (ossi7le to trans)it e-en signals 7y .ireless across the Atlantic0 Ha-ing antici(ate$ so )any i)(ortant $e-elo()ents8 it is not .ithout assurance that , atte)(t to (re$ict .hat life is li2ely to 7e in the t.enty9first century0 #ife is an$ .ill e-er re)ain an equation inca(a7le of solution8 7ut it contains certain 2no.n factors0 &e )ay $efinitely say that it is a )o-e)ent e-en if .e $o not fully un$erstan$ its nature0 /o-e)ent i)(lies a 7o$y .hich is 7eing )o-e$ an$ a force .hich (ro(els it against resistance0 /an8 in the large8 is a )ass urge$ on 7y a force0 Hence the general la.s go-erning )o-e)ent in the real) of )echanics are a((lica7le to hu)anity0 There are three .ays 7y .hich the energy .hich $eter)ines hu)an (rogress can 7e increase$I First8 .e )ay increase the )ass0 This8 in the case of hu)anity8 .oul$ )ean the i)(ro-e)ent of li-ing con$itions8 health8 eugenics8 etc0 >econ$8 .e )ay re$uce the frictional forces .hich i)(e$e (rogress8 such as ignorance8 insanity8 an$ religious fanaticis)0 Thir$8 .e )ay )ulti(ly the energy of the hu)an )ass 7y enchaining the forces of the uni-erse8 li2e those of the sun8 the ocean8 the .in$s an$ ti$es0 The first )etho$ increases foo$ an$ .ell97eing0 The secon$ ten$s to 7ring (eace0 The thir$ enhances our a7ility to .or2 an$ to achie-e0 There can 7e no (rogress that is not constantly $irecte$ to.ar$ increasing .ell97eing8 (eace8 an$ achie-e)ent0 Here the )echanistic conce(tion of life is one .ith the teachings of 3u$$ha an$ the >er)on on the /ount0 &hile , a) not a 7elie-er in the ortho$o' sense8 , co))en$ religion8 first8 7ecause e-ery in$i-i$ual shoul$ ha-e so)e i$ealKreligious8 artistic8 scientific8 or hu)anitarianKto gi-e significance to his life0 >econ$8 7ecause all the great religions contain .ise (rescri(tions relating to the con$uct of life8 .hich hol$ goo$ no. as they $i$ .hen
they .ere (ro)ulgate$0 There is no conflict 7et.een the i$eal of religion an$ the i$eal of science8 7ut science is o((ose$ to theological $og)as 7ecause science is foun$e$ on fact0 To )e8 the uni-erse is si)(ly a great )achine .hich ne-er ca)e into 7eing an$ ne-er .ill en$0 The hu)an 7eing is no e'ce(tion to the natural or$er0 /an8 li2e the uni-erse8 is a )achine0 1othing enters our )in$s or $eter)ines our actions .hich is not $irectly or in$irectly a res(onse to sti)uli 7eating u(on our sense organs fro) .ithout0 ;.ing to the si)ilarity of our construction an$ the sa)eness of our en-iron)ent8 .e res(on$ in li2e )anner to si)ilar sti)uli8 an$ fro) the concor$ance of our reactions8 un$erstan$ing is 7arn0 ,n the course of ages8 )echanis)s of infinite co)(le'ity are $e-elo(e$8 7ut .hat .e call "soul " or "s(irit8" is nothing )ore than the su) of the functionings of the 7o$y0 &hen this functioning ceases8 the "soul" or the "s(irit" ceases li2e.ise0 , e'(resse$ these i$eas long 7efore the 7eha-iourists8 le$ 7y <a-lo- in +ussia an$ 7y &atson in the Cnite$ >tates8 (roclai)e$ their ne. (sychology0 This a((arently )echanistic conce(tion is not antagonistic to an ethical conce(tion of life0 The acce(tance 7y )an2in$ at large of these tenets .ill not $estroy religious i$eals0 To$ay 3u$$his) an$ Christianity are the greatest religions 7oth in nu)7er of $isci(les an$ in i)(ortance0 , 7elie-e that the essence of 7oth .ill he the religion of the hu)an race in the t.enty9first century0 The year !155 .ill see eugenics uni-ersally esta7lishe$0 ,n (ast ages8 the la. go-erning the sur-i-al of the fittest roughly .ee$e$ out the less $esira7le strains0 Then )an's ne. sense of (ity 7egan to interfere .ith the ruthless .or2ings of nature0 As a result8 .e continue to 2ee( ali-e an$ to 7ree$ the unfit0 The only )etho$ co)(ati7le .ith our notions of ci-iliBation an$ the race is to (re-ent the 7ree$ing of the unfit 7y steriliBation an$ the $eli7erate gui$ance of the )ating instinct8 >e-eral "uro(ean countries an$ a nu)7er of states of the A)erican Cnion steriliBe the cri)inal an$ the insane0 This is not sufficient0 The tren$ of o(inion a)ong eugenists is that .e )ust )a2e )arriage )ore $ifficult0 Certainly no one .ho is not a $esira7le (arent shoul$ 7e (er)itte$ to (ro$uce (rogeny0 A century fro) no. it .ill no )ore occur to a nor)al (erson to )ate .ith a (erson eugenically unfit than to )arry a ha7itual cri)inal0 Hygiene8 (hysical culture .ill 7e recogniBe$ 7ranches of e$ucation an$ go-ern)ent0 The >ecretary of Hygiene or <hysical Culture .ill he far )ore i)(ortant in the ca7inet of the <resi$ent of the Cnite$ >tates .ho hol$s office in the year !534 than the >ecretary of &ar0 The (ollution of our 7eaches such as e'ists to$ay aroun$ 1e. Dor2 City .ill see) as unthin2a7le to our chil$ren an$ gran$chil$ren as life .ithout (lu)7ing see)s to us0 ;ur .ater su((ly .ill he far )ore carefully su(er-ise$8 an$ only a lunatic .ill $rin2 unsteriliBe$ .ater0
';+" (eo(le $ie or gro. sic2 fro) (ollute$ .ater than fro) coffee8 tea8 to7acco8 an$ other sti)ulants0 , )yself
esche. all sti)ulants0 , also (ractically a7stain fro) )eat0 , a) con-ince$ that .ithin a century coffee8 tea8 an$ to7acco .ill 7e no longer in -ogue0 Alcohol8 ho.e-er8 .ill still 7e use$0 ,t is not a sti)ulant 7ut a -erita7le eli'ir of life0 The a7olition of sti)ulants .ill not co)e a7out forci7ly0 ,t .ill si)(ly 7e no longer fashiona7le to (oison the syste) .ith har)ful ingre$ients0 3ernarr /acfa$$en has sho.n ho. it is (ossi7le to (ro-i$e (alata7le foo$ 7ase$ u(on natural (ro$ucts such as )il28 honey8 an$ .heat0 , 7elie-e that the foo$ .hich is ser-e$ to$ay in his (enny restaurants .ill 7e the 7asis of e(icurean )eals in the s)artest 7anquet halls of the t.enty9first century0 There .ill 7e enough .heat an$ .heat (ro$ucts to fee$ the entire .orl$8 inclu$ing the tee)ing )illions of China an$ ,n$ia8 no. chronically on the -erge of star-ation0 The earth is 7ountiful8 an$ .here her 7ounty fails8 nitrogen $ra.n fro) the air .ill refertiliBe her .o)70 , $e-elo(e$ a (rocess for this (ur(ose in 19550 ,t .as (erfecte$ fourteen years later un$er the stress of .ar 7y Ger)an che)ists0 #ong 7efore the ne't century $a.ns8 syste)atic reforestation an$ the scientific )anage)ent of natural resources .ill ha-e )a$e an en$ of all $e-astating $roughts8 forest fires8 an$ floo$s0 The uni-ersal utiliBation of .ater (o.er an$ its long9$istance trans)ission .ill su((ly e-ery househol$ .ith chea( (o.er an$ .ill $is(ense .ith the necessity of 7urning fuel0 The struggle for e'istence 7eing lessene$8 there shoul$ 7e $e-elo()ent along i$eal rather than )aterial lines0 To$ay the )ost ci-iliBe$ countries of the .orl$ s(en$ a )a'i)u) of their inco)e on .ar an$ a )ini)u) on e$ucation0 The t.enty9first century .ill re-erse this or$er0 ,t .ill 7e )ore glorious to fight against ignorance than to $ie on the fiel$ of 7attle0 The $isco-ery of a ne. scientific truth .ill 7e )ore i)(ortant than the squa77les of $i(lo)ats0 "-en the ne.s(a(ers of our o.n $ay are 7eginning to treat scientific $isco-eries an$ the creation of fresh (hiloso(hical conce(ts as ne.s0 The ne.s(a(ers of the t.enty9first century .ill gi-e a )ere "stic2" in the 7ac2 (ages to accounts of cri)e or (olitical contro-ersies8 7ut .ill hea$line on the front (ages the (rocla)ation of a ne. scientific hy(othesis0 ",t .ill 7e (ossi7le to $estroy anything a((roaching .ithin !55 )iles0 /y in-ention .ill (ro-i$e a .all of (o.er8" $eclares Tesla0
++;G+">> along such lines .ill 7e i)(ossi7le .hile nations (ersist in the sa-age (ractice of 2illing each other
off0 , inherite$ fro) )y father8 an eru$ite )an .ho la7ore$ har$ for (eace8 an inera$ica7le hatre$ of .ar0 #i2e other in-entors8 , 7elie-e$ at one ti)e that .ar coul$ he sto((e$ 7y )a2ing it )ore $estructi-e0 3ut , foun$ that , .as )ista2en0 , un$eresti)ate$ )an's co)7ati-e instinct8 .hich it .ill ta2e )ore than a century to 7ree$ out0 &e cannot a7olish .ar 7y outla.ing it0 &e cannot en$ it 7y $isar)ing the strong0 &ar can 7e sto((e$8 not 7y )a2ing the strong .ea2 7ut 7y )a2ing e-ery nation8 .ea2 or strong8 a7le to $efen$ itself0 Hitherto all $e-ices that coul$ 7e use$ for $efense coul$ also 7e utiliBe$ to ser-e for aggression0 This nullifie$ the -alue of the i)(ro-e)ent for (ur(oses of (eace0 3ut , .as fortunate enough to e-ol-e a ne. i$ea an$ to (erfect )eans .hich can 7e use$ chiefly for $efense0 ,f it is a$o(te$8 it .ill re-olutioniBe the relations 7et.een nations0 ,t .ill )a2e any country8 large or s)all8 i)(regna7le against ar)ies8 air(lanes8 an$ other )eans for attac20 /y in-ention requires a large (lant8 7ut once it is esta7lishe$ it .ill he (ossi7le to $estroy anything8 )en or )achines8 a((roaching .ithin a ra$ius of !55 )iles0 ,t .ill8 so to s(ea28 (ro-i$e a .all of (o.er offering an insu(era7le o7stacle against any effecti-e aggression0 ,f no country can 7e attac2e$ successfully8 there can 7e no (ur(ose in .ar0 /y $isco-ery en$s the )enace of air(lanes or su7)arines8 7ut it insures the su(re)acy of the 7attleshi(8 7ecause 7attleshi(s )ay 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith so)e of the require$ equi()ent0 There )ight still 7e .ar at sea8 7ut no .arshi( coul$ successfully attac2 the shore line8 as the coast equi()ent .ill 7e su(erior to the ar)a)ent of any 7attleshi(0 , .ant to state e'(licitly that this in-ention of )ine $oes not conte)(late the use of any so9calle$ "$eath rays0" +ays are not a((lica7le 7ecause they cannot 7e (ro$uce$ in requisite quantities an$ $i)inish ra(i$ly in intensity .ith $istance0 All the energy of 1e. Dor2 City (a((ro'i)ately t.o )illion horse(o.er transfor)e$ into rays an$ (roHecte$ t.enty )iles8 coul$ not 2ill a hu)an 7eing8 7ecause8 accor$ing to a .ell 2no.n la. of (hysics8 it .oul$ $is(erse to such an e'tent as to 7e ineffectual0 /y a((aratus (roHects (articles .hich )ay 7e relati-ely large or of )icrosco(ic $i)ensions8 ena7ling us to con-ey to a s)all area at a great $istance trillions of ti)es )ore energy than is (ossi7le .ith rays of any 2in$0 /any thousan$s of horse(o.er can thus 7e trans)itte$ 7y a strea) thinner than a hair8 so that nothing can resist0 This .on$erful feature .ill )a2e it (ossi7le8 a)ong other things8 to achie-e un$rea)e$9of results in tele-ision8 for there .ill 7e al)ost no li)it to the intensity of illu)ination8 the siBe of the (icture8 or $istance of (roHection0 , $o not say that there )ay not 7e se-eral $estructi-e .ars 7efore the .orl$ acce(ts )y gift0 , )ay not li-e to see its acce(tance0 3ut , a) con-ince$ that a century fro) no. e-ery nation .ill ren$er itself i))une fro) attac2 7y )y $e-ice or 7y a $e-ice 7ase$ u(on a si)ilar (rinci(le0 At (resent .e suffer fro) the $erange)ent of our ci-iliBation 7ecause .e ha-e not yet co)(letely a$Huste$ oursel-es to the )achine age0 The solution of our (ro7le)s $oes not lie in $estroying 7ut in )astering the )achine0 ,nnu)era7le acti-ities still (erfor)e$ 7y hu)an han$s to$ay .ill 7e (erfor)e$ 7y auto)atons0 At this -ery )o)ent scientists .or2ing in the la7oratories of A)erican uni-ersities are atte)(ting to create .hat has 7een $escri7e$ as a "thin2ing )achine0" , antici(ate$ this $e-elo()ent0 , actually constructe$ "ro7ots0" To$ay the ro7ot is an acce(te$ fact8 7ut the (rinci(le has not 7een (ushe$ far enough0 ,n the t.enty9first century the ro7ot .ill ta2e the (lace .hich sla-e la7or occu(ie$ in ancient ci-iliBation0 There is no reason at all .hy )ost of this shoul$ not co)e to (ass in less than a century8 treeing )an2in$ to (ursue its higher as(irations0 An$ unless )an2in$'s attention is too -iolently $i-erte$ 7y e'ternal .ars an$ internal re-olutions8 there is no reason .hy the electric )illenniu) shoul$ not 7egin in a fe. $eca$es0
1-95-09-09: Berman Cosmi( #ay T,eory Cuestioned 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald Tribune Nikola Tesla Doubts %ink 4et"een !ays and 'utburst of Nova (erculis. Inventor &ays %ight and 3articles do Not Travel at the &ame &*eed. The Heral$ Tri7une of Eanuary !58 19348 containe$ a re(ort relating to so)e o7ser-ations of cos)ic rays )a$e 7y =r0 &erner :olhoester8 $irector of the ;7ser-atory of <ots$a)8 in connection .ith the out7urst of 1o-a Herculis (the "ne." star note$ in =ece)7er of last year0 , ha$ inten$e$ to offer a fe. .or$s of co))ent u(on the sa)e at that ti)e8 7ut thought it a$-isa7le to rea$ first the original state)ent (u7lishe$ in the >u((le)ent of the "3erliner Tage7latt" of Eanuary !58 19348 .hich has 7een for.ar$e$ to )e through the courtesy of the Ger)an Consulate0 &oul$ Confir) His Theory This ne.s ite) has intereste$ )e8 as the results announce$8 if -ali$8 .oul$ 7e another confir)ation of )y theory of cos)ic rays a$-ance$ in 189% accor$ing to .hich these ra$iations can only e)anate fro) such -ast an$ incan$escent hea-enly 7o$ies as our sun8 (lace$ in an al)ost (erfect -acuu) an$ charge$ to tre)en$ous (otentials8 sufficient for i)(arting to )inute si)ilarly electrifie$ (articles i))ense s(ee$s an$ energies 7y electrostatic re(ulsion0 , ha-e (ro-e$ this theory rigorously 7y e'(eri)ents an$ $e$uctions8 7ut ha$ , not $one so8 it .oul$ still 7e esta7lishe$ as a scientific truth8 for there is no force or effect (ro$uce$ in the uni-erse .hich8 e-en if a)(lifie$ )illions of ti)es8 coul$ account for the cos)ic (heno)ena $isco-ere$ 7y )e0 1o.8 a 1o-a8 in its (hase of greatest 7rightness an$ transcen$ing te)(erature at the surface8 is a generator of cos)ic rays inco)(ara7ly )ore (o.erful than our sun0 3ut .hile this is unquestiona7ly true8 the fin$ings of the Ger)an ra$iologist are o(en to serious o7Hections0 ,n the first (lace8 calculation confor)a7le to )y theory sho.s that in or$er to cause an increase in the intensity of the rays of the or$er foun$8 the surface te)(erature of the star8 assu)ing its $istance 18!55 light years8 coul$ not ha-e 7een )uch less than 485558555 $egrees centigra$e0 >uch a high -alue is e'tre)ely i)(ro7a7le although in a 1o-a8 in .hich ra$iation of heat fro) the insi$e is greatly facilitate$ 7y e'(ansion8 the $ifference in the te)(eratures of the central an$ (eri(heral (arts )ay not 7e -ery great0 Then8 again8 the increase recor$e$8 a)ounting to a7out 1 (ercent of the intensity of cos)ic rays e)itte$ 7y our sun8 is too s)all for $ra.ing a relia7le conclusion in -ie. of the influence of .eather con$itions an$ other $istur7ing causes0 ,t )ust also 7e 7orne in )in$ that the coinci$ence )etho$ a$o(te$ is far fro) 7eing accurate0 There e'ists8 ho.e-er8 an ele)ent of incertitu$e .hich in itself is sufficient to in-ali$ate co)(letely the results o7taine$ an$ of .hich =r0 :olhoerster $oes not see) to ha-e thought0 #ight is a .a-e )otion of $efinite -elocity8 $eter)ine$ 7y the elastic force an$ $ensity of the )e$iu)0 Cos)ic rays are (articles of )atter8 the s(ee$ of .hich $e(en$s on the (ro(elling force an$ )ass an$ )ay 7e )uch s)aller or greater than that of light0 =ifference in >(ee$s Consequently8 there can 7e no concor$ance in the (hases of the t.o $istur7ances at the (lace of o7ser-ation0 The cos)ic rays8 generate$ $uring the )a'i)u) 7rightness of the star8 )ay reach the (lace )any centuries sooner or later than the light8 accor$ing to their s(ee$0 ,t thus a((ears that the results announce$ cannot ha-e 7een $ue to 1o-a Herculis0 Consi$ering further the 7riefness an$ s)all nu)7er of star out7urts8 it is e-i$ent that the 1o-ae cannot contri7ute a((recia7ly to the stea$y rain of cos)ic (articles (ouring u(on the earth fro) the countless suns of the uni-erse0
1-95-06-05: Tesla 5redi(ts S,i$s 5owered 1y S,ore ;eam by Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald Tribune &coffs at NormandyGs A&*eedA &ees &uccess for (is 3lan to Dse &tratos*here !ay #ould %ight &ea at Night &ays 9rench %inerCs &ystem 2o*ied (is in D. &. 4oats =r0 1i2ola Tesla8 scientist an$ seer .hose $isco-eries in the fiel$s of (oly(hase electrical current an$ .ireless (lace hi) in the front ran2 of )o$ern in-entors8 refuse$ yester$ay to 7e a.e$ 7y the recor$ s(ee$ achie-e)ent of the French liner 1or)an$y in crossing the Atlantic in 6 $ays 11 hours 6! )inutes an$ (re$icte$ that enor)ous shi(s .oul$ cross the ocean at far greater s(ee$s 7y )eans of a high9tension current (roHecte$ fro) (o.er (lants on shore to -essels at sea through the u((er reaches of the at)os(here0 ,n his roo) at the Hotel 1e. Dor2er8 $resse$ in a 7lue 7athro7e8 7lue soc2s an$ re$ sli((ers8 =r0 Tesla e'(oun$e$ the (rinci(les of his fa7ulous )etho$ of (o.er trans)ission99a )etho$ .hich he has 7een $e-elo(ing at irregular inter-als fro) as far 7ac2 as 189*0 The -irtues of stratos(here trans)ission8 he sai$8 lay not only in its (otential increase of a -essel's s(ee$ 7ut also in its (o.er to eli)inate the $angers of nocturnal na-igation0 ,n short8 high9tension currents of electricity (assing through the stratos(here .oul$ light the s2y an$ to a $egree turn night into $ay0 &ith (o.er (lants statione$ at inter)e$iate (osts such as u(on the ABores an$ 3er)u$a8 -essels coul$ cross the Atlantic8 (ro(elle$ an$ safeguar$e$ at the sa)e ti)e 7y electricity generate$ ashore0 There .oul$ no longer 7e $anger of 7oiler e'(losions nor haBar$s of collisions at sea0 "-en on )oonless8 clou$y nights8 there still .oul$ glea) o-erhea$ the faint rays of surging electrical currents8 so strong that (ilots .oul$ 7e a7le to $istinguish o7Hects )iles a.ay0 1or)an$y Cses C0 >0 Cruiser >yste) =r0 Tesla8 a tall8 slen$er )an .ith straight sil-ery hair8 lean features an$ 7right 7lue eyes that 7elie his se-enty9 eight years8 (reface$ his (ro(hecies 7y (ointing out that the 1or)an$yNs syste) of (o.er generation an$ a((lication .as not ne.997ut one .hich ha$ 7een a$o(te$ long ago in so)e of the Cnite$ >tates cruisers0 The (rinci(le is one of his o.n in-entions0 "The 1or)an$y8" he sai$8 "e)(loys an 'electric $ri-e' in .hich tur7ines $ri-e generators an$ generators su((ly the current to in$e(en$ent )otors0 ,n this case the tur7ines are $ri-en 7y stea)8 the generators are of the three9 (hase ty(e an$ the )otors are of the in$uction ty(e0 ",n )any res(ects the )achinery installe$ on the Cnite$ >tates cruisers 7y for)er >ecretary Eose(hus =aniels is )ore re)ar2a7le than that on the 1or)an$y on account of the li)itations of a-aila7le s(ace0 /oreo-er8 .hile the 1or)an$y $e-elo(s only 1%58555 horse(o.er8 the cruisers each $e-elo( 1848555 horse(o.er0 These cruisers e)(loy the )ost re)ar2a7le engine (lants in the .orl$8 an$ , 7elie-e that this $ri-e .oul$ not ha-e 7een e)(loye$ on the 1or)an$y ha$ it not 7een for the (ioneering .or2 $one in the Cnite$ >tates0 ",n -ie. of the a$o(tion on such a large scale of these in-entions of )ine8 it is interesting to recall that , .as -iolently attac2e$ only a fe. years ago 7y a (rofessor of )arine engineering at Colu)7ia8 .ho clai)e$ the electrical $ri-e .as not feasi7le an$ that it .as folly to un$erta2e it0 "Ho.e-er s(len$i$ the )achinery on the 1or)an$y )ight 7e8 the ti)e is not $istant .hen .e .ill ha-e )uch si)(ler an$ 7etter )eans of (ro(ulsion0" Cites His Force 3ea) as ;ne &ay Here =r0 Tesla recalle$ the (ossi7ilities of his force 7ea) of (articles .hich he announce$ last year as a (otential $efensi-e .ea(on of great -alue0 ;ne of its as(ects is a $eath ray ca(a7le of $estroying air(lanes an$ ar)ies0 Another is a )eans of (o.er trans)ission .hich coul$ 7e use$ to relay i))ense -oltages of (o.er o-er $istances li)ite$ only 7y the cur-ature of the earth0 The $ifficulties inherent in using this )etho$ as a )eans of (ro(ulsion for oceangoing shi(s8 ho.e-er8 .ere seen 7y =r0 Tesla to lie in the necessity of -ast outlays of ca(ital an$ concerte$ har)onious en$ea-our 7y the chief nations of the .orl$0 The latter8 he sai$8 .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7le to achie-e at the (resent ti)e0 A thir$ $ifficulty
.oul$ 7e the tas2 of 2ee(ing a shi( at sea constantly in touch .ith a threa$li2e 7ea) of (articles fro) ashore0 =r0 Tesla8 therefore8 suggeste$ that his other sche)e8 of stratos(here trans)ission of electricity8 .oul$ 7e a far )ore feasi7le )eans of )arine (ro(ulsion0 The (rinci(les of the t.o (lans are entirely $istinct0 The force 7ea) is a thin 7arrage of tiny (articles $ischarge$ at tre)en$ous -elocities fro) a 2in$ of electrical gun0 The other in-ention8 .hich he has not hitherto $iscusse$ (u7licly8 is of trans)itting high tension currents through the u((er air8 an$ recei-ing the) 7y )eans of a -ertical ioniBing 7ea) .hich .oul$ 7e a sort of in-isi7le electro$e0 He $iscusse$ this yester$ayI >tarte$ 1e. ,$ea in 189* "There is a )etho$ of con-eying great (o.er to shi(s at sea .hich .oul$ 7e a7le to (ro(el the) across oceans at high s(ee$0 This )etho$ , concei-e$ 7et.een 189* an$ 18998 an$ in Colora$o >(rings in 18990 , )a$e e'(eri)ents along this line on a large scale0 "The (rinci(le is thisI A ray of great ioniBing (o.er is use$ to gi-e to the at)os(here great (o.ers of con$uction0 A high tension current of 1585558555 to 1!85558555 -olts is then (asse$ along this ray to the u((er strata of the air8 .hich strata can 7e 7ro2en $o.n -ery rea$ily an$ .ill con$uct electricity -ery .ell0 "A shi( .oul$ ha-e to ha-e equi()ent for (ro$ucing a si)ilar ioniBing ray0 The current .hich has (asse$ through the stratos(here .ill stri2e this ray8 tra-el $o.n it an$ (ass into the engines .hich (ro(el the shi(0 <et >che)e to #ight ;cean ", .ill confess that , .as $isa((ointe$ .hen , first )a$e tests along this line on a large scale0 They $i$ not yiel$ (ractical results0 At the ti)e , use$ a7out 885558555 to 1!85558555 -olts of electricity0 As a source of ioniBing rays , e)(loye$ a (o.erful arc reflecte$ u( into the s2y0 At the ti)e , .as trying only to connect a high tension current an$ the u((er strata of the air8 7ecause )y (et sche)e for years has 7een to light the ocean at night0 "Ho.e-er8 since 195! , ha-e )a$e )any i)(ro-e)ents in )y )etho$ .hich , 2no. no. .ill assure success0 A (o.er (lant u(on the ABores8 for instance8 coul$ sen$ a current u( into the stratos(here an$ illu)inate the s2y sufficiently for (ilots to $iscern o7Hects u(on the ocean at a safe $istance0" =r0 Tesla sai$ that he .as .or2ing constantly e-ery $ay to (erfect his force 7ea)8 his )etho$ of stratos(here trans)ission of (o.er8 an$ a nu)7er of other in-entions the nature of .hich he .as not rea$y to $isclose0 &hen it .as calle$ to his attention that he .as .or2ing (retty har$ for a )an .ho .oul$ 7e se-enty9nine years ol$ ne't )onth8 he re(lie$I "&hy8 ,') young ne-er thin2 of )y age0 +eally8 you 2no.8 ,') Hust a youngster0"
1-95-0<-0-: 9 Tesla :nEentions

Ne" -ork &un Fa)ous >cientist to Tell The) To)orro. 1i2ola Tesla8 (hysicist an$ in-entor8 .ill ha-e not one 7ut three startling $isco-eries to announce at a (ress luncheon on the occasion of his se-enty9ninth 7irth$ay to)orro.8 he sai$ to$ay at the Hotel 1e. Dor2er0 /r0 Tesla sai$ that one of these $isco-eries is a ne. .ay of trans)itting energy8 an entirely ne. (rinci(le nothing li2e .ireless0 The secon$ has to $o .ith a ne. )etho$ of housing cos)ic rays8 an$ the thir$ concerns a (ro7le) .hich scientists an$ in-entors ha-e .or2e$ on for se-enty9fi-e years 7ut .hich e-ery one has gi-en u( as utterly i)(ossi7le0
$;7=BA?B$$E *ikola Tesla, at ?;, Uses -arth to Transmit ,ignalsG -"pects to have P$AA,AAA,AAA Within Two /ears by Earl &*arling
The Ne" -ork #orld,Telegram Could %estroy *m$ire State ;uilding wit, 7iEe 5ounds of Air 5ressure) 0e Says 1i2ola Tesla is *9 years ol$8 an$ he is one of the true geniuses of this ti)e0 1e-ertheless8 t.enty9o$$ ne.s(a(er)en ca)e a.ay fro) his Hotel 1e. Dor2er 7irth$ay (arty yester$ay8 .hich laste$ si' hours8 feeling hesitantly that so)ething .as .rong either .ith the ol$ )an's )in$ or else .ith their o.n8 for =r0 Tesla8 serene in an ol$9fashione$ <rince Al7ert an$ courtly in a .ay that see)s to ha-e gone out of this .orl$8 announce$ thatI 9 10 He ha$ $isco-ere$ the so9calle$ cos)ic ray in 189%8 at least fi-e years 7efore any other scientist too2 it u( an$ t.enty years 7efore it 7eca)e (o(ular a)ong scientists8 an$ he is no. con-ince$ that )any of the cos)ic (articles tra-el fifty ti)es faster than light8 so)e of the) 455 ti)es faster0 *eeds *o Commutator !0 He has foun$ a .ay to (ro$uce a $irect electric current 7y in$uction an$ .ithout the use of a co))utator8 .hich is so)ething the e'(erts in electricity ha-e consi$ere$ i)(ossi7le for the (ast hun$re$ years0 30 He has in-ente$ an "a7solutely i)(ossi7le" )achine .hich .ill i)(art -i7rations to the earth .hich8 .ith (ro(er recei-ing a((aratus can 7e (ic2e$ u( any.here on the earth's surface8 an$ that this )ysterious )achine .ill allo. scientists to e'(lore the $ee( interior of the earth8 .ill ena7le (ractical geologists to $isco-er gol$8 coal an$ (etroleu)8 an$ at the sa)e ti)e .ill gi-e shi(s the )eans of na-igating .ithout co)(ass or se'tant0 =r0 Tesla has %55 to *55 (atents to his na)e0 He in-ente$ the rotary fiel$ )otor8 an$ is a$)itte$ly the seer an$ father of all )o$ern electrical $e-elo()ent0 As has 7een his custo) for fi-e years no.8 he arrange$ his o.n 7irth$ay (arty8 $ran2 only hot )il2 as his (art of the cele7ration8 an$ )a$e his announce)ents .ith the su(er7 certainty of a )an .ho 2ne. .hat he .as tal2ing a7out8 e-en if none of his guests $i$0 Tells of LIuakeL He sai$8 a)ong other things8 that he e'(ects to ha-e ^15585558555 .ithin t.o years8 an$ he re-eale$ that an earthqua2e .hich $re. (olice an$ a)7ulances to the region of his la7oratory at 68 "0 Houston >t0 in 188* or 1888 .as the result of a little )achine he .as e'(eri)enting .ith at that ti)e .hich "you coul$ (ut in your o-ercoat (oc2et0" The 7e.il$ere$ ne.s(a(er)en (ounce$ u(on this as at least one thing they coul$ un$erstan$ an$ "the father of )o$ern electricity" tol$ .hat ha$ ha((ene$ as follo.sI ", .as e'(eri)enting .ith -i7rations0 , ha$ one of )y )achines going an$ , .ante$ to see if , coul$ get it in tune .ith the -i7ration of the 7uil$ing0 , (ut it u( notch after notch0 There .as a (eculiar crac2ing soun$0 ", as2e$ )y assistants .here $i$ the soun$ co)e fro)0 They $i$ not 2no.0 , (ut the )achine u( a fe. )ore notches0 There .as a lou$er crac2ing soun$0 , 2ne. , .as a((roaching the -i7ration of the steel 7uil$ing0 , (ushe$ the )achine a little higher0 ">u$$enly all the hea-y )achinery in the (lace .as flying aroun$0 , gra77e$ a ha))er an$ 7ro2e the )achine0 The 7uil$ing .oul$ ha-e 7een $o.n a7out our ears in another fe. )inutes0 ;utsi$e in the street there .as (an$e)oniu)0 The (olice an$ a)7ulances arri-e$0 , tol$ )y assistants to say nothing0 &e tol$ the (olice it )ust ha-e 7een an earthqua2e0 That's all they e-er 2ne. a7out it0" Watch (ut, 'r ,mith >o)e shre.$ re(orter as2e$ =r0 Tesla at this (oint .hat he .oul$ nee$ to $estroy the ")(ire >tate 3uil$ing an$ the $octor re(lie$I 9 "Fi-e (oun$s of air (ressure0 ,f , attache$ the (ro(er oscillating )achine on a gir$er that is all the force , .oul$ nee$8 fi-e (oun$s0 Gi7ration .ill $o anything0 ,t .oul$ only 7e necessary to ste( u( the -i7rations of the )achine to fit the natural -i7ration of the 7uil$ing an$ the 7uil$ing .oul$ co)e crashing $o.n0 That's .hy sol$iers al.ays 7rea2 ste( crossing a 7ri$ge0" His early e'(eri)ents in -i7ration8 he e'(laine$8 le$ to his in-ention of his ""arth -i7rating )achine"0 Tall an$ thin an$ ascetic face8 his eyes sun2en 7ut hu)orous un$er (rotru$ing 7ro.s8 he .as cagey a7out $escri7ing .hat his ne. )achine is8 although he 7elie-es it .ill 7e "the chief thing of )y )any in-entions (osterity .ill than2 )e
for0"
1-95-0<-11: Tesla2s Controlled *art,8ua.e

Ne" -ork American <o.er Through "arth A >tartling =isco-ery 1i2ola Tesla8 father of ra$io an$ of the )o$ern )etho$ of electric (o.er trans)ission8 o7ser-e$ his *9th 7irth$ay yester$ay 7y $rin2ing a quart of 7oile$ )il2 an$ outlining the latest of his )any startling $isco-eries0 &hile re(orters ate tur2ey at a 7irth$ay luncheon gi-en in his honour at the Hotel 1e. Dor2er Tesla $escri7e$ .hat he calle$ his "greatest achie-e)ent in the fiel$ of engineering0" This is an a((aratus 7y .hich energy can 7e trans)itte$ through the groun$ to any (art of the earth8 .ith (ractical (ossi7ilities in the na-igation of shi(s8 $isco-ery of ore $e(osits an$ $eter)ination of the (hysical (ro(erties of the earth's interior0 Cos)ic +ay >tu$ies He announce$ also the successful (assage of an in$uction current .ith a -arying flu' through a circuit .ithout the use of a co))utator 9 a feat 7elie-e$ i)(ossi7le since the $ays of Fara$ay0 An$ he re-eale$ stu$ies of the cos)ic ray .hich8 he sai$8 e'(ose$ )any of the )aHor tenets of the theory of relati-ity as fallacious0 The e)inent Eugosla-ian (hysicist8 .ho .as laughe$ at .hen he announce$n n'95's8 tal2e$ to the re(orters for )ore than three hours0 His e'(eri)ents in trans)itting )echanical -i7rations through the earth 9 calle$ 7y hi) the art of telegeo$yna)ics 9 .ere roughly $escri7e$ 7y the scientist as a sort of "controlle$ earthqua2e0" The rhyth)ical -i7rations (ass through the earth .ith al)ost no loss of energy8 he sai$8 an$ (re$icte$ the syste) in ti)e .ill 7e uni-ersally a$o(te$8 since it furnishes an "unfailing )eans of co))unication0" He asserte$I ",t 7eco)es (ossi7le to con-ey )echanical effects to the greatest terrestrial $istances an$ (ro$uce all 2in$s of unique effects of inesti)a7le -alue to science8 in$ustry an$ the arts0" The in-ention coul$ 7e use$ .ith $estructi-e effect in .ar8 he sai$8 7y e'(lo$ing 7o)7s thousan$s of )iles a.ay .hich ha$ 7een equi((e$ .ith a((aratus to recei-e the -i7rations0 ",ncre$i7le as it see)s8 , a) a7le not only to (ro$uce current of one $irection in a circuit 7y in$uction .ithout a co))utator8 7ut also , can )a2e this current al)ost as stea$y an$ continuous as that fro) a 7attery0 , can o7tain any tension , $esire .ithin reasona7le li)its 7y )erely e)(loying a greater nu)7er of turns in the circuit0" He e'(resse$ the ho(e the in-ention coul$ 7e a((lie$ as electric $ri-e in auto)o7iles an$ truc2s0 =r0 Tesla $ealt harshly .ith the relati-ity theory8 calling it "a )ass of error an$ $ece(ti-e i$eas .ra((e$ in a )agnificent )athe)atical cloa20" He $eclare$I ",ts e'(onents are -ery 7rilliant )eta(hysicists rather than e'(onents of (ositi-e science0 1ot a single one of the (ro(ositions of relati-ity ha-e 7een (ro-e$0"
1-95-0<-11: Tesla) <-) 5romises To Transmit 7or(e

Ne" -ork Times >cientist on 3irth$ay +e-eals >che)e to >en$ /echanical "nergy All ;-er &orl$ &oul$ "-en Gui$e >hi(s Assails Theory of +elati-ity as &or2 of /eta(hysicians an$ not >cientific 1i2ola Tesla8 the )an .ith se-en hun$re$ 7asic (atents to his cre$it8 .ho startle$ the .orl$ on a nu)7er of occasions in the (ast 7y achie-ing .hat others ha$ regar$e$ as i)(ossi7le8 inclu$ing the large9scale generation an$ $istri7ution of alternating current8 yester$ay treate$ the co)7ine$ )etro(olitan (ress to a (ersonally con$ucte$ tour of the la7yrinthine la7oratory of his fertile )in$0 ,t .as his se-enty9ninth 7irth$ay anni-ersary8 an$8 in 2ee(ing .ith his custo) of (ast years8 he )a$e the $ay an occasion for re-ealing so)e of the latest (ro$ucts of his 7rain in the line of $isco-ery8 a fiel$ in .hich he ri-alle$ an$ so)eti)es sur(asse$ "$ison $uring the gol$en era of electrical in-ention0 He confine$ hi)self yester$ay to three of his startling a$-entures in the real) of theoretical an$ (ractical science0 ;ne of these8 he sai$8 ".oul$ a((ear al)ost (re(osterous0" The secon$8 he sai$ .ith true can$our8 ".oul$ 7e consi$ere$ a7solutely i)(ossi7le 7y any co)(etent electrical engineer0" The thir$ .oul$ 2noc2 the (ro(s out fro) un$er the theory8 of relati-ity8 he sai$8 7ut in this case also he e'(resse$ his $ou7t that the )o$ern generation of scientists .oul$ ta2e his challenge seriously0 Cites Cos)ic +ay <roof He $escri7e$ relati-ity as "a 7eggar .ra((e$ in (ur(le .ho) ignorant (eo(le ta2e for a 2ing0" ,n su((ort of his state)ent he cite$ a nu)7er of e'(eri)ents he ha$ con$ucte$8 he sai$8 as far 7ac2 as 189% on the cos)ic ray0 He has )easure$ cos)ic ray -elocities fro) Antarus8 he sai$8 .hich he foun$ to 7e fifty ti)es greater than the s(ee$ of light8 thus $e)olishing8 he conten$e$8 one of the 7asic (illars of the structure of relati-ity8 accor$ing to .hich there can 7e no s(ee$ greater than that of light0 /r0 Tesla treate$ the (ress8 re(orters8 ca)era )en8 ne.s an$ soun$ reel re(resentati-es8 a7out 35 in nu)7er8 to a gour)et's luncheon in a (ri-ate $ining roo) at the Hotel 1e. Dor2er8 .here he has 7een )a2ing his ho)e $uring the (ast t.o years0 /r0 Tesla sat at the hea$ of the ta7le an$ tal2e$ .hile the re(orters an$ ca)era )en feaste$ on his 7ounty0 He $is$aine$ each an$ e-ery $ish that .as 7rought to hi)8 not e-en touching his glass of .ater0 To.ar$ the en$ of the luncheon he a7sente$ hi)self for a .hile an$ ca)e 7ac2 .ith a 7ottle containing a s)all quantity of (asteuriBe$ )il20 This he (oure$ in a sil-er chafing $ish an$ heate$ to the (ro(er te)(erature0 Then ca)e the sur(rise of the $ay 9 a 7irth$ay ca2e .ith a lone can$le8 a to2en of estee) 7y the )anage)ent of the 1e. Dor2er to its $istinguishe$ 7achelor guest0 His Greatest Achie-e)ent one of the su7Hects8 .hich he ho(e$8 he sai$8 .ill co)e to 7e recogniBe$ as his "greatest achie-e)ent in the fiel$ of engineering8" .as8 he sai$8 the (erfection 7y hi) of "an a((aratus 7y .hich )echanical energy can 7e trans)itte$ to any (art of the terrestrial glo7e0" This a((aratus8 he sai$8 .ill ha-e at least four (ractical (ossi7ilities0 ,t .ill gi-e the .orl$ a ne. )eans of unfailing co))unicationJ it .ill (ro-i$e a ne. an$ 7y far the safest )eans for gui$ing shi(s at sea an$ into (ortJ it .ill furnish a certain $i-ining ro$ for locating ore $e(osits of any 2in$ un$er the surface of the earthJ an$ finally8 it .ill furnish scientists .ith a )eans for laying 7are the (hysical con$itions of the earth8 an$ .ill ena7le the) to $eter)ine all of the earth's (hysical constants0 He calle$ this $isco-ery "tele9geo$yna)ics8" )otion of earth9forces at a $istance0 ,t is of this8 he sai$8 that it .oul$ "a((ear al)ost (re(osterous0" The a((aratus8 he a$$e$8 is "i$eally si)(le8" consisting of a stationary (art an$ a cylin$er of fine steel "floating" in air0 He has foun$ )eans8 he sai$8 of "i)(ressing u(on the floating (art (o.erful i)(ulses .hich react on the stationary (art8 an$ through the latter to trans)it energy through the earth0" To $o this he has "foun$ a ne. a)(lifier for a 2no.n ty(e of energy8" an$ the "(ur(ose is to (ro$uce i)(ulses through the earth an$ then (ic2 the) u( .hene-er nee$e$0" The secon$ in-ention8 .hich8 he sai$8 ".ill 7e consi$ere$ a7solutely i)(ossi7le 7y any co)(etent electrical
engineer8" .as $escri7e$ 7y hi) as a ne. )etho$ an$ a((aratus for (ro$ucing $irect current .ithout a co))utator8 "so)ething that has 7een consi$ere$ i)(ossi7le since the $ays of Fara$ay0" ",ncre$i7le as it see)s8" he sai$8 ", ha-e foun$ a solution for this ol$ (ro7le)0" Cos)ic rays8 he asserte$8 he foun$ are (ro$uce$ 7y the force of "electrostatic re(ulsion"J they consist of (o.erfully charge$ (ositi-e (articles .hich co)e to us fro) the sun an$ other suns in the uni-erse0 He $eter)ine$8 "after e'(eri)entation8" he a$$e$8 that the sun is charge$ ".ith an electric (otential of a((ro'i)ately !14855585558555 -olts8 .hile the electric charge store$ in the sun a)ounte$ to a((ro'i)ately 45855585558555855585558555 electrostatic units0" The theory of relati-ity he $escri7e$ as "a )ass of error an$ $ece(ti-e i$eas -iolently o((ose$ to the teachings of great )en of science of the (ast an$ e-en to co))on sense0" "The theory8 "he sai$8 ".ra(s all these errors an$ fallacies an$ clothes the) in )agnificent )athe)atical gar7 .hich fascinates8 $aBBles an$ )a2es (eo(le 7lin$ to the un$erlying errors0 The theory is li2e a 7eggar clothe$ in (ur(le .ho) ignorant (eo(le ta2e for a 2ing0 ,ts e'(onents are -ery 7rilliant )en8 7ut they are )eta(hysicists rather than scientists0 1ot a single one of the relati-ity (ro(ositions has 7een (ro-e$0"
1-95-08-18: *+$anding Sun Fill *+$lode Some %ay Tesla 5redi(ts by Nikola Tesla
Ne" -ork (erald Tribune Con$ensation of the (ri)ary su7stance is going on continuously8 this 7eing in a )easure (ro-e$8 for , ha-e esta7lishe$ 7y e'(eri)ents .hich a$)it of no $ou7t that the sun an$ other celestial 7o$ies stea$ily increase in )ass an$ energy an$ ulti)ately )ust e'(lo$e8 re-erting to the (ri)ary su7stance0 Activating &ays .inked to ,un &hen ra$io9acti-e (heno)ena .ere $isco-ere$ , .as (re(are$ to -ie. the) )erely as secon$ary effects of an e'ternal ra$iation8 an$ as no trace of such a $istur7ance coul$ 7e $etecte$ on earth , conclu$e$ that the (ri)ary acti-ating rays .ere of cos)ic origin an$ )ost li2ely to e)irate fro) suns closely rese)7ling our lu)inary0 As the first ste( to.ar$ clearing u( the )ystery , un$ertoo2 to ascertain .hether the sun .as charge$ to a (otential sufficiently high to (ro$uce the tre)en$ous electro9static re(ulsion .hich , ha$ foun$ to 7e the only force in nature ca(a7le of accounting for the (heno)ena0 The su7Hect require$ e'ten$e$ in-estigation8 7ut , finally ascertaine$ .ith a reasona7le $egree of certitu$e8 an$ to )y a)aBe)ent8 that the sun .as at a constant (ositi-e (otential of a7out !1%855585558555 -olts0 Thus the secret of the cos)ic rays .as re-eale$0 ;.ing to its i))ense charge8 the sun i)(arts to )inute (ositi-ely electrifie$ (articles (ro$igious -elocities .hich are go-erne$ only 7y the ratio 7et.een the quantity of free electricity carrie$ 7y the (articles an$ their )ass8 so)e attaining a s(ee$ e'cee$ing fifty ti)es that of light0 L-rroneous 1iewsL ,ighted The literature of cos)ic rays is re)ar2a7le for its e'tent an$ al)ost as )uch for the erroneous -ie.s (ro(oun$e$0 ,n this 7rief co))unication , can $.ell on only a fe. of these0 ,t is hel$8 in accor$ance .ith fin$ings8 that at great altitu$e the intensity of the rays is )ore than 158555 (er cent greater than at sea le-el0 , ha-e (ointe$ out that the )a'i)u) (ossi7le increase coul$ har$ly e'cee$ 45 (er cent8 an$ is8 in reality8 )uch s)aller0 Ho.8 then8 can the (heno)enal intensities recor$e$ 7e e'(laine$F The ans.er is si)(le0 The effects are $ue to ra$iations entirely $ifferent fro) the cos)ic8 longitu$inal (ulses in the ether8 .hich 7eha-e li2e (articles of relati-ely s)all (enetrati-e 7ut e'traor$inarily great ioniBing (o.er0 Then8 again8 it is sai$ that the rays are )uch .ea2er at the equator8 or near it8 than in greater latitu$es or at the (oles0 3ut this is only true for a li)ite$ height8 7eyon$ .hich the intensity is the sa)e all o-er the earth0 , foun$ the $iscre(ancy to 7e $ue to a (artial neutraliBation of the (ositi-e (articles co)(osing the rays 7y the negati-e carrie$ 7y rising air currents0 ,n the equatorial Bones this neutraliBing action )ay 7e so great as to re$uce the intensity of the rays to a fe. (er cent of the nor)al0 ,n the )o$erate Bones an$ (olar regions the (ositi-ely charge$ $escen$ing air (ro$uces the o((osite effect8 thus increasing the $ifference in the intensities recor$e$ in $ifferent latitu$es0 -nergy Appraisal Called !aulty The greatest )ista2e is )a$e in the a((raisal of the energy of cos)ic rays0 ,n )ost cases the ioniBing action is use$ as a criterion8 .hich is useless8 for the )ost (o.erful cos)ic rays -irtually $o not ioniBe at all an$ lea-e no trace of their (assage through the instru)ent0 , ha-e resorte$ to $ifferent )eans an$ )etho$s an$ ha-e foun$ that the energy of the cos)ic ra$iations i)(inging u(on the earth fro) all si$es is stu(en$ous8 such that if all of it .ere con-erte$ into heat the glo7e quic2ly .oul$ 7e )elte$ an$ -olatiliBe$0 >ince e'(ressing8 in 189%8 )y i$eas on the origin an$ character of cos)ic rays an$ of the cause of ra$ioacti-ity8 all )y -ie.s ha-e 7een confir)e$ 7y )y o.n fin$ings an$ those of others8 .hile the nu)erous theories a$-ance$ ha-e 7een (ro-e$ false or ina$equate0 Those .ho are still $ou7ting that our sun e)its (o.erful cos)ic rays e-i$ently o-erloo2 that the solar $is28 in .hate-er (osition it )ay 7e in the hea-ens8 cuts off the ra$iations fro) 7eyon$8 re(lacing the) 7y its o.n0 As the ra$iations fro) the sun are only a little )ore intense than those co)ing fro) other $irections8 the lac2 of (ronounce$ $ifferentiation has $ecei-e$ the o7ser-ers0 +egar$ing ra$io9acti-ity8 it occurs e'actly as require$ 7y )y theory0 The ra$io9acti-e e)anations fro) the glo7e are secon$ary effects of e'ternal rays an$ t.o9fol$ 9 one (art co)ing fro) the energy store$8 the other fro) that continuously su((lie$0
1-95-0--"": Ni.ola Tesla Tells 0ow 0e2d %efend *t,io$ia Against :talian :nEasion 4y Nikola Tesla
Detroit Times =ense Tro(ical Gro.th &ill Frustrate 3o)7s an$ Gas Hurle$ fro) Air(lane0 3y 1i2ola Tesla 9 &orl$ Fa)ous >cientist an$ =isco-erer in the Fiel$ of /o$ern "lectrical ,n-ention0 ,n an ,nter-ie. &ith George >yl-ester Gierec20 "&hat .oul$ you $o8 if you .ere ")(eror of "thio(iaF" This question8 a$$resse$ to 1i2ola Tesla8 suggeste$ itself to )e .hen , re)e)7ere$ the recent announce)ent 7y the $isco-erer of the rotating electric fiel$8 that he ha$ (erfecte$ certain in-entions 7y .hich the .ea2 coul$ (rotect the)sel-es against the strong0 These in-entions8 it .as clai)e$8 coul$ $estroy .hole cities an$ (ut an attac2ing fleet of air(lanes out of co))ission at great $istance0 Coul$ these )eans 7e e)(loye$ 7y "thio(ia to hol$ off /ussoliniF , sought out the in-entor in a s2yscra(er hotel8 .here he (on$ers o-er ne. scientific $e-ices0 Tesla .as $ee(ly a7sor7e$ in thought8 7ut his sternness )elte$ an$ his (ale face .as illu)inate$ 7y an un$erstan$ing s)ile0 "&hy $o you as2 )e this questionF , 7ear no ill .ill against ,taliansJ they ha-e 7rought forth great )en in science8 literature an$ art8 an$ su((lie$ .or2)en an$ artisans .ho ha-e a$-ance$ hu)anity0 "This alle-iates their conte)(late$ act of (iracy0 ;ther nations ha-e $one .orse0 1ations cannot 7e Hu$ge$ 7y the sa)e stan$ar$s as in$i-i$uals0 ",f , .ere the ruler of "thio(ia8 , .oul$ rigorously utiliBe e-ery natural a$-antage of )y country to nullify the effecti-eness of this su(erior ar)a)ent an$8 a7o-e all8 to (re-ent hi) fro) staging a sensational air9attac28 $estructi-e to the )orale of )y si)(le9)in$e$ su7Hects0 /C>T C>" TH",+ &,T>0 "As a first an$ a7solutely in$is(ensa7le )easure , .oul$ or$er the co)(lete e-acuation of A$$is A7a7a an$ all other (laces of i)(ortance .ithout a )o)ent's $elay0 , 7elie-e that Haile >elassie alrea$y conte)(lates so)e such course0 ", .oul$ lea-e no ci-ilians 7ehin$ in $ealing .ith /ussolini0 Though a )an of genius an$ culture8 the =uce has a strain of ferocity in his )a2e9u(8 .hich a((ears in so)e of his out7ursts0 >a-agely 7ent u(on a-enging the crushing ,talian $efeat at A$o.a8 /ussolini .oul$ co))an$ ruthless $estruction0 ", .oul$ scatter )y (eo(le in the thic2ly .oo$e$ regions an$ tell the) that they )ust )atch .ith cunning .hat they lac2 in )ight to esca(e annihilation0 ",talian air fleets .ill $ar2en the s2y to o-era.e the (o(ulation8 (ro7a7ly0 3ut .ill they 7o)7 to.ns an$ settle)ents8 $eserte$ an$ stri((e$ of all things of -alueF That .oul$ 7e a costly s(ort0 ,t .oul$ incur the scorn an$ ri$icule of the .orl$0 ,f )y $irections .ere strictly follo.e$8 the ,talian air)an coul$ ne-er fin$ the "thio(ian in the tro(ical un$er7rush0" ":no.ing that the "thio(ians are hi$$en there8 .oul$ the ,talians not scatter their 7o)7s o-er their forestsF" "The noise of 7o)7s hurle$ fro) air(lanes un$er such con$itions .oul$ 7e entirely out of (ro(ortion to their $estructi-enessJ they .oul$ 2ill -ery fe. (eo(le8" Tesla re(lie$ .ith a laugh0 "The $ense tro(ical gro.th is an i$eal i)(e$i)ent against gases an$ 7o)7s an$ greatly re$uces the range of such $e-ices0 +e)e)7er also that "thio(ia has a surface of 3458555 square )iles8 an$ a (o(ulation of only 15855585558 or8 on the a-erage !4 inha7itants (er square )ile0 "-en to clean out an insignificant Hungle requires thousan$s of or$inary 7o)7s0" "3ut if the ,talians resort to (oison gas8 .hat thenF"
<;,>;1 GA> C"+TA,1 T; FA,#0 ">uch attac2s )ust fail8 ,t is a co))on )ista2e to $isregar$ the character of the terrain in esti)ating the )ilitary -alue of )o$ern ar)s0 "&ea(ons that coul$ 7e use$ .ith $isastrous results in "uro(e8 .ill (ro-e futile in "thio(ia0 <oison gas is release$ 7y 7ursting 7o)7s or s(rin2le$ fro) reser-oirs0 The .eight of these gases is insignificant co)(are$ .ith that of the containers an$ accessories require$ for their trans(ortation0 To (ro-i$e 18555 cu7ic feet of gas8 a (lane )ust carry equi()ent .eighing one ton8 an$ 18555 cu7ic feet of gas is no )ore than a $ro( in a 7arrel0 ",f , .ere the :ing8 , .oul$ teach )y su7Hects ho. to ren$er the)sel-es i))une to (oison gas0 To e'(lain the sche)e8 , )ust go 7ac2 to )y young $ays in Dugosla-ia0 As a 7oy , .as -ery fon$ of running against the .in$ an$ o7ser-e$ that in the su))er there .as a stea$y 7reeBe fro) the lan$ co-ere$ .ith -egetation to a $esolate region8 7arren of gro.th an$ stre.n .ith roc2s0 "'&hy $oes the .in$ al.ays 7lo. that .ayF' , as2e$ )y )other0 '3ecause Go$ has .ille$ it so8 )y 7oy0' '3ut .hy has Go$ .ille$ it soF' /y curiosity .as not satisfie$ until , acquire$ so)e 2no.le$ge of (hysics an$ )echanics0 "Then , un$erstoo$ that the 7lea2 region e'(ose$ to the $irect glare of the sun 7eca)e -ery hot0 The e'(an$e$ air rose8 re$ucing the static (ressure0 Then8 the cooler an$ $enser air fro) the surroun$ing country rushe$ in8 to 7e in turn heate$ an$ cause$ to rise0 <+"GA,#,1G &,1=> =,><"# GA>">0 ",n "thio(ia8 .here the ther)o)eter registers as )uch as 165 $egrees in the sha$e the e'(ose$ regions attain scorching heat an$ the ensuing air9current is s.ift an$ of large -olu)e0 "Tra-ellers8 noting the (re-alence of .in$s8 ha-e not attache$ any significance to the)0 Det8 here lies the sal-ation of "thio(ia0 These .in$s are of su(re)e i)(ortance in gas .ar0 They $ilute the gases -ery greatly an$ quic2ly an$ at the sa)e ti)e su((ly the -i-ifying o'ygen0 ",f , .ere Haile >elassie8 , .oul$ station )y su7Hects 7ehin$ natural or artificial 7arriers sheltering the) fro) the .in$0 The gas8 release$ in front of the)8 .ill 7e ren$ere$ innocuous8 7ecause it .ill 7e carrie$ off 7y the .in$ fro) .hich they are (rotecte$0 The gas release$ 7ehin$ the) .ill 7e e'tre)ely $ilute$0 >trea)ing (ast the 7arrier8 it .ill cause little har)0 "<erha(s )y suggesting this re)e$y in )y .holly hy(othetical role8 , )ay 7e ren$ering a ser-ice to 7oth co)7atants0 "3ut the ,talians ha-e 7een (re(aring long for this .arJ they )ay s(ring sur(rises0 ,t .as re(orte$ that their che)ists ha-e (ro$uce$ a (o.$er .hich .ill 7urn the feet of the "thio(ians an$ (ut the) out of co)7at0 "That )ust 7e the (ro(osition of a (ractical Ho2er or an ignora)us0 it .oul$ not 7e (ossi7le to )anufacture 1 (ercent of the (o.$er necessary for this (ur(ose0 ,f a li)ite$ quantity .ere s(rin2le$ on the roa$s an$ (ath.ays8 the "thio(ians .oul$ soon fin$ out an$ 7e.are0 ",n )y o(inion the ,talians .ill 7e .ise to a7stain fro) the use of (oison in any for)0 The nati-es coul$ retaliate 7y (oisoning all .ells0 This 2in$ of .arfare coul$ not fail to (ro-e a cala)ityJ it .oul$ 7ring a7out a holocaust a)ong the ani)als0 Their (utrefying 7o$ies .oul$ 7ring on (estilence0 &ater .oul$ carry the ger)9infection far an$ .i$e0 "1o8 , $o not thin2 that the "thio(ians .ill 7e in $anger fro) such $e-ices0 The air(lane .ill 7e of -alue only in o(en 7attle an$ for scouting (ur(oses0 ,t is not a (eril to the "thio(ians0 "Their greatest (eril is their o.n i)(etuosity0 ,f they (er)it the)sel-es to 7e $etecte$ an$ en-elo(e$8 if they $o not confine the)sel-es entirely to guerilla tactics8 the ,talians .ill s)ash the)0" "Ha-e you thought of tan2sF Ho. .oul$ you )eet that )enaceF" ", a$)it8 the tas2 is not easy0 The )o$ern tan2 )ay 7e co)(are$ to the rhinoceros in the $ays .hen no 7ullet coul$ (ierce its hi$e0 The hea-y ar)our of the -ehicle (rotects it fro) guns of consi$era7le cali7re0 /"+CC+,C FC#/,1AT" T; <,"+C" TA1:>0 "3ut this .oul$ not $iscourage )e8 if , .ere the lion of Eu$ah0 Cn$er )y gui$ance an$ the (ressure of necessity )y fe. )echanical an$ che)ical e'(erts .oul$ quic2ly (erfect an efficient $efence 9 (ossi7ly rifles of large 7ore8 a$a(te$ to fire charges of )ercuric ful)inate0
"This is an e'traor$inarily (o.erful e'(losi-e0 The e'tre)e su$$enness of its $etonation is such that8 e-en if unconfine$8 it .ill (unch a hole in a thic2 steel (late0 "The chief $ifficulty is to (re-ent (re)ature e'(losion of the gun 7arrel0 , thin2 this coul$ 7e o-erco)e 7y an elastic resistance an$ slo. acceleration8 .hich is (ractica7le as the range can 7e short0 "The charges e'(lo$ing in contact .ith the tan2 .oul$ (ut the (ro(elling engines an$ )achine gun equi()ent out of or$er0 /y "thio(ians8 sallying forth fro) a)7ush8 .oul$ $o the rest0" "&hat .ill 7e the outco)e of the .ar 9 if it co)es to (assF" "This question is easily ans.ere$0 The "thio(ians )ust hi$e in the $ay an$ stri2e in the $ar20 ,n $oing so8 they can (re-ent the aggressors fro) achie-ing the i)(ortant )ilitary results $uring the (resent $ry season0 &hen the rain co)es again8 their 7attle .ill 7e half .on0 ,TA#,A1> A#&AD> <;;+ C;#;1,W"+>0 "3ut .e are $ealing .ith a hy(othesis0 , a) still con-ince$ that /ussolini .ill not $are to e)7ar2 u(on a large9 scale in-asion of "thio(ia0 The (rice he )ust (ay in equi()ent an$ )en is too great0 He )ust en-isage $isastrous consequences to ,taly8 e-en in case of -ictory8 ">houl$ "thio(ia 7e conquere$8 it .oul$ (ro-e a cancer eating a.ay the su7stance of ,taly0 The ,talians ha-e ne-er 7een successful coloniBers0 ", (ercei-e )ore an$ )ore clearly that /ussolini is )a2ing 7ol$ gestures to attain -alua7le concessions through the )e$iation of the <eace Conference0 "Hol$ing o-er the hea$s of the s(ineless #eague of 1ations8 li2e a s.or$ of =a)ocles8 the threat of another &orl$ &ar )ore frightful than the first8 he has succee$e$ in scaring its )e)7ers8 so that they are )a2ing rea$y to $eal unfairly .ith a nation .hose only offence is its .ea2ness 9 a nation that e'iste$ 7efore +o)ulus an$ +e)us .ere 7orn an$ )aintaine$ its in$e(en$ence for o-er three thousan$ years0 "1o )atter .hat co)(ro)ises )ay 7e a$o(te$ the "thio(ians .ill rather $ie than surren$er their in$e(en$enceJ hence8 .hether the issue 7e (eace or .ar8 there is )uch trou7le ahea$0"
1-96-0<-11: Tesla) 80) #eEeals New 5ower %eEi(e

Ne" -ork Times >ays His &ireless ,n-ention &ill Gir$ the "arth &ith "nergy for ,n$ustry 1i2ola Tesla8 in-entor8 .ho cele7rate$ his eightieth 7irth$ay yester$ay foresa. an in$ustrial ci-iliBation foun$e$ on chea( an$ unli)ite$ (o.er trans)itte$ fro) a central (oint to any (art of the glo7e .ithout .ires0 This ne. syste) of (o.er trans)ission .ill ha-e its first (ractical $e)onstration .ithin a year8 =r0 Tesla (re$icte$0 He sai$ he ha$ (erfecte$ the (rinci(les .hich .ill create the necessary a((aratus0 "ach year on his 7irth$ay the in-entor of the (rinci(le of the rotary )agnetic fiel$8 ne. for)s of $yna)os8 transfor)ers an$ *55 other $e-ices .hich ha-e (laye$ lea$ing roles in technological $e-elo()ent (lays host to the (ress0 Dester$ay he ga-e a luncheon for fifteen ne.s(a(er )en an$ .o)en at the Hotel 1e. Dor2er8 an$ .hile his guests feaste$ he contente$ hi)self .ith three oranges an$ a quart of )il20 +ecalls ,nteresting "(iso$es =r0 Tesla recalle$ his first )eeting .ith Tho)as A0 "$ison8 reli-e$ so)e of the interesting e(iso$es in his o.n life8 $escri7ing his researches into such -arie$ fiel$s as relati-ity8 $eath rays8 (sychic (heno)ena8 lightning )achines an$ (o.er $e-elo()ent0 3et.een si(s of the .ar) )il28 he eye$ the ne.s(a(er fol2 .ith their >cotch an$ so$as an$ confi$e$ that if he ha$ not gi-en u( $rin2ing alcohol .ith the enact)ent of (rohi7ition he .oul$ li-e to 7e 145 years ol$0 "As it is8 , 7elie-e )y a7stinence fro) alcohol $uring the latter (art of )y life has lo((e$ off fifteen years fro) )y life8 an$ no. , e'(ect to li-e only 134 years0" he re)ar2e$8 "Alcohol is the eli'ir of life8 7ut .hen this country (asse$ the <rohi7ition #a. , felt that as a (atriotic A)erican , shoul$ sto( $rin2ing .his2y0 , ha-e not touche$ it since0" /eat is another foo$ .hich he ne-er touches8 =r0 Tesla e'(laine$0 T.o quarts of )il2 a $ay (ro-i$e hi) .ith all the (roteins an$ calories he nee$s to re)ain ali-e8 he sai$0 Although as a rule he $oes not retire until 4I35 o'cloc2 e-ery )orning8 he gets u( a7out 15 A0 /0 an$ feels full of energy0 The $e-elo()ent of .ireless trans)ission of (o.er .ill o-ersha$o. any of his (ast acco)(lish)ents an$ .ill usher in a ne. ci-iliBation for )an2in$8 =r0 Tesla (re$icte$0 He e'(laine$ that his syste) .ill )a2e it (ossi7le8 for e'a)(le8 to install a hy$ro9electric (lant at /uscle >hoals an$ trans)it the (o.er generate$ to "nglan$8 China8 #ittle A)erica or Alas2a .ith equal ease an$ at co)(arati-ely little cost0
1-9<-0"-00: A Ma(,ine to *nd Far by Nikola Tesla

%iberty A 9amous Inventor+ 3icturing %ife 1== -ears from No"+ !eveals an Astounding &cientific Benture #hich (e 4elieves #ill 2hange the 2ourse of (istory as tol$ to George >yl-ester Gierec2 Tesla0 ",t see)s8" he says8 "that , ha-e al.ays 7een ahea$ of )y ti)e0" "$itor's 1oteI 1i2ola Tesla8 no. in his se-enty9eighth year8 has 7een calle$ the father of ra$io8 tele-ision8 (o.er trans)ission8 the in$uction )otor8 an$ the ro7ot8 an$ the $isco-erer of the cos)ic ray0 +ecently he has announce$ a heretofore un2no.n source of energy (resent e-ery.here in unli)ite$ a)ounts8 an$ he is no. .or2ing u(on a $e-ice .hich he 7elie-es .ill )a2e .ar i)(ractica7le0 Tesla an$ "$ison ha-e often 7een re(resente$ as ri-als0 They .ere ri-als8 to a certain e'tent8 in the 7attle 7et.een the alternating an$ $irect current in .hich Tesla cha)(ione$ the for)er0 He .onJ the great (o.er (lants at 1iagara Falls an$ else.here are foun$e$ on the Tesla syste)0 ;ther.ise the t.o )en .ere )erely o((osites0 "$ison ha$ a genius for (ractical in-entions i))e$iately a((lica7le0 Tesla8 .hose in-entions .ere far ahea$ of the ti)e8 arouse$ antagonis)s .hich $elaye$ the fruition of his i$eas for years0 Ho.e-er8 great (hysicists li2e :el-in an$ Croo2es s(o2e of his in-entions as )ar-elous0 "Tesla8" sai$ <rofessor A0 "0 :ennelly of Har-ar$ Cni-ersity .hen the "$ison )e$al .as (resente$ to the in-entor8 "set .heels going roun$ all o-er the .orl$0 0 0 0 &hat he sho.e$ .as a re-elation to science an$ art unto ail ti)e0" "&ere .e8" re)ar2s 30 A0 3ehren$8 $istinguishe$ author an$ engineer8" to seiBe an$ to eli)inate the results of /r0 Tesla's .or28 the .heels of in$ustry .oul$ cease to turn8 our electric cars an$ trains .oul$ sto(8 our to.ns .oul$ 7e $ar28 our )ills .oul$ 7e $ea$ an$ i$le0"
!;+"CA>T,1G is (erilous0 1o )an can loo2 -ery far into the future0 <rogress an$ in-ention e-ol-e in $irections
other than those antici(ate$0 >uch has 7een )y e'(erience8 although , )ay flatter )yself that )any of the $e-elo()ents .hich , forecast ha-e 7een -erifie$ 7y e-ents in the first thir$ of the t.entieth century0 ,t see)s that , ha-e al.ays 7een ahea$ of )y ti)e0 , ha$ to .ait nineteen years 7efore 1iagara .as harnesse$ 7y )y syste)8 fifteen years 7efore the 7asic in-entions for .ireless .hich , ga-e to the .orl$ in 1893 .ere a((lie$ uni-ersally0 , announce$ the cos)ic ray an$ )y theory of ra$io acti-ity in 189%0 ;ne of )y )ost i)(ortant $isco-eriesKterrestrial resonanceK.hich is the foun$ation of .ireless (o.er trans)ission an$ .hich , announce$ in 18998 is not un$erstoo$ e-en to$ay0 1early t.o years after , ha$ flashe$ an electric current aroun$ the glo7e8 "$ison8 >tein)etB8 /arconi8 an$ others $eclare$ that it .oul$ not 7e (ossi7le to trans)it e-en signals 7y .ireless across the Atlantic0 Ha-ing antici(ate$ so )any i)(ortant $e-elo()ents8 it is not .ithout assurance that , atte)(t to (re$ict .hat life is li2ely to 7e in the t.enty9first century0 #ife is an$ .ill e-er re)ain an equation inca(a7le of solution8 7ut it contains certain 2no.n factors0 &e )ay $efinitely say that it is a )o-e)ent e-en if .e $o not fully un$erstan$ its nature0 /o-e)ent i)(lies a 7o$y .hich is 7eing )o-e$ an$ a force .hich (ro(els it against resistance0 /an8 in the large8 is a )ass urge$ on 7y a force0 Hence the general la.s go-erning )o-e)ent in the real) of )echanics are a((lica7le to hu)anity0 There are three .ays 7y .hich the energy .hich $eter)ines hu)an (rogress can 7e increase$I First8 .e )ay increase the )ass0 This8 in the case of hu)anity8 .oul$ )ean the i)(ro-e)ent of li-ing con$itions8 health8 eugenics8 etc0 >econ$8 .e )ay re$uce the frictional forces .hich i)(e$e (rogress8 such as ignorance8 insanity8 an$ religious fanaticis)0 Thir$8 .e )ay )ulti(ly the energy of the hu)an )ass 7y enchaining the forces of the uni-erse8 li2e those of the sun8 the ocean8 the .in$s an$ ti$es0 The first )etho$ increases foo$ an$ .ell97eing0 The secon$ ten$s to 7ring (eace0 The thir$ enhances our a7ility to .or2 an$ to achie-e0 There can 7e no (rogress that is not constantly $irecte$ to.ar$ increasing .ell97eing8 (eace8 an$ achie-e)ent0 Here the )echanistic conce(tion of life is one .ith the teachings of 3u$$ha an$ the >er)on on the /ount0 &hile , a) not a 7elie-er in the ortho$o' sense8 , co))en$ religion8 first8 7ecause e-ery in$i-i$ual shoul$ ha-e so)e i$ealKreligious8 artistic8 scientific8 or hu)anitarianKto gi-e significance to his life0 >econ$8 7ecause all the
great religions contain .ise (rescri(tions relating to the con$uct of life8 .hich hol$ goo$ no. as they $i$ .hen they .ere (ro)ulgate$0 There is no conflict 7et.een the i$eal of religion an$ the i$eal of science8 7ut science is o((ose$ to theological $og)as 7ecause science is foun$e$ on fact0 To )e8 the uni-erse is si)(ly a great )achine .hich ne-er ca)e into 7eing an$ ne-er .ill en$0 The hu)an 7eing is no e'ce(tion to the natural or$er0 /an8 li2e the uni-erse8 is a )achine0 1othing enters our )in$s or $eter)ines our actions .hich is not $irectly or in$irectly a res(onse to sti)uli 7eating u(on our sense organs fro) .ithout0 ;.ing to the si)ilarity of our construction an$ the sa)eness of our en-iron)ent8 .e res(on$ in li2e )anner to si)ilar sti)uli8 an$ fro) the concor$ance of our reactions8 un$erstan$ing is 7arn0 ,n the course of ages8 )echanis)s of infinite co)(le'ity are $e-elo(e$8 7ut .hat .e call "soul " or "s(irit8" is nothing )ore than the su) of the functionings of the 7o$y0 &hen this functioning ceases8 the "soul" or the "s(irit" ceases li2e.ise0 , e'(resse$ these i$eas long 7efore the 7eha-iourists8 le$ 7y <a-lo- in +ussia an$ 7y &atson in the Cnite$ >tates8 (roclai)e$ their ne. (sychology0 This a((arently )echanistic conce(tion is not antagonistic to an ethical conce(tion of life0 The acce(tance 7y )an2in$ at large of these tenets .ill not $estroy religious i$eals0 To$ay 3u$$his) an$ Christianity are the greatest religions 7oth in nu)7er of $isci(les an$ in i)(ortance0 , 7elie-e that the essence of 7oth .ill he the religion of the hu)an race in the t.enty9first century0 The year !155 .ill see eugenics uni-ersally esta7lishe$0 ,n (ast ages8 the la. go-erning the sur-i-al of the fittest roughly .ee$e$ out the less $esira7le strains0 Then )an's ne. sense of (ity 7egan to interfere .ith the ruthless .or2ings of nature0 As a result8 .e continue to 2ee( ali-e an$ to 7ree$ the unfit0 The only )etho$ co)(ati7le .ith our notions of ci-iliBation an$ the race is to (re-ent the 7ree$ing of the unfit 7y steriliBation an$ the $eli7erate gui$ance of the )ating instinct8 >e-eral "uro(ean countries an$ a nu)7er of states of the A)erican Cnion steriliBe the cri)inal an$ the insane0 This is not sufficient0 The tren$ of o(inion a)ong eugenists is that .e )ust )a2e )arriage )ore $ifficult0 Certainly no one .ho is not a $esira7le (arent shoul$ 7e (er)itte$ to (ro$uce (rogeny0 A century fro) no. it .ill no )ore occur to a nor)al (erson to )ate .ith a (erson eugenically unfit than to )arry a ha7itual cri)inal0 Hygiene8 (hysical culture .ill 7e recogniBe$ 7ranches of e$ucation an$ go-ern)ent0 The >ecretary of Hygiene or <hysical Culture .ill he far )ore i)(ortant in the ca7inet of the <resi$ent of the Cnite$ >tates .ho hol$s office in the year !534 than the >ecretary of &ar0 The (ollution of our 7eaches such as e'ists to$ay aroun$ 1e. Dor2 City .ill see) as unthin2a7le to our chil$ren an$ gran$chil$ren as life .ithout (lu)7ing see)s to us0 ;ur .ater su((ly .ill he far )ore carefully su(er-ise$8 an$ only a lunatic .ill $rin2 unsteriliBe$ .ater0
';+" (eo(le $ie or gro. sic2 fro) (ollute$ .ater than fro) coffee8 tea8 to7acco8 an$ other sti)ulants0 , )yself
esche. all sti)ulants0 , also (ractically a7stain fro) )eat0 , a) con-ince$ that .ithin a century coffee8 tea8 an$ to7acco .ill 7e no longer in -ogue0 Alcohol8 ho.e-er8 .ill still 7e use$0 ,t is not a sti)ulant 7ut a -erita7le eli'ir of life0 The a7olition of sti)ulants .ill not co)e a7out forci7ly0 ,t .ill si)(ly 7e no longer fashiona7le to (oison the syste) .ith har)ful ingre$ients0 3ernarr /acfa$$en has sho.n ho. it is (ossi7le to (ro-i$e (alata7le foo$ 7ase$ u(on natural (ro$ucts such as )il28 honey8 an$ .heat0 , 7elie-e that the foo$ .hich is ser-e$ to$ay in his (enny restaurants .ill 7e the 7asis of e(icurean )eals in the s)artest 7anquet halls of the t.enty9first century0 There .ill 7e enough .heat an$ .heat (ro$ucts to fee$ the entire .orl$8 inclu$ing the tee)ing )illions of China an$ ,n$ia8 no. chronically on the -erge of star-ation0 The earth is 7ountiful8 an$ .here her 7ounty fails8 nitrogen $ra.n fro) the air .ill refertiliBe her .o)70 , $e-elo(e$ a (rocess for this (ur(ose in 19550 ,t .as (erfecte$ fourteen years later un$er the stress of .ar 7y Ger)an che)ists0 #ong 7efore the ne't century $a.ns8 syste)atic reforestation an$ the scientific )anage)ent of natural resources .ill ha-e )a$e an en$ of all $e-astating $roughts8 forest fires8 an$ floo$s0 The uni-ersal utiliBation of .ater (o.er an$ its long9$istance trans)ission .ill su((ly e-ery househol$ .ith chea( (o.er an$ .ill $is(ense .ith the necessity of 7urning fuel0 The struggle for e'istence 7eing lessene$8 there shoul$ 7e $e-elo()ent along i$eal rather than )aterial lines0 To$ay the )ost ci-iliBe$ countries of the .orl$ s(en$ a )a'i)u) of their inco)e on .ar an$ a )ini)u) on e$ucation0 The t.enty9first century .ill re-erse this or$er0 ,t .ill 7e )ore glorious to fight against ignorance than to $ie on the fiel$ of 7attle0 The $isco-ery of a ne. scientific truth .ill 7e )ore i)(ortant than the squa77les of $i(lo)ats0 "-en the ne.s(a(ers of our o.n $ay are 7eginning to treat scientific $isco-eries an$ the creation of fresh (hiloso(hical conce(ts as ne.s0 The ne.s(a(ers of the t.enty9first century .ill gi-e a )ere "stic2" in the 7ac2 (ages to accounts of cri)e or (olitical contro-ersies8 7ut .ill hea$line on the front (ages the (rocla)ation of a ne. scientific hy(othesis0 ",t .ill 7e (ossi7le to $estroy anything a((roaching .ithin !55 )iles0 /y in-ention .ill (ro-i$e a .all of (o.er8"
$eclares Tesla0
++;G+">> along such lines .ill 7e i)(ossi7le .hile nations (ersist in the sa-age (ractice of 2illing each other
off0 , inherite$ fro) )y father8 an eru$ite )an .ho la7ore$ har$ for (eace8 an inera$ica7le hatre$ of .ar0 #i2e other in-entors8 , 7elie-e$ at one ti)e that .ar coul$ he sto((e$ 7y )a2ing it )ore $estructi-e0 3ut , foun$ that , .as )ista2en0 , un$eresti)ate$ )an's co)7ati-e instinct8 .hich it .ill ta2e )ore than a century to 7ree$ out0 &e cannot a7olish .ar 7y outla.ing it0 &e cannot en$ it 7y $isar)ing the strong0 &ar can 7e sto((e$8 not 7y )a2ing the strong .ea2 7ut 7y )a2ing e-ery nation8 .ea2 or strong8 a7le to $efen$ itself0 Hitherto all $e-ices that coul$ 7e use$ for $efense coul$ also 7e utiliBe$ to ser-e for aggression0 This nullifie$ the -alue of the i)(ro-e)ent for (ur(oses of (eace0 3ut , .as fortunate enough to e-ol-e a ne. i$ea an$ to (erfect )eans .hich can 7e use$ chiefly for $efense0 ,f it is a$o(te$8 it .ill re-olutioniBe the relations 7et.een nations0 ,t .ill )a2e any country8 large or s)all8 i)(regna7le against ar)ies8 air(lanes8 an$ other )eans for attac20 /y in-ention requires a large (lant8 7ut once it is esta7lishe$ it .ill he (ossi7le to $estroy anything8 )en or )achines8 a((roaching .ithin a ra$ius of !55 )iles0 ,t .ill8 so to s(ea28 (ro-i$e a .all of (o.er offering an insu(era7le o7stacle against any effecti-e aggression0 ,f no country can 7e attac2e$ successfully8 there can 7e no (ur(ose in .ar0 /y $isco-ery en$s the )enace of air(lanes or su7)arines8 7ut it insures the su(re)acy of the 7attleshi(8 7ecause 7attleshi(s )ay 7e (ro-i$e$ .ith so)e of the require$ equi()ent0 There )ight still 7e .ar at sea8 7ut no .arshi( coul$ successfully attac2 the shore line8 as the coast equi()ent .ill 7e su(erior to the ar)a)ent of any 7attleshi(0 , .ant to state e'(licitly that this in-ention of )ine $oes not conte)(late the use of any so9calle$ "$eath rays0" +ays are not a((lica7le 7ecause they cannot 7e (ro$uce$ in requisite quantities an$ $i)inish ra(i$ly in intensity .ith $istance0 All the energy of 1e. Dor2 City (a((ro'i)ately t.o )illion horse(o.er transfor)e$ into rays an$ (roHecte$ t.enty )iles8 coul$ not 2ill a hu)an 7eing8 7ecause8 accor$ing to a .ell 2no.n la. of (hysics8 it .oul$ $is(erse to such an e'tent as to 7e ineffectual0 /y a((aratus (roHects (articles .hich )ay 7e relati-ely large or of )icrosco(ic $i)ensions8 ena7ling us to con-ey to a s)all area at a great $istance trillions of ti)es )ore energy than is (ossi7le .ith rays of any 2in$0 /any thousan$s of horse(o.er can thus 7e trans)itte$ 7y a strea) thinner than a hair8 so that nothing can resist0 This .on$erful feature .ill )a2e it (ossi7le8 a)ong other things8 to achie-e un$rea)e$9of results in tele-ision8 for there .ill 7e al)ost no li)it to the intensity of illu)ination8 the siBe of the (icture8 or $istance of (roHection0 , $o not say that there )ay not 7e se-eral $estructi-e .ars 7efore the .orl$ acce(ts )y gift0 , )ay not li-e to see its acce(tance0 3ut , a) con-ince$ that a century fro) no. e-ery nation .ill ren$er itself i))une fro) attac2 7y )y $e-ice or 7y a $e-ice 7ase$ u(on a si)ilar (rinci(le0 At (resent .e suffer fro) the $erange)ent of our ci-iliBation 7ecause .e ha-e not yet co)(letely a$Huste$ oursel-es to the )achine age0 The solution of our (ro7le)s $oes not lie in $estroying 7ut in )astering the )achine0 ,nnu)era7le acti-ities still (erfor)e$ 7y hu)an han$s to$ay .ill 7e (erfor)e$ 7y auto)atons0 At this -ery )o)ent scientists .or2ing in the la7oratories of A)erican uni-ersities are atte)(ting to create .hat has 7een $escri7e$ as a "thin2ing )achine0" , antici(ate$ this $e-elo()ent0 , actually constructe$ "ro7ots0" To$ay the ro7ot is an acce(te$ fact8 7ut the (rinci(le has not 7een (ushe$ far enough0 ,n the t.enty9first century the ro7ot .ill ta2e the (lace .hich sla-e la7or occu(ie$ in ancient ci-iliBation0 There is no reason at all .hy )ost of this shoul$ not co)e to (ass in less than a century8 treeing )an2in$ to (ursue its higher as(irations0 An$ unless )an2in$'s attention is too -iolently $i-erte$ 7y e'ternal .ars an$ internal re-olutions8 there is no reason .hy the electric )illenniu) shoul$ not 7egin in a fe. $eca$es0
1-9<-0<-10: 5re$ared Statement 1y Ni.ola Tesla 4y Nikola Tesla

>3rior to intervie"s "ith the *ress on his 01st birthday observance@ At the close of 18898 ha-ing .or2e$ one year in the sho(s of George &estinghouse8 <itts7urgh8 , e'(erience$ so great a longing for resu)ing )y interru(te$ in-estigations that8 not.ithstan$ing a -ery te)(ting (ro(osition 7y hi)8 , left for 1e. Dor2 to ta2e u( )y la7oratory .or28 3ut o.ing to (ressing $e)an$s 7y se-eral foreign scientific societies , )a$e a tri( to "uro(e .here , lecture$ 7efore the ,nstitution of "lectrical "ngineers an$ +oyal ,nstitution of #on$on an$ the >ociete $e <hysique in <aris0 After this an$ a 7rief -isit to )y ho)e in Dugosla-ia , returne$ to this country in 189! eager to $e-ote )yself to the su7Hect of (re$ilection on )y thoughtsI the stu$y of the uni-erse0 =uring the succee$ing t.o years of intense concentration , .as fortunate enough to )a2e t.o far9reaching $isco-eries0 The first .as a $yna)ic theory of gra-ity8 .hich , ha-e .or2e$ out in all $etails an$ ho(e to gi-e to the .orl$ -ery soon0 ,t e'(lains the causes of this force an$ the )otions of hea-enly 7o$ies un$er its influence so satisfactorily that it .ill (ut an en$ to i$le s(eculations an$ false conce(tions8 as that of cur-e$ s(ace0 Accor$ing to the relati-ists8 s(ace has a ten$ency to cur-ature o.ing to an inherent (ro(erty or (resence of celestial 7o$ies0 Granting a se)7lance of reality to this fantastic i$ea8 it is still self9contra$ictory0 "-ery action is acco)(anie$ 7y an equi-alent reaction an$ the effects of the latter are $irectly o((osite to those of the for)er0 >u((osing that the 7o$ies act u(on the surroun$ing s(ace causing cur-ature of the sa)e8 it a((ears to )y si)(le )in$ that the cur-e$ s(aces )ust react on the 7o$ies an$8 (ro$ucing the o((osite effects8 straighten out the cur-es8 >ince action an$ reaction are coe'istent8 it follo.s that the su((ose$ cur-ature of s(ace is entirely i)(ossi7le0 3ut e-en if it e'iste$ it .oul$ not e'(lain the )otions of the 7o$ies as o7ser-e$0 ;nly the e'istence of a fiel$ of force can account for the) an$ its assu)(tion $is(enses .ith s(ace cur-ature0 All literature on this su7Hect is futile an$ $estine$ to o7li-ion0 >o are also all atte)(ts to e'(lain the .or2ings of the uni-erse .ithout recogniBing the e'istence of the ether an$ the in$is(ensa7le function it (lays in the (heno)ena0 /y secon$ $isco-ery .as a (hysical truth of the greatest i)(ortance0 As , ha-e searche$ the scientific recor$s in )ore than half $oBen languages for a long ti)e .ithout fin$ing the least antici(ation8 , consi$er )yself the original $isco-erer of this truth8 .hich can 7e e'(resse$ 7y the state)entI There is no energy in )atter other than that recei-e$ fro) the en-iron)ent0 ;n )y *9th 7irth$ay , )a$e a 7rief reference to it8 7ut its )eaning an$ significance ha-e 7eco)e clearer to )e since then0 , a((lies rigorously to )olecules an$ ato)s as .ell as the largest hea-enly 7o$ies8 an$ to all )atter in the uni-erse in any (hase of its e'istence fro) itI -ery for)ation to its ulti)ate $isintegration0 3eing (erfectly satisfie$ that all energy in )atter is $ra.n fro) the en-iron)ent8 it .as quite natural that .hen ra$ioacti-ity .as $isco-ere$ in 189% , i))e$iately starte$ a search for the e'ternal agent .hich cause$ it0 The e'istence of ra$ioacti-ity .as (ositi-e (roof of the e'istence of e'ternal rays0 , ha$ (re-iously in-estigate$ -arious terrestrial $istur7ances affecting .ireless circuits 7ut none of the) or any others e)anating fro) the earth coul$ (ro$uce a stea$y sustaine$ action an$ , .as $ri-en to the conclusion that the acti-ating rays .ere of cos)ic origin0 This fact , announce$ in )y (a(ers on +oentgen rays an$ +a$iations contri7ute$ to the "lectrical +e-ie. of 1e. Dor28 in 189*0 Ho.e-er8 as ra$ioacti-ity .as o7ser-e$ equally .ell in other .i$ely se(arate$ (arts of the .orl$8 it .as o7-ious that the rays )ust 7e i)(inging on the earth fro) all $irections0 1o.8 of all 7o$ies in the Cos)os8 our sun .as )ost li2ely to furnish a clue as to their origin an$ character0 3efore the electron theory .as a$-ance$8 , ha$ esta7lishe$ that ra$ioacti-e rays consiste$ of (articles of (ri)ary )atter not further $eco)(osa7le8 an$ the first question to ans.er .as .hether the sun is charge$ to a sufficiently high (otential to (ro$uce the effects note$0 This calle$ for a (rolonge$ in-estigation .hich cul)inate$ in )y fin$ing that the sun's (otential .as !1% 7illions of -olts an$ that all such large an$ hot hea-enly 7o$ies e)it cos)ic rays0 Through further solar research an$ o7ser-ation of 1o-ae this has 7een (ro-e$ conclusi-ely8 an$ to $eny it .oul$ 7e li2e $enying the light an$ heat of the sun0 1e-ertheless8 there are still so)e $ou7ters .ho (refer to shrou$ the cos)ic rays in $ee( )ystery0 , a) sure that this is not true for there is no (lace .here such a (rocess occurs in this or any other uni-erse 7eyon$ our 2en0 A fe. .or$s .ill 7e sufficient in su((ort of this contention0 The 2inetic an$ (otential energy of a 7o$y is the result of )otion an$ $eter)ine$ 7y the (ro$uct of its )ass an$ the square of -elocity0 #et the )ass 7e re$uce$8 the energy is $i)inishe$ in the sa)e (ro(ortion0 ,f it 7e re$uce$ to Bero the energy is li2e.ise Bero for any finite -elocity0 ,n other .or$s8 it is a7solutely i)(ossi7le to con-ert )ass into energy0 ,t .oul$ 7e $ifferent if there .ere forces in nature ca(a7le of i)(arting to a )ass infinite -elocity0 Then the (ro$uct of Bero )ass .ith the square of
infinite -elocity .oul$ re(resent infinite energy0 3ut .e 2no. that there are no such forces an$ the i$ea that )ass is con-erti7le into energy is ran2 nonsense0 &hile the origin an$ character of the rays o7ser-e$ near the earth's surface are sufficiently .ell ascertaine$8 the so9calle$ cos)ic rays o7ser-e$ at great altitu$es (resente$ a ri$$le for )ore than !% years8 chiefly 7ecause it .as foun$ that they increase$ .ith altitu$e at a ra(i$ rate0 /y in-estigations ha-e 7rought out the astonishing fact that the effects at high altitu$es are of an entirely $ifferent nature8 ha-ing no relation .hate-er to cos)ic rays0 These are (articles of )atter (roHecte$ fro) celestial 7o$ies at -ery high te)(erature an$ charge$ to enor)ous electrical (otentials0 The effects at great ele-ations8 on the other han$8 are $ue to .a-es of e'tre)ely s)all lengths (ro$uce$ 7y the sun in a certain region in the at)os(here0 This is the $isco-ery .hich , .ish to )a2e 2no.n0 The (rocess in-ol-e$ in the generation of the .a-es is the follo.ingI The sun (roHects charge$ (articles constituting an electric current .hich (asses through a con$ucting stratu) of the at)os(here a((ro'i)ately 15 2ilo)etres thic2 en-elo(ing the earth0 This is a trans)ission of energy e'actly as , illustrate$ in )y e'(eri)ental lectures in .hich one en$ of a .ire is connecte$ to an electric generator of high (otential8 its other en$ 7eing free0 ,n this case the generator is re(resente$ 7y the sun an$ the .ire 7y the con$ucting air0 The (assage of the solar current in-ol-es the transference of electric charges fro) (article to (article .ith the s(ee$ of light8 thus resulting in the (ro$uction of e'tre)ely short an$ (enetrating .a-es0 As the air stratu) )entione$ is the source of the .a-es it follo.s that the so9calle$ cos)ic rays o7ser-e$ 3t great altitu$es )ust increase as this stratu) is a((roache$0 /y researches an$ calculations ha-e 7rought to light the follo.ing facts in this connectionI (1 the intensity of the so9calle$ cos)ic rays )ust 7e greatest in the Benithal (ortion of at)os(hereJ (! the intensity shoul$ increase )ore an$ )ore ra(i$ly u( to an ele-ation of a7out !5 2ilo)etres .here the con$ucting air stratu) 7eginsJ (3 fro) there on the intensity shoul$ fall8 first slo.ly an$ then )ore ra(i$ly8 to an insignificant -alue at an altitu$e of a7out 35 2ilo)etresJ (6 the $is(lay of high (otential )ust occur on the free en$ of the terrestrial .ire8 that is to say8 on the si$e turne$ a.ay fro) the sun0 The current fro) the latter is su((lie$ at a (ressure of a7out !1% 7illion -olts an$ there is a $ifference of ! 7illion -olts 7et.een the illu)inate$ an$ the $ar2 si$e of the glo7e0 The energy of this current is so great that it rea$ily accounts for the aurora an$ other (heno)ena o7ser-e$ in the at)os(here an$ at the earth's surface0 For the ti)e 7eing , )ust content )yself .ith the announce)ent of the salient facts8 7ut in $ue course , e'(ect to 7e a7le to gi-e )ore or less accurate technical $ata relating to all (articulars of this $isco-ery0 To go to another su7Hect8 , ha-e $e-ote$ )uch of )y ti)e $uring the year to the (erfecting of a ne. s)all an$ co)(act a((aratus 7y .hich energy in consi$era7le a)ounts can no. 7e flashe$ through interstellar s(ace to any $istance .ithout the slightest $is(ersion8 , ha$ in )in$ to confer .ith )y frien$ George "0 Hale8 the great astrono)er an$ solar e'(ert8 regar$ing the (ossi7le use of this in-ention in connection .ith his o.n researches0 ,n the )eanti)e8 ho.e-er8 , a) e'(ecting to (ut 7efore the ,nstitute of France an accurate $escri(tion of the $e-ices .ith $ata an$ calculations an$ clai) the <ierre GuB)an <riBe of 1558555 francs for )eans of co))unication .ith other .orl$s8 feeling (erfectly sure that it .ill 7e a.ar$e$ to )e0 The )oney8 of course8 is a trifling consi$eration8 7ut for the great historical honour of 7eing the first to achie-e this )iracle , .oul$ 7e al)ost .illing to gi-e )y life0 /y )ost i)(ortant in-ention fro) a (ractical (oint of -ie. is a ne. for) of tu7e .ith a((aratus for its o(eration0 ,n 189% , 7rought out a high (otential targetless tu7e .hich , o(erate$ successfully .ith (otentials u( to 6 )illion -olts fro) '9% to '980 This $e-ice .as a$o(te$ 7y )any i)itators an$ .ith slight )o$ifications it is e)(loye$ e-en no. in all research la7oratories an$ scientific institutions here an$ in other countries8 an$ -irtually all ato)ic in-estigations are carrie$ on .ith it0 At a later (erio$ , )anage$ to (ro$uce -ery )uch higher (otentials u( to 18 )illion -olts8 an$ then , encountere$ insur)ounta7le $ifficulties .hich con-ince$ )e that it .as necessary to in-ent an entirely $ifferent for) of tu7e in or$er to carry out successfully certain i$eas , ha$ concei-e$0 This tas2 , foun$ far )ore $ifficult than , ha$ e'(ecte$8 not so )uch in the construction as in the o(eration of the tu7e0 For )any years , .as 7affle$ in )y efforts8 although , )a$e a stea$y slo. (rogress0 Finally though8 , .as re.ar$e$ .ith co)(lete success an$ , (ro$uce$ a tu7e .hich it .ill 7e har$ to i)(ro-e further0 ,t is of i$eal si)(licity8 not su7Hect to .ear an$ can 7e o(erate$ at any (otential8 ho.e-er high8 that can 7e (ro$uce$0 ,t .ill carry hea-y currents8 transfor) any a)ount of energy .ithin (ractical li)its8 an$ it (er)its easy control an$ regulation of the sa)e0 , e'(ect that this in-ention8 .hen it 7eco)es 2no.n8 .ill 7e uni-ersally a$o(te$ in (reference to other for)s of tu7es8 an$ that it .ill 7e the )eans of o7taining results un$rea)e$ of 7efore0 A)ong others8 it .ill ena7le the (ro$uction of chea( ra$iu) su7stitutes in any $esire$ quantity an$ .ill 7e8 in general8 i))ensely )ore effecti-e in the s)ashing of ato)s an$ the trans)utation of )atter0 , a) ho(eful that it .ill 7e (ossi7le 7y its use to carry out a (rocess in .hich there shoul$ 7e no )isses .hate-er8 7ut only hits0 Ho.e-er8 this tu7e .ill not o(en u( a .ay to utiliBe ato)ic or su7ato)ic energy for (o.er (ur(oses0 Accor$ing to the (hysical truth , ha-e $isco-ere$ there is no a-aila7le energy in ato)ic structure8 an$ e-en if there .ere any8 the in(ut .ill
al.ays greatly e'cee$ the out(ut8 (reclu$ing (rofita7le8 (ractical use of the li7erate$ energy0 >o)e (a(ers ha-e re(orte$ that , ha$ (ro)ise$ to gi-e a full $escri(tion of )y tu7e an$ its accessories on the (resent occasion0 This has cause$ )e a consi$era7le annoyance9as8 o.ing to so)e o7ligations , ha-e un$erta2en regar$ing the a((lication of the tu7e for i)(ortant (ur(oses8 , a) una7le to )a2e a co)(lete $isclosure no.0 3ut as soon as , a) relie-e$ of these o7ligations a technical $escri(tion of the $e-ice an$ of all the a((aratus .ill 7e gi-en to scientific institutions0 There is one )ore $isco-ery .hich , .ant to announce at this ti)e8 consisting of a ne. )etho$ an$ a((aratus for the o7tain)ent of -acua e'cee$ing )any ti)es the highest heretofore realiBe$0 , thin2 that as )uch as one9 7illionth of a )icron can 7e attaine$0 &hat )ay 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y )eans of such -acua is a )atter of conHecture8 7ut it is o7-ious that they .ill )a2e (ossi7le the (ro$uction of )uch )ore intense effects in electron tu7es0 /y i$eas regar$ing the electron are at -ariance .ith those generally entertaine$0 , hol$ that it is a relati-ely large 7o$y carrying a surface charge an$ not an ele)entary unit0 &hen such an electron lea-es an electro$e of e'tre)ely high (otential an$ in -ery high -acuu)8 it carries an electrostatic charge )any ti)es greater than the nor)al0 This )ay astonish so)e of those .ho thin2 that the (article has the sa)e charge in the tu7e an$ outsi$e of it in the air0 A 7eautiful an$ instructi-e e'(eri)ent has 7een contri-e$ 7y )e sho.ing that such is not the case8 for as soon as the (article gets out into the at)os(here it 7eco)es a 7laBing star o.ing to the esca(e of the e'cess charge0 The great quantity of electricity store$ on the (article is res(onsi7le for the $ifficulties encountere$ in the o(eration of certain tu7es an$ the ra(i$ $eterioration of the sa)e0 1i2ola Tesla
1-9<-0<-11: Sending of Messages to 5lanets 5redi(ted 1y %r& Tesla on ;irt,day

Ne" -ork Times ,n-entor8 818 Tal2s of :ey to ,nterstellar Trans)ission an$ Tu7e to <ro$uce +a$iu) Co(iously an$ Chea(ly 9 =ecorate$ 7y Dugosla-ia an$ CBechoslo-a2ia0 +e(orts of $isco-eries 7y .hich it .ill 7e (ossi7le to co))unicate .ith the (lanets an$ to (ro$uce ra$iu) in unli)ite$ quantity for ^1 a (oun$ .ere announce$ 7y =r0 1i2ola Tesla yester$ay at a luncheon on his eighty9first 7irth$ay at .hich he .as honoure$ .ith high or$ers fro) the Dugosla- an$ CBechoslo-a2 Go-ern)ents0 =r0 Tesla8 .hose $isco-eries in electrical science ha-e .on for hi) recognition as the father of )o$ern )etho$s of generating an$ $istri7uting electrical energy8 asserte$ his "a7solute" 7elief that he .oul$ .in the <ierre GuB)an (riBe of the ,nstitute of France for his $isco-ery relating to the interstellar trans)ission of energy0 Follo.ing his annual custo)8 =r0 Tesla (laye$ host to a grou( of ne.s(a(er )en at his 7irth$ay luncheon at the Hotel 1e. Dor2er an$ issue$ the announce)ent of his $isco-eries of the last year0 1o a((aratus or s2etches .ere sho.n8 7ut =r0 Tesla sai$ in announcing (erfection of the (rinci(le of a ne. tu7e8 .hich he sai$ .oul$ )a2e it (ossi7le to s)ash the ato) an$ (ro$uce chea( ra$iu)8 that he .oul$ 7e a7le to gi-e a $e)onstration in "only a little ti)e0" Guests at =r0 Tesla's luncheon inclu$e$ Constantin Fotitch8 /inister fro) Dugosla-iaJ Gla$i)ir Hur7an8 /inister fro) CBechoslo-a2iaJ +0 <etro-ich8 first secretary of the Dugosla- $elegationJ 30 <0 >toyano-itch8 DugoslaConsul General in 1e. Dor2J =r0 E0 1e)ec28 counselor of the CBechosla- #egation8 an$ E0 HaHny8 Acting Consul General in 1e. Dor2 for CBechoslo-a2ia0 <resenting to ;r0 Tesla the Gran$ Cor$on of the &hite "agle8 highest or$er of Dugosla-ia8 /r0 Fotitch announce$ it .as the first ti)e the or$er ha$ 7een grante$ to an A)erican for ci-il acco)(lish)ents0 The honour .as 7esto.e$ 7y or$er of :ing <eter through the +egent8 <rince <aul0 =r0 Tesla's career has 7een an ins(iration to the youth of his nati-e country8 the /inister sai$0 "-i$ently referring to =r0 Tesla's re(ort se-eral years ago of in-enting a "$eath 7ea)" for use as a $efence .ea(on8 the /inister sai$I "All your efforts are $irecte$ to fin$ a .ay8 7y )eans of so)e ne. )agic in-ention of yours8 7y .hich you .ill chec2 an$ ren$er futile as )uch as (ossi7le all those in-entions .hich )en ha-e in-ente$ to $estroy )utually one another0 Dou feel8 as .e all feel in your ol$ country8 that the .orl$ has seen enough of horror an$ that after so )any e'a)(les of herois) $is(laye$ in the Great &ar8 hu)anity has foun$ a 7etter .ay only in (eace0" /r0 Hur7an8 (resenting the Gran$ Cor$on of the &hite #ion8 .hich has 7een grante$ to such other $istinguishe$ A)ericans as >ecretary :ellogg8 "lihu +oot an$ =r0 1icholas /urray 3utler8 sai$ "our CBechoslo-a2 nation's 7rotherly feeling to.ar$ you as a son of Dugosla-ia )a$e it a $uty8 not a (ri-ilege8 to gi-e you this $ecoration in the na)e of the (resi$ent of our nation8 =r0 "$uar$ 3enes0" He also (resente$ a $i(lo)a certifying =r0 Tesla's honourary $egree as a $octor of the Cni-ersity of <rague0 ;utlines His =isco-eries =r0 Tesla8 in res(on$ing8 sai$ he consi$ere$ CBechoslo-a2ia "one of the )ost enlightene$ countries in the .orl$0" ,n a ten9(age ty(e.ritten state)ent outlining his $isco-eries8 =r0 Tesla ga-e a resu)e of his .or2 in the fiel$s of gra-ity an$ cos)ic rays0 Asserting that "the so9calle$ cos)ic rays o7ser-e$ at great altitu$es (resente$ a ri$$le for )ore than t.enty9si' years chiefly 7ecause it .as foun$ that they increase$ .ith altitu$e at a ra(i$ rate8" =r0 Tesla sai$ he ha$ $isco-ere$ "the astonishing fact that the effects at high altitu$es are of an entirely $ifferent nature8 ha-ing no relation .hate-er to cos)ic rays0" He ga-e a $etaile$ technical $escri(tion of his conclusions fro) research an$ calculations concerning the cos)ic ray8 an$ continue$I "For the ti)e 7eing8 , )ust content )yself .ith the announce)ent of the salient facts8 7ut in $ue course , e'(ect to 7e a7le to gi-e )ore or less accurate technical $ata relating to all (articulars of this $isco-ery0" =igressing fro) his (re(are$ state)ent8 he sai$I ", a) (rou$ of these $isco-eries8 7ecause )any ha-e $enie$ that , a) the original $isco-erer of the cos)ic ray0 , .as fifteen years ahea$ of other fello.s .ho .ere aslee(0
1o. no one can ta2e a.ay fro) )e the cre$it of 7eing the first $isco-erer of the cos)ic ray on earth0" =r0 Tesla's au$ience stirre$ as he too2 u( the ne't (hase of his $isco-eries0 ", ha-e $e-ote$ )uch of )y ti)e $uring the year (ast8" he sai$8 "to the (erfecting of a ne. s)all an$ co)(act a((aratus 7y .hich energy in consi$era7le a)ounts can no. 7e flashe$ through interstellar s(ace to any $istance .ithout the slightest $is(ersion0" To Clai) French A.ar$ "'(laining that he $i$ not refer to his "uni-ersal (eace $isco-ery" =r0 Tesla continue$0 ", a) e'(ecting to (ut 7efore the ,nstitute of France an accurate $escri(tion of the $e-ices .ith $ata an$ calculations an$ clai) the <ierre GuB)an (riBe of 1558555 francs for )eans of co))unication .ith other .orl$s8 feeling (erfectly sure that it .ill 7e a.ar$e$ to )e0 The )oney8 of course8 is a trifling consi$eration8 7ut for the great historical honour of 7eing the first to achie-e this )iracle , .oul$ 7e al)ost .illing to gi-e )y life0 ", a) Hust as sure that (riBe .ill 7e a.ar$e$ to )e as if , alrea$y ha$ it in )y (oc2et0 They ha-e got to $o it0 ,t )eans it .ill 7e (ossi7le to con-ey se-eral thousan$ units of horse(o.er to other (lanets8 regar$less of the $istance0 This $isco-ery of )ine .ill 7e re)e)7ere$ .hen e-erything else , ha-e $one is co-ere$ .ith $ust0" +e(orters questione$ =r0 Tesla closely on his re(ort of an inter(lanetary co))unication syste)0 He sai$ he ha$ 7een .or2ing in se-eral la7oratories8 7ut refuse$ to $isclose .here they .ere0 As2e$ if he ha$ a .or2ing )o$el of the a((aratus8 he sai$ "it e)(loys )ore than three $oBen of )y in-entions8 it is a co)(le' a((aratus8 an agglo)eration of (arts0" ",t is a7solutely $e-elo(e$8" he $eclare$0 ", .oul$n't 7e any surer that , can trans)it energy 155 )iles than , a) of the fact that , can trans)it energy 185558555 )iles u(0" A $ifferent 2in$ of energy than is co))only e)(loye$ )ust 7e use$8 ho.e-er8 he sai$8 e'(laining further that "you )ust realiBe it tra-els through a channel of less than one9half of one9)illionth of a centi)etre0" ", coul$ un$erta2e a contract to )anufacture the a((aratus8" he asserte$0 =r0 Tesla $eclare$ that "life on other (lanets is an infinite (ro7a7ility8 a certitu$e0" 0A $ifficulty in using his a((aratus8 he sai$8 .oul$ lie in hitting other )o-ing (lanets .ith "the nee$le(oint of tre)en$ous energy8" 7ut astrono)ers coul$ hel( sol-e this (ro7le)0 The (oint of energy coul$ 7e ai)e$ at the )oon an$ ".e -ery easily coul$ see the effects8 see the s(lash an$ the -olatiliBation of )atter0\' lie also (icture$ the (ossi7ility of a$-ance$ thin2ers li-ing on other (lanets an$ also e'(eri)enting in this fiel$8 7ut )ista2ing the Tesla energy rays for so)e for) of cos)ic rays0 =r0Tesla (ro-o2e$ a ne. stir .ith his ne't announce)ent0 "/y )ost i)(ortant in-ention fro) a (ractical (oint of -ie.8" he sai$8 "is a ne. for) of tu7e .ith a((aratus for its o(eration0" +e(orts Tu7e of 1e. Ty(e +ecalling e'(eri)ents .ith other tu7es8 he sai$ he ha$ 7een "re.ar$e$ .ith co)(lete success an$ ha$ "(ro$uce$ a tu7e .hich it .ill 7e har$ to i)(ro-e further0" ",t is of i$eal si)(licity8" he sai$8 "not su7Hect to .ear an$ can 7e o(erate$ at any (otential8 ho.e-er high 9 e-en 15585558555 -olts 9 that can 7e (ro$uce$0 ,t .ill carry hea-y currents8 transfor) any a)ount of energy .ithin (ractical li)its an$ it (er)its easy control an$ regulation of the sa)e0 ", e'(ect that this in-ention8 .hen it 7eco)es 2no.n8 .ill 7e uni-ersally a$o(te$ in (reference to other for) of tu7es an$ that it .ill 7e the )eans of o7taining results un$rea)e$ of 7efore0 "A)ong others8 it .ill ena7le the (ro$uction of chea( ra$iu) su7stitutes in any $esire$ quantity an$ .ill 7e8 in general8 i))e$iately )ore effecti-e in the s)ashing of ato)s an$ the trans)utation of )atter0 Ho.e-er8 this tu7e .ill not o(en u( a .ay to utiliBe ato)ic or su7ato)ic energy for (o.er (ur(oses0" ",t .ill chea(en ra$iu) so 8" =r0 Tesla a$$e$8 "that it .ill 7e Hust a chea( P .ell8 it .ill get $o.n to ^1 a (oun$8 in any quantity0" "'(ressing "annoyance" that so)e ne.s(a(ers ha$ in$icate$ he .oul$ "gi-e a full $escri(tion" of his ato)9 s)ashing tu7e at yester$ay's luncheon8 =r0 Tesla sai$ he .as 7oun$ 7y financial o7ligations "in-ol-ing -ast su)s of )oney" against releasing this infor)ation0
"3ut it is not an e'(eri)ent0" he $eclare$0 ", ha-e 7uilt8 $e)onstrate$ an$ use$ it0 ;nly a little ti)e .ill (ass 7efore , can gi-e it to the .orl$0" A final $isco-ery announce$ 7y =r0 Tesla in-ol-e$ a ne. )etho$ an$ a((aratus for further (erfection of -acuu) tu7es0 "&hat )ay 7e acco)(lishe$ 7y )eans of such -acua is a )atter of conHecture8 7ut it is o7-ious that they .ill )a2e (ossi7le the (ro$uction of )uch )ore intense effects in electron tu7es8" he sai$0 3efore an$ $uring the luncheon8 =r0 Tesla entertaine$ his guests .ith colourful (ersonal re)iniscences an$ o7ser-ations inclu$ing his o(inions on $ieting an$ i))ortality0
1-9<-0<-1": Tesla 0as 5lans To Signal Mars

Ne" -ork &un >cientist8 81 Dears ;l$8 Cele7rates 3irth$ay =ecorate$ 7y ! Countries >ee2s GuB)an <riBe for ,$ea on <lan Co))unication 1i2ola Tesla is 81 years ol$0 >o)e reference 7oo2s8 inclu$ing "&ho's &ho" fi' the year of his 7irth at 18%*0 He $oes not 2no. .hether the anni-ersary shoul$ ha-e 7een cele7rate$ Fri$ay or8 as it .as8 on >atur$ay8 7ecause it .as Hust at )i$night 7et.een Euly 9 an$ Euly 15 that he .as 7orn0 3ut the year .as 184%0 ,t .as a )ost unusual 7irth$ay (arty the in-entor hel$ at the Hotel 1e. Dor2er8 .here he )a2es his resi$ence0 For the /inisters of his nati-e Eugosla-ia an$ neigh7ouring CBechoslo-a2ia an$ their staffs8 an$ a han$ful of ne.s(a(er )en8 =r0 Tesla ha$ (ro-i$e$ a )ost unusual )aterial an$ )ental feast0 Figurati-ely8 at least8 they are still s)ac2ing their li(s to$ay o-er the foo$ an$ .ines an$ s(eculating a7out .hat )ay co)e fro) the $isco-eries' the scientist announce$8 his quest for the French Aca$e)y (riBe for inter(lanetary co))unication8 the (erfection of a tu7e to carry i))ense electrical -oltages8 an$ so)e of the )ore a7stract o7ser-ations regar$ing cos)ic rays an$ .hat )a2es this uni-erse of ours e'(an$ an$ contract8 oscillating instea$ of al.ays e'(an$ing as so)e (hysicists hol$0 Consi$ering his years an$ the fact that recently he .as the -icti) of an auto)o7ile acci$ent .hich shoo2 his syste) seriously8 =r0 Tesla is e'cee$ingly -igourous0 His thinning hair8 although (re$o)inantly .hite8 still has consi$era7le 7lac20 His eyes are as 2een an$ (enetrating as e-er0 He s(ea2s $istinctly although8 of course8 .ith a 7it of the accent he has al.ays ha$0 3ut he (ic2e$ u( questions quic2ly an$ ans.ere$ the) in a )anner that sho.e$ a tre)en$ous gras( of all the latest theories of the astrono)ers8 (hysicists an$ other scientists0 Announces =isco-eries ,n recent years =r0 Tesla has )a$e a ha7it of announcing on his 7irth$ays so)e of the $isco-eries he has )a$e in the (ast yearJ an$ he feels that .ith the (assing of the years they ha-e increase$ in i)(ortance0 He sai$I "The )a'i)u) (o.er of )an is reache$ in his age rather than in his (ri)e8 as )any su((ose0 "-ery one shoul$ ha-e a $eca$e to su) u( the .or2 of his lifeti)es after he reaches the age of se-enty9fi-e0 3y then8 if he has .or2e$ constantly in one fiel$8 he has gaine$ so )uch e'(erience that the solution of (ro7le)s 7eco)es )uch easier0" "-erything at the 7irth$ay (arty .as $esigne$ to lea$ u( to the $iscussion of the in-entor's latest achie-e)ents0 Although he taste$ only t.o of the courses an$ refraine$ altogether fro) any $rin2 7ut .ater8 he treate$ his guests to the finest in foo$s an$ .ines0 The (iece $e resistance .as "Canar$ en casserole a la Tesla" a $ish he ha$ (lanne$ hi)self a7out ten years ago8 consisting of $uc29roaste$ slo.ly in a casserole8 s)othere$ .ith .hole stal2s of celery0 ,t .on unstinte$ (raise fro) the $i(lo)atic re(resentati-es0 =r0 Tesla $i$ ta2e Hust a taste of this $ish to )a2e certain that it ha$ 7een (ro(erly (re(are$ an$8 as a sign of his a((ro-al ha$ the chef co)e in to recei-e the a((lause of his guests0 The other $ish of .hich he (artoo2 .as a Hellie$ conso))U0 Alcohol8 he 7elie-es8 is a great thing0 &his2y an$ .ine are (refera7le to coffee an$ tea0 As his guests s)ac2e$ their li(s o-er so)e of the -intages he ha$ 7rought forth for the occasion8 they .ere $is(ose$ to agree .ith =r0 Tesla on this (oint0 Genius Fro) <arents ,t .as in the ran$o) con-ersation of the )eal that one learne$ )any inti)ate things a7out =r0 Tesla0 He ga-e little gli)(ses of his 7oyhoo$ life in Eugosla-ia0 ;ne gathere$ he ha$ acquire$ )uch of his genius fro) his learne$ father8 a >la-ian (riest8 an$ his )other8 a (ractical an$ also a 7rilliant .o)an0 &hen8 in 18868 =r0 Tesla lan$e$ at the 3attery he ha$ Hust 6 cents0 He ha$ only gone a fe. 7loc2s u( 3roa$.ay .hen he sa. so)e )en s.eating o-er an electrical )achine that ha$ 7ro2en $o.n0 ",t .as a )achine , ha$ hel(e$ to $esign8 7ut , $i$ not tell the) that0 , as2e$8 '&hat is the )atterF' an$ they sai$8 'This thing .on't .or20' , as2e$8 '.hat .oul$ you gi-e )e if , fi' itF' 'T.enty $ollars' .as the re(ly0 , too2 off )y
coat an$ .ent to .or20 , ha$ it running (erfectly in an hour an$ ha$ earne$ ^!50" He shortly foun$ it .as not all so easy as that0 There .ere )any $ays .hen he $i$ not 2no. .here the ne't )eal .as co)ing fro)0 "3ut , .as ne-er afrai$ to .or20 , .ent to .here so)e )en .ere $igging a $itch0 , sai$ , .ante$ to .or20 The 7oss loo2e$ at )y goo$ clothes an$ .hite han$s an$ he laughe$ to the others0 'This )an .ants to .or20' 3ut he sai$ 'All right0 >(it on your han$s0 Get in the $itch0 Go to .or20' An$ , .or2e$ har$er than any7o$y0 At the en$ of that $ay , ha$ ^!0 An$ , 2e(t it u( until , ha$ enough to get starte$ again0" >u((ort 3u)s To$ay "Coul$ that ha((en to$ayF" he .as as2e$0 There .as a serious (ause8 a gra-e fro.n an$ he sai$8 ", a) afrai$ not0 The (resent is $estructi-e0 The .or2ers are e'(ecte$ to su((ort the 7u)s0" 3efore the 7irth$ay ca2e .as cut =r0 Tesla .as in-este$ .ith the or$ers .hich Eugosla-ian an$ CBechoslo-a2ian )inisters ha$ 7rought0 =r0 Constantine Fotitch8 Eugosla-ian /inister8 .ho .as atten$e$ 7y +0 <etro-ich8 first secretary of his legation8 an$ 30 F0 >toyano-ich8 the Consul9General here8 7esto.e$ the gran$ Cor$on of the &hite "agle in 7ehalf of :ing <eter0 =r0 Tesla shar(ly assaile$ those (hysicists .ho conten$ that cos)ic rays originate in far (laces of the uni-erse .here )atter is con-erte$ into energy0 He (ro$uce$ a for)ula saying "The 2inetic an$ (otential energy of a 7o$y is the result of )otion an$ $eter)ine$ 7y the (ro$uct of its )ass an$ the square of its -elocity0 #et the )ass 7e re$uce$8 the energy is $i)inishe$ 7y the sa)e (ro(erties0 ,f it 7e re$uce$ to Bero8 the energy is li2e.ise Bero for any finite -elocity0" A7out half of his tal2 .as $e-ote$ to a7stract scientific (ro7le)s0 Turning fro) the )ore )eta(hysical as(ects of his stu$ies to the (ractical8 =r0 Tesla $isclose$ his greatest a)7ition is to 7e the )an .ho e-ol-e$ a )etho$ of co))unicating .ith other (lanets0 He thin2s he has foun$ the ans.er an$ is (re(aring to lay its for)ula 7efore the ,nstitute of France in quest of the <ierre GuB)an (rice of 1558555 francs offere$ for a )eans of co))unicating .ith other .orl$s0 The )an .ho acco)(lishes this8 he feels8 .ill 7e re)e)7ere$ after all (resent in-entions are forgotten0
1-9<-0<-"<: %r& Tesla2s 0onours 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald Tribune To the 1e. Dor2 Heral$ Tri7uneI , ha-e 7een a rea$er of your e'cellent (a(er for )ore than fifty years an$ feel )uch o7lige$ to you for the (leasure an$ enlighten)ent $eri-e$ fro) its (erusal0 /any of your a$)ira7le e$itorials are on )y files0 Cn$er these circu)stances it is unfortunate that your issue of >un$ay8 Euly 118 containe$ a re(ort -ery inHurious to )e0 The (articularly $a)aging state)ent isI "The $ecorations )a$e -ery little i)(ression on =r0 Tesla0 'They )ean nothing 9 ta2e the) a.ay8' sai$ =r0 Tesla0" , shoul$ say that the e'(ression on )y face in the (hotogra(h acco)(anying the re(ort8 .oul$ 7e sufficient to $is(ro-e the a7o-e assertion0 &hen it 7eca)e necessary to clear the ta7le , .as -ery an'ious that the (recious o7Hects 7e (lace$ in safe han$s an$ requeste$ )y ol$ frien$8 George >cherff8 au$itor of the Cnion >ul(hur Co)(any8 .ho .as one of the honoure$ guests8 to ta2e care of the)0 /oreo-er8 as soon as , .as free8 , ca7le$ His +oyal Highness <rince +egent <aul of Dugosla-ia an$ to His "'cellency =r0 "$uar$ 3enes8 <resi$ent of CBechoslo-a2ia8 e'(ressing )y (rofoun$ gratitu$e for the rare $istinctions conferre$ u(on )e an$ )y great (ri$e of (ossessing the)0 ,t .as $esira7le to sho. in the (hotogra(h the Dugosla- /inister han$ing )e the or$er of the &hite "agie 7ut His "'cellency :onstantin Fotitch8 7esi$es 7eing a )aster in $i(lo)acy8 is a )an of co))an$ing stature in other res(ects8 an$ he $i$ not insist0 Ho.e-er8 a )ore char)ing $ignitary than =r0 Gla$i)ir Hur7an8 /inister of CBechoslo-a2ia8 coul$ not 7e i)agine$0 1,:;#A T">#A 1e. Dor28 Euly !68 193*
1-9<-08-"": :n t,e #ealm of S(ien(e: Tesla) F,o 5redi(ted #adio) Now 'oo.s 7orward to Sending FaEes to t,e Moon 4y 8ohn 8. 'CNeill
Ne" -ork (erald Tribune Inventor (o*es to Dse Energy,Transmitting Device to /ake &*ot 5lo" on %unar &urface Theory Is Traced To C1. Ex*eriments (is /echanism to Dse Bast Natural 9orces+ 3ossibly 2osmic !ays The failure of forecasters to (re$ict the results of scientific $isco-eries8 (articularly .ith res(ect to their social an$ econo)ic significance8 .as e)(hasiBe$ in the recent re(ort on technical tren$s an$ their social i)(lications su7)itte$ to <resi$ent +oose-elt 7y the 1ational +esources Co))ittee0 ;ne of the outstan$ing o-ersights .as ra$io 7roa$casting0 1one of the (re-ie.ers of co)ing e-ents sa. this $e-elo()ent of ra$io co))unication0 &ith this as Hustification8 so)e attention )ight 7e gi-en to the recent announce)ent 7y 1i2ola Tesla8 the in-entor8 .hose )in$ has gi-en us a great )any of the )aHor $e-elo()ents for)ing the foun$ation of our electrical age0 =r0 Tesla sel$o) .rites for (u7lication8 7ut 7ac2 in 1955 he .rote an article for the Eune issue of "The Century /agaBine8" .hich containe$ (re$ictions that see)e$ at that ti)e -ery fantastic0 Those .ho )ay rea$ it no. .ill 7e a)aBe$ to fin$ ho. )any of the author's (ro(hecies ha-e (ro-e$ true0 A$-ance >een Fantastic >o)e of the a$-ances $escri7e$ 7y hi) $uring the last fe. years as the result of his in-estigations )ay a((ear equally fantastic to$ay8 7ut one has only to 2no. of =r0 Tesla's (ast (erfor)ances in or$er to ha-e faith that gi-en ti)e an$ )oney they coul$ 7e )a$e realities0 Forty years ago he .as (laying .ith electrical $ischarges of )any )illions of -olts8 .hile to$ay scientists ha-e $ifficulty in $e-elo(ing a fraction of those (otentials for their ato)9s)ashing an$ '9ray e'(eri)ents0 #ong 7efore the $ays of /arconi8 Tesla gir$le$ the earth .ith giant electrical .a-es fro) his high -oltage generators8 an$ on the 7asis of this .or2 (re$icte$ 7oth the "trans)ission of intelligence .ithout .ires" an$ the ".ireless trans)ission of (o.er0" He controlle$ a -essel at a $istance 7y .ireless (o.er forty years 7efore the a$-ent of our (resent9$ay )anless aerial tor(e$oes0 "They laughe$ at )e in 189* .hen , tol$ the) a7out the cos)ic ray8" he sai$ in a recent inter-ie.0 "Fifty years ago they atte)(te$ to $iscre$it )y $isco-ery of the rotating )agnetic fiel$ an$ )y syste) of (o.er trans)ission 7y alternating currents0 They calle$ )e craBy .hen , 9(re$icte$ the ra$io an$ .hen , sent the first i)(ulse aroun$ the .orl$ they sai$ it coul$n't 7e $one0" >o .ith Tesla's latest $isco-eries an$ in-entions0 There )ay 7e )any .ho are sce(tical8 7ut the .orl$ is )o-ing for.ar$ ra(i$ly an$ )an is constantly $oing things a short ti)e 7efore consi$ere$ i)(ossi7le0 Forty years ago Tesla .as (re$icting .orl$9.i$e ra$io co))unications0 To$ay this acco)(lish)ent is history0 1o. he is (re$icting inter(lanetary co))unication0 Eo-ian 3olts His Ai) =r0 Tesla ga-e assurance that he $i$ not )ean Hust sen$ing .ea2 signals8 7ut -erita7le Eo-ian 7olts carrying energy of se-eral thousan$ horse(o.er .hich .oul$ 7e a7le to (ro$uce tre)en$ous effects at the recei-ing en$8 e-en though it 7e infinitely re)ote0 A test of this in-ention coul$ 7e )a$e )ost a$-antageously on our nearest hea-enly neigh7our8 the )oon0 >ufficient energy8 he sai$8 coul$ 7e trans)itte$ to ren$er a s)all s(ot on its surface incan$escent so that it coul$ 7e easily o7ser-e$ fro) the earth0 This is a further e'tension of the announce)ent (re-iously )a$e 7y =r0 Tesla that he .oul$ 7e a7le to trans)it o-er a 7ea) of not )ore than one hun$re$ thousan$ths of a square centi)etre in cross section a$equate a)ounts of energy for o(erating all 2in$s of )achinery at $istances li)ite$ only 7y the earth's cur-ature0 >uch a 7ea)8 he (ointe$ out8 coul$ 7e use$ not only for constructi-e 7ut also $estructi-e (ur(oses as annihilating )ilitary forces or aerial fleets0 &hile =r0 Tesla is 2ee(ing a $ee( secret of the )echanis) 7y .hich he (lans to (ro-i$e unli)ite$ energy8 it is a((arent he is 7ent on using natural forces that o(erate on a -ast scale0 To 7e s(ecific8 it see)s that the energy is co)ing to us in the for) of cos)ic rays8 7ut Tesla's theory of these rays is $ifferent fro) those of =r0 +o7ert A0 /illi2an or =r0 :arl T0 Co)(ton0
He for)ulate$ his theory in 189* .hen he sought to e'(lain the (ro$uction of the (heno)ena of ra$io acti-ity 7y so)e other )eans than ato)ic e'(losions0 He hel$ that all energy an ato) e'hi7its is recei-e$ fro) its en-iron)ent an$ $oes not co)e fro) itself0 Accor$ingly8 he e'(laine$ ra$io acti-ity as a result of the shattering of ato)s 7y su79ato)ic cos)ic (articles0 &hence $i$ they co)eF .as the question0 "1o.8 of all 7o$ies in the cos)os8"8 states =r0 Tesla8 "our sun .as the )ost li2ely to furnish a clue as to their origin an$ character0 3efore the electron theory .as a$-ance$8 , ha$ esta7lishe$ that ra$io9acti-e rays consiste$ of (articles of (ri)ary )atter not further $eco)(osa7le8 an$ the first thing to fin$ out .as .hether the sun is charge$ to a sufficiently high (otential to (ro$uce the effects note$0 This calle$ for a (rolonge$ in-estigation .hich cul)inate$ in )y $isco-ery that the sun's (otential .as !1%855585558555 -olts an$ that all such large an$ hot 7o$ies e)it cos)ic rays0 <uBBle of /ystery +ays "&hile the origin an$ character of the rays o7ser-e$ near the earth's surface ha$ thus 7een sufficiently .ell ascertaine$8 the so9calle$ cos)ic rays o7ser-e$ at great altitu$es (resente$ a ri$$le for )ore than t.enty9si' years8 chiefly 7ecause it .as foun$ they increase$ .ith the height at a ra(i$ rate0 /y in-estigations 7rought out the astonishing fact that the effects at high altitu$e are of an entirely $ifferent nature8 ha-ing no relation .hate-er to cos)ic rays0 These are (articles fro) celestial 7o$ies at -ery high te)(eratures an$ charge$ to enor)ous electrical (otentials0" ,t )ight 7e re)ar2e$ (arenthetically that =r0 Tesla $oes not acce(t the conce(t of the electron (resente$ 7y (hysicists as an ele)entary unit an$ carrying a unit charge of electricity0 He hol$s that the electron in a .ell9 e'hauste$ tu7e o(erate$ at high (otential carries )any )ulti(les of this unit charge0 The ignorance of this fact is res(onsi7le for )any errors an$ fallacies in -arious scientific in-estigations0 "The effects at great ele-ations8" =r0 Tesla continue$8 "are $ue to .a-es of e'tre)ely s)all lengths (ro$uce$ 7y the sun in a certain region of the at)os(here0 This is the $isco-ery , .ish to )a2e 2no.n0 The (rocess in-ol-e$ in the generation of the .a-es is the follo.ingI The sun (roHects charge$ (articles constituting an electric current .hich (asses through a con$ucting stratu) of the at)os(here a((ro'i)ately ten 2ilo)etres (si' )iles thic2 en-elo(ing the earth0 This is a trans)ission of electrical energy e'actly as , illustrate$ in )y e'(eri)ental lecture in .hich one en$ of a .ire is connecte$ to an electric generator of high (otential8 its other en$ 7eing free0 ,n this case the generator is re(resente$ 7y the sun an$ the .ire 7y the con$ucting air0 <ro$uction of the &a-es "The (assage of solar current in-ol-es the transference of electric charges fro) (article to (article .ith the s(ee$ of light8 resulting in the (ro$uction of e'tre)ely short an$ (enetrating .a-es0 As the air stratu) )entione$ is the source of the .a-es it follo.s that the so9calle$ cos)ic rays o7ser-e$ at great altitu$e )ust increase as this stratu) is a((roache$0" Another of the Tesla in-entions is a ra$ically ne. tu7e .hich is in$estructi7le an$ can han$le hea-y currents u( to any -oltage that can 7e (ro$uce$8 e-en 15585558555 -olts0 ,t .ill 7e useful8 he (ro)ises8 in the (ro$uction of chea( ra$iu) su7stitutes an$ in the transfor)ation of )atter0 >till another in-ention consists in )eans for the (ro$uction of a (ractically (erfect -acuu) of the or$er of 1855585558555th of a )icron0 &hile =r0 Tesla $oes not say so8 it is assu)e$ that these latter in-entions are (arts of the syste) .hich he .oul$ use in the trans)ission of energy to the )oon or other (lanets0 >uch an a((lication .oul$ 7e s(ectacular8 7ut the in-entions .hen $escri7e$ an$ )a$e (u7lic .oul$ ha-e a((lications of )ore i))e$iate (ractical -alue in in$ustrial o(erations0 He .as honoure$ on his 7irth$ay 7y the 7esto.al of the highest $istinctions .ithin the (o.er of Dugosla-ia an$ CBechoslo-a2ia8 .hich recognition touche$ hi) $ee(ly all the )ore as :onstantin Fotitch an$ Gla$i)ir Hur7an8 )inisters of these countries8 ca)e fro) &ashington es(ecially for the occasion0 =r0 Tesla is no. eighty9one an$ .or2s continuously at his in-estigations0 He has not 7een halte$ e-en 7y a recent acci$ent in .hich he .as 2noc2e$ $o.n 7y a ta'ica70 ,t )erely cause$ the custo)ary 7ruises an$ u(set the $igestion a 7it8 he sai$0
1-98-05-1": Te+t of Tesla S$ee(, 4y Nikola Tesla

The Ne" -ork Times 1i2ola Tesla8 electrical scientist8 Feli' Fran2furter8 of the Har-ar$ #a. >chool8 an$ Gio-anni /artinelli8 /etro(olitan ;(era tenor8 .ere reci(ients of a.ar$s fro) the 1ational ,nstitute of ,))igrant &elfare at the Hotel 3ilt)ore8 1e. Dor2 City8 on /ay 118 19380 =ue to an illness8 the follo.ing letter fro) 1i2ola Tesla .as rea$ at the (resentation0 A re(ort of the (resentation is gi-en in The 1e. Dor2 Ti)es8 /ay 1!8 19388 (0 !%8 col0 10 /r0 Chair)an8 /e)7ers of the ,nstitute of ,))igrant &elfare8 #a$ies an$ Gentle)enI , can not fin$ .or$s to e'(ress a$equately )y 2een regret for 7eing una7le to recei-e8 in (erson8 the high $istinction .hich the ,nstitute of ,))igrant &elfare has conferre$ u(on )e0 Although )y reco-ery fro) inHuries sustaine$ in an auto)o7ile acci$ent si' )onths ago is al)ost co)(lete8 , $o not feel equal to the tas2 of a((earing in (u7lic an$ )eeting the o7ligations .hich this .oul$ i)(ose u(on )e0 /y co)ing to this country .as a great a$-enture 9 e-ery $etail of .hich is still -i-i$ in )y )e)ory0 "arly in 18868 .hile e)(loye$ 7y a French Co)(any in <aris8 , )a$e i)(ortant i)(ro-e)ents in $yna)os an$ )otors an$ .as engage$ 7y the "$ison interests in 1e. Dor2 to $esign an$ construct si)ilar )achines for the)0 ,t ha$ 7een the height of )y a)7ition an$ )y )ost ar$ent .ish to co)e in contact .ith "$ison an$ see A)erica0 Accor$ingly8 , un$ertoo2 the -oyage an$ after losing )y )oney an$ tic2ets an$ (assing through a series of )isha(s8 inclu$ing a )utiny in .hich , nearly lost )y life8 , lan$e$ on these 7lesse$ shores .ith four cents in )y (oc2et0 /y first intention .as to loo2 u( a close A)erican frien$ 7efore going to the "$ison esta7lish)ent0 5n )y .ay u(to.n , ca)e to a s)all )achine sho( in .hich the fore)an .as trying to re(air an electric )achine of "uro(ean )a2e0 He ha$ Hust gi-en u( the tas2 as ho(eless an$ , un$ertoo2 to (ut it in or$er .ithout a thought of co)(ensation0 ,t .as not easy 7ut , finally ha$ it in (erfect running con$ition0 , .as astonishe$ .hen he ga-e )e t.enty $ollars an$ .ishe$ that , ha$ co)e to A)erica years 7efore0 The ne't $ay , .as thrille$ to the )arro. 7y )eeting "$ison .ho 7egan )y A)erican e$ucation right then an$ there0 , .ante$ to ha-e )y shoes shine$8 so)ething , consi$ere$ 7elo. )y $ignity0 "$ison sai$I "Tesla8 you .ill shine the shoes yourself an$ li2e it0 He i)(resse$ )e tre)en$ously0 , shine$ )y shoes an$ li2e$ it0 , 7egan the .or2 for .hich , .as engage$ i))e$iately an$ after nine )onths of strenuous effort , fulfille$ )y contract rigorously0 The )anager ha$ (ro)ise$ )e fifty thousan$ $ollars 7ut .hen , $e)an$e$ (ay)ent8 he )erely laughe$0 "Dou are still a <arisian8" re)ar2e$ "$ison8 ".hen you 7eco)e a full9fle$ge$ A)erican you .ill a((reciate an A)erican Ho2e0" , felt $ee(ly hurt as , ha$ e'(ecte$ to use the )oney in the $e-elo()ent of )y alternating syste) an$ .hen so)e (eo(le (ro(ose$ to for) a co)(any un$er )y na)e8 , acce(te$ eagerly0 Here .as the o((ortunity , ha$ -ainly sought for years 7ut )y ne. frien$s .ere a$a)ant in their resol-e not to ha-e anything to $o .ith the .orthless alternating currents .hich "$ison con$e)ne$ as $ea$ly0 They $esire$ an arc light syste) an$ , ha$ to co)(ly .ith their request though the $elay of )y cherishe$ (lans .as agoniBing0 ,n one year of $ay an$ night a((lication8 , )anage$ to (erfect the syste) .hich .as a$o(te$ for lighting the city an$ so)e factories in the neigh7ourhoo$0 Then ca)e the har$est 7lo. , e-er recei-e$0 Through so)e local influences8 , .as force$ out of the co)(any losing not only all )y interest 7ut also )y re(utation as engineer an$ in-entor0 After that , li-e$ through a year of terri7le heartaches an$ 7itter tears8 )y suffering 7eing intensifie$ 7y )aterial .ant0 Gery often , .as co)(elle$ to .or2 as a la7ourer an$ )y high e$ucation in -arious 7ranches of science8 )echanics an$ literature see)e$ to )e li2e a )oc2ery0 Finally8 , ha$ the goo$ fortune of )eeting t.o ca(a7le an$ honest )en .ho listene$ to )e an$ ca)e to )y assistance0 They organiBe$ a co)(any8 (ro-i$e$ a la7oratory an$ ga-e )e a )o$est 7ut sure financial su((ort0 , (erfecte$ )y )otors quic2ly ha-ing nothing else to $o e'ce(t to carry out (lans , ha$ for)e$ years 7efore0 /y in-entions (ro-e$ a success an$ attracte$ the attention of George &estinghouse0 He .as8 in )y o(inionJ the only )an on this glo7e .ho coul$ ta2e )y alternating syste) un$er the circu)stances then e'isting an$ .in the 7attle against (reHu$ice an$ )oney (o.er0 He .as a (ioneer of i)(osing stature8 one of the .orl$'s true no7le)en of .ho) A)erica )ay .ell 7e (rou$ an$ to .ho) hu)anity o.es an i))ense $e7t of gratitu$e0
, ha-e to a$$ that in all )y trou7les , $i$ not neglect to $eclare )y intention of 7eco)ing a citiBen of this glorious country an$ in $ue course , secure$ )y (a(ers )a2ing )e a (rou$ an$ ha((y )an0 1i2ola Tesla
1-98-10-08: #eferen(e to Com$ass in 19t, Century 5oem 4y Nikola Tesla

&cience Ne"s %etter A)ong the ol$est references to the )ariner's co)(ass is a (assage in a (oe) 7y a little 2no.n French .riter8 Guyot $e <ro-ins8 .ho .rote early in the thirteenth century8 , first ca)e u(on this reference )any years ago8 $uring a (erio$ of o)ni-orous rea$ing .hile , .as con-alescing fro) a nearly fatal attac2 of cholera )or7us0 A)ong the )any 7oo2s , recei-e$ there .as a large -olu)e of citations8 ge)s of literature of all nations in a $oBen languages8 .hich arouse$ )y s(ecial interest0 /ost of the e'cer(ts fro) fa)ous .or2s8 in -erse or (rose8 collecte$ 7y the author8 i)(resse$ )e so strongly 7y their 7eauty of thought an$ e'(ression that e-en no. , can recite )any of the) .ithout a )iss8 ,t .as in this -olu)e that , foun$ the reference to the co)(ass )entione$ in the intro$uction0 ,t .as cre$ite$ to Guyot $e <ro-ins8 a French (oet of the t.elfth an$ thirteenth centuries8 an$8 if )y )e)ory ser-es )e .ell8 .or$e$ as follo.sI "Auan$ la )er est o7scure et 7rune Au'on ne -oit ni etoile ni lune =onc font 1'aiguille allu)er8 <uis n'ont gar$e $e s'egarer Contre 1'etoile -a la (ointe0" , translate freelyI "&hen gloo)y $ar2ness hi$es the sea An$ one no star an$ )oon can see They turn on the nee$le the light8 Then fro) the straying they ha-e no fright For the nee$le (oints to the star0" As a rule8 )e$ie-al recor$s $o not co))en$ the)sel-es for clarityJ in fact8 not a fe. are of -ery s)all -alue to the searcher0 ,t is therefore re)ar2a7le that this ancient reference to the co)(ass shoul$ 7e so stri2ingly clear an$ e'(licit0 After rea$ing Guyot's -erses one is i)(elle$ 7y the .ish to 2no. so)ething )ore a7out hi)0 &ith this intention , trie$ to o7tain infor)ation fro) the 1e. Dor2 <u7lic #i7rary 7ut his na)e .as not )entione$ in any of the catalogues0 , then )a$e a thorough e'a)ination of the General ,n$e'8 .hich .as equally unsuccessful8 7ut foun$ a 7rief notice in the Gran$e "ncyclo(e$ie Francaise0 This ite) 7eing of unusual interest , ha-e an "nglish translationI Guyot $e <ro-ins8 French (oet8 to.ar$s 1!550 Cn$ou7te$ly8 after 7eing a )instrel an$ going (erha(s to Eerusale)8 he 7eca)e a 3ene$ictine in Clair-au' an$ later in Cluny0 He co)(ose$ 7et.een 1!53 an$ 1!588 in a style li-ely an$ original8 7ut harsh an$ har$8 a satirical .or2 consisting of !%91 octosylla7ic -erses8 .hich he entitle$ "3i7le8" (ro7a7ly to in$icate that he inten$e$ to say only .hat is true8 an$ in .hich he (asse$ in re-ie. al)ost the .hole conte)(orary society0 "s(ecially note.orthy is his criticis) of the <o(e8 e'(resse$ .ith great in$e(en$ence8 an$ that of the high clergy an$ (hysicians8 an$ a nu)7er of (assages in .hich he argues that the co)(ass .as 2no.n in his ti)e0
1-9--00-00: 0otel New @or.er 1-9- - A Story of @out, Told ;y Age) %edi(ated To Miss 5ola 7otit(,) 1y :ts Aut,or Ni.ola Tesla 4y Nikola Tesla
/y $ear /iss FotitchI , a) for.ar$ing to you the "Calen$ar of Dugosla-ia" of 1939 sho.ing the house an$ co))unity in .hich , ha$ )any Hoyful an$ sa$ e'(eriences an$ o$$ a$-entures an$ in .hich also8 7y a coinci$ence 7iBarre8 , .as 7orn0 As you )ay see fro) the (hotogra(h on the sheet for Eune8 the ol$9fashione$ 7uil$ing is locate$ at the foot of a .oo$e$ hill calle$ 3og$anic0 A$Hoining it is a church an$ 7ehin$ it a little further u( a gra-eyar$0 ;ur nearest neigh7ours .ere t.o )iles a.ay an$ in the .inter8 .hen the sno. .as si' or se-en feet $ee(8 our isolation .as co)(lete0 /y )other .as in$efatiga7le an$ .or2e$ regularly fro) four o'cloc2 in the )orning till ele-en in the e-ening0 Fro) four to 7rea2fast ti)e8 % A0/08 .hile others slu)7ere$8 , ne-er close$ )y eyes 7ut .atche$ )y )other .ith intense (leasure as she atten$e$ quic2ly 9 so)eti)es running 9 to her )any self9i)(ose$ $uties0 >he $irecte$ the ser-ants to ta2e care of all $o)estic ani)als8 )il2e$ the co.s8 (erfor)e$ all sorts of la7or unassiste$8 set the ta7le8 (re(are$ 7rea2fast for the .hole househol$ an$ only .hen it .as rea$y to 7e ser-e$ $i$ the rest of the fa)ily get u(0 After 7rea2fast e-ery7o$y follo.e$ 7y )other's ins(iring e'a)(le0 All $i$ their .or2 $iligently8 li2e$ it an$ so achie-e$ a )easure of content)ent0 3ut , .as the ha((iest of the)8 the fountain of )y enHoy)ent 7eing our )agnificent /aqa2 9 the finest of all cats in the .orl$0 , .ish that , coul$ gi-e you an a$equate i$ea of the $e(th of affection .hich e'iste$ 7et.een )e an$ hi)0 Dou .oul$ loo2 -ainly in the )ythological an$ historical recor$s for such a case0 &e si)(ly li-e$ one for the other0 &here-er , .ent /aqa2 follo.e$ (ri)arily o.ing to our )utual lo-e an$ then again )o-e$ 7y the $esire to (rotect )e0 &hen such a necessity (resente$ itself he .oul$ rise to t.ice his nor)al height8 7uc2le his 7ac2 an$ .ith the tail as rigi$ as a )etal 7ar an$ .his2ers li2e steel .ires he .oul$ gi-e -ent to his rage 7y e'(losi-e (uffs <ffttY <ffttY ,t .as a terrifying sight an$ .hate-er (ro-o2e$ hi)8 hu)an 7eing or ani)al8 7eat a hasty retreat0 ,n the e-ening .e .ent through our usual (rogra)0 , .oul$ run fro) the house along the church an$ he .oul$ rush after )e an$ gra7 )e 7y the trousers0 He trie$ har$ to )a2e )e 7elie-e that he .oul$ 7ite8 7ut the instant his nee$le shar( incisors (enetrate$ the clothing the (ressure cease$ an$ their contact .ith )y s2in .as as gentle an$ ten$er as that of a 7utterfly alighting on a (etal0 He li2e$ 7est to roll on the grass .ith )e0 &hile .e .ere $oing this he 7it an$ cla.e$ an$ (urre$ in ra(turous (leasure0 He fascinate$ )e so co)(letely that , too 7it an$ cla.e$ an$ (urre$0 &e Hust coul$ not sto( an$ rolle$ an$ rolle$ an$ rolle$ an$ rolle$ in a $eliriu) of $elight0 &e in$ulge$ in this enchanting s(ort $ay 7y $ay e'ce(t on rainy .eather0 ,n res(ect to .ater /aqa2 .as -ery fasti$ious0 He .oul$ Hu)( si' feet to a-oi$ .etting his (a.s0 ;n such occasions .e .ent into the house an$8 selecting a nice cosy (lace8 a7an$one$ oursel-es for each other in affectionate e)7race)ent0 /aqa2 .as scru(ulously clean8 ha$ no fleas or 7ugs .hate-er8 she$ no hair an$ sho.e$ none of the o7Hectiona7le traits an$ ha7its of cats as , 2ne. the) later0 He .as touchingly $elicate in signifying his .ish to 7e let out at night an$ scratche$ the $oor gently for re9a$)ittance0 1o. , )ust tell you of a strange an$ unforgetta7le e'(erience .hich 7ore fruit in )y later life0 ;ur ho)e is a7out eighteen hun$re$ feet a7o-e sea le-el an$ in the .inter .e ha$ $ry .eather as a rule8 7ut so)eti)es it ha((ene$ that a .ar) .in$ fro) the A$riatic .oul$ 7lo. (ersistently for a long ti)e8 )elting ra(i$ly the sno.8 floo$ing the lan$ an$ causing great loss of (ro(erty an$ life0 &e .oul$ then .itness the terrifying s(ectacle of a )ighty seething ri-er carrying .rec2age an$ tearing $o.n e-erything )o-ea7le in its .ay0 >ince , often -isualiBe the e-ents of )y youth to fin$ relief fro) great an$ $angerous )ental strain an$ .hen , thin2 of the scene the roar of the .aters fills )y ears an$ , see as -i-i$ly as then8 their tu)ultuous flo. an$ the )a$ $ance of the .rec2age0 This lea-es )e8 for a .hile8 sa$ an$ $e(resse$0 3ut al.ays agreea7le are )y recollections of .inter .ith its $ry col$ an$ sno. of i))aculate .hite0 ,t ha((ene$ that on the $ay of )y e'(erience .e ha$ a col$ $rier than e-er o7ser-e$ 7efore0 <eo(le .al2ing in the sno. left a lu)inous trail 7ehin$ the) an$ a sno.7all thro.n against an o7stacle ga-e a flare of light li2e a loaf of sugar hit .ith a 2nife0 ,t .as $us2 of the e-ening an$ , felt i)(elle$ to stro2e /aqa2's 7ac20 /aqa2's 7ac2 .as a sheet of light an$ )y han$ (ro$uce$ a sho.er of s(ar2s lou$ enough to 7e hear$ all o-er the (lace0 /y father .as a -ery learne$ )an8 he ha$ an ans.er for e-ery question0 3ut this (heno)enon .as ne. e-en to hi)0 &ell8 he finally re)ar2e$8 this is nothing 7ut electricity8 the sa)e thing you see on the trees in a stor)0 /y )other see)e$ alar)e$0 >to( (laying .ith the cat8 she sai$8 he )ight start a fire0 , .as thin2ing a7stracte$ly0 ,s
nature a gigantic catF ,f so8 .ho stro2es its 7ac2F ,t can only 7e Go$8 , conclu$e$0 Dou )ay 2no. that <ascal .as an e'traor$inarily (recocious chil$ .ho attracte$ attention 7efore he reache$ the age of si' years0 3ut here , .as8 only three years ol$8 an$ alrea$y (hiloso(hisingY , can not e'aggerate the effect of this )ar-ellous sight on )y chil$ish i)agination0 =ay after $ay , as2e$ )yself .hat is electricity an$ foun$ no ans.er0 "ighty years ha-e gone 7y since an$ , still as2 the sa)e question8 una7le to ans.er it0 >o)e (seu$o scientist of .ho) there are only too )any )ay tell you that he can8 7ut $o not 7elie-e hi)0 ,f any of the) 2ne. .hat it is , .oul$ also 2no. an$ the chances are 7etter than any of the) for )y la7oratory an$ (ractical e'(eriences are )ore e'tensi-e an$ )y life co-ers three generations of scientific research0 /y chil$hoo$ in /aqa2's $elightful co)(any an$ un$ying frien$shi( .oul$ ha-e (asse$ 7lissfully if , $i$ not ha-e a (o.erful ene)y8 relentless an$ irreconcila7le0 This .as our gan$er8 a )onstrous ugly 7rute8 .ith a nec2 of an ostrich8 )outh of a croco$ile an$ a (air of cunning eyes ra$iating intelligence an$ un$erstan$ing li2e the hu)an0 , arouse$ his ire 7y thro.ing (e77les at hi)8 a )ost foolish an$ rec2less act .hich , 7itterly regrette$ after.ar$s0 , li2e$ to fee$ our (igeons8 chic2ens8 an$ other fo.l8 ta2e one or the other un$er )y ar) an$ hug an$ (et it0 3ut the 7rute .oul$ not let )e0 The )o)ent , entere$ the (oultry yar$ he .oul$ attac2 )e an$ as , fle$ gra7 )e 7y the seat of )y trousers an$ sha2e )e -iciously0 &hen , finally )anage$ to free )yself an$ run a.ay he .oul$ fla( his huge .ings in glee an$ raise an unholy chatter in .hich all the geese Hoine$0 &hen , gre. u( t.o aunts of )ine use$ to tell )e ho. , ans.ere$ certain questions they as2e$0 ;ne .as Aunt Ge-a .ho ha$ t.o (rotru$ing teeth li2e the tus2s of an ele(hant0 >he lo-e$ )e (assionately an$ 7urie$ the) $ee( in )y chee2 in 2issing )e0 , crie$ out fro) (ain 7ut she thought it .as fro) (leasure an$ $ug the) in still $ee(er0 1e-ertheless , (referre$ her to the other aunt .hose na)e has sli((e$ fro) )y )e)ory an$ she use$ to glue her li(s to )ine an$ suc2 an$ suc2 until 7y frantic efforts , )anage$ to free )yself gas(ing for 7reath0 These t.o aunts a)use$ the)sel-es 7y as2ing )e all sorts of questions of .hich , re)e)7er a fe.0 Are you afrai$ of #u2a 3ogicF 1oY #u2a al.ays carrie$ a gun an$ threatene$ to shoot0 He ro77e$ other 7oys of (ennies an$ ga-e the) to )e0 Are you afrai$ of the co.F 1o Y' That .as one of our co.s an$ -ery nice until one $ay , sli$ fro) a fence on her 7ac2 for a ri$e .hen she )a$e off .ith )e 7ello.ing an$ thre. )e0 , .as none the .orse for the e'(erience0 Are you afrai$ of the 7a$ .olfF 1oY 1oY This .as the .olf , )et in the .oo$s near the church0 He .as loo2ing at )e fi'e$ly an$ a((roaching slo.ly0 , shoute$ as usual .hen a .olf is aroun$ an$ he trotte$ a.ay slo.ly0 /y (resent -isualiBation of this scene is astonishingly shar( an$ clear0 After a nu)7er of such questions one of the aunts as2e$ )eJ Are you afrai$ of the gan$erF DesY DesY , re(lie$ e)(hatically8 , a) afrai$ of the gan$erY , ha$ goo$ reason to 7e0 ;ne su))er $ay )y )other ha$ gi-en )e a rather col$ 7ath an$ (ut )e out for a sun .ar)ing in A$a)'s attire0 &hen she ste((e$ in the house the gan$er es(ie$ )e an$ charge$0 The 7rute 2ne. .here it .oul$ hurt )ost an$ seiBe$ )e 7y the na(e al)ost (ulling out the re)nant of )y u)7ilical cor$0 /y )other8 .ho ca)e in ti)e to (re-ent further inHury8 sai$ to )eI "Dou )ust 2no. that you can not )a2e (eace .ith a gan$er or a coc2 .ho) you ha-e taunte$0 They .ill fight you as long as they li-e0" 3ut no. an$ then , .oul$ (lay in the (oultry yar$ to )y heart's content for on certain $ays our geese8 le$ 7y the gan$er8 rose high in the air an$ fle. $o.n to the )ea$o. an$ 7roo2 .here they s(orte$ li2e s.ans in the .ater an$ (ro7a7ly foun$ so)e foo$0 , .oul$ then fee$ an$ (et the (igeons8 the (oultry an$ our gran$ res(len$ant coc2 .ho li2e$ )e0 ,n the e-ening the gan$er 7rought 7ac2 his floc2 .ho )a$e a fe. turns a7o-e the house an$ then ca)e $o.n .ith a $eafening noise0 The sight of the flying geese .as a Hoy an$ ins(iration to see0
1-9--0<-"6: T,e SoEiet Sa(rifi(e 7or S$ain 4y Nikola Tesla

Ne" -ork (erald An Estimate That !e*ublic !eceived 4illion and a (alf Dollars To the 1e. Dor2 Heral$ Tri7uneI Dour issue of Euly 98 19398 contains an article relating to the seiBure of >(anish gol$ 7y the >o-iet go-ern)ent0 Another one8 $ealing .ith the sa)e su7Hect8 a((eare$ in "The >atur$ay "-ening <ost" of A(ril 148 19390 &ithout entering into a $iscussion of the )erits of these co))ents u(on the question raise$8 , )ay re)ar2 that8 for o7-ious reasons8 any e'(ression of o(inion concerning this )atter 7y A)ericans is li2ely to 7e -ery unfa-oura7le to the >o-iet go-ern)ent8 an$ in the interest of co))on Hustice it shoul$ 7e .eighe$ .ithout (reHu$ice0 &hat , .ish to 7ring to the attention of fair9)in$e$ rea$ers is that the articles referre$ to $o not gi-e the slightest hint in regar$ to the chief fact to 7e ascertaine$8 .hich ha$ a (rofoun$ 7earing on the course $eci$e$ u(on 7y the >o-iets 9 na)ely8 the sacrifice their struggle on 7ehalf of the o((resse$ (arty in >(ain in-ol-e$0 They fought -igourously for a cause consi$ere$ rightful 7y a large (ortion of the (o(ulation8 an$ the o.nershi( of gol$ an$ other (ro(erty .as un$eci$e$ until the ter)ination of the conflict "-ery7o$y 2no.s that )o$ern .arfare is $es(erately e'(ensi-e8 7ut fe. .ill realiBe ho. costly it )ust ha-e 7een for the >o-iet go-ern)ent8 un$er the $isa$-antages8 o7stacles an$ han$ica(s confronting it0 , .as $esirous of )a2ing an a((ro'i)ate esti)ate of the cost8 an$ .ith this o7Hect in -ie. , gathere$ all the a-aila7le $ata0 Consi$ering carefully the actual outlays in )oney8 the loss of )en8 of air(lanes8 guns an$ other i)(le)ents of .ar8 shi(s an$ )unitions8 an$ the su((ly of foo$8 oil an$ ail 2in$s of (ro-isions trans(orte$ fro) great $istance8 etc08 , ha-e satisfie$ )yself that the >o-iet go-ern)ent )ust ha-e s(ent8 at the -ery least ^18455855585550 ,f this esti)ate is reasona7ly accurate8 the >(anish gol$ a((ro(riate$ a)ounte$ to a7out one9 thir$ of the cost0 Any go-ern)ent .oul$ ha-e acte$ so un$er si)ilar circu)stances0 "nglan$8 France8 Ger)any an$ ,taly are on recor$ .ith $ee$s not at all co))en$a7le0 &hat the >o-iet go-ern)ent $i$ .as (erfectly legiti)ate8 in -ie. of the (rece$ing e-ents0 The i$ea that the 7o'es 7rought fro) >(ain .ere sufficient to co-er +e$ >quare is a7sur$0 ,t .oul$ )ean not fi-e 7ut so)ething li2e one hun$re$ ti)es that a)ount of gol$0 The )etal al.ays is shi((e$ in ounces an$ its -alue $eter)ine$ fro) the (re-ailing )ar2et quotations0 Through the attitu$e of "nglan$ an$ France the >o-iet go-ern)ent foun$ itself isolate$8 an$ >talin then )a$e a (ro(osal for non9interference0 3ut ,taly an$ Ger)any (ai$ no attention to it an$ (oure$ tens of thousan$s of )en into >(ain to Franco's assistance0 "-en then +ussia .as rea$y to carry on the .ar0 >he coul$ s.allo. ,taly in a gul( an$ not suffer $ys(e(sia8 an$ if Hitler $are$ to attac2 her he .oul$ ha-e 7een 7a$ly $efeate$ an$ Ger)any .oul$ ha-e 7eco)e again an e)(ire un$er the HohenBollern $ynasty8 (ro7a7ly .ith the restoration of the status quo ante Hitler regi)e an$ recreate$ free CBechoslo-a2ia0 "nglan$ an$ France 7eing e)(hatically against +ussian influence in >(ain8 >talin ha$ to .ith$ra.8 7ut in so $oing he certainly $i$ not "2nife" the >(anish re(u7lic0 1,:;#A T">#A Ne" -ork+ 8uly ?:+ 11:1
1-/0-00-00: Me(,ani(al T,era$y by Nikola Tesla In or$er to con-ey a clear i$ea of the significance an$ re-olutionary character of this $isco-ery it is in$is(ensa7le
to )a2e a 7rief state)ent regar$ing "#"CT+,CA# TH"+A<D0 Fifty years ago8 .hile in-estigating high frequency currents $e-elo(e$ 7y )e at that ti)e8 , o7ser-e$ that they (ro$uce$ certain (hysiological effects offering ne. an$ great (ossi7ilities in )e$ical treat)ent0 /y first announce)ent s(rea$ li2e fire an$ e'(eri)ents .ere un$erta2en 7y a host of e'(erts here an$ in other countries0 &hen a fa)ous French (hysician8 =r0 ='Arson-al8 $eclare$ that he ha$ )a$e the sa)e $isco-ery8 a heate$ contro-ersy relati-e to (riority .as starte$0 The French8 eager to honour their country)an8 )a$e hi) a )e)7er of the Aca$e)y8 ignoring entirely )y earlier (u7lication0 +esol-e$ to ta2e ste(s for -in$icating )y clai)8 , .ent to <aris8 .here , )et =r0 ='Arson-al0 His (ersonal char) $isar)e$ )e co)(letely an$ , a7an$one$ )y intention8 content to rest on the recor$0 ,t sho.s that )y $isclosure ante$ate$ his an$ also that he use$ )y a((aratus in his $e)onstrations0 The final Hu$ge)ent is left to (osterity0 >ince the 7eginning the gro.th of the ne. art an$ in$ustry has 7een (heno)enal8 so)e )anufacturers turning out $aily hun$re$s of sets0 /any )illions are no. in use throughout the .orl$0 The currents furnishe$ 7y the) ha-e (ro-e$ an i$eal tonic for the hu)an ner-e syste)0 They (ro)ote heart action an$ $igestion8 in$uce healthful slee(8 ri$ the s2in of $estructi-e e'u$ations an$ cure col$s an$ fe-er 7y the .ar)th they create0 They -i-ify atro(hie$ or (aralyBe$ (arts of the 7o$y8 allay all 2in$s of suffering an$ sa-e annually thousan$s of li-es0 #ea$ers in the (rofession ha-e assure$ )e that , ha-e $one )ore for hu)anity 7y this )e$ical treat)ent than 7y all )y other $isco-eries an$ in-entions0 3e that as it )ay8 , feel certain that the /"CHA1,CA# TH"+A<D8 .hich , a) a7out to gi-e to the .orl$8 .ill 7e of inco)(ara7ly greater 7enefit0 ,ts $isco-ery .as )a$e acci$entally un$er the follo.ing circu)stances0 , ha$ installe$ at the la7oratory8 !4 >outh Fifth A-enue8 one of )y )echanical oscillators .ith the o7Hect of using it in the e'act $eter)ination of -arious (hysical constants0 The )achine .as 7olte$ in -ertical (osition to a (latfor) su((orte$ on elastic cushions an$8 .hen o(erate$ 7y co)(resse$ air8 (erfor)e$ )inute oscillations a7solutely isochronous8 that is to say8 consu)ing rigorously equal inter-als of ti)e0 >o (erfect .as its functioning in this res(ect that cloc2s $ri-en 7y it in$icate$ the hour .ith astrono)ical (recision0 ;ne $ay8 as , .as )a2ing so)e o7ser-ations8 , ste((e$ on the (latfor) an$ the -i7rations i)(arte$ to it 7y the )achine .ere trans)itte$ to )y 7o$y0 The sensation e'(erience$ .as as strange as agreea7le8 an$ , as2e$ )y assistants to try0 They $i$ so an$ .ere )ystifie$ an$ (lease$ li2e )yself0 3ut a fe. )inutes later so)e of us8 .ho ha$ staye$ longer on the (latfor)8 felt an uns(ea2a7le an$ (ressing necessity .hich ha$ to 7e (ro)(tly satisfie$8 an$ then the stu(en$ous truth $a.ne$ u(on )e0 "-i$ently8 these isochronous ra(i$ oscillations sti)ulate$ (o.erfully the (eristaltic )o-e)ents .hich (ro(el the foo$9stuffs through the ali)entary channels0 A )eans .as thus (ro-i$e$ .here7y their contents can 7e (erfectly regulate$ an$ controlle$ at .ill8 an$ .ithout the use of $rugs8 s(ecific re)e$ies or internal a((lications .hate-er0 &hen , 7egan to (ractice .ith )y assistants /"CHA1,CA# TH"+A<D .e use$ to finish our )eals quic2ly an$ rush 7ac2 to the la7oratory0 &e suffere$ fro) $ys(e(sia an$ -arious sto)ach trou7les8 7iliousness8 consti(ation8 flatulence an$ other $istur7ances8 all natural results of such irregular ha7it0 3ut only after a .ee2 of a((lication8 $uring .hich , i)(ro-e$ the technique an$ )y assistants learne$ ho. to ta2e the treat)ent to their 7est a$-antage8 all these for)s of sic2ness $isa((eare$ as 7y enchant)ent an$ for nearly four years8 .hile the )achine .as in use8 .e .ere all in e'cellent health0 , cure$ a nu)7er of (eo(le8 a)ong the) )y great frien$ /ar2 T.ain .hose 7oo2s sa-e$ )y life0 He ca)e to the la7oratory in the .orst sha(e suffering fro) a -ariety of $istressing an$ $angerous ail)ents 7ut in less than t.o )onths he regaine$ his ol$ -igour an$ a7ility of enHoying life to the fullest e'tent0 >hortly after8 a great cala)ity 7efell )eI )y la7oratory .as $estroye$ 7y fire0 1othing .as insure$ an$ the loss of (riceless a((aratus an$ recor$s ga-e )e a terrific shoc2 fro) .hich , $i$ not reco-er for se-eral years0 The enforce$ $iscontinuance of /"CHA1,CA# TH"+A<D also cause$ )e $ee( regret0 , ha$ e-ol-e$ a .on$erful re)e$y for ills of inesti)a7le -alue to )an2in$ an$ in-ente$ a((aratus offering un7oun$e$ co))ercial (ossi7ilities 7ut .hen , ca)e to consi$er (ractical intro$uction , realiBe$ that it .as entirely unsuita7le0 ,t .as 7ig8 hea-y an$ noisy8 calle$ for a continuous su((ly of oil8 (art of .hich .as $ischarge$ into the roo) as fine s(rayJ it consu)e$ consi$era7le (o.er an$ require$ a nu)7er of o7Hectiona7le accessories0 =uring the succee$ing years , )a$e great i)(ro-e)ents an$ finally e-ol-e$ a $esign .hich lea-es nothing to 7e $esire$0 The )achine .ill 7e -ery s)all an$ light8 o(erate noiselessly .ithout any lu7ricant8 consu)e a trifling a)ount of energy an$ .ill 7e8 to )y 2no.le$ge8 the )ost 7eautiful $e-ice e-er (ut on the )ar2et0 The intention is to e'hi7it it in action at the occasion of )y annual rece(tion in honour of the <ress .hich
has 7een8 unfortunately8 $elaye$ this year8 an$ , antici(ate that it .ill elicit great interest an$ recei-e great (u7licity0 Cnless , a) grossly )ista2en it .ill 7e intro$uce$ -ery e'tensi-ely an$8 e-entually8 there .ill 7e one in e-ery househol$0 The (ractical a((lication of /"CHA1,CA# TH"+A<D through )y oscillators .ill (rofoun$ly affect hu)an life0 3y insuring (erfect regularity of e-acuations the 7o$y .ill function 7etter in e-ery res(ect an$ life .ill 7eco)e e-er so )uch safer an$ )ore enHoya7le0 ;ne of the )ost i)(ortant results .ill 7e the great re$uction99a)ounting (ossi7ly to se-enty9fi-e (ercent99in the nu)7er of heart failures8 .hich are )ostly cause$ 7y so)e acute u(set of the $igesti-e (rocess an$ nor)al o(eration of the sto)ach0 Another -ital i)(ro-e)ent .ill 7e $eri-e$ fro) the quic2ene$ re)o-al of to'ic e'cretions of organs affecte$ 7y $isease0 ,t is reasona7le to e'(ect that through this an$ other healthful actions ulcers an$ si)ilar internal lesions or a7scesses .ill 7e cure$ an$ relief )ight 7e o7taine$ e-en in cases of a cancer or other )alignant gro.th0 >2ille$ (hysicians an$ surgeons .ill 7e a7le to (erfor) -erita7le )iracles .ith such oscillations0 They sti)ulate strongly the li-er8 s(leen8 2i$neys8 7la$$er an$ other organs an$ 7y these $esira7le actions they )ust contri7ute not a little to .ell 7eing0 <ersons suffering fro) ane)ia of any for) .ill 7e es(ecially hel(e$ 7y the treat)ent0 3ut the greatest 7enefit .ill 7e $eri-e$ fro) it 7y .o)en .ho .ill 7e a7le to re$uce .ithout the usual tantaliBing a7stinences8 (ri-ation8 sacrifice of ti)e an$ )oney an$ torture they ha-e to en$ure0 They .ill i)(ro-e )uch in a((earance8 acquire clear eyes an$ co)(le'ions an$ it )ay 7e safely (re$icte$ that long continue$ treat)ent .ill 7ring forth fe)inine 7eauty ne-er seen 7efore0 ,t is not to 7e forgotten that the eli)ination of countless $rugs8 (atent )e$icines an$ s(ecific re)e$ies of all 2in$s ta2en internally8 7y .hich )illions of (eo(le $oo) the)sel-es to an early gra-e8 .ill 7e of untol$ goo$ to hu)anity0
1-/0-0<-1": Aerial %efen(e 3%eat, ;eam4 Offered to =&S& 1y Tesla

4altimore &un 1ote$ ,n-entor >ays His +ay &ill /elt <lane /otors at !45 /ile +ange 1e. Dor28 Euly 11 9 1i2ola Tesla8 one of the greatest electrical in-entors of the century8 .ho reache$ 86 yester$ay8 sai$ to$ay he .as rea$y to $i-ulge to the Cnite$ >tates Go-ern)ent the secret of a "$eath 7ea)" that .oul$ )elt air(lane )otors at a $istance of !45 )iles an$ thus .oul$ 7uil$ an in-isi7le .all of $efense aroun$ the country against atte)(te$ attac2 7y an air force8 no )atter ho. large0 =r0 Tesla first $escri7e$ his "$eath 7ea)" si' years ago on the $ay he reache$ =r0 Tesla8 .ho s(ent this 7irth$ay at .or2 on his in-entions8 offere$ his ser-ices to the Go-ern)ent in re(ly to a question o-er the tele(hone .hether his $eath 7ea) ha$ reache$ the stage of (ractical a((lication0 At >er-ice of C0 >0 "All )y in-entions8" he sai$8 "are at the ser-ice of the Cnite$ >tates8 Go-ern)ent0" The $eath 7ea)8 he sai$8 is "7ase$ on an entirely ne. (rinci(le of (hysics that no one has e-er $rea)e$ a7out0" The (rinci(le8 he a$$e$8 .as $ifferent fro) those relating to the trans)ission of electrical (o.er 7y .ireless8 as announce$ 7y hi) se-eral years ago0 The 7ea)8 he sai$8 .oul$ 7e only one hun$re$9)illionth of a square centi)etre in $ia)eter an$ coul$ 7e generate$ fro) a s(ecial (lant that .oul$ cost no )ore than ^!85558555 an$ .oul$ ta2e only a7out three )onths to construct0 A $oBen such (lants8 locate$ at strategic (ositions along the coast8 he sai$8 .oul$ 7e enough to $efen$ the country against all (ossi7le aerial attac20 &oul$ /elt Any "ngine The 7ea) .oul$ )elt any engine8 .hether =iesel or gasoline $ri-en8 an$ .oul$ also ignite any e'(losi-es a7oar$0 1o (ossi7le $efence against it coul$ 7e $e-ise$8 as it .oul$ 7e all9(enetrating8 he $eclare$0 >houl$ the Go-ern)ent $eci$e to ta2e u( his offer8 he sai$8 he .oul$ go to .or2 at once an$ 2ee( on .or2ing "until , colla(se0" Ho.e-er8 he a$$e$8 ", .oul$ ha-e to insist on one con$ition 9 , .oul$ not suffer interference fro) any e'(erts0 They .oul$ ha-e to trust )e0" He .as in goo$ health8 he sai$8 an$ felt confi$ent he coul$ un$erta2e the tas20 The 7ea)8 he sai$8 in-ol-e$ four ne. in-entionsI A )etho$ an$ a((aratus for (ro$ucing rays an$ other )anifestations of energy in free air8 eli)inating the necessity for high -acuu)s0 A )etho$ an$ (rocess for (ro$ucing "-ery great electrical force0" A )etho$ for a)(lifying this force0 A ne. )etho$ for (ro$ucing "a tre)en$ous electrical re(elling force0" Goltage 4585558555 This .oul$ 7e the (roHector8 or gun8 of the syste)0 The -oltages for (ro(elling the $eath 7ea) to its o7Hecti-e8 he state$8 .ill attain a (otential of 4585558555 -olts0 &ith this enor)ous -oltage8 he sai$8 )icrosco(ic electrifie$ (articles of )atter .ill 7e cata(ulte$ on their )ission of $efensi-e $estruction0 =r0 Tesla a$$e$ he .as con-ince$ that "the 7attleshi( is $oo)e$" an$ that ".hat ha((ens to the ar)oure$ 2night .ill also ha((en to the ar)oure$ -essel0" The Ger)ans8 he sai$8 are not (lanning to in-a$e "nglan$8 7ut .ill attac2 its fleet0 For this reason8 he sai$8 he .as con-ince$ that )oney s(ent on 7attleshi(s .oul$ 7e .aste$0 The )oney (lanne$ for 7attleshi(s8 he sai$8 shoul$ 7e "$irecte$ in channels that .ill i)(ro-e the .elfare of the country0"
1-/0-0--"": >%eat, #ay> 7or 5lanes

Ne" -ork Times 1i2ola Tesla8 one of the truly great in-entors .ho cele7rate$ his eighty9fourth 7irth$ay on Euly 158 tells the .riter that he stan$s rea$y9to $i-ulge to the Cnite$ >tates Go-ern)ent the secret of his "teleforce8" .ith .hich8 he sai$8 air(lane )otors .oul$ 7e )elte$ at a $istance of !45 )iles8 so that an in-isi7le Chinese &all of =efense .oul$ 7e 7uilt aroun$ the country against any atte)(te$ attac2 7y an ene)y air force8 no )atter ho. large0 This "teleforce8" he sai$ is 7ase$ on an entirely ne. (rinci(le of (hysics that "no one has e-er $rea)e$ a7out8" $ifferent fro) the (rinci(le e)7o$ie$ in his in-entions relating to the trans)ission of electrical (o.er fro) a $istance8 for .hich he has recei-e$ a nu)7er of 7asic (atents0 This ne. ty(e of force8 /r0 Tesla sai$8 .oul$ o(erate through a 7ea) one one9hun$re$9)illionth of a square centi)etre in $ia)eter8 an$ coul$ 7e generate$ fro) a s(ecial (lant that .oul$ cost no )ore than ^!85558555 an$ .oul$ ta2e only a7out three )onths to construct0 A $oBen such (lants8 locate$ at strategic (oints along the coast8 accor$ing to /r0 Tesla8 .oul$ 7e enough to $efen$ the country against all (ossi7le aerial attac20 The 7ea) .oul$ )elt any engine8 .hether =iesel or gasoline $ri-en8 an$ .oul$ also ignite the e'(losi-es a7oar$ any 7o)7er0 1o (ossi7le $efence against it coul$ 7e $e-ise$8 he asserts8 as the 7ea) .oul$ 7e all9(enetrating0 High Gacuu) "li)inate$ The 7ea)8 he states8 in-ol-es four ne. in-entions8 t.o of .hich alrea$y ha-e 7een teste$0 ;ne of these is a )etho$ an$ a((aratus for (ro$ucing rays "an$ other )anifestations of energy" in free air8 eli)inating the necessity for a high -acuu)J a secon$ is a )etho$ an$ (rocess for (ro$ucing "-ery great electrical force"J the thir$ is a )etho$ for a)(lifying this force8 an$ the fourth is a ne. )etho$ for (ro$ucing "a tre)en$ous electrical re(elling force"0 This .oul$ 7e the (roHector8 or gun8 of the syste)0 The -oltage9for (ro(elling the 7ea) to its o7Hecti-e8 accor$ing to the in-entor8 .ill attain a (otential of 4585558555 -olts0 &ith this enor)ous -oltage8 he sai$8 )icrosco(ic electrical (articles of )atter .ill 7e cata(ulte$ on their )ission of $efensi-e $estruction0 He has 7een .or2ing on this in-ention8 he a$$e$8 for )any years an$ has recently )a$e a nu)7er of i)(ro-e)ents in it0 /r0 Tesla )a2es one i)(ortant sti(ulation0 >houl$ the go-ern)ent $eci$e to ta2e u( his offer he .oul$ go to .or2 at once8 7ut they .oul$ ha-e to trust hi)0 He .oul$ suffer "no interference fro) e'(erts0" ,n or$inary ti)es such a con$ition .oul$ -ery li2ely inter(ose an insu(era7le o7stacle0 3ut ti)es 7eing .hat they are8 an$ .ith the nation getting rea$y to s(en$ 7illions for national $efence8 at the sa)e ti)e ta2ing in consi$eration the re(utation of /r0 Tesla as an in-entor .ho al.ays .as )any years ahea$ of his ti)e8 the question arises .hether it )ay not 7e a$-isa7le to ta2e /r0 Tesla at his .or$ an$ co))ission hi) to go ahea$ .ith the construction of his teleforce (lant0 >uch a =e-ice ",n-alua7le" After all8 ^!85558555 .oul$ 7e relati-ely a -ery s)all su) co)(are$ .ith .hat is at sta2e0 ,f /r0 Tesla really fulfills his (ro)ise the0 result achie-e$ .oul$ 7e truly staggering0 1ot only .oul$ it sa-e 7illions no. (lanne$ for air $efense8 7y )a2ing the country i)(regna7le against any air attac28 7ut it .oul$ also sa-e )any )ore 7illions in (ro(erty that .oul$ other.ise 7e surely $estroye$ no )atter ho. strong the $efences are as .itness current e-ents in "nglan$0 Ta2e8 for e'a)(le8 the <ana)a Canal0 1o )atter ho. strong the $efences8 a suici$e squa$ron of $i-e 7o)7ers8 accor$ing to so)e e'(erts8 )ight succee$ in getting through an$ cause such $a)age that .oul$ )a2e the Canal unusa7le8 in .hich case our 1a-y )ight fin$ itself 7ottle$ u(0 Consi$ering the (ro7a7ilities in the case e-en if the chances .ere 1558555 to 1 against /r0 Tesla the o$$s .oul$ still 7e largely in fa-our of ta2ing a chance on s(en$ing ^!855585550 ,n the o(inion of the .riter8 .ho has 2no.n /r0 Tesla for )any years an$ can testify that he still retains full intellectual -igour8 the authorities in charge of 7uil$ing the national $efence shoul$ at once loo2 into the )atter0 The su) is insignificant co)(are$ .ith the )agnitu$e of the sta2e0
1-/0-10-"0: 5ro$osing t,e 3%eat, #ay4 7or %efen(e

3hiladel*hia In)uirer "The 7ea) .oul$ )elt ene)y air(lane )otors 7efore they a((roache$ our coasts an$ 7lo. u( hostile 7o)7ers0" The )an .as ol$8 7ut the fer-our in his eyes .as ageless0 =ee(9set8 they loo2e$ out 7eneath the 7ushes of his 7ro.s0 ",f only they .ill let )e try out )y ne. teleforceY" e'clai)e$ 1i2ola Tesla8 .ho has 7een calle$ one of the greatest electrical in-entors since 3enHa)in Fran2lin fle. his 2ite0 ",f only they .ill let )e sho. ho. this 1ation can 7e )a$e in-ulnera7le to air attac2I" Thus8 Hust the other $ay8 s(o2e the )an .ho years ago hel(e$ to harness 1iagara Falls8 through his $isco-ery of the (rinci(le of the rotary )agnetic fiel$0 The )an .ho is 2no.n as the father of )o$ern )etho$s of generating an$ $istri7uting electrical energy0 &ho in 1956 (re$icte$ that the hu)an -oice one $ay .oul$ gir$le the glo7e8 an$ .hose fa)e$ Tesla coil hel(e$ to )a2e that (re$iction of ra$io co)e true0 To$ay8 at 838 1i2ola Tesla li-es in a 1e. Dor2 hotel an$ $rea)s of )a2ing A)erica one -ast8 i)(regna7le fortress0 He says that he can $o this0 Tesla is use$ to sce(tics .ho8 he says8 laughe$ at hi) 7ac2 in the ol$ $ays .hen he .or2e$ at ;range8 1e. Eersey8 .ith Tho)as A0 "$ison0 Tesla hel(e$ "$ison $esign )otors an$ generators0 Then of course there .as a great $eal of laughing in 1956 o-er Tesla's i$ea that the hu)an -oice .oul$ one $ay .ing aroun$ the .orl$0 To$ay8 tre)7ling .ith e'cite)ent8 this sli) ol$ )an tells ho. his ne.est in-ention (he hol$s *55 (atents can )elt air(lane )otors at a $istance of !45 )iles a.ay fro) the A)erican coastline8 so that in-a$ing a-iators .oul$ $ro( into the sea0 "/y ne. teleforce8" he $eclares8 "is 7ase$ on an entirely ne. (rinci(le of (hysics that no7o$y e-er has $rea)e$ of0 ,t is $ifferent0 fro) the (rinci(le0 e)7o$ie$ in )y in-entions relating to the trans)ission of electrical (o.er fro) a $istance8 for .hich , hol$ a nu)7er of 7asic (atents0" For years Tesla .or2e$ on the (ro7le) of trans)itting electrical (o.er fro) a $istance8 .ithout 7ringing this $rea) out of the la7oratory into the .or2a$ay .orl$0 3ut he .as not alone in his 7elief that it e-entually .ill 7e $one0 The great /arconi8 shortly 7efore his $eath8 (re$icte$ that the $ay .oul$ co)e .hen (o.er .oul$ 7e $irecte$ through the air .ith little loss0 An$ li2e Tesla8 /arconi .as re(orte$ to ha-e 7een .or2ing on a .ar9ray0 His8 it .as sai$8 .oul$ .hen (erfecte$ 7e a7le to sto( air(lane an$ other )otors )any )iles 7efore in-a$ing forces coul$ reach their goals0 For C0 >0 Alone /arconi sai$ little a7out his )ysterious ray8 nor .ill Tesla $iscuss the $etails of his0 ,t is his secret an$ he .ill not re-eal it8 he says8 e'ce(t to the Cnite$ >tates Go-ern)ent8 for he is afrai$ that it )ight 7e stolen 7y ene)ies of A)erica8 .ithin an$ .ithout0 3ut of .hat it .ill $o8 he s(ea2s freely0 "This ne. ty(e of force8" he sai$ the other $ay8 ".oul$ o(erate through a 7ea) one one9hun$re$9)illionth of a centi)etre in $ia)eter0 ,t coul$ 7e generate$ fro) a s(ecial (lant that .oul$ cost no )ore than t.o )illion $ollars an$ .oul$ ta2e only a7out three )onths to construct0 "A $oBen such (lants8 locate$ at strategic (oints along the coast8 .oul$ 7e enough to $efen$ this country against all (ossi7le aerial attac20 This 7ea) .oul$ )elt any engine8 .hether =iesel or gasoline9$ri-en0" (/arconi's (artly9(erfecte$ 7ea) .as sai$ to 7e ineffecti-e against =iesel engines 0 ",t .oul$ also ignite any e'(losi-es a7oar$ any 7o)7er0 1o (ossi7le $efence against it coul$ 7e $e-ise$8 as the 7ea) .oul$ 7e all9(enetrating0" Four recent in-entions8 Tesla says8 are use$ in the generation of the ray0 T.o of the) alrea$y ha-e 7een teste$8 it is sai$0 ;ne of these is an a((aratus for (ro$ucing rays "an$ other )anifestations of energy" in free air8 instea$ of in a -acuu)0 The secon$ is a (rocess for (ro$ucing "a -ery great electrical force0" 1e't is a )etho$ for a)(lifying this force an$ finally there is a ne. )etho$ for (ro$ucing "a tre)en$ous electrical re(elling force0" This8 Tesla $eclares8 .oul$ 7e the (roHector8 or gun8 of the teleforce syste)0 ,t .oul$ o(erate on a (otential of 4585558555 -olts0 =ra)atically8 Tesla $escri7es ho. this titanic -oltage .oul$ hurl into s(ace 7illions of )icrosco(ic electrical
(articles of )atter that .oul$ 7ring $o.n in-a$ing air(lanes as insects are $ro((e$ 7y a s(ray gun0 All this8 Tesla says8 he is offering to the Cnite$ >tates8 the lan$ .hich .elco)e$ hi) as an i))igrant 7oy fro) Austria9Hungary in 18860 3ut there )ust 7e no "re$ ta(e8" if he is to go to .or2 setting u( the first (o.er (lant0 There )ust 7e no "interference fro) e'(erts0" ;ffers li2e this ha-e 7een )a$e 7efore8 an$ tests ha-e (ro-e$ )any so9calle$ "$eath rays" useless0 3ut so)e authorities8 re)e)7ering the great achie-e)ents of 1i2ola Tesla8 7elie-e his clai)s shoul$ 7e in-estigate$0 &hy8 they as28 shoul$ such a ray 7e consi$ere$ i)(ossi7le in a .orl$ .here ra$io is a co))on(laceF They recall the case of Henry Fleur8 .ho .as (rosecute$ in >an Francisco 7y $isgruntle$ in-estors .ho clai)e$ he ha$ 7a)7ooBle$ the) .ith a $eath9ray )achine inten$e$ to 2ill insects0 ,n the courtroo)8 Fleur turne$ his )achine on a cou(le of ter)ites0 They $ie$ in secon$s0 9A liBar$ an$ a sna2e also .ere 2ille$ 7y the ray8 though it loo2 longer0 Fleur .as release$0 He sai$ that he ne-er .oul$ e'(eri)ent .ith his a((aratus to )a2e it a )an92iller0 ,n-entor's ;ffer Then there is =r0 Antonio #ongoria8 .ho says that he $estroye$ a $eath ray )achine .hich he in-ente$ in 19338 7ecause it .as too $angerous0 ;f this )achine8 Al7ert 3urns8 (resi$ent of the ,n-entors' Congress in 19368 sai$ that he ha$ seen it 2ill (igeons8 ra77its8 $ogs an$ cats at0 consi$era7le $istances0 1o. =r0 #ongoria sai$ that he is .illing to re9asse)7le his a((aratus in the e-ent that the Cnite$ >tates is su7Hecte$ to an un.arrante$ attac200 He clai)s that it .or2e$ 7y changing the re$ cor(uscles of its -icti)s' 7loo$ to .hite0 An$ he says that it )ight 7e a$a(te$ to stall the )otors of air(lane engines in flight0 ,f such things are (ossi7le8 so)e authorities as2I .hy not gi-e 1i2ola Tesla the chance he as2s to try out his $efensi-e $eath rayF True8 he has 7een calle$ the greatest $rea)er a)ong the in-entors .ho create$ the (resent electrical era0 3ut )any of his $rea)s ca)e true0 <erha(s8 they say8 this one )ight co)e true8 too 9 an$ 7uil$ a .all )ightier than any in the .orl$ aroun$ A)erica's 7or$ers0
0000-00-00: T,e New Tesla *le(tri( 0eater by Nikola Tesla

>T+,CT#D C;1F,="1T,A# This $e-ice is greatly su(erior to the usual flat core ty(e in efficiency an$ other res(ects0 ,t consists of a thin (olishe$ )etal tu7e acting as reflector an$ a 7ase equi((e$ .ith s.itch an$ connecting ter)inals an$ carrying s(ace$ resistor .ires concentric .ith the tu7e an$ at a certain $istance fro) the inner surface of the sa)e0 ,n this arrange)ent the $iffuse ra$iation is -irtually eli)inate$8 an$ the heater o(erates as if the resistor .ere not (resent8 the rays 7eing (roHecte$ fro) the reflector ra$ially to the central or focal region occu(ie$ 7y the 7oiling (ot0 The (rinci(al a$-antages thus secure$ are the follo.ingI 10 A -ery high efficiency8 as )uch as 9%i 7eing attaina7le0 !0 The efficiency is (ractically the sa)e .hether the (ot is large or s)all since the $ensity of the rays is in-ersely as the $ia)eter of the -essel0 30 =ue to these features the current consu)(tion is har$ly )ore than half of that in the 7est heaters of the ty(e referre$ to0 60 The resistor has a relati-ely )uch longer life an$ can 7e )a$e to last al)ost in$efinitely in so)e cases0 Also less .ire can 7e use$ if $esire$0 40 The heat 7eing largely confine$ to the range8 the 2itchen re)ains co)(arati-ely cool0 %0 Another (ractical a$-antage is greater safety fro) a -ariety of acci$ents frequently occurring .ith or$inary ranges0 *0 The9ne. heater is es(ecially a$a(te$ for use on shi(7oar$8 <ull)an cars8 aerial -ehicles an$ auto)o7iles0 80 #i2e.ise8 it is suita7le for all 2in$s of ser-ice on the ta7le8 7eing free fro) the o7Hections of the (resent ty(e0 90 ,t sa-es consi$era7le ti)e in certain a((lications0 150;.ing to si)(licity8 the cost of )anufacturing is lo.0
0000-00-00: Tesla2 s New System Of 7luid 5ro$ulsion
,n su7$uing the forces of 1ature to his ser-ice )an )ust in-aria7ly a-ail hi)self of so)e (rocess in .hich a flui$ acts as carrier of energy8 this 7eing an essential ste( in any in$ustrial un$erta2ing $e(en$ent on )echanical (o.er0 "-i$ently then8 a $isco-ery or ra$ical $e(arture in that $o)ain )ust 7e of e'tre)e i)(ortance an$ far9 reaching influence on the e'isting con$itions an$ (hases of )o$ern life0 Flui$ (ro(ulsion is no. effecte$ 7y )eans of (istons8 -anes or 7la$es8 .hich entail co)(le'ity of construction an$ i)(ose )any li)itations on the (ro(elling as .ell as (ro(elle$ )echanis) an$ its (erfor)ance0 Tesla has $is(ense$ .ith these $e-ices an$ (ro$uce$ )achines of e'traor$inary si)(licity .hich8 )oreo-er8 are in )any other res(ects su(erior to the ol$ ty(es uni-ersally e)(loye$0 A fe. .or$s .ill 7e sufficient to con-ey a clear i$ea of his in-ention0 "-ery flui$8 as .ater or air8 (ossesses t.o salient (ro(ertiesI a$hesion an$ -iscosity0 ;.ing to the first it is attracte$ an$ clings to a )etallic surfaceJ 7y -irtue of the secon$ it resists the se(aration of its o.n (articles0 As an ine-ita7le consequence a certain a)ount of flui$ is $ragge$ along 7y a 7o$y (ro(elle$ through itJ con-ersely8 if a 7o$y 7e (lace$ in a flui$ in )otion it is i)(elle$ in the $irection of )o-e)ent0 The (ractical for)s of Tesla's a((aratus consist of flat8 circular $is2s8 .ith central o(enings8 )ounte$ on a shaft an$ enclose$ in a casing (ro-i$e$ .ith (orts at the (eri(heral an$ central (ortions8 .hen $eri-ing energy fro) any 2in$ of flui$ it is a$)itte$ at the (eri(hery an$ esca(es at the centreJ .hen8 on the contrary8 the flui$ is to 7e energiBe$8 it enters in the centre an$ is e'(elle$ at the (eri(hery0 ,n either case it tra-erses the interstices 7et.een the $is2s in a s(iral (ath8 (o.er 7eing $eri-e$ fro)8 or i)(arte$ to it8 7y (urely )olecular action0 ,n this no-el )anner the heat energy of stea) or e'(losi-e )i'tures can 7e transfor)e$ .ith high econo)y into )echanical effortJ )otion trans)itte$ fro) one shaft to another .ithout soli$ connectionJ -essels )ay 7e (ro(elle$ .ith great s(ee$J .ater raise$ or air co)(resse$J an al)ost (erfect -acuu) can 7e attaine$8 su7stances froBen an$ gases liquefie$0 &hile this i)(ro-e)ent has the 7roa$ness an$ a((lica7ility of a fun$a)ental )echanical conce(t8 the .i$est fiel$ for its co))ercial e'(loitation is8 o7-iously8 the ther)o$yna)ic con-ersion of energy0 The co))ercial -alue of a (ri)e )o-er is $eter)ine$ 7y its efficiency8 s(ecific (erfor)ance relati-e to .eight an$ s(ace occu(ie$8 chea(ness of )anufacture8 safety an$ relia7ility of o(eration8 a$a(ta7ility to construction in large units8 ca(a7ility of running at high (eri(heral -elocity8 re-ersi7ility8 an$ a nu)7er of other features of lesser i)(ortance0 ,n the )aHority of these a )achine8 o(erating on the ne. (rinci(le8 e'cels0 3ut there is one quality .hich is )ost $esira7le in a ther)o9$yna)ic transfor)er fro) the econo)ic (oint of -ie.8 an$ that is great resistance to $eterioration an$ i)(air)ent of efficiency 7y heat0 The e)(loy)ent of high te)(erature is of such -ital 7earing on the efficiency of (ri)e )o-ers that it is of (ara)ount i)(ortance to e'ten$ the ther)al range as far as (ractica7le0 ,n the (resent state of the art ra$ical (rogress to.ar$s )ore econo)ical transfor)ation of the energy of fuel can only 7e achie-e$ in that $irection0 >uch 7eing the case8 the ca(a7ility of the )achine to .ithstan$ $eteriorating effects of great heat is the controlling factor in $eter)ining its co))ercial -alue0 ,n that )ost $esire$ quality the Tesla tur7ine sur(asses all the ol$er ty(es of heat )otors0 The =iesel an$ other internal co)7ustion engines are fatally li)ite$ in this res(ect 7y their co)(lete $e(en$ence on closely fitting sli$ing Hoints an$ unfailing su((ly of clean lu7ricantJ .hile in the (resent for)s of tur7ine 7uc2ets8 7la$es an$ inherent )echanical $eficiencies i)(ose si)ilar restrictions0 These (arts are too $elicate an$ (erisha7le to ser-e as ele)ents of a gas tur7ine an$ this has 7een the )ain o7stacle in the .ay of its successful realiBation0 The rotor of the Tesla tur7ine (resents a relati-ely enor)ous acti-e area an$ the .ear is quite insignificant as the flui$8 instea$ of stri2ing against the (ro(elling organs in the usual $estructi-e )anner8 flo.s (arallel .ith the sa)e8 i)(arting its )o)entu) 7y a$hesion an$ -iscosity instea$ of i)(act0 /oreo-er8 it has 7een sho.n that the efficiency of this for) of rotor is not i)(aire$ to any a((recia7le $egree 7y a roughening of the $is2s an$ that it o(erates satisfactorily e-en if the .or2ing )e$iu) is corrosi-e to an e'tent0 The uni-ersal a$o(tion of stea) as )oti-e (o.er un$er certain stan$ar$ con$itions8 settle$ u(on in the course of ti)e8 gra$ually force$ u(on the )in$s of engineers the +an2ine Cycle "fficiency as criterion of (erfor)ance an$ long continue$ en$ea-ours to i)(ro-e the sa)e ha-e finally resulte$ in co)(le' )ulti9stage constructions entirely unsuita7le for high te)(eratures0 The Tesla tur7ine8 7y -irtue of its e'ce(tional heat9resisting an$ other unique (ro(erties8 )a2es (ossi7le the attain)ent of great fuel econo)y .ith 7ut a single stage8 inci$entally offering the a$$itional a$-antages of an e'tre)ely si)(le8 s)all8 co)(act8 an$ relia7le )echanis)0 3ut (erha(s
the chief co))ercial -alue of this ne. (ri)e )o-er .ill 7e foun$ in the fact that it can 7e o(erate$ .ith the chea(est gra$e of cru$e oil8 colloi$al fuel8 or (o.$ere$ coal8 containing consi$era7le quantities of grit8 sul(hur an$ other i)(urities8 thus ena7ling -ast su)s of )oney to 7e sa-e$ annually in the (ro$uction of (o.er fro) fuel0 The Tesla tur7ine also len$s itself to use in conHunction .ith other ty(es8 es(ecially .ith the <arsons .ith .hich it for)s an i$eal co)7ination0 Although its (ractical intro$uction has 7een $elaye$ 7y the force of circu)stances8 a nu)7er of years ha-e 7een s(ent in e'hausti-e in-estigations an$ e'(eri)ents on the 7asis of .hich the (erfor)ance in any gi-en case can 7e closely calculate$0 The first (u7lic tests .ere )a$e 7efore the out7rea2 of the .ar at the &atersi$e >tation of the /e. Dor2 "$ison Co)(any .here se-eral )achines8 ranging fro) 155 to 4555 H<8 .ere installe$ an$ o(erate$ .ith satisfactory results0 That the in-ention .as a((reciate$ 7y the technical (rofession )ay 7e seen fro) the e'cer(ts of state)ents 7y e'(erts an$ (erio$icals (rinte$ on the anne'e$ (age0 The salient a$-antages of the Tesla tur7ine )ay 7e su))e$ u( as follo.sI "FF,C,"1CDI The )ost econo)ical of the (resent (ri)e )o-ers is the =iesel engine0 3ut8 quite a(art of )any (ractical an$ co))ercial $ra.7ac2s8 inse(ara7le fro) this ty(e8 it is entirely $e(en$ent on co)(arati-ely e'(ensi-e oil8 so that the Tesla Gas Tur7ine8 .or2ing .ith )uch chea(er fuel8 .oul$ ha-e the 7etter in co)(etition e-en if its efficiency as a ther)o$yna)ic transfor)er .ere a((recia7ly lo.er8 all the )ore so in -ie. of its greater )echanical (erfection0 +eferring to tur7ines8 all of .hich are sur(asse$ 7y the <arsons in econo)y as .ell as e'tent of use8 $efinite li)its ha-e alrea$y 7een reache$ an$ the only (ossi7ilities of sa-ing fuel e'ist in the e)(loy)ent of stea) at -ery high su(erheat an$ utiliBation of gas or oil as )oti-e fuel0 3ut none of the (ri)e )o-ers )entione$ is a$a(te$ for such o(eration an$ although e-ery effort has 7een )a$e in this $irection8 no signal success has 7een achie-e$0 The su(erheat is at )ost !45\F8 this 7eing consi$ere$ the )a'i)u) (er)issi7le0 All atte)(ts to consi$era7ly e'ten$ the ther)al range ha-e faile$ chiefly 7ecause of the ina7ility of 7uc2et structures to .ithstan$ the action of intense heat0 The Tesla Tur7ine can o(erate quite satisfactorily .ith the )oti-e agent at -ery high te)(erature an$8 o.ing to this quality8 len$s itself e'cee$ingly .ell to these (ur(oses0 ><"C,F,C <"+F;+/A1C"I ,n this (articular it is su(erior to all other for)s0 "ach $is2 is -irtually the equi-alent of a .hole 7uc2et .heel8 an$ as )any of the) ta2e u( 7ut a s)all .i$th the out(ut of the )achine8 consi$ering its .eight an$ siBe8 is sur(risingly great0 This8 .hile not 7eing a )easure of efficiency8 is ne-ertheless a feature of consi$era7le i)(ortance in )any instances0 CH"A<1">> ;F /A1CFACTC+"I The ne. tur7ine can 7e (ro$uce$ .ithout a single )achine$ (art e'ce(t the shaft8 all the $is2s 7eing (unche$ an$ the casing (resse$0 3y this )etho$8 .ith (ro(er )achinery installe$ on a large scale8 the cost of (ro$uction )ay 7e re$uce$ to a figure ne-er $ee)e$ (ossi7le in the construction of an engine0 &hat is )ore8 this can 7e $one .ithout )aterial sacrifice of efficiency as s)all clearances are not essentially require$0 >AF"TD A1= +"#,A3,#,TD ;F ;<"+AT,;1I There is an e-er (resent $anger in the running of high s(ee$ )achines0 A 7uc2et tur7ine )ay at any )o)ent run a.ay an$ .rec2 the (lant0 >uch acci$ents ha-e ha((ene$ again an$ again an$ this (eril has often (ro-e$ to 7e a $eterrent to in-est)ent0 A re)ar2a7le quality of this tur7ine is its co)(lete safety0 As regar$s the .ear an$ tear of the (ro(elling organs it is significant an$8 in any e-ent8 of no consequence on the (erfor)ance0 A=A<TA3,#,TD T; C;1>T+CCT,;1 ,1 #A+G" C1,T>I ,n all the (resent )achines there is a $istinct e)it to ca(acity8 or a though large units can 7e )anufacture$8 they are -ery costly an$ $ifficult to )anage0 The ne. tur7ine is so si)(le an$ the out(ut so large that the li)its in this $irection can 7e greatly e'ten$e$0 +">,>TA1C" T; ="T"+,;+AT,;1 3D H"AT A1= ;TH"+ AG"1T>I ,n this feature it has an o-er.hel)ing a$-antage o-er the o ty(e in .hich the )aintenance of s)ooth surfaces an$ shar( e$ges is in$is(ensa7le to efficient .or2ing0 ,n the Tesla tur7ine8 for the reasons alrea$y state$8 the $estructi-e actions of heat an$ corrosi-e agents are )uch less (ronounce$ an$ of relati-ely negligi7le effect0 This fact has a )ost i)(ortant 7earing on the sa-ing of fuel0 CA<A3,#,TD ;F +C11,1G AT H,GH <"+,<H"+A# ><""=I ,n this res(ect also it is su(erior to others0 The rotating structure carries no loa$ an$ is e'cellently a$a(te$ to .ithstan$ tensile stresses0 Eu$ging fro) the )ost recent tur7ine (ractice this quality shoul$ 7e of s(ecial -alue0 +"G"+>,3,#,TDI The (resent tur7ines are greatly han$ica((e$ 7y their inca(a7ility of re-ersal .hich is a -ery serious $efect in certain a((lications8 as the (ro(ulsion of -essels8 necessitating the e)(loy)ent of au'iliary
tur7ines .hich $etracts fro) the (ro(ulsi-e (o.er an$ a$$s )aterially to the cost of (ro$uction an$ )aintenance of the equi()ent0 The Tesla tur7ine has the unique (ro(erty of 7eing re-ersi7leJ not only this 7ut it o(erates .ith the sa)e efficiency in either $irection0 For )arine (ur(oses it therefore constitutes an i$eal )otor .hether use$ alone or in conHunction .ith ol$er ty(es0 3esi$es the a7o-e it (ossesses other $esira7le features8 constructi-e an$ o(erati-e8 .hich .ill a$$ to its -alue an$ a$a(ta7ility to )any in$ustrial an$ co))ercial uses as8 railroa$ing8 )arine na-igation8 aerial (ro(ulsion8 generation of electricity8 refrigeration8 o(eration of truc2s an$ auto)o7iles8 hy$raulic gearing8 agriculture8 irrigation8 )ining an$ si)ilar (ur(oses0 "]<+">>,;1> ;F ;<,1,;1 ;1 TH" T">#A TC+3,1" C0 30 +ichar$s8 <rofessor ")eritus of /echanics8 Dale Cni-ersityI ", a) a)aBe$ at the $e-elo()ent of (o.er gi-en 7y the tur7ine an$ stunne$ 7y the e'hi7it0" F0 >argent8 Chief "ngineer an$ Tur7ine "'(ertI ", a) i)(resse$ .ith the ne.ness an$ no-elty of the un$erlying (rinci(le of this in-ention0 ,t is such as .ill clai) the attention an$ a$)iration of anyone of a scientific turn of )in$ in a )echanical $irection0" +eynol$ Eanney8 Chief "ngineer8 Cni-ersal Trans)isssion Co0I ",t is a great in-ention0" 3riga$ier Allen of the &ar =e(art)entI ">o)ething ne. in the .orl$0 ;fficers are greatly i)(resse$ .ith it0" /iller +eese Hutchinson8 Chief "ngineerI ",t is the greatest in-ention of the age0" Arnol$ Trinyi8 Chief "ngineer8 ;elfeurungs9Gesellschaft8 Ger)anyI "The i$eal of the tur7ine engine0" 30 +0 T0 Colline (<o.er <lant "cono)ist I ",t is a .on$erful tur7ine0" The /otor &orl$I "The ne. (rinci(le unquestiona7ly is a great contri7ution to science an$ engineering8 great in its si)(licity an$ 7rea$th of a((lication0" >cientific A)ericanI "Consi$ere$ fro) the )echanical stan$(oint8 the tur7ine is astonishingly si)(le an$ econo)ical in construction8 shoul$ (ro-e to (ossess such a $ura7ility an$ free$o) fro) .ear an$ 7rea2$o.n as to (lace it8 in these res(ects8 far in a$-ance of any ty(e of stea) or gas )otor of the (resent $ay0" "ngineering /agaBineI "An entirely ne. for) of (ri)e )o-er .ith interesting (ossi7ilities0" Technical &orl$ /agaBineI "The Tesla Tur7ine is the a(otheosis of si)(licity0 ,t is so -iolently o((ose$ to all (rece$ent that it see)s un7elie-a7le0" Fro) 1u)erous Articles an$ Co))entsI "The tur7ine is $ifferent in (rinci(le to any heretofore in use an$ one .hich .ill ta2e less roo) an$ less coal that the 7est engine no. running" n "Tur7ine of re-olutionary $esign" n ",)(ro-e)ent in $yna)ics .hich (ro)ises re-olutionary results" n "+esults see) re-olutionary to the (oint of staggering the i)agination" n "This )otor .ill re-olutioniBe the tur7ine in$ustry" n "&on$erful )otor0 "'traor$inary )echanical (rinci(le" n etc08 etc0
1-/8-05-16: Ni.ola Tesla by 6enneth /. &"e;ey

&cience >The follo"ing is a summary of some of the maPor achievements of Nikola Tesla+ as "ritten by 6. /. &"e;ey+ friend and confidant of Tesla.@ "#"CT+,C <;&"+ ,n the early 1895s8 Tesla $isco-ere$ the "rotating )agnetic fiel$" (ro$uce$ 7y t.o or )ore alternating currents out of ste( .ith each other0 3ase$ on this $isco-ery8 Tesla (rocee$e$ to in-ent the (rototy(es of al)ost all (ractical alternating current )otors an$ the .hole (oly(hase syste) for generating8 trans)itting8 an$ $istri7uting electric current as .ell0 The first Tesla (oly(hase syste) (atents .ere grante$ on /ay 18 18880 The &estinghouse "lectric Co)(any acquire$ rights to the) se-eral )onths later8 an$ in 1893 .as a7le to $e)onstrate a co)(lete syste) at the Chicago &orl$'s Fair0 The $e)onstration .as so con-incing that 9 against the .arnings of such )en as "$ison an$ #or$ :el-in 9 the Tesla syste) .as a$o(te$ for the first great hy$ro9electric (lant at 1iagara Falls8 .hich starte$ o(eration in 18940 A year later8 1iagara (o.er .as running street cars an$ lights in 3uffalo0 The age of "lectric <o.er .as thus 7orn0 To$ay8 (ractically all electricity in the .orl$ is generate$8 trans)itte$8 an$ turne$ into )echanical (o.er 7y )eans of the Tesla <oly(hase >yste)0 &ithout this syste)8 the giant9stea)9electric (o.er0 (lants in our8 7ig00 cities an$ 9the 7ig hy$ro9electric (rotects such as TGA8 3oul$er =a)8 Gran$ Coulee8 .oul$ 7e i)(ossi7le0 Although (ractically un2no.n to the lay)an8 the Tesla (oly(hase in-entions are8 .ithout question8 the )ost i)(ortant single grou( of in-entions in the .hole fiel$ of electrical engineering0 +a$io =r0 #0 &0 Austin8 hea$ of the ra$io section of the 3ureau of >tan$ar$s for )any yearsJ <rof8 >la7y8 Ger)an ra$io (ioneer (the "/arconi of Ger)any" 8 /0 "0 Girar$eau8 French ra$io authority8 an$ others8 ha-e calle$ Tesla the "Father of the &ireless0" This .as for his in-entions an$ $isco-eries )a$e at least se-eral years 7efore the -ery first e'(eri)ents of /arconi an$ others0 Here are se-eralI High frequency generators for (ro$ucing continuous .a-es0 Cou(le$ an$ tune$ circuits0 (His "Tesla Coil8" .hich he )a$e in )any -arieties8 is use$ in one for) or another in e-ery ra$io an$ tele-ision set of to$ay0 +otary an$ series s(ar2 ga(s0 ;il9insulate$ transfor)ers an$ con$ensers0 /ica con$ensers i)(regnate$ .ith .a' un$er -acuu)0 >tran$e$ con$uctors ("#itBen$raht" 0 Aerial an$ groun$ connection0 >electi-e tuning 7y 7eat .a-es or hetero$yning0 Arcs for (ro$ucing continuous .a-es0 "Tic2er" for recei-ing continuous .a-es0 Cho2e coils0 +a$io9Controlle$ Gessels (Gui$e$ /issiles 3efore 189* (the year /arconi recei-e$ his first .ireless (atent in the Cnite$ >tates 8 Tesla $e-ise$ 7oats8 cars8 an$ other )o-a7le o7Hects that coul$ 7e )anoeu-re$ co)(letely 7y ra$io .a-es0 He $e)onstrate$ these .i$ely in 1e. Dor2 in 18988 an$ 7efore the Co))ercial Clu7 in Chicago in 18990 This .or2 .ith .hat Tesla calle$ "Telauto)atics8" a$-ance$ later 7y Eohn Hays Ha))on$8 Er0 an$ others8 .as the 7eginning of the conce(t .hich
has le$ to to$ay's gui$e$ )issiles0 High Frequency ,n$uction Furnace an$ Heating ,n the early 1895's8 Tesla $escri7e$ heating 7ars of iron an$ )elting lea$ an$ tin in the fiel$ of s(ecially $esigne$ high9frequency coils8 also of heating $ielectrics in such fiel$s0 &hen8 in 191%8 =r0 "$.in 1orthru( $e-ise$ his first co))ercial high9frequency furnace8 he tol$ )e he ha$ gone 7ac2 for his ins(iration to the ol$ i$eas an$ circuits of Tesla0 "lectro9Thera(eutics =uring this sa)e (erio$8 Tesla $e-elo(e$ a((aratus for (ro$ucing high -oltage8 high frequency "Tesla currents0" He first reasone$8 then $e)onstrate$ on hi)self that -ery high -oltages coul$ 7e ta2en safely into the hu)an 7o$y (ro-i$e$ the frequencies .ere high enough 9 thus )a2ing a $isco-ery in (hysiology0 >oon after8 a$a(te$ 7y ='Arson-al an$ others8 the Tesla a((aratus 7eca)e the 7asic tool of $iather)y an$ other for)s of high9 frequency electro9thera(eutics0 1eon an$ Fluorescent #ighting 3efore 18938 Tesla $e-ise$ all 2in$s of .irelessly9lit -acuu) an$ gas9fille$ tu7es0 He increase$ the 7rilliance of so)e 7y using uraniu) glass or coating the) .ith (hos(hors 9 thus creating (ioneer fluorescent tu7esI He 7ent )any to suit the require)ents of the roo) they .ere to light8 an$ others to for) .or$s or na)es Hust as .e $o in )o$ern $is(lay lighting0 Tesla $is(laye$ so)e of his neon9ty(e tu7es in his (ersonal e'hi7it at the 1893 &orl$'s Fair0 /echanical <o.er Tesla $e-ise$ a tur7ine ha-ing s)ooth (arallel 7la$es8 .ithout 7uc2ets0 The (rinci(le8 .hich in-ol-e$ the friction of air8 stea)8 or gas8 at high -elocity8 .as use$ to cou(le the ele)ents of a s(ee$o)eter )a$e for years 7y &altha) an$ use$ on )any of our 7est cars0 Artificial #ightning At his Colora$o >(rings la7oratory in 1899 an$ 19558 Tesla (ro$uce$ artificial lightning crashes of )any )illions of -olts an$ u( to 134 feet long 9 a feat ne-er since equalle$0 >ynchronous "lectric Cloc2s ,n his tal2 7efore the ,nternational "lectrical Congress8 August !48 18938 at the Chicago Fair8 he $e)onstrate$ se-eral synchronous electric cloc2s0 ,n a state)ent regar$ing his "&orl$ >yste)" of .ireless (o.er8 )a$e in 19558 he )entione$ chea( synchronous cloc2s all o-er the9.orl$ .hich .oul$ 7e (o.ere$ an$ 2e(t in ste( 7y a single )aster generator in the Cnite$ >tates0 1o one (ut such cloc2s into co))ercial use until a7out 191%0 +a$ar Though )ore in the for) of (ro(hecy (as there .as no equi()ent at the ti)e ca(a7le of carrying it out 8 Tesla .rote in 191* of i$eas he clai)s he ha$ )any years 7efore in .hich -essels an$ other $istant o7Hects coul$ 7e $etecte$ 7y training on the) an e'tre)ely (o.erful ray of short9.a-e electrical i)(ulses an$ (ic2ing u( aI reflection on a fluorescent screen0 /arconi .as haile$ as the (rogenitor of this i$ea .hen he )a$e a si)ilar8 7ut less $etaile$8 (ro(hecy in 19!! 9 at a ti)e .hen there .as still no )eans to effecti-ely carry it out0 Facsi)ile As another (ro)ise for his "&orl$ &ireless8" of 19558 Tesla (ro(ose$I "The interconnection an$ o(eration of all the tele(hone e'changes on the glo7eJ the .orl$ trans)ission of ty(e$ or han$9.ritten characters8 letters8 chec2s8 etc0J the inauguration of a syste) of .orl$ (rintingJ the .orl$ re(ro$uction of (hotogra(hs an$ all 2in$s of $ra.ings or recor$s0" <rof0 Arthur :orn8 .ho actually sent the first (ictures 7y .ireless8 cre$its Tesla .ith so)e of his syste)0 3roa$casting At the turn of the century8 Tesla also sai$ this of his syste)I ", ha-e no $ou7t that it .ill (ro-e -ery efficient in enlightening the )asses8 (articularly in still unci-iliBe$ countries an$ less accessi7le regions8 an$ that it .ill a$$ )aterially to general safety8 co)fort an$ con-enience8 an$ )aintenance of (eaceful relations0 ,t in-ol-es the e)(loy)ent of a nu)7er of (lants8 all of .hich are ca(a7le of trans)itting in$i-i$ualiBe$ signals to the utter)ost confines of the earth0 "ach of the) .ill 7e (refera7ly locate$ near so)e i)(ortant centre of ci-iliBation an$ the ne.s it recei-es through any channel .ill 7e flashe$ to all (oints of the glo7e0 A chea( an$ si)(le $e-ice8 .hich
)ight 7e carrie$ in one's (oc2et8 )ay then 7e set u( so)e.here on sea or lan$8 .here it .ill recor$ the .orl$'s ne.s or such s(ecial )essages as )ay 7e inten$e$ for it0" ,n an article of a((reciation of Tesla's .or28 (u7lishe$ in the >cientific /onthly8 Hust after Tesla $ie$ in 19638 /aHor "0 H0 Ar)strong quote$ the state)ent a7o-e an$ co))ente$I "of course the instru)entalities for (ractising 7roa$casting .ere not then in e'istence0 Tesla .as classe$ as a -isionary an$ his (ro(hecy .as forgotten0 &hat harsher ter)s )ight8 .ith Hustice8 7e a((lie$ to )any of us .ho hel(e$ (ro$uce the instru)entalities .ith .hich 7roa$casting .as e-entually acco)(lishe$I &e a((lie$ the) to (oint9to9(oint co))unication8 failing co)(letely to realiBe the significance of Tesla's .or$s0"
1--<-05-00: #are notes from Tesla on Farden(lyffe

4y %eland Anderson Electric &*acecraft !% A(r//ay/Eun 199* #"#A1= A1="+>;1 HA> :,1=#D <+;G,="= C;<,"> ;F +A+" =;CC/"1T> F+;/ TH" T">#A /C>"C/ ,1 3"#G+A="0 TH" <A<"+> +"<+;=CC"= ,1 TH,> +"<;+T >C<<#D ,1F;+/AT,;1 A3;CT TH" &A+="1C#DFF" T;&"+8 A1= >H;& THAT TH" =">,G1 <+;C">> &A>1'T A> ACT;/AT,C A> #"G"1= #"A=> C> T; 3"#,"G"0 !esla0s tower at Far enclyffe is $er*a$s as enigmatic as t*e $ro igal genius was *imself. G6igs. 1-3 s*ow in $art a conce$tual eDolution of t*e tower.H F*ile !esla aficiona os *aDe scra$e t*e arc*iDes an *aggle wit* $oliticos to o/tain eDen t*e minutest reDelations on *ow t*is eDice mig*t *aDe actually /een ca$a/le of transmitting energy worl wi e' no/o y seems to ,now *ow t*is was to /e effecte . 8n w*at follows' t*e contents of some $ractically-uncirculate $a$ers' t*at &elan An erson manage to o/tain' are re$ro uce in full. !*e first note' written on Fal orf-Astoria letter*ea ' iscloses !esla0s reasoning /e*in some of t*e imensional s$ecifications re7uire in an early esign for t*e tower w*ic* *e claime woul /e ca$a/le of transmitting electricity worl wi e /y means of eart* resonance. !*e letters re$rinte *ere were all written in 1+01. Actual construction of t*e tower i not start until %ecem/er 1"' 1+01. *ew /ork 'ay 6;, $;A$ fro) ol$ note ,n anne'e$ s2etch ?>ee Fig0 60@ a ter)inal 2 in for) of a roof is su((orte$ on con$ucting su((orts %1%10 Ter)inal C1 is a$Husta7le an$ in contact .ith structure of roof8 or ter)inal 210 A resonating syste) 2?U&E $ischarges .ith 21 an$ (ro$uces oscillations in syste) 2%1%1E1E10This arrange)ent o7-iates necessity to su((ort roof or ter)inal 2 on insulate$ su((orts0 1o. in a s2etch or sche)e the $ifficulty .ill 7e (ro7a7ly to get the oscillations of the free syste) 2%1%1E1E1 slo. enough to 7e -ery effecti-e in trans)ission through earth as in )y syste)0 The length of con$uctors in the free syste) shoul$ 7e r/68 an$ the length of the $ischarging current shoul$ 7e 3/6 r or n/6 r e-entually8 n 7eing une-en nu)7er0 >u((ose8 to get an i$ea8 .e ta2e 2 L 158555c)0 This is realiBa7le0 Then .e ha-e
the (erio$ of the syste)0 &e shoul$ ha-e -i7ration not )uch quic2er than 1558555 an$ to satisfy this # .oul$ ha-e to 7eI
# L 9 ' ,54/6 L !!48555 c)0 Calculate$ it .oul$ a((ear that the su((orts # .oul$ ha-e to 7e a7out %55 feet0 The arrange)ent .oul$ 7e ;: .ith quic2 oscillation0 The self9in$uction of a straight con$uctor is #' L !l'?log e (!l'/r 9 50*4@0 1o.8 ta2e /'L 355 ft L 9555 c)0 ,f .e .ant to use iron (i(es 6" $ia)0 r L 4 c)0 Then !l'/r L 3%55 an$ fro) this , fin$ #' L 1368555 c)0 Again ta2ing the length %55 ft .e .oul$ get in$uctance (ro7a7ly !%88555 c)0 To get lo.er frequencies8 e-i$ently in a7o-e sche)e self9in$uction )ust 7e increase$0 <0>0 The charging an$ $ischarge current )ay e-en 7e of $ifferent (erio$ an$ 7oth -i7rations use$ to e'cite recei-er0
!*e $erson w*o $roofrea t*e eci$*erer0s notes foun fault wit* !esla0s analysis' stating t*at in or er to limit t*e in uction to ""5'000 cm' t*e tower woul nee to /e nearly t*ree times taller t*an !esla antici$ate ' or 1'-0- feet *ig*. As it was' t*e Far enclyffe !ower $roJect was Dery large' an inDolDe numerous construction crews. !*e following note was sent to Margaret C*eney' w*ile s*e was writing !esla0s /iogra$*y. Wardenclyffe +roDect +eference has 7een )a$e 7y ;'1eill an$ conte)(orary ne.s(a(er accounts of the large cre. that Tesla ha$ .or2ing for hi) at &ar$enclyffe0 ,nstea$ of Hust referring to the "large cre." as such8 it )ight 7e a goo$ i$ea to s(rin2le in a fe. na)es of Tesla's $irect assistants0 They .ereI &illie "((ersteiner Hart)ann Eohnnison #in$e2e /eyer Alfre$ <eters >ei7el /r0 Chl)an (814 10 1!th >t08 >t0 Eose(h8 /; &agner (Tesla's glass 7lo.er
#"TT"+> !*e ne)t t*ree letters illustrate' to a small egree' t*e /rea t* of t*e concerns !esla *a w*ile oDerseeing t*e /uil ing of *is tower. !*e first two are written to t*e arc*itect' Stanfor F*iteP t*e t*ir is to t*e com$any t*at was to furnis* t*e /uil ing0s /oilers. *ew /ork, Aug 6:th, $;A$ 6% O 68 "ast Houston >tr0 /r0 >tanfor$ &hite 1%5 Fifth A-e0 1e. Dor2 City /y =ear >tanfor$I , ha-e seen the A)erican 3ri$ge (eo(le to$ay to ascertain .hether they .ill 7e a7le to construct the cu(ola of )y 7uil$ing .ithout )uch $elay0 As this ite) .ill consu)e the longest ti)e8 it is necessary to ta2e all the (reli)inary ste(s so that the .or2 )ay 7egin Hust as soon as you ha-e (asse$ u(on the (lans0 , 7elie-e that the A)erican 3ri$ge Co)(any is the 7est concern to $eal .ith in this )atter 7ut , 7eg you not to (ay any attention to )y suggestion8 if you thin2 other.ise0 The 3ethlehe) >teel Co)(any .ill furnish )e the sheets8 7ut , cannot gi-e the or$er until .e ha-e agree$ u(on all $etails0 &ith 2in$ regar$s8 Dours -ery sincerely8 10 Tesla
!ig $
!ig 6
!ig 7
!ig <
*ew /ork, Aug 7Ath, $;A$ 6% O 68 "ast Houston >tr0 /r0 >tanfor$ &hite 1%5 Fifth A-e0 1e. Dor2 City /y =ear >tanfor$I /any than2s for your suggestions0 , a) .riting to /r0 <o.ell to$ay0 <erha(s he .ill 7e a7le to clear the lan$ altogether0 , .ant you to un$erstan$ that , .ent to the A)erican 3ri$ge Co)(any si)(ly 7ecause of )y an'iety to ha-e the .or2 (ushe$ through as fast as (ractica7le0 , a) only too gla$ to follo. your a$-ice an$ 7eg you to consi$er yourself a7solutely free in your choice an$ arrange)ents regar$ing this .or20 Dours -ery sincerely8 10 Tesla *ew /ork, ,ep $6th, $;A$ 6% O 68 "ast Houston >tr0 3a7coc2 O &ilco' Co0 84 #i7erty >treet 1e. Dor2 City Gentle)enI Cn$er enclosure , for.ar$ s2etch sho.ing your t.o 7oilers as they .ill 7e (lace$ in )y 7uil$ing an$ their (osition relati-e to an$ e'act $istance fro) the chi)ney0 The scale is 1/! inch to a foot0 Dou .ill greatly o7lige )e 7y furnishing the $ra.ings of the flues lea$ing to the chi)ney an$ the (osition of the 7reech8 as the 7uil$er cannot (rocee$ .ithout this infor)ation0 Dours -ery truly8 "ncl0 !ig = (scillating statically charged terminal
Anyone familiar wit* t*e Far enclyffe !ower ,nows it to *aDe /een a colossal structure. >et' few reali=e t*at it was su$$ose to *aDe /een eDen larger. Alt*oug* t*e e)act figures are not reDeale ' !esla must *aDe rastically un erestimate t*e cost of /uil ing *is structure as is eDi ence /y t*e following res$onse to F*ite.
!ig > (scillating electrostatically charged dome
*ew /ork, ,ep $7th, $;A$ 6% O 68 "ast Houston >treet /r0 >tanfor$ &hite 1%5 Fifth A-e0 1e. Dor2 City /y =ear >tanfor$I , ha-e not 7een half as $u)7foun$e$ 7y the ne.s of the shooting of the <resi$ent as , ha-e 7y the esti)ates su7)itte$ to you8 .hich8 together .ith your 2in$ letter of yester$ay8 , recei-e$ last night0 ;ne thing is certainJ &e cannot 7uil$ that to.er as outline$0 , cannot tell you ho. sorry , a)8 for )y calculations sho.8 that .ith such a structure , coul$ reach across the <acific0 >ince last night8 , ha-e thought carefully o-er the )atter an$ ha-e co)e to the conclusion that the 7est (lan .ill 7e to fall 7ac2 on an ol$er $esign .hich , ha-e )a$e8 in-ol-ing the use of t.o an$ (ossi7ly three to.ers8 7ut )uch s)aller0 &e .oul$ 2ee( the $esign of the to.er the sa)e an$ .oul$ only re$uce the $i)ensions0 ,t .ill (ro7a7ly 7e 7est to a$o(t a $esign .ith t.o to.ers an$ a lo. central (art for the )achinery0 , shall )a2e so)e calculations to$ay an$ .ill see ho. far , can re$uce the height .ithout i)(airing )aterially the efficiency of the a((aratus8 an$ .ill co))unicate .ith you as soon as (ractica7le0 Than2ing you heartily for your frien$ly interest an$ efforts on )y 7ehalf8 , re)ain8 Dours -ery sincerely8 10 Tesla
8n less t*an a wee, after receiDing news of t*e e)or/itant construction /i s' !esla *a a new esign' /ut *e coul only $roDi e a roug* estimate of w*at its ca$acitance woul /e. G6igs. 5-8 s*ow somew*at t*e conce$tual eDolution of t*e electrical a$$aratus w*ic* was to /uil a ca$acitance sufficiently large to $ower t*e glo/e Dia eart* resonance.H
!ig :
!ig ?
!ig ;
,ept $:, $;A$ Follo.ing results )ay 7e confi$ently e'(ecte$ .ith s)aller to.er !55 feet an$ ter)inal roof of chea( construction as last $esigne$0 The roof .ill co)(rise a single (latfor) .ith s(herical 7o$ies of large cur-ature on ri)0 The construction of latter .ill 7e gi-en in $etail0 The (latfor) !5 )eters $ia)eter8 14 roun$ surfaces on to( an$ 14 on the 7otto) as sho.n in s2etch 7elo.0 ,t is $ifficult to esti)ate in a$-ance the ca(acity of the structure .ith (recision8 7ut an a((ro'i)ate i$ea )ay 7e o7taine$0 The s(herical 7o$ies .ill 7e each of a ca(acity of !55 c)0 This .oul$ gi-e 35 ' !55 L %555 c) .ithout ta2ing ele-ation into consi$eration0 3ut o.ing to (ro'i)ity ca(acity .ill 7e )uch s)aller0 "sti)ates (lace the )ini)u) -alue at or less than 1555 c) (ele-ation not consi$ere$ 0 This )eans8 say8 that of each s(herical 7o$y only 1/% of surface is fully acti-e0 1o.8 surface of one s(herical 7o$y .ill 7e l ' 655!0 ="C,<H"+"+'> 1;T"> Calling s $ensity8 .e .oul$ ha-e on 1/% of surface Again' t*e eci$*erer0s $roofrea er too, issue. :sing 636 ) 106 cm as t*e Dalue for eart*0s ca$acitance' *e arriDe at t*e conclusion t*at $ s*oul e7ual 11 an not 16 Dolts. 9y <cto/er' !esla was 7uite $lease wit* *is $roJections for Coul0 of electricity0 t*e new tower0s out$ut. !*e eci$*erer0s $roofrea er *a no o/Jections' eit*er. &e can safely )a2e s L 15 )ini)u)0 This .oul$ gi-e on the .hole structure (ct $=, $;A$ Consi$eration relati-e to rate of energy $eli-ery at any (oint of glo7e .ith #ong ,slan$ a((aratus0 Assu)e that a groun$e$ secon$ary is e)(loye$ L roughly at least 8/153 Coulo)7s0 1o.8 if .e (ut e'cite$ 7y a (ri)ary through .hich con$enser ca(acity as 1555 c) .e .oul$ ha-e $ischarges an$ let 7oth the circuits 7e in (erfect tune so that the secon$ary syste) -i7rates the sa)e rate .hether the (ri)ary 7e close$ or o(en0 The for) of .a-e is then as illustrate$ in $iagra)0 ?>ee Fig0 90@ At a (ri)ary 7egins to e'cite8 at 7 so)e.here in the )i$$le an$ of .a-e train (ri)ary is o(ene$ an$ at c -i7rations in This esti)ate is secon$ary cease0 ,n this for) of electrical )o-e)ent surely s)all the current an$ e)f are in (hase8 hence the (o.er is an$ .e )ay ta2e safely 1585558555 -olts for 1555 c) al.ays gi-en 7y the (ro$uct of these quantities $uring each half .a-e8 7ut it )ust 7e re)e)7ere$ that the ca(acity0 Consi$ering si)(ly earth as 7all an$ lea-ing out short energy is (assing fro) static to 2inetic for) an$ .a-es8 .e ha-e since c< L C(J G L < L 15* -oltsJ c L consequently the actual (o.er is only that su((lie$ 7y (ri)ary0 The secon$ary circuit increases the a)(litu$e 1555 c)0 CL ca(acity of earth L %3% ' 9 ' 154 only0 3ut in )any cases .hat is $esire$ is si)(ly a )a'i)u) rate0 >o for instance in telegra(hy .hen a $e-ice li2e a )inute s(ar2 ga( is e)(loye$ in connection .ith a tune$ circuit0 #et us then see .hat can 7e e'(ecte$ as reasona7le $uring one s.ing0 ( L si)(ly 1% -olts0 This )eans -ariation of !( L 3! -olts all o-er glo7e0
,n (re-ious e'a)(les8 ")a' L 9/8 ' 15% -olt0 Current L a-erage J !555 a)( o L 6l ' 154 / L ! ' 1540 Hence for largest s.ing rate of (o.er .ill 7e ")a' ' E)a' L 9/8 ' ,5% ' l/! ' !555 L 34 ' ,58 &G0 1o. on equatorial 7elt .e shall ha-eI Circu)ference of 7elt a7out 6 ' ,59 c)0 >u((ose a stri( of groun$ 1555c) .i$e r/! L 93/!55 )iles is utiliBe$0 The current through the stri( .ill 7e
"nergy in stri( consi$ering su(erficial (ro(agation .ill 7e si)ilarly
e)a' L 8*4 ' 6 ' 153/l L 11 ' 154 -olt0 Assu)ing )agnifying factor in recei-ing circuit L 155 .e )ay get .ith a tune$ circuit er L 11 ' ,5* -olt8 ir L l/65 a)( an$ &rL 11l ' ,5*/65 L 8% ' 154 .atts0 <erfectly .on$erfulY
Corres$onden(e
Eune 158 195! =ear #u2a8 The in-ention see)s to ha-e 7een suggeste$ 7y )y article .hich has gi-en great trou7le to you an$ infinitely )ore to )e0 #oo2 u( (age !55 of Century (articularly .here , refer to no-el facts0 The re(ort is not li2ely
to 7e true 7ut it is singular that , ha-e also foun$ a solution .hich , ha-e 7een follo.ing u( since a long ti)e an$ .hich (ro)ises -ery .ell0 , .as at the (oint of re-ealing )y )etho$ in the article 7ut you (resse$ )e to fin$ that , $i$ not ha-e enough energy left to $o it0 , a) gla$ no.0 The con$itions at the
<ic of Teneriffe are i$eal for the success of such )etho$s as , conte)(late to e)(loy for getting a stea$y su((ly of s)all a)ounts of energy0 >orry , .as una7le to call0 1i2ola
Hotel 1e. Dor2er 1e. Dor28 10 D0 A(ril *8 1936 >0 &0 :intner8 "sq0 &estinghouse "lectric O /fg0 Co0 <itts7urgh8 <a0 /y $ear /r0 :intnerJ , .as gla$ that you $i$ not (ut the )atter 7efore /r0 /erric2 for , foun$ after careful thought an$ figuring that it .oul$ ta2e )uch )ore )oney to carry out )y (ro(osal .hich , )a$e to you on the s(ur of the )o)ent sti)ulate$ 7y the (leasure of our )eeting an$ your .ar) res(onse0 The &estinghouse (eo(le )a$e a frien$ly gesture an$ , .ante$ to )eet the) in the sa)e s(irit 7y gi-ing the) the first o((ortunity on $isco-eries .hich , honestly 7elie-e to 7e )ore i)(ortant than any of recor$e$ in the history of in-ention , ha-e gro(e$ for years trying to fin$ so)e solution of felt )ost (ressing (ro7le) of hu)anity P that of insuring (eace an$8 little 7y little8 , ha-e 7een le$ to the i$eal )eans to this en$8 for they .ill affor$ (erfect (rotection to e-ery country .ithout (ro-i$ing a ne. co)(onent for attac20 The ,nternational <eace Conference .ill insist on its i))e$iate an$ uni-ersal a$o(tion8 for as long as the countries are i)(erfectly (rotecte$ in-asions are sure to occur0 , note your suggestion 7ut a) at a loss to see ho. to carry it out0 +est assure$ though8 that , shall al.ays hol$ your (eo(le in high regar$ an$ if , e-er fin$ it in )y (o.er to a$-ance their interest , shall s(are no effort0 The sce(ticis) of your e'(ert .as e'(ecte$0 He is (ro7a7ly un$er the s.ay of the )o$ern illusionary i$eas an$ the a7ler he is the )ore a(t he is to 7e in error0 3ut , ha-e $e)onstrate$ all the (rinci(als in-ol-e$ an$ a) going ahea$ .ith (erfect confi$ence .hich all the e'(erts in the .orl$ coul$ not sha2e0 Dours -ery truly8 1i2ola Tesla
Hotel 1e. Dor2er 1o-e)7er !98 1936 E0<0 /organ "sq0 !3 &all >treet 1e. Dor2 =ear /r0 /organI , ha-e )a$e recent $isco-eries of inesti)a7le -alue .hich are referre$ in the )ar2e$ (assage of the cli((ing enclose$0 Their (ractical a((lication shoul$ yiel$ an i))ense fortune0 The flying )achine has co)(letely $e)oraliBe$ the .orl$8 so )uch that in so)e cities8 as #on$on an$ <aris8 (eo(le are in )oral fear fro) aerial 7o)7ing0 The ne. )eans , ha-e (erfecte$ affor$ a7solute (rotection against this an$ other for)s of attac20 Dou 2no. ho. your father assiste$ )e in the $e-elo()ent of )y .ireless syste)0 He $i$ not get any returns 7ut , a) con-ince$ that if he .ere li-ing he .oul$ 7e gratifie$ 7y the 2no.le$ge that )y in-entions are uni-ersally a((lie$0 , still gratefully re)e)7er your o.n su((ort although the .ar $e(ri-e$ )e of the success , ha$ achie-e$0 , not only lost e-erything in those t.o un$erta2ings 7ut .as for years co)(elle$ to (ay off all sorts of unfair clai)s0 ,t .as only a little .hile ago that , )anage$ to settle the last one an$ ter)inate the tor)enting night)are0 These ne. $isco-eries8 .hich , ha-e carrie$ out e'(eri)entally on a li)ite$ scale8 ha-e create$ a (rofoun$ i)(ression0 ;ne of the )ost (ressing (ro7le)s see)s to 7e the (rotection of #on$on an$ , a) .riting to so)e influential frien$s in "nglan$ ho(ing that )y (lan .ill 7e a$o(te$ .ithout $elay0 The +ussians are -ery an'ious to ren$er their 7or$ers safe against Ea(anese in-asion an$ , ha-e )a$e the) a (ro(osal .hich is 7eing seriously consi$ere$0 , ha-e )any a$)irers there es(ecially on account of the intro$uction of )y alternating syste) to an e'tent un(rece$ente$0 >o)e years ago #enin )a$e )e t.ice in succession -ery te)(ting offers to co)e to +ussia 7ut , coul$ not tear )yself fro) )y la7oratory .or20 &or$s cannot e'(ress ho. )uch , a) aching for the sa)e facilities .hich , then ha$ at )y $is(osal an$ for the o((ortunity of squaring )y account .ith your father's estate an$ yourself0 , a) no longer a $rea)er 7ut a (ractical )an of great e'(erience gaine$ in long an$ 7itter trials0 ,f , ha$ no. t.enty fi-e thousan$ $ollars to secure )y (ro(erty an$ )a2e con-incing $e)onstrations , coul$ acquire in a short ti)e colossal .ealth0 &oul$ you 7e .illing to a$-ance )e this su) if , (le$ge$ to you these in-entions F /r0 /organ you are still a7le to hel( an un$ying cause 7ut ho. long .ill you 7e in this (ri-ilege$ (ositionF &e are in the clutches of a (olitical (arty .hich caters o(enly an$ 7raBenly to the )o7 an$ 7elie-es that 7y (ouring out 7illions of (u7lic )oney8 still unequalle$8 it can re)ain in (o.er in$efinitely0 The $e)ocratic (rinci(les are forsa2en an$ in$i-i$ual li7erty an$ incenti-es are )a$e a Ho2e0 The "1e. =eal" is a (er(etual )otion sche)e .hich can ne-er .or2 7ut is gi-en a se)7lance of o(erati-eness 7y unceasing su((ly of the (eo(les ca(ital0 /ost of the )easures a$o(te$ are a 7i$ for -otes an$ so)e are $estructi-e to esta7lishe$ in$ustries an$ $eci$e$ly socialistic0 The ne't ste( )ight 7e the $istri7ution of .ealth 7y e'cessi-e ta'ing if not conscri(tion0 &ith 7est .ishes an$ res(ectful regar$s 7elie-e )e as e-er yours )ost faithfully 10 Tesla
&">T"+1 C1,;1 T"#"G+A/ fro) 1i2ola Tesla to >a-a :osano-ic 1e. Dor28 10D0 /arch 18 1961 , than2 =r0 /ace2 an$ you for the ha((y ne.s0 ,t is i)(ortant that you 2no. the follo.ingI ?,n@ eight years , $e-elo(e$ a ne. title using 45 of )y (atents of .hich one thir$ are not a((lie$0 ,n the syste) there are no electrons0 "nergy goes into the sa)e $irection .ithout any $istri7ution ?$issi(ation@ an$ the sa)e on all si$es of $istance0 ,t contains neutrons0 ?,n@ the air ?its siBe@ is equal to a $ia)eter of hy$rogen0 ,t can $estroy the largest shi(s afloat0 There is unli)ite$ $istance of tra-el0 The sa)e is for air(lanes0 ;ne .ill nee$ nine stationsI for >er7iaJ three for Croatia an$ t.o for >lo-enia an$ e-eryone nee$s !55 :& .hich can $efen$ our $ear ho)elan$ against any ty(e of attac20 The contents of one 7o)7 can 7e e'(lo$e$ in the air0 , a$$ that in the station one )ust ha-e a s)all generator or 7attery of 35 -olts for acti-ation0 "'(ress )y $ee(est res(ect to =r0 /ace2 an$ acce(t the .ar)est greetings an$ than2s0 Dour uncle8 1i2ola Tesla
&">T"+1 C1,;1 T"#"G+A/ fro) 1i2ola Tesla to >a-a :osano-ic 1e. Dor28 10D0 /arch 68 1961 As though , a) (oor .ith .or$s0 , still $i$n't e'(lain it enough .hat .oul$ 7e necessary to increase u( to t.el-e stationsI eight in Croatia8 each of the sa)e construction li2e at &ar$enclyffe an$ only !5 )eters high 9 a 7all fi-e )eters in $ia)eter 9 the station .oul$ 7e using $iesel oil for energy .ith )echanical action 9 )y air tur7ines8 stea) (o.ere$8 electrically or other )anners of transfor)ing into alternating electrical current .ith si'ty 7illion -olts (ressure .ithout $anger0 , a) .aiting for Go-ernor >u7asic to select one station on to( of /t0 #o-cen0 There .ill not 7e any light8 electrical energy .ill $eli-er (articles through s(ace .ith the s(ee$ of 118883*83*58555 centi)eters (er secon$0 This is 39684*9 the s(ee$ of light0 As , sai$ a7out air(lanes it can 7e use$ for tan2s8 truc2s8 auto)o7iles an$ -arious )achines in factories8 .ith hy$roelectrical .heels an$ unli)ite$ other )achines0 The (articles can 7e larger than that of the $ia)eter of an Hy$rogen ato) .ith )etals of all 2in$s of )aterials an$ sent to all $istances an$ goo$ results in .ar an$ 7ring a7out (eace0 <articles are (ractical .ith neutrons8 7ecause8 they are 38*!3 ti)es lighter than electricity or electrons that cannot (enetrate s(ace for great $istances0 ,n )y atte)(ts .ith an effecti-e !5 )illion -olts8 electrons carrie$ 65 ti)es )ore electricity than nor)ally an$ (enetrate$ t.o )eters in $e(th an$ terri7le $a)age in a )o)ent each0 , ha-e to finish 7ecause that , gi-e you a fresh -ie.0 &ar) Greetings8 , re)ain your uncle8 1i2ola

Tesla Complete Articles and Patents

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Tesla Complete Articles and Patents

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Table of Contents

A list of missing articles

in figure 3a are thus shifte$ one9quarter of the circu)ference of

1888-06-"": T,e Tesla Alternate Current Motor by Nikola Tesla

188--05-"5: Mr& Ni.ola Tesla on Alternate Current Motors by Nikola Tesla

18-0-0/-0-: T,e 'osses %ue to 0ysteresis in Transformers by Nikola Tesla

1e. Dor2 City

18-0-0--"/: Swin1urne2s 30edge,og4 Transformer by Nikola Tesla

18-0-0--"/: Tesla2s new Alternating Motors by Nikola Tesla

18-1-0"-"1: 5,enomena of Alternating Currents of 6ery 0ig, 7re8uen(y by Nikola Tesla

18-1-09-18: *+$eriments wit, Alternating Currents of 0ig, 7re8uen(y by Nikola Tesla

18-1-0/-09: Alternate Current Motors by Nikola Tesla

18-1-0/-09: *le(tro-Motors by Nikola Tesla

18-1-0/-18: 5,enomena of Currents of 0ig, 7re8uen(y by Nikola Tesla

18-1-05-06: An *le(trolyti( Clo(. by Nikola Tesla

18-1-05-06: Alternate Current *le(trostati( :ndu(tion A$$aratus by Nikola Tesla

the)J it re)ains al.ays lu)inous0

18-1-05-"/: A Tal. ;y Ni.ola Tesla 4y ...

18-1-0<-01: *le(tri( %is(,arge in 6a(uum Tu1es 4y Nikola Tesla

18-1-0--0": Notes on an =ni$olar %ynamo 4y Nikola Tesla

18-"-10-08: T,e >%re,strom> 5atent by Nikola Tesla

18-9-0"-11: T,e 5,ysiologi(al and Ot,er *ffe(ts of 0ig, 7re8uen(y Currents

18-9-0"-"/: On 'ig,t and Ot,er 0ig, 7re8uen(y 5,enomena

18-5-0/-00: Tesla2s Os(illator and Ot,er :nEentions

18-6-0/-01: On #efle(ted #oentgen #ays 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-0/-08: On #oentgen #adiations 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-0/-"": #oentgen #ay :nEestigations 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-05-0-: On A$$aratus for Cat,ogra$,y 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-0<-08: An :nteresting 7eature of -ray #adiations 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-08-1": #oentgen #ays or Streams 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-1"-01: On t,e #oentgen Streams 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-1"-"9: Mr& Tesla on T,ermo *le(tri(ity 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-09-11: On #oentgen rays G1H 4y Nikola Tesla

18-6-09-18: On #oentgen rays G"H I 'atest #esults 4y Nikola Tesla

18-<-01-"<: On *le(tri(ity 4y Nikola Tesla

18-<-09-09: T,e Age of *le(tri(ity by Nikola Tesla

18-<-05-0": Ni(ola Tesla O1Je(ts by Nikola Tesla

18-8-0"-06: Tesla On Animal Training 1y *le(tri(ity by Nikola Tesla

18-8-11-19: My Su1marine %estroyer by Nikola Tesla

18-8-11-"/: 'etter to *ditor by Nikola Tesla

18---09-15: On Current :nterru$ters 4y Nikola Tesla

energiBe$ 7y .a-es trans)itte$ fro) a $istance0

F,G0 10 3C+1,1G TH" 1,T+;G"1 ;F TH" AT/;><H"+"0

F,G0 !0 TH" F,+>T <+ACT,CA# T"#ACT;/AT;10

=,AG+A/ b0 ;3TA,1,1G "1"+GD F+;/ TH" A/3,"1T /"=,C/

F,G0 40 <H;T;G+A<H,C G,"& ;F TH" C;,#> +"><;1=,1G T; "#"CT+,CA# ;>C,##AT,;1>0

F,G0 *0 "]<"+,/"1T T; ,##C>T+AT" A1 ,1=CCT,G" "FF"CT ;F A1 "#"CT+,CA# ;>C,##AT;+ ;F G+"AT <;&"+0

1-01-01-90: Tesla2s New %is(oEery by Nikola Tesla

1-01-0"-0": Tesla2s Fireless 'ig,t 4y Nikola Tesla

1-01-0"-0-: Tal.ing wit, 5lanets 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0"-0"-08: :nEentor Tesla2s 5lant Nearing Com$letion

1-0/-0"-06: A Stri.ing Tesla Manifesto 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0/-09-05: T,e Transmission of *le(tri(al *nergy Fit,out Fires 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0/-11-"<: 'etter from Ni.ola Tesla 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0/-1"-"-: *le(tri( Autos 4y Nikola Tesla

1-05-06-"/: Tesla on Su1way %angers 4y Nikola Tesla

1-05-0<-1/: Tesla2s #e$ly to *dison 4y Nikola Tesla

1-05-0<-16: Tesla on t,e 5eary Nort, 5ole *+$edition 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0<-09-00: Signalling to Mars I A 5ro1lem of *le(tri(al *ngineering 4y Nikola Tesla

to ans.er in the affir)ati-e0 10 Tesla

1-0<-09-08: Tuned 'ig,tning 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0<-09-1-: Tesla2s Fireless Tor$edo 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0<-09-"6: Fireless on #ail roads 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0<-05-0": Ni.ola Tesla O1Je(ts 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0/-09-05: T,e Transmission of le(tri(al nergy Fit,out Fires 4y Nikola Tesla

1-0<-09-00: Signalling to Mars I A 5ro1lem of le(tri(al ngineering 4y Nikola Tesla