EX No1 Aim: Procedure: 1. 2. 3. 4.

EX No1 Study of ER Diagram
Aim:
Procedure:
1. Identify entities
2. Identify relationships
3. Identify cardinalities
4. Draw the E-R diagram for Banking, Employee, Hospital
databases.
Entity-Relationship Diagram:
This diagram can express the overall logical structure of a database

graphically. ER diagram consists of the following major components:
 This diagram provides a global quick reference to an
organization’s data structures.
 This can be used individually to design an Information System’s
(IS) data structure
ER diagram consists of the following major components:

Rectangles: It represents entity sets.
 Entity
 an aggregation of a number of data elements
 each data element is an attribute of the entity
 Entity type
 a class of entities with the same attributes
Ellipses: It represents attributes.
Diamonds: It represents relationship sets.

 Relationship
 an association between two or more entities that is of
particular interest
Lines: It provide the link between attributes to entity sets & entity sets
to relationship sets.
Double ellipses: It represents multivalued attributes. Multivalued

attributes may be indicated in some manner.
o Means attribute can have more than one value.

o E.g. hobbies.
Dashed ellipses: It denote derived attributes.
1
Double lines: It represents total participation of an entity in a
relationship set.
Double rectangles: It represents weak entity sets. A weak entity set is

indicated by a doubly-outlined box.
Development process of ER diagram:

 Identify the entities
 Determine the attributes for each entity
 Select the primary key for each entity
 Establish the relationships between the entities
 Draw an entity model
 Test the relationships and the keys
Simple example:
 STUDENTs attend COURSEs that consist of many SUBJECTs.
 A single SUBJECT (i.e. English) can be studied in many different
COURSEs.
 Each STUDENT may only attend one COURSE.
Identify the entities:
Any entity can be classified in one of the following categories:

 Regular :
 any physical object, event, or abstract concept that we can
record facts about.
 Weak :
 any entity that depends on another entity for its existence.
Determine the Attributes:

 Every Entity has attributes.
 Attributes are characteristics that allow us to classify/describe an
entity
 e.g., entity STUDENT has the attributes:
 student number
 name
 date of birth
 course number
Key Attributes:
 Certain attributes identify particular facts within an entity, these
are known as KEY attributes.
 The different types of KEY attribute are:
 Primary Key
 Composite Primary Key
2
 Foreign Key
Key Definitions:
 Primary Key:
 One attributes whose value can uniquely identify a
complete record (one row of data) within an entity.
 Composite Primary Key
 A primary key that consists of two or more attribute within
an entity.
 Foreign Key
 A copy of a primary key that exists in another entity for the
purpose of forming a relationship between the entities
involved.
Degrees of a Relationship:
One to one (1:1)
1 1 1
MAN WOMEN
One to many (1:n)
1 N M
CUSTOMER ORDER
Many to many (n:m)
N M
COURSE SUBJECT
Every many to many relationship consists of two one to many

relationships working in opposite directions
3
ER diagram for banking system
street city
pincod
e
Balanc
address Accno
name e
phoneno
Depositor
Customer Account
D.O.B
Acc Branch
age
Borrower
Branch_cit
y
Branch_Name Assets
Branch
Loan
Loan Branch
Loann Amoun
o t
Result:
4
EX No: 2 Study of Normalization
Aim:
Procedure:
Normalization is a method for organizing data elements in a database

into tables.
Normalization is a method of converting un-normalized tables into

normalized tables.
Normalization Avoids
Duplication of Data – The same data is listed in multiple lines of the
database.
Insert Anomaly – A record about an entity cannot be inserted into the
table without first inserting information about another entity – Cannot
enter a customer without a sales order.
Delete Anomaly – A record cannot be deleted without deleting a record

about a related entity. Cannot delete a sales order without deleting all
of the customer’s information.
Update Anomaly – Cannot update information without changing

information in many places. To update customer information, it must
be updated for each sales order the customer has placed.
• Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database.

This includes creating tables and establishing relationships
between those tables according to rules designed both to protect
the data and to make the database more flexible by eliminating
two factors: redundancy and inconsistent dependency.
• Redundant data wastes disk space and creates maintenance

problems. If data that exists in more than one place must be
changed, the data must be changed in exactly the same way in
all locations. A customer address change is much easier to
implement if that data is stored only in the Customers table and
nowhere else in the database.
• What is an "inconsistent dependency"? While it is intuitive for a

user to look in the Customers table for the address of a particular
customer, it may not make sense to look there for the salary of
the employee who calls on that customer. The employee's salary
is related to, or dependent on, the employee and thus should be
moved to the Employees table. Inconsistent dependencies can
make data difficult to access; the path to find the data may be
missing or broken.
5
• There are a few rules for database normalization. Each rule is
called a "normal form." If the first rule is observed, the database
is said to be in "first normal form." If the first three rules are
observed, the database is considered to be in "third normal
form." Although other levels of normalization are possible, third
normal form is considered the highest level necessary for most
applications.
• As with many formal rules and specifications, real world

scenarios do not always allow for perfect compliance. In general,
normalization requires additional tables and some customers find
this cumbersome. If you decide to violate one of the first three
rules of normalization, make sure that your application
anticipates any problems that could occur, such as redundant
data and inconsistent dependencies.
First Normal Form
Eliminate repeating groups in individual tables.

Create a separate table for each set of related data.
Identify each set of related data with a primary key.
Do not use multiple fields in a single table to store similar data.
Second Normal Form
Create separate tables for sets of values that apply to multiple

records.
Relate these tables with a foreign key.
Records should not depend on anything other than a table's primary
key (a compound key, if necessary). For example, consider a
customer's address in an accounting system. The address is needed by
the Customers table, but also by the Orders, Shipping, Invoices,
Accounts Receivable, and Collections tables. Instead of storing the
customer's address as a separate entry in each of these tables, store it
in one place, either in the Customers table or in a separate Addresses
table.
Third Normal Form
Eliminate fields that do not depend on the key. Values in a record

that are not part of that record's key do not belong in the table.
Other Normalization Forms

Fourth normal form, also called Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF),
and fifth normal form do exist, but are rarely considered in practical
design. Disregarding these rules may result in less than perfect
database design, but should not affect functionality.
6
**********************************
Examples of Normalization
**********************************
Un-normalized table:
Student# Advisor Adv-Room Class1 Class2 Class3

1022 Jones 412 101-07 143-01 159-02
4123 Smith 216 201-01 211-02 214-01
First Normal Form: No repeating groups.

Tables should have only two dimensions. Since one student has several
classes, these classes should be listed in a separate table. Fields
Class1, Class2, & Class3 in the above record are indications of design
trouble.
Spreadsheets often use the third dimension, but tables should not.
Another way to look at this problem: with a one-to-many relationship,
do not put the one side and the many side in the same table. Instead,
create another table in first normal form by eliminating the repeating
group (Class#), as shown below:
Student# Advisor Adv-Room Class#

1022 Jones 412 101-07
1022 Jones 412 143-01
1022 Jones 412 159-02
4123 Smith 216 201-01
4123 Smith 216 211-02
4123 Smith 216 214-01
Second Normal Form: Eliminate Redundant Data

Note the multiple Class# values for each Student# value in the above
table. Class# is not functionally dependent on Student# (primary key),
so this relationship is not in second normal form.
The following two tables demonstrate second normal form:
Students:
Student# Advisor Adv-Room

1022 Jones 412
4123 Smith 216
Registration:
Student# Class#
1022 101-07
1022 143-01
1022 159-02
4123 201-01
4123 211-02
4123 214-01
7
Third Normal Form: ELIMINATE DATA NOT DEPENDENT ON KEY
In the last example, Adv-Room (the advisor's office number) is
functionally dependent on the Advisor attribute. The solution is to
move that attribute from the Students table to the Faculty table, as
shown below:
Students:
Student# Advisor
1022 Jones
4123 Smith
Faculty:
Name Room Dept

Jones 412 42
Smith 216 42
Normalized Tables are:

Registration:
Student# Class#
1022 101-07
1022 143-01
1022 159-02
4123 201-01
4123 211-02
4123 214-01
Students:
Student# Advisor
1022 Jones
4123 Smith
Faculty:
Name Room Dept

Jones 412 42
Smith 216 42
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Result:
EX. NO: 3
DDL COMMANDS
Aim:
Data Definition Language commands are:
Create Table
Alter Table
Drop Table
Rename
TO CREATE TABLE.
Create table command is used to create a new table.
Syntax for create table:
Create table tablename(field1 datatype1, field2 datatype2, field3
datatype3…….);
SQL> create table depart(dno number(10), dname varchar2(10),

primary key(dno));
Table created.
SQL> desc depart;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------------- -------- -------------------------
DNO NOT NULL NUMBER(10)
DNAME VARCHAR2(10)
SQL> create table emp(eno number(10),ename varchar2(10),dno

number(10),sal number(10),jobid varchar2(10),mangerid
varchar2(10),foreign key(dno) references depart(dno));
Table created
SQL> desc emp;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- --------------------
ENO NUMBER(10)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DNO NUMBER(10)
SAL NUMBER(10)
JOBID VARCHAR2(10)
MANAGERID VARCHAR2(10)
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TO ALTER TABLE
ADD
Alter table with add command is used to add new field in existing table.
Syntax:
Alter table tablename add(fieldname datatype);
SQL> alter table emp add(primary key(eno), addr varchar2(10));
Table altered.
SQL> desc emp;
Name Null? Type

----------------- -------- --------------------------
ENO NOT NULL NUMBER(10)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DNO NUMBER(10)
SAL NUMBER(10)
JOBID VARCHAR2(10)
ADDR VARCHAR2(10)
SQL> alter table emp add(phno number(5));

Table altered.
SQL> desc emp;
Name Null? Type

------------------------ -------- ----------------------------
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DNO NUMBER(10)
SAL NUMBER(10)
JOBID CHAR(20)
ADDR VARCHAR2(10)
PHNO NUMBER(5)
MODIFY
Alter table with modify command is used to change the existing fields
in table.
Syntax:
Alter table tablename modify(fieldname datatype);
SQL> alter table emp modify(jobid char);
Table altered.
SQL> desc emp;
Name Null? Type
----------------------- -------- --------------------
10
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DNO NUMBER(10)
SAL NUMBER(10)
JOBID CHAR(20)
ADDR VARCHAR2(10)
PHNO VARCHAR2(10)
SQL> alter table emp modify(jobid char(20));

Table altered.
SQL> desc emp;
Name Null? Type

--------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DNO NUMBER(10)
SAL NUMBER(10)
JOBID CHAR(20)
MGRID VARCHAR2(10)
ADDR VARCHAR2(10)
PHNO VARCHAR2(10)
SQL> alter table emp modify(jobid char(5));

alter table emp modify(jobid char(5))
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01441: cannot decrease column length because some value is too
big
TO DROP THE TABLE
Drop table command is used to delete the table from database.

Syntax:
Delete table tablename;
SQL> drop table emp;
Table dropped.
SQL> desc emp;
ERROR:
ORA-04043: object emp does not exist
Renaming a Table
Rename command is used to change the table name.
Syntax:
Rename old_tablename to new_tablename;
Eg)
SQL>Rename student to stud_details;
Table renamed.
Here student table renamed as stud_details.
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Result:
12
EX. NO: 4 DML COMMANDS
Aim:
Data Manipulation Language commands are:
Insert
Update
Delete
Truncate
SQL > Create Table Cust(cname varchar2(15),cid number(5),caddr

char(10), caccno number(5),cacctype varchar2(10),cbalance float,
Primary
key(cid),unique(cname),unique(caccno),check(cbalance>=1000));
SQL> desc cust;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
CNAME VARCHAR2(15)
CID NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
CADDR CHAR(10)
CACCNO NUMBER(5)
CACCTYPE VARCHAR2(10)
CBALANCE FLOAT(126)
SQL> insert into cust

values('Anitha',01,'Chennai',1001,'savings',15000);
1 row created.
values('Shriram',02,'Pondy',1002,'savings',25000);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into cust values('Chamundi',03,'Salem',1003,'fd',36200);
1 row created.
values('&cname',&cid,'&caddr',&caccno,'&cacctype',&cbalance);
Enter value for cname: Subha
Enter value for cid: 04
Enter value for caddr: Salem
Enter value for caccno: 1009
Enter value for cacctype: 5000
Enter value for cbalance: 5000
Old 1: insert into cust
values('&cname',&cid,'&caddr',&caccno,'&cacctype',&cbalance)
New 1: insert into cust values('Subha',04,'Salem',1009,'RD',5000)
1 row created.
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Enter value for cname: Madhan
Enter value for caddr: Salem
Enter value for cacctype: checkings
old 1: insert into cust
new 1: insert into cust
values('Madhan',4,'Salem',1004,'checkings',5000)
1 row created.

Enter value for cname: Subha
Enter value for caddr: Trichy
Enter value for cacctype: checkings
new 1: insert into cust
values('Subha',5,'Trichy',1005,'checkings',10000)
1 row created.

Enter value for cname: Jayashree
Enter value for caddr: Pondy
Enter value for cacctype: fd
new 1: insert into cust values('Jayashree',6,'Pondy',1006,'fd',15000)
1 row created.

Enter value for cname: Sridharan
Enter value for caddr: Kanchi
Enter value for cacctype: fd
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new 1: insert into cust values('Sridharan',7,'Kanchi',1007,'fd',22000)
1 row created.
SQL> select * from cust;

CNAME CID CADDR CACCNO CACCTYPE CBALANCE
Hari 1 Chennai 1001 savings 15000

Shriram 2 Pondy 1002 savings
25000
Chamundi 3 Salem 1003 fd 36200
Madhan 4 Salem 1004 checkings 5000
Subha 5 Trichy 1005 checkings 10000
Jayashree 6 Pondy 1006 fd 15000
Sridharan 7 Kanchi 1007 fd 22000
7 rows selected.
SQL>update cust set caccno=1111 where cname='Chamundi';
1 row updated

Shriram 2 Pondy 1002 savings 25000
7 rows selected.
SQL>delete from cust where cacctype='fd’;
3 row deleted

4 rows selected.
Truncate table
This command is used to delete records from table. It only
remove the table contents but table structure is in database.
Syntax:
Truncate table <table name>;
15
Example
Truncate table stud;
Table deleted.
Result:
16
EX. NO: 5 DCL COMMANDS
Aim:
DCL is abbreviation of Data Control Language. It is used to create roles,

permissions, and referential integrity as well it is used to control access
to database by securing it.
REVOKE – Withdraws user’s access privileges to database given with

the GRANT command
grant
revoke
GRANT – Gives user’s access privileges to database
You can grant privileges in the following ways:

• Grant a specific privilege on one object in a single statement
• Grant a list of privileges
• Grant privileges over a list of objects
• Grant ALL, for all the privileges of accessing a single table, or for
all privileges that are associated with a specific package
GRANT privilege TO PUBLIC AT ALL LOCATIONS:
You can grant SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE table privileges.If you grant a
privilege to PUBLIC AT ALL LOCATIONS, the grantee is PUBLIC*. Because
PUBLIC* is a special identifier that is used by DB2 internally, you should not use
PUBLIC* as a primary or secondary authorization ID. When a privilege is revoked from
PUBLIC AT ALL LOCATIONS, authorization IDs to which the privilege was
specifically granted still retains the privilege.
Some differences exist in the privileges for a query that uses system-
directed access:
• Although the query can use privileges granted TO PUBLIC AT ALL

LOCATIONS, it cannot use privileges granted TO PUBLIC.
• The query can exercise only the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE privileges at the remote location.
GRANT syntax
GRANT privileges ON database_object TO ( PUBLIC | user_list )

[ WITH GRANT OPTION ]
privileges ::= priv_item1, priv_item2, ...
priv_item ::= ALL [ PRIVILEGES ] | SELECT | INSERT | UPDATE |
DELETE | REFERENCES | USAGE
17
database_object ::= [ TABLE ] table_name | SCHEMA schema_name
user_list ::= PUBLIC | username1, username2, ...
New user creation:

Create user username identified by password;
Example:
Create user sam identified by svcoe;
If you want to connect the user sam, then give the following syntax:
Grant connect to sam;
Grant Privileges on Tables
You can grant users various privileges to tables. These privileges can
be any combination of select, insert, update, delete, references,
alter, and index. Below is an explanation of what each privilege
means.
Privilege Description
Select Ability to query the table with a select statement.
Insert Ability to add new rows to the table with the
insert statement.
Update Ability to update rows in the table with the update
statement.
Delete Ability to delete rows from the table with the
delete statement.
Reference Ability to create a constraint that refers to the
s table.
Alter Ability to change the table definition with the
alter table statement.
Index Ability to create an index on the table with the
create index statement.
The syntax for granting privileges on a table is:
grant privileges on object to user; - For example, if you wanted to grant

select, insert, update, and delete privileges on a table called student to
a user name sam, you would execute the following statement:grant
select, insert, update, delete on student to sam;
You can also use the all keyword to indicate that you wish all
permissions to be granted. For example:
18
grant all on student to sam;
If you wanted to grant select access on your table to all users, you
could grant the privileges to the public keyword. For example:
grant select on sam to public;
Revoke Privileges on Tables
Once you have granted privileges, you may need to revoke some or all
of these privileges. To do this, you can execute a revoke command.
You can revoke any combination of select, insert, update, delete,
references, alter, and index.
The syntax for revoking privileges on a table is:
revoke privileges on object from user;
For example, if you wanted to revoke delete privileges on a table called

student from a user named sam, you would execute the following
statement:
revoke delete on student from sam;
If you wanted to revoke all privileges on a table, you could use the all
keyword. For example:
revoke all on student from sam; If you had granted privileges to public
(all users) and you wanted to revoke these privileges, you could
execute the following statement:
revoke all on student from sam;
Result:
19
EX. NO: 6 USE OF SELECT STATEMENT
Aim:
ENO ENAME SAL AGE

----------------------------------------------------
1 sayee 2890 19
2 rama 5000 20
3 meera 6000 20
4 sayee 4536 20
5 bala 7780 20
SELECT SINGLE COLUMN:

SQL> select ename from employee;
ENAME
-----------------------------------------------
sayee
rama
meera
sayee
bala
SELECT MULTICOLUMN:
SQL> select eno,ename,sal from employee;
ENO ENAME SAL
1 sayee 2890
2 rama 5000
3 meera 6000
4 sayee 4536
5 bala 7780
SELECT ALL:
SQL> select * from employee;
ENO ENAME SAL AGE
1 sayee 2890 19
2 rama 5000 20
3 meera 6000 20
4 sayee 4536 20
5 bala 7780 20
SELECTION WITH ARITHMETIC OPERATION:

SQL> select eno,ename,sal+1000 from employee;
20
ENO ENAME SAL+1000
1 sayee 3890
2 rama 6000
3 meera 7000
4 sayee 5536
5 bala 8780
SELECTION WITH ALIAS:
SQL> select eno,ename ,sal+1000 withbonus from employee;

ENO ENAME WITHBONUS
1 sayee 3890
2 rama 6000
3 meera 7000
4 sayee 5536
5 bala 8780
SQL> select eno,ename,sal+1000 “withbonus” from employee;

ENO ENAME withbonus
1 sayee 3890
2 rama 6000
3 meera 7000
4 sayee 5536
5 bala 8780
SQL> select ename, eno, sal+1000 as withbonus from employee;

ENAME ENO WITHBONUS
sayee 1 3890
rama 2 6000
meera 3 7000
sayee 4 5536
bala 5 8780
RENAME:
SQL> select sal “salary” from employee;
salary
2890
5000
6000
4536
7780
SELECTION WITH CONCATENATION OPERATOR:

SQL> select eno || ename from employee;
21
ENO||ENAME
1sayee
2rama
3meera
4sayee
5bala
SELECTION WITH LITERAL CHARACTER STRINGS:

SQL> select ename || ‘ ‘ || ‘getting’ || ‘ ‘ || sal from employee;
ENAME|| ‘ ‘ || ‘GETTING’ || ‘ ‘ ||SAL

sayeegetting2890
ramagetting5000
meeragetting6000
sayeegetting4536
balagetting7780
SELECT DISTINCT:
SQL> select distinct ename from employee;
ENAME
meera
bala
sayee
rama
SQL> select distinct eno from employee;
ENO
1
2
4
5
3

7 rows selected.
22
SQL> select cname,caddr from cust where cbalance between 1000 and
10000;
CNAME CADDR
--------------- ----------
Madhan Salem
Subha Trichy
SQL> > select cname,cid,cacctype from cust where cacctype in

('savings','checkings','fd');
CNAME CID CACCTYPE
--------------- ---------- ----------
Hari 1 savings
Shriram 2 savings
Chamundi 3 fd
Madhan 4 checkings
Subha 5 checkings
Jayashree 6 fd
7 rows selected.
SQL> select cname,cid,cacctype from cust where cacctype not in

('savings','checkings');
CNAME CID CACCTYPE

--------------- ---------- ----------
Chamundi 3 fd
Jayashree 6 fd
Sridharan 7 fd
SQL> select cname,cbalance from cust where cname like '_a%an';
CNAME CBALANCE
--------------- ----------
Madhan 5000
SQL> select cname,cbalance from cust where cbalance>=15000;
CNAME CBALANCE
--------------- ----------
Hari 15000
Shriram 25000
Chamundi 36200
Jayashree 15000
Sridharan 22000
5 rows selected.
23
SQL> select cname,cacctype,cbalance from cust where
cbalance>20000 and cacctype=’fd’;;vCpe=’fd’;;
CNAME CACCTYPE CBALANCE
Chamundi fd 36200
Sridharan fd 22000
2 rows selected.
Result:
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EX. NO: 7 JOIN OPERATIONS
Aim:
SQL>create table locn (lid number(5),city varchar(10),area

varchar(5),primary key(lid));
Table created;
SQL>desc locn;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------- -------- ----------------------
LID NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
CITY VARCHAR2(10)
AREA VARCHAR2(5)
SQL>create table dep(dno number(5),dname varchar(10),lid

number(5),primary key(dno),foreign key(lid) references locn(lid));
Table created;
SQL>desc dep;
Name Null? Type

----------------------- -------- --------------------
DNAME VARCHAR2(10)
LID NUMBER(5)
SQL>create table emp(eid number(5),ename varchar(10),dno

number(5),esal number(10),jobid number(5),mgrid varchar(5),primary
key(eid),foreign key(dno) references dep(dno));
Table created;
SQL>desc emp;
Name Null? Type

-------------------------------- -------- -----------------------
EID NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
DNO NUMBER(5)
ESAL NUMBER(10)
JOBID VARCHAR2(5)
MGRID NUMBER(3)
SQL>create table grade(gno number(5),ls number(8),hs number(8));
Table created;
SQL>desc grade;
Name Null? Type
GNO NOT NULL NUMBER(5)
25
LS NUMBER(8)
HS NUMBER(8)
SQL>
1 row created
insert into locn values(&lid,'&city','&area');
enter lid:1
enter city:chennai
enter area:aaa
old 1: insert into locn values(&lid,'&city','&area')
new 1: insert into locn values(1,'chennai','aaa')
SQL>insert into dip values(&dno,'&dname',&lid);
enter dno:1
enter dname:admin
enter lid:2
old 1: insert into dep values(&dno,'&dname',&lid)
new 1: insert into dep values(1,'admin',2)
1 row created
SQL>insert into emp10 values(&eid,'&ename',&dno,&esal,
&jobid,&mgr id);
enter eid:3
enter ename:zzz
enter dno:3
enter esal :3500
enter jobid:2
enter mgr id:2
old 1: insert into emp
values(&eid,'&ename',&dno,&esal,&jobid,&mgrid)
new 1: insert into emp values(1,'zzz',3500,2,2)
1 row created
SQL>insert into grade1values(&gno,&ls,&hs);

enter gno:1
enter ls:1000
enter hs:2000
old 1: insert into grade values(&gno,&ls,&hs)
new 1: insert into grade values(1,1000,2000)
1 row created
SQL> select * from dip;

DNO DNAME LID
---------- ---------- -----------
1 admin 2
2 Finance 3
3 hr 1
4 market 3
5 sales 1
26
SQL> select * from locn;
LID CITY AREA
1 chennai aaa
2 bombay bbb
3 calcutta ccc
SQL> select * from grade;
GNO LS HS
1 1000 2000
2 2001 3000
3 3001 4000
4 4001 5000
SQL> select * from emp;
EID ENAME DNO ESAL JOBID MGRID
5 bbc 4700 2
1 xxx 1 4000 1
2 yyy 2 2000 2 1
3 zzz 3 3500 2 2
4 abc 2 4500
EQUI-JOIN
~~~~~~~~~
SQL>select e.ename,d.dname from emp e,dep d where e.dno=d.dno;
ENAME DNAME
xxx admin
yyy finance
zzz hr
abc finance
NON-EQUIJOIN
~~~~~~~~~~~~
SQL> select e.ename,e.esal,g.gno from emp e,grade g where e.esal
between g.ls and g.hs;
ENAME ESAL GNO
---------- ---------- ----------
bbc 4700 4
xxx 4000 3
yyy 2000 1
zzz 3500 3
abc 4500 4
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LEFTOUT-JOIN
~~~~~~~~~~~~
SQL> select e.ename,d.dname from emp e,dep d where
e.dno(+)=d.dno;
ENAME DNAME
---------- ----------------
xxx admin
yyy finance
abc finance
zzz hr
market
sales
RIGHTOUTER-JOIN
SQL> select e.ename,d.dname from emp e,dep d where
e.dno=d.dno(+);
ENAME DNAME
---------- ---------------
bbc
xxx admin
yyy finance
zzz hr
abc finance
FULLOUTER-JOIN
SQL>select e.ename,d,dname from emp e,dep d where
e.dno(+)=(+)d.dno;
ENAME DNAME
-------- ---------------
bbc
xxx admin
yyy finance
zzz hr
abc finance
market
sales
SELFJOIN----TO DISPLAY ENAME & THEIR MANAGER NAMES

SQL> select e.ename,m.ename from emp e,emp m where
e.mgrid=m.eid;
ENAME ENAME
---------- ----------
bbc yyy
yyy xxx
zzz yyy
28
SELFJOIN----TO DISPLAY MANAGER'S SALARY FOR EVERY EMPLOYEE
SQL> select e.ename,m.esal from emp e,emp m where e.mgrid=m.eid;
ENAME ESAL
---------- ----------------
bbc 2000
yyy 4000
zzz 2000
29
Result:
EX. NO: 8 SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS
Aim:
.
Types of single row functions are:

Character Functions
Number Functions
Date Functions
SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE22;

Name Null? Type
----------------------- -------- -----------------------
ENAME VARCHAR2(50)
DEPTID NUMBER(3)
SALARY NUMBER(7)
JOB VARCHAR2(5)
MGRID NUMBER(3)
COM VARCHAR2(6)
SQL> select * from employee22;
ENO ENAME DEPTID SALARY JOB MGRID COM
1 x 10 100000 MD 0 15
2 y 20 50000 Mgr 1 10
3 z 20 25000 Mgr 2 2
4 a 30 15000 Mgr 2 1
5 b 40 10000 Emp 3 5
SQL> select * from employee22 where LOWER(ename)='x';

1 X 10 100000 MD 0 15
SQL> select * from employee22 where UPPER(ename)='y';

no rows selected
SQL> select * from employee22 where UPPER(ename)='Y';
2 y 20 50000 Mgr 1 10
SQL> select 'Salary of ' || ename || ' is ' || salary from employee22;
30
'SALARYOF'||ENAME||'IS'||SALARY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Salary of X is 100000
Salary of y is 50000
Salary of z is 25000
Salary of a is 15000
Salary of b is 10000
SQL> select * from employee22 where LOWER(ename)='x';

1 X 10 100000 MD 0 15
SQL> select * from employee22 where UPPER(ename)='y';

no rows selected
SQL> select * from employee22 where UPPER(ename)='Y';

2 y 20 50000 Mgr 1 10
SQL> select 'Salary of ' || ename || ' is ' || salary from employee22;
'SALARYOF'||ENAME||'IS'||SALARY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Salary of X is 100000
Salary of y is 50000
Salary of z is 25000
Salary of a is 15000
Salary of b is 10000
SQL> create table sample(name varchar2(30),fname

varchar2(10),lname varchar2(10));
Table Created.
SQL> desc sample
Name Null? Type
------------------- -------- ----------------------------
NAME VARCHAR2(30)
FNAME VARCHAR2(10)
LNAME VARCHAR2(10)
SQL> alter table sample add(fno float(10));

Table altered.
SQL> desc sample
Name Null? Type
---------------------- -------- ----------------------------
NAME VARCHAR2(30)
FNAME VARCHAR2(10)
LNAME VARCHAR2(10)
FNO FLOAT(10)
31
SQL> insert into sample values('Hello
world','Lovelyn','Divya',120.856);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into sample values('Welcome
everyone','Dhivyaa','Meens',340.15);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into sample values('Hi
everybody','Harsha','Innanji',280.59);
1 row created.
SQL> select * from sample;
NAME FNAME LNAME FNO
--------------------- ---------- ---------- -------------------
Hello world Lovelyn Divya 120.9
Welcome everyone Dhivyaa Meens 340.2
Hi everybody Harsha Innanji 280.6
SQL> select concat(fname,lname),fno from sample;
CONCAT(FNAME,LNAME) FNO
-------------------- ------------------------
LovelynDivya 120.9
DhivyaaMeens 340.2
HarshaInnanji 280.6
SQL> select upper(name) from sample;
UPPER(NAME)
------------------------------
HELLO WORLD
WELCOME EVERYONE
HI EVERYBODY
SQL> select lower(lname) from sample;
LOWER(LNAME)
----------
divya
meens
innanji
SQL> select substr(fname,1,5) from sample;
SUBST
-------------
Lovel
Dhivy
Harsh
SQL> select length(name) from sample;

LENGTH(NAME)
-------------------------
11
16
12
32
SQL> select length(lname) from sample;
LENGTH(LNAME)
-------------
5
5
7
SQL> select name,instr(name,1) from sample;

NAME INSTR(NAME,1)
------------------------- ----------------------
Hello world 0
Welcome everyone 0
Hi everybody 0
SQL> select name,instr(name,'e',1) from sample;

NAME INSTR(NAME,'E',1)
------------------------- -----------------
Hello world 2
Welcome everyone 2
Hi everybody 4
SQL> select fname,instr(fname,'a') from sample;

FNAME INSTR(FNAME,'A')
---------- -----------------------------------
Lovelyn 0
Dhivyaa 6
Harsha 2
SQL> select lpad(lname,10,'*') from sample;
LPAD(LNAME)
------------------
*****Divya
*****Meens
***Innanji
SQL> select rpad(fname,10,'*')from sample;
RPAD(FNAME)
----------
Lovelyn***
Dhivyaa***
Harsha****
SQL> select trim('d' from 'dhivyaa')from sample;
TRIM('
------
hivyaa
hivyaa
hivyaa
SQL> select trim('d' from 'dhivyaa')from sample where fno=340.2;
TRIM('
------
33
hivyaa
SQL> select trim('a' from fname)from sample;
TRIM('A'FR
----------
Lovelyn
Dhivy
Harsh
NUMBER FUNCTIONS:
SQL> select ROUND(45.923,2),ROUND(45.923,0),ROUND(45.923,-1)
from DUAL;
ROUND(45.923,2) ROUND(45.923,0) ROUND(45.923,-1)
45.92 46 50
SQL> select trunc(45.923,2),trunc(45.923),trunc(45.923,-2) from DUAL;
TRUNC(45.923,2) TRUNC(45.923) TRUNC(45.923,-2)

--------------- ------------- -------------------------------------------------------
45.92 45 0
SQL> desc sample

Name Null? Type
----------------------- -------- ----------------------------
NAME VARCHAR2(30)
FNAME VARCHAR2(10)
LNAME VARCHAR2(10)
FNO FLOAT(10)
HIREDATE DATE
SQL> insert into sample values('REC CSE','Anitha','Anu',320.7,'21-mar-
88');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into sample values('Hi
chennai','aishwarya','sukumar',170,'30-oct-87');
1 row created.
SQL> select * from sample;
NAME FNAME LNAME FNO HIREDATE
Hello world Lovelyn Divya 120.9
Welcome everyone Dhivyaa Meens 340.2
Hi everybody Harsha Innanji 280.6
REC CSE Anitha Anu 320.7 21-MAR88
Hi chennai aishwarya sukumar 170 30-OCT-87
SQL> select lname,hiredate from sample where lname like 'a%';

no rows selected
SQL> select lname,hiredate from sample where lname like 'A%';
LNAME HIREDATE
---------- -----------------------
34
Anu 21-MAR-88
SQL> select sysdate from DUAL;
SYSDATE
-----------------
22-AUG-07
SQL> select fname,(sysdate-hiredate)/7 as weeks from sample where

fno=170;
FNAME WEEKS
---------- ----------
aishwarya 1033.78013
SQL> select fname,hiredate,months_between(sysdate,hiredate) from

sample where fno=320.7;
FNAME HIREDATE MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)

Anitha 21-MAR-88 233.047329
SQL> select
fname,hiredate,add_months(hiredate,6),next_day(hiredate,'friday'),
last_day (hiredate) from sample;
FNAME HIREDATE ADD_MONTH NEXT_DAY( LAST_DAY(

Lovelyn
Dhivyaa
Harsha
Anitha 21-MAR-88 21-SEP-88 25-MAR-88 31-MAR-88
aishwarya 30-OCT-87 30-APR-88 06-NOV-87 31-OCT-87
SQL> select fname

,hiredate,round(hiredate,'Month'),trunc(hiredate,'month') from sample
where fno=170;
FNAME HIREDATE ROUND(HIR TRUNC(HIR

---------- --------- --------- -----------------------------------------
Aishwarya 30-OCT-87 01-NOV-87 01-OCT-87
35
Result:
EX. NO: 9 MULTIROW FUNCTIONS
Aim:
Types of multi row functions are:
Order By
Group By
Aggregate Functions

Hari 1 Chennai 1001 Savings 15000
ORDER BY
========
SQL> select cname from cust order by cname desc;
CNAME
---------------
Subha
Sridharan
Shriram
Madhan
Jayashree
Chamundi
Hari
7 rows selected.
SQL> select cname,caccno,cbalance from cust order by cbalance

desc,cname asc;
CNAME CACCNO CBALANCE

--------------- ---------- --------------------
36
Chamundi 1003 36200
Shriram 1002 25000
Sridharan 1007 22000
Hari 1001 15000
Jayashree 1006 15000
Subha 1005 10000
Madhan 1004 5000
7 rows selected.
GROUP BY
=========
SQL> select max(cbalance),cacctype from cust group by cacctype;
MAX(CBALANCE) CACCTYPE
25000 savings
10000 checkings
36200 fd
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
=======================
SQL> select count(*) from cust;
COUNT(*)
7
SQL> select count(distinct cname) from cust;
COUNT(CNAME)
7
SQL>select sum(cbalance) as totbal,avg(sum(cbalance)) as average
from cust where cacctype='savings';
TOTBAL AVERAGE
40000 20000
SQL> select max(cbalance),min(cbalance) from cust;
MAX(CBALANCE) MIN(CBALANCE)
36200 5000
37
Result:
EX. NO: 10 PROCEDURES
Aim:
Procedures:
1. Create a table using create command.
SQL> create table stud(rno number(2),mark1 number(3),mark2

number(3),total number(3),primary key(rno));
Table created.
SQL> desc stud;
Name Null? Type
RNO NOT NULL NUMBER(2)

MARK1 NUMBER(3)
MARK2 NUMBER(3)
TOTAL NUMBER(3)
SQL> select * from stud;
RNO MARK1 MARK2 TOTAL

1 80 85 0
2 75 84 0
3 65 80 0
4 90 85 0
2. Write a code for creating a procedure
SQL> create or replace procedure studd(rnum number) is

2 m1 number;
3 m2 number;
4 total number;
5 begin
6 select mark1,mark2 into m1,m2 from stud where rno=rnum;
7 if m1<m2 then
8 update stud set total=m1+m2 where rno=rnum;
9 end if;
10 end;
11 /
38
Procedure created.
3. Execute a procedure
SQL> exec studd(1);
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

1 80 85 165
2 75 84 0
3 65 80 0
4 90 85 0
SQL> exec studd(4);
1 80 85 165
2 75 84 0
3 65 80 0
4 90 85 0
SQL> exec studd(2);
SQL> exec studd(3);
1 80 85 165
2 75 84 159
3 65 80 145
4 90 85 0
SQL> desc emp17;
Name Null? Type
39
ENAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(18)
SAL NUMBER(8)
MID NUMBER(3)
SQL> select * from emp17;

ENO ENAME DNO SAL MID
1 Akshaya 102 50000 1
2 Srikantan 105 12000 1
3 Banupriya 100 32000 1
4 Chamundi 100 28000 3
5 Janani 101 24000 3
6 Subha 100 20000 4
7 Sridhar 105 35000 1
8 Shree 105 10000 2
9 Krithi 103 29000 3
9 rows selected.
SQL> create or replace procedure dnsal(enum number) is
2 s1 number;
3 sal number;
4 begin
5 select sal into s1 from emp17 where eno=enum;
6 if s1>30000 then
7 update emp17 set sal=s1+500 where eno=enum;
8 end if;
9 if s1<30000 then
10 update emp17 set sal=s1+250 where eno=enum;
11 end if;
12 end;
Procedure created.
SQL> exec dnsal(8);
SQL> select * from emp17 where eno=8;
8 Shree 105 10250 2
SQL> exec dnsal(1);

SQL> select * from emp17 where eno=1;

1 Akshaya 102 50500 1
ADDITION
SQL> set serveroutput on

SQL> declare
40
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 c number;
5 begin
6 a:=&a;
7 b:=&b;
8 c:=a+b;
9 dbms_output.put_line('sum of'||a||'and'||b||'is'||c);
10 end;
Enter value for a: 5

old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=5;
Enter value for b: 5
old 7: b:=&b;
new 7: b:=5;
sum of5and5is10
MAXIMUM NO
SQL> declare
2 a number;
3 b number;
4 c number;
5 d number;
6 begin
7 dbms_output.put_line('enter a:');
8 a:=&a;
9 dbms_output.put_line('enter b:');
10 b:=&b;
11 dbms_output.put_line('enter c:');
12 c:=&b;
13 if(a>b)and(a>c) then
14 dbms_output.put_line('A is maximum');
15 elsif(b>a)and(b>c)then
16 dbms_output.put_line('B is maximum');
17 else
18 dbms_output.put_line('C is maximum');
19 end if;
20* end;
Enter value for a: 9

old 8: a:=&a;
new 8: a:=9;
Enter value for b: 6
old 10: b:=&b;
new 10: b:=6;
Enter value for c: 10
old 12: c:=&b;
41
new 12: c:=10;
enter a:
enter b:
enter c:
C is maximum
REVERSING THE NO.

SQL> declare
2 given_number varchar(5):='1234';
3 str_length number(2);
4 inverted_number varchar(5);
5 begin
6 str_length:=length(given_number);
7 for cntr in reverse 1..str_length
8 loop
9 inverted_number:=inverted_number||substr(given_number,cntr,1);
10 end loop;
11 dbms_output.put_line('the given no is'||given_number);
12 dbms_output.put_line('the inverted number is'|| inverted_number);
13* end;
The given no is1234
The inverted number is4321
SUM OF 100 NO.
SQL> declare
2 a number;
3 s1 number default 0;
4 begin
5 a:=1;
6 loop
7 s1:=s1+a;
8 exit when (a=100);
9 a:=a+1;
10 end loop;
11 dbms_output.put_line('sum bt 1 to 100 is'|| s1);
12 end;
Sum of 1 to 100 is 5050
SUM OF ODD NO.USING USER I/P
SQL> declare
2 n number;
3 sum1 number default 0;
4 endvalue number;
5 begin
6 endvalue:=&endvalue;
42
7 n:=1;
8 for n in 1..endvalue
9 loop
10 if mod(n,2)=1
11 then
12 sum1:=sum1+n;
13 end if;
14 end loop;
15 dbms_output.put_line('sum ='||sum1);
16* end;
SQL>
Enter value for endvalue: 5
old 6: endvalue:=&endvalue;
new 6: endvalue:=5;
sum =9
SUM OF ODD NO USING WHILE LOOP
SQL> declare
2 n number;
3 sum1 number default 0;
4 endvalue number;
5 begin
6 endvalue:=&endvalue;
7 n:=1;
8 while(n<endvalue)
9 loop
10 sum1:=sum1+n;
11 n:=n+2;
12 end loop;
13 dbms_output.put_line('sum of odd no. bt 1 and' ||endvalue||'is'||
sum1);
14 end;
new 6: endvalue:=5;
sum of odd no. bt 1 and5is4
SQL> /
new 6: endvalue:=7;
sum of odd no. bt 1 and7is9
SALARY
SQL> declare
2 ename varchar2(15);
3 basic number;
43
4 da number;
5 hra number;
6 pf number;
7 netsalary number;
8 begin
9 ename:=&ename;
10 basic:=&basic;
11 da:=basic*(41/100);
12 hra:=basic*(15/100);
13 if(basic<3000)
14 then
15 pf:=basic*(5/100);
16 elsif(basic>=3000 and basic<=5000)
17 then
18 pf:=basic*(7/100);
19 elsif(basic>=5000 and basic<=8000)
20 then
21 pf:=basic*(8/100);
22 else
23 pf:=basic*(10/100);
24 end if;
25 netsalary:=basic+da+hra-pf;
26 dbms_output.put_line('employee name:'||ename);
27 dbms_output.put_line('providend fund:'||pf);
28 dbms_output.put_line('net salary:'||netsalary);
29* end;
enter value for ename: 'ice'
old 9: ename:=&ename;
new 9: ename:='ice';
enter value for basic: 1000
old 10: basic:=&basic;
new 10: basic:=1000;
employee name:ice
providend fund:50
net salary:1510
EXAMPLE FOR LOOP
SQL> declare
2 begin
3 for i in 1..10
4 loop
5 dbms_output.put_line(to_char(i));
6 end loop;
7* end;
1
2
3
44
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
EXAMPLE FOR WHILE
SQL> declare
2 i number:=0;
3 j number:=0;
4 begin
5 while i<=100 loop
6 j:=j+1;
7 i:=i+2;
8 end loop;
9 dbms_output.put_line(to_char(i));
10 end;
102
EXAMPLE FOR LOOP USING EXIT
SQL> declare
2 a number:=100;
3 begin
4 loop
5 a:=a+25;
6 exit when a=250;
7 end loop;
8 dbms_output.put_line(to_char(a));
9 end;
250
PRIME OR NOT
SQL> declare
2 no number(3):=&no;
3 a number(4);
4 b number(2);
5 begin
6 for i in 2..no-1
7 loop
8 a:=no MOD i;
9 if a=0
10 then
11 GOTO out;
45
12 end if;
13 end loop;
14 <<out>>
15 if a=1
16 then
17 dbms_output.put_line(no||'is a prime');
18 else
19 dbms_output.put_line(no||'is not a prime');
20 end if;
21* end;
Enter value for no: 7
old 2: no number(3):=&no;
new 2: no number(3):=7;
7is a prime
AREA CALCULATION
SQL> declare
2 pi constant number(4,2):=3.14;
3 radius number(5);
4 area number(14,2);
5 begin
6 radius:=3;
7 while radius<=7
8 loop
9 area:=pi*power(radius,2);
10 insert into areas values(radius,area);
11 radius:=radius+1;
12 end loop;
13 end;
SQL> select* from areas;
RADIUS AREA
---------- ----------
3 28.26
4 50.24
5 78.5
6 113.04
7 153.86
7 154
5 78.54
3 28.26
4 50.24
5 78.5
6 113.04
RADIUS AREA
---------- ----------
7 153.86
46
12 rows selected.
Result:
47
EX. NO: 11 FUNCTIONS
Aim:
SQL> create table stud(rno number(2),mark1 number(3),mark2

number(3),total number(3),primary key(rno));
Table created.
SQL> desc stud;

Name Null? Type
---------------------- ------- - -------------------
RNO NOT NULL NUMBER(2)
MARK1 NUMBER(3)
MARK2 NUMBER(3)
TOTAL NUMBER(3)

---------- ---------- ---------- --------------
1 80 85 0
2 75 84 0
3 65 80 0
4 90 85 0
SQL> create or replace function stude(rnum number) return number is

2 total number;
3 m1 number;
4 m2 number;
5 begin
6 select mark1,mark2 into m1,m2 from stud where rno=rnum;
7 total:=m1+m2;
8 return total;
9 end;
10 /
Function created.
SQL> select stude(2) from dual;
STUDE(2)
----------
159
SQL> create table purchase (icode number(3),iname
varchar2(13),price number(6),quantity number(3),rate
number(8),primary key(icode),unique(iname));
48
Table created.
SQL> desc purchase;
Name Null? Type
ICODE NOT NULL NUMBER(3)

INAME VARCHAR2(13)
PRICE NUMBER(6)
QUANTITY NUMBER(3)
RATE NUMBER(8)
SQL> select * from purchase;
ICODE INAME PRICE QUANTITY RATE
100 PenSet 20 10 0
101 ParkerPen 60 10 0
102 180pg Note 24 10 0
103 80pg Note 10 25 0
104 StickFile 10 20 0
SQL> create or replace function pur(itmcd number) return number is

2 qt number;
3 pr number;
4 rate number;
5 begin
6 select price,quantity into pr,qt from purchase where
icode=itmcd;
7 rate:=qt*pr;
8 return rate;
9 end;
Function created.
SQL> select pur(102) from dual;
PUR(102)
-----------
240
Result:
49
EX. NO: 12 CURSOR
Aim:
SQL> create table ssss(cname varchar2(20),sal number);

Table created.
SQL> desc ssss;
Name Null? Type

CNAME VARCHAR2(20)
SAL NUMBER
SQL> insert into ssss values('&cname',&sal);
Enter value for cname: viji

Enter value for sal: 17000
old 1: insert into ssss values('&cname',&sal)
new 1: insert into ssss values('viji',17000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for cname: sree
new 1: insert into ssss values('sree',12000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for cname: santhi
new 1: insert into ssss values('santhi',30000)
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for cname: babu
new 1: insert into ssss values('babu',20000)
1 row created.
SQL> select * from ssss;
CNAME SAL
50
viji 17000
sree 12000
santhi 30000
babu 20000
SQL> set serveroutput on;
SQL> declare
2 cursor emp_cur is select cname,sal from ssss;
3 name ssss.cname%type;
4 salary ssss.sal%type;
5 begin
6 open emp_cur;
7 dbms_output.put_line('name salary');
8 dbms_output.put_line('-----------');
9 loop
10 fetch emp_cur into name,salary;
11 exit when(emp_cur%notfound);
12 dbms_output.put_line(name||' '||salary);
13 end loop;
14 close emp_cur;
15 end;
16 /
name salary
viji 17000
sree 12000
santhi 30000
babu 20000
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION FIND

2 (cnam in varchar2)
3 RETURN number
4 is
5 cid number;
6 cursor c1
7 is
8 select cno from ttt where cname=cnam;
9 begin
10 open c1;
11 fetch c1 into cid;
12 if c1%notfound then
13 cid:=9999;
14 end if;
15 close c1;
16 return cid;
17 end;
51
18 /
Function created.
SQL> select * from ttt;
CNO CNAME MARK
1 cts 99
2 tcs 55
3 ibm 89
SQL> select FIND('tcs') from dual;

FIND('TCS')
2
SQL> select FIND('ibm') from dual;
FIND('IBM')
3
SQL> select FIND('hcl') from dual;
FIND('HCL')
9999
Result:
52
EX NO: 13 TRIGGER
Aim:
TABLE
TRIGGER WITH BEFORE UPDATE
SQL> create table orders(order_id number(5),quantity

number(4),cost_per_item number(6,2),total_cost
number(8,2),updated_date date,updated_by varchar2(10));
Table created.
INSERT
----------
SQL> insert into orders(order_id,quantity,cost_per_item)
values(&order_id,&quantity,&cost_per_item);
Enter value for order_id: 1
Enter value for quantity: 4
Enter value for cost_per_item: 20
old 1: insert into orders(order_id,quantity,cost_per_item)
values(&order_id,&quantity,&cost_per_it
new 1: insert into orders(order_id,quantity,cost_per_item)
values(1,4,20)
1 row created.
SQL> /
values(2,5,30)
1 row created.
SQL> /
values(3,6,25)
1 row created.
SQL> select * from orders;
ORDER_ID QUANTITY COST_PER_ITEM TOTAL_COST UPDATED_D

UPDATED_BY
53
1 4 20
2 5 30
3 6 25
TRIGGER SCRIPT
------------------------
SQL> create or replace trigger orders_before_update

2 before update
3 on orders
4 for each row
5 declare
6 v_username varchar2(10);
7 begin
8 select user into v_username from dual;
9 :new.updated_date:=sysdate;
10 :new.updated_by:=v_username;
11 end;
12 /
Trigger created.
SQL> update orders set total_cost=3000 where order_id=2;
1 row updated.
TRIGGER WITH AFTER UPDATE
TABLE
----------
SQL> create table orders30(order_id number(5),quantity
number(4),cost_per_item number(6,2),total_cost number(8,2));
Table created.
SQL> create table orders_audit(order_id number,quantity_before

number,quantity_after number,username varchar2(20));
Table created.
SQL> insert into orders30(order_id,quantity,cost_per_item)

values(&order_id,&quantity,&cost_per_item);
old 1: insert into orders30(order_id,quantity,cost_per_item)
values(&order_id,&quantity,&cost_per_
new 1: insert into orders30(order_id,quantity,cost_per_item)
values(100,5,10)
1 row created.
SQL> /
54
values(101,4,20)
1 row created.
SQL> /
values(102,5,30)
1 row created.
SQL> create or replace trigger orders_after_update

2 AFTER UPDATE
3 ON orders30
4 for each row
5 declare
6 v_username varchar2(10);
7 begin
8 select user into v_username
9 from dual;
10 insert into orders_audit
11 (order_id,
12 quantity_before,
13 quantity_after,
14 username)
15 values
16 (:new.order_id,
17 :old.quantity,
18 :new.quantity,
19 v_username);
20 end;
21 /
Trigger created.
SQL> update orders30 set quantity=25 where order_id=101;
1 row updated.
SQL> select *from orders_audit;
ORDER_ID QUANTITY_BEFORE QUANTITY_AFTER USERNAME
101 4 25 CSE3090
55
Result:
EX NO: 14 Embedded SQL
Aim:
Procedure:
SQL can be embedded within procedural programming languages.

These language (sometimes referred to as 3GLs) include C/C++, Cobol,
Fortran, and Ada. Thus the embedded SQL provides the 3GL with a way
to manipulate a database, supporting:
 highly customized applications

 background applications running without user intervention
 database manipulation which exceeds the abilities of
simple SQL
 applications linking to Oracle packages, e.g. forms and
reports
 applications which need customized window interfaces
SQL precompiler
A precompiler is used to translate SQL statements embedded in a host

language into DBMS library calls which can be implemented in the host
language.
E d ito r h o st p rogram + em b ed d ed S Q L
P r e c o m p ile r
h o s t p r o g r a m + tr a n s la te d S Q L
C o m p ile r
o b je c t (b in a r y ) p r o g r a m
L in k e r D B M S a n d o th e r lib r a r ie s
e x e c u ta b le p r o g r a m
Variables
Variables to be shared between the embedded SQL code and the 3GL
have to be specified in the program.
EXEC SQL begin declare section;

varchar userid[10],password[10],cname[15];
int cno;
EXEC SQL end declare section;
56
We also should declare a link to the DBMS so that database status
information can be accessed.
EXEC SQL include sqlca;
This allows access to a structure sqlca, of which the most common
element
sqlca.sqlcode has the value 0 (operation OK), >0 (no data found), and
<0 (an error).
Connecting to the DBMS
Before operations can be performed on the database, a valid
connection has to be established.
EXEC SQL connect :userid identified by :password;
 In all SQL statements, variables with the ‘:’ prefix refer to
shared host variables, as opposed to database variables
(e.g. row or column identifiers).
 This assumes that userid and password have been properly
declared and initialised.
When the program is finished using the DBMS, it should disconnect
using:
EXEC SQL commit release;
Queries producing a single row
A single piece of data (or row) can be queried from the database so
that the result is accessible from the host program.
EXEC SQL SELECT custname
INTO :cname
FROM customers
WHERE cno = :cno;
Thus the custname with the unique identifier :cno is stored in :cname.
However, a selection query may generate many rows, and a way is
needed for the host program to access results one row at a time.
Select with a single result
Host Program (eg C++)
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; DBMS

varchar cname[15];
int cno;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
// get customer number from keyboard

cout << "customer number please ->";
cin >> cno; Database
OTHER I/O
EXEC SQL SELECT custname
INTO :cname
FROM customers
WHERE cnum = :cno; SELECT
`INTO'
// output customer name
cout << "the customer's name is " << cname.arr;
57
Result:
EX NO: 15 Banking
Aim:
Design Window
Adding Library
Project = > References => Microsoft ActiveX Data Objects 2.0
Library
Coding
Dim Con As New ADODB.Connection
Dim Rs As New ADODB.Recordset
Private Sub CmdAddNew_Click()

Rs.AddNew
txtClear
Text1.SetFocus
58
End Sub
Private Sub CmdDelete_Click()

On Error Resume Next
If Rs.EOF Then
MsgBox "No Records"
Else
Rs.Delete
Rs.MoveNext
DisplayText
MsgBox "Record Deleted"
End If
End Sub
Private Sub CmdFirst_Click()

Rs.MoveFirst
DisplayText
End Sub
Private Sub CmdNext_Click()

Rs.MoveNext
If Not Rs.EOF Then
DisplayText
Else
MsgBox "End Of The Record"
Rs.MovePrevious
End If
End Sub
Private Sub CmdUpdate_Click()

Rs(0).Value = Val(Text1.Text)
Rs(1).Value = Text2.Text
Rs.Update
MsgBox "Record Updated"
End Sub
Private Sub Form_Load()

Con.Open "Provider=MSDAORA.1;User ID=scott;Password=tiger;Data
Source=rst;Persist Security Info=False"
Con.CursorLocation = adUseClient
Rs.Open "select * from Bank", Con, adOpenKeyset, adLockOptimistic
End Sub
Sub txtClear()
Text1.Text = ""
Text2.Text = ""
Text3.Text = ""
59
Text4.Text = ""
End Sub
Sub DisplayText()
Text1.Text = Rs(0).Value
End Sub
Private Sub CmdTransact_Click()

Form2.Show
End Sub
Transaction Window
Design
Coding

Private Sub CmdDeposit_Click()

Dim AccNo As Integer
AccNo = Val(Text1.Text)
Rs.MoveFirst
Do While Not Rs.EOF
If Rs(0).Value = AccNo Then
Rs(3).Value = Rs(3).Value + Val(Text2.Text)
Rs.Update
MsgBox "Amount Deposited"
End If
60
Rs.MoveNext
Loop
End Sub
Private Sub CmdWithdraw_Click()

Dim AccNo As Integer, Bal As Double
Rs.MoveFirst
AccNo = Val(Text1.Text)
Do While Not Rs.EOF
If Rs(0).Value = AccNo Then
Bal = Rs(3).Value - Val(Text2.Text)
If Bal >= 500 Then
Rs(3).Value = Rs(3).Value - Val(Text2.Text)
Rs.Update
MsgBox "Amount Withdrew"
Else
MsgBox "Balance Problem"
End If
End If
Rs.MoveNext
Loop
End Sub
Con.Open "Provider=MSDAORA.1;User
ID=cse101;Password=cse101;Data Source=ibmrec;Persist Security
Info=False"
Rs.Open "select * from Bank", Con, adOpenKeyset, adLockOptimistic
End Sub
61
Result:
EX NO: 16 Payroll Processing
Aim:
Dim Con As ADODB.Connection

Dim rs As ADODB.Recordset
Private Sub Command4_Click()
Form2.Show
End Sub
rs.AddNew
txtClear
Text1.SetFocus
End Sub
rs(0).Value = Val(Text1.Text)
rs(1).Value = Text2.Text
62
rs.Update
End Sub
If rs.EOF Then
MsgBox "No Records"
Else
rs.Delete
rs.MoveNext
DisplayText
End If
End Sub
Set Con = New ADODB.Connection
Set rs = New ADODB.Recordset
Con.Open "Provider=MSDAORA.1;User
ID=scott;Password=tiger;DataSource=employees;Persist Security
Info=False"
rs.Open "select * from employees", Con, adOpenKeyset,
adLockPessimistic
End Sub
Sub txtClear()
Text1.Text = ""
Text2.Text = ""
Text3.Text = ""
Text4.Text = ""
Text5.Text = ""
Text6.Text = ""
Text7.Text = ""
End Sub
Sub DisplayText()
Text1.Text = rs(0).Value
End Sub
Private Sub command5_click()
Text3.Text = Val(Text2.Text * 29 / 100)
If (Text2.Text >= 1500) Then
Text6.Text = 1600
Else
63
Text6.Text = 780
End If
Text7.Text = Val(Text2.Text) + Val(Text3.Text) + Val(Text4.Text) +
Val(Text5.Text) - Val(Text6.Text)
End Sub
Employees
Design Window
Adding Library
Project = > References => Microsoft ActiveX Data Objects 2.0

Library
Coding
Private Sub CmdAddNew_Click()
Rs.AddNew
txtClear
Text1.SetFocus
End Sub
Private Sub CmdDelete_Click()
If Rs.EOF Then
MsgBox "No Records"
64
Else
Rs.Delete
Rs.MoveNext
DisplayText
End If
End Sub
Private Sub CmdMoveFirst_Click()
Rs.MoveFirst
DisplayText
End Sub
Private Sub CmdMoveNext_Click()
Rs.MoveNext
If Not Rs.EOF Then
DisplayText
Else
MsgBox "End Of The Record"
End If
End Sub
Private Sub CmdUpdate_Click()
Rs.Update
End Sub
Con.Open "Provider=MSDAORA.1;User ID=scott;Password=tiger;Data
Source=employees;Persist Security Info=False"
Rs.Open "select * from employees", Con, adOpenKeyset,
adLockOptimistic
End Sub
Sub txtClear()
Text1.Text = ""
Text2.Text = ""
Text3.Text = ""
Text4.Text = ""
End Sub
Sub DisplayText()
End Sub
65
Result:
66
EX NO: 17 Library Information System
Aim:
Dim rs As New ADODB.Recordset

rs.AddNew
txtClear
Text1.SetFocus
End Sub
If rs.EOF Then
MsgBox "No Records"
Else
rs.Delete
rs.MoveNext
DisplayText
End If
End Sub
rs(0).Value = Val(Text1.Text)
67
rs.Update
End Sub
rs.MoveFirst
DisplayText
End Sub
rs.MoveNext
If Not rs.EOF Then
DisplayText
Else
MsgBox "End of the Record"
End If
End Sub
Con.Open "Provider = MSDAORA.1;User
Id=scott;Password=tiger;DataSource=lib;Persist Security Info=False"
rs.Open "select * from lib", Con, adOpenKeyset, adLockPessimistic
End Sub
Sub txtClear()
Text1.Text = ""
Text2.Text = ""
Text3.Text = ""
Text4.Text = ""
Text5.Text = ""
End Sub
Sub DisplayText()
End Sub
Result:
68

EX No1 Aim: Procedure: 1. 2. 3. 4.

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EX No1 Study of ER Diagram

This diagram can express the overall logical structure of a database

ER diagram consists of the following major components:

Ellipses: It represents attributes.

Diamonds: It represents relationship sets.

Double ellipses: It represents multivalued attributes. Multivalued

o Means attribute can have more than one value.

Dashed ellipses: It denote derived attributes.

Double rectangles: It represents weak entity sets. A weak entity set is

Development process of ER diagram:

Any entity can be classified in one of the following categories:

Determine the Attributes:

One to many (1:n)

Many to many (n:m)

Every many to many relationship consists of two one to many

Normalization is a method for organizing data elements in a database

Normalization is a method of converting un-normalized tables into

Delete Anomaly – A record cannot be deleted without deleting a record

Update Anomaly – Cannot update information without changing

• Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database.

• Redundant data wastes disk space and creates maintenance

• What is an "inconsistent dependency"? While it is intuitive for a

• As with many formal rules and specifications, real world

First Normal Form

Eliminate repeating groups in individual tables.

Second Normal Form

Create separate tables for sets of values that apply to multiple

Third Normal Form

Eliminate fields that do not depend on the key. Values in a record

Other Normalization Forms

Student# Advisor Adv-Room Class1 Class2 Class3

First Normal Form: No repeating groups.

Student# Advisor Adv-Room Class#

Second Normal Form: Eliminate Redundant Data

Student# Advisor Adv-Room

Name Room Dept

Normalized Tables are:

Name Room Dept

Data Definition Language commands are:

SQL> create table depart(dno number(10), dname varchar2(10),

SQL> desc depart;

Name Null? Type

SQL> create table emp(eno number(10),ename varchar2(10),dno

SQL> desc emp;

Name Null? Type

Name Null? Type

SQL> alter table emp add(phno number(5));

Name Null? Type

SQL> alter table emp modify(jobid char(20));

Name Null? Type

SQL> alter table emp modify(jobid char(5));

TO DROP THE TABLE

Drop table command is used to delete the table from database.

Data Manipulation Language commands are:

SQL > Create Table Cust(cname varchar2(15),cid number(5),caddr

SQL> desc cust;

SQL> insert into cust

SQL> insert into cust

SQL> insert into cust

SQL> insert into cust

SQL> select * from cust;

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