Thesis Finalized PDF

Running head: HOPE AND ATTACHMENT STYLE AMONG MOTHERS
Hope and Attachment Styles Among Mothers At Risk for Child Abuse and Neglect
Alice Wen-jui Cheng
University of Kansas
Hope and Attachment 1
Abstract
Child abuse and neglect have long been associated with insecure attachment
styles both as the antecedent and aftermath of the maltreatment. Attachment theory
provides a useful conceptual framework for understanding the cause and long-term
consequences of child maltreatment. Research on the positive mediating construct in
families that are at high risk for child maltreatment is scarce. Hope is a construct in positive
psychology and is related to positive psychological adjustment among non-clinical
populations. However the significance of hope is unclear among families that are at risk to
abuse their own child(ren). This study attempts to understand the relationship of hope, adult
attachment style, and child maltreatment potential within high risk families. A sample of 45
at-risk for child abuse mothers completed measures of hope, attachment style and potential
for child abuse. Results demonstrate a moderate relationship between child abuse potential
and one’s hopefulness. Findings also revealed that avoidantly attached individuals have
higher child abuse potential and have lower hope scores.

Hope and Attachment Styles Among Mothers At Risk for Child Abuse and Neglect
Contrary to what many people believe, child maltreatment is not a contemporary social
problem. Rather, child maltreatment is a long standing, pervasive, universal behavior across
cultures (DeMause, 1990; Korbin, 2003; Zigler & Hall, 1989, 1991). From ancient times
until the industrial revolution, historical records are filled with accounts of child maltreatment.
Infanticide as a way to balance demand and resources in the primitive culture, child brothels
in the Middle Ages and child labor in the late 19th Century are all historical examples of the
abuse (DeMause, 1998; Korbin, 2003). Even in recent history, John Watson, founder of
Behaviorism suggested child raring strategies like "Never hug and kiss them, never let them
sit on your lap. If you must, kiss them once on the forehead when they say good night.
Shake hands with them in the morning" (Watson, 1928, p. 81-82), which people often
consider as inappropriate in modern days.
The awareness of protecting children from physical maltreatment first received public
attention in 1874, when a little girl named Mary Ellen was found beaten and chained to her
bedstead, and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animal was the only
relevant agency that could be persuaded to act in her behalf. The public quickly took notice
of the inadequacy of its protection services and therefore established the first Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children in New York in the following year (Zigler & Hall, 1989,
1991). Decades later, academic research of child abuse was launched by the medical field in
the 1950s when the phrase “battered child syndrome” was coined to held parents and
caregivers responsible for child’s injuries. The study of child maltreatment from a
psychological perspective didn’t emerge until two decades later (Zigler & Hall, 1991).
Prevalence of Child Abuse
The high prevalence of childhood abuse and neglect is a serious threat to the society.
The United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS, 2005) reported
approximately 906,000 reported cases of child abuse in the year 2003. Of these cases, 50
percent involve neglect, 35 percent involve physical abuse, and 15 percent involve sexual
abuse. It is estimated that about 1 in 20 children is physically abused each year (Department
of Health and Human Services, 2005).
There are many types of child maltreatment, namely neglect, physical abuse, emotional
abuse, and sexual abuse. Neglect is defined as a form of maltreatment characterized by a
chronic lack of care in the area of health, cleanliness, diet, supervision, education or meeting
of emotional needs, which places the child’s normal development at risk (Department of
Health and Human Services, 2005). Other forms of abuse, by contrast, involve voluntary or
involuntary acts of physical or emotional aggressions towards a minor, which also
compromise the child’s development (Department of Health and Human Services, 2005;
Ethier, Palacio Quintin, & Jourdan Ionescu, 1992). Although it is easier to distinguish child
neglect and abuse at a conceptual level, these two forms of maltreatment often co-occur.
The estimated percentage of overlap between victims of abuse and neglect is 40%.
Researchers have found that both types of maltreatment commonly coexist in child
maltreatment households (Ethier, Palacio Quintin, & Jourdan Ionescu, 1992).
Long-Term Consequences of Abuse and Neglect
Children who are abused or neglected often suffer greater emotionally than physically
(Erickson, Egeland, & Pianta, 1989; Heyman & Smith-Slep, 2002). The damaging effects
of maltreatment on children’s cognitive, emotional and social development spheres are
believed to result from the distorted relations between child and caretaker (Hodges & Steele,
2000). Research has shown that child abuse may result in immediate negative outcomes, as
well as long-term consequences (Finkelhor & Browne, 1986; Lowenthal, 1998; Watson,
1928). During childhood, abuse has been associated with emotional and behavioral
problems such as depression, self-mutilation, low self-esteem, aggression, anxiety, PTSD,
social isolation and stigmatization (Atkinson & Zucker, 1997; Heyman & Smith-Slep, 2002;
Hodges & Steele, 2000; Korbin, 2003; Turner, Finkelhor, & Ormrod, 2006) . The long-term
impact of child abuse can include personality disorders, attachment disorder, relationship
problems, delinquency, sexual behavior problems, and inducing repetitive abuse to future
generations (Atkinson & Zucker, 1997; Heyman & Smith-Slep, 2002). Perhaps the most
devastating consequences of child abuse is that many adults who were victims of child abuse
carry on the abusive cycle themselves, and eventually become perpetrators (Falshaw, Browne,
& Hollin, 1996; Friedrich & Wheeler, 1982; Heyman & Smith-Slep, 2002). It should be
noted that not all abuse victims have severe reactions. Usually, the younger the child, the
longer the abuse continues, and the closer the child's relationship with the abuser, the more
serious the emotional damage will be (Erickson, Egeland, & Pianta, 1989; Lowenthal, 1998).
Research may never find direct relationship between the causeas and consequences of
different maltreatment behaviors, but it is clear that early abusive experiences provide a
fertile ground for other difficulties later on in life to take root and grow. Thus, it is crucial to
achieve more understanding about abusive parents.
Characteristics of the Abusing Parent
Parental functioning is influenced by characteristics of the parent, child and
environmental sources of stress and support. Parents who abuse their child are generally
found to be socially isolated, under stress, low income, single parents and to have had
inadequate care growing up (DePaul & Domenech, 2000; Erickson, Egeland, & Pianta, 1989).
Moreover, parents who maltreat their children were often mistreated in childhood (Friedrich
& Wheeler, 1982; Turner, Finkelhor, & Ormrod, 2006). The literature on abusive parents
indicates a striking relationship pattern in which the abusive parents were themselves abused
physically, sexually, emotionally, and/or neglected in childhood (DePaul & Domenech, 2000;
Falshaw, Browne, & Hollin, 1996; Friedrich & Wheeler, 1982; Spinetta & Rigler, 1972;
Turner, Finkelhor, & Ormrod, 2006). Parents recreated the pattern of rearing their children
the same way they were raised as they react to their children based on their own personal
experience growing up (Narang & Contreras, 2005; Spinetta & Rigler, 1972). Abusive
parents often report severe physical punishment as part of their own up-bringing. Neglectful
mothers reported a significant higher level of physical punishment in childhood compared to
the non-neglectful mother from similar socioeconomic and educational backgrounds
(Falshaw, Browne, & Hollin, 1996; Friedrich & Wheeler, 1982; Heyman & Smith-Slep,
2002). A cross-cultural study conducted in Britain found that abusive parents describe their
own parents as harsh, rejecting, and unreasonable in their disciplinary styles and frequent use
of physical punishment (Smith & Hanson, 1975). Abusive parents share common
misbeliefs in regard to the nature of child rearing and negative emotional states (Scannapieco
& Connell-Carrick, 2005; Steele, 1994). Parents who maltreat their children often have
unrealistic demands on their children’s performance, have less knowledge about child
developmental milestones and norms, and tend to make more negative attributions of their
child’s behavior (Dopke & Milner, 2000; Scannapieco & Connell-Carrick, 2005). In
addition, abusive parents often have aberrant attitudes, expectations, and childrearing
techniques resulting in expecting “too much, too fast” from their children (Friedrich &
Wheeler, 1982).
Considering the risk factors mention earlier, it is not surprising that teenage mothers
are responsible to as much as 36% to 56% of child abuse cases (Bolton, 1990; DePaul &
Domenech, 2000). This high prevalence of abuse among teenage mothers is likely because
young mothers lack adequate knowledge of child development and subsequently influence
their behavior towards their children (Bolton, 1990; Britner & Reppucci, 1997; Buccholz &
Korn-Bursztyn, 1993; Howarter, 2003). The transition to parenthood is among one of the
most stressful life events and this can be especially true for teens whose pregnancies are often
unplanned, whose children are born out of wedlock, exposed to greater poverty, less support
and more strain on their parental and romantic relationships (Altepeter & Walker, 1992;
Britner & Reppucci, 1997; Buccholz & Korn-Bursztyn, 1993).
Attachment and Parenting
The relationship between attachment style and parenting behaviors has been well
documented (Bartholomew, Kwong, & Hart, 2001; Lowenthal, 1998; McCarthy & Taylor,
1999; Svanberg, 1998). Insecure attachment styles have been linked with history of
childhood abuse, unresolved loss and trauma (Rodriguez, 2006; Stalker, Gebotys, & Harper,
2005). Both avoidant and anxious/ambivalent attachment styles in childhood are associated
with caretakers that are rejecting and unresponsiveness to child’s distress (Bartholomew,
Kwong, & Hart, 2001). Parents with avoidant attachment style have been especially linked
with high child abuse potential (Levy & Orlans, 1998). As attachment styles tend to remain
consistent through out the lifespan, adults with history of childhood maltreatment often
carried their insecure attachment style into their peer relationships and tend to have
difficulties in friendship and romantic relationships (Kerns, 1994). Romantic partners are
often projected as the new primary attachment figure in adulthood. Insecurely attached
individuals continue to struggle with intimacy and trust with their attachment figure (Hazan
& Shaver, 1987; Merrill, Hervig, & Milner, 1996; Morris, 1982; Parks, Stevenson-Hinde, &
Marris, 1991). The cycle of insecure attachment continues across generation. Insecure
attached parents recreated the pattern of rearing their children the same way they were raised,
as they react to their children based on their own personal experience in childhood (Muller,
Lemieux, & Sicoli, 2001; Narang & Contreras, 2005; Shorey & Snyder, 2006).
Attachment Theory: An Overview
John Bowlby
The most prominent researchers in attachment theory are John Bowlby and Mary
Ainsworth (Bretherton, 1992). The study of attachment began in London’s Child guidance
clinic in 1940 when Bowlby noticed a striking similarity in childhood history of parental
deprivation among the forty-four juvenile thieves he described as “affectionless
characters”(Karen, 1998, p. 53). The forty-four adolescents Bowlby witnessed displayed a
profile of affectionless, detachment, solitariness, unresponsiveness, impervious to punishment
and indifferent to kindness. The adolescents had similar experience of early separation1 or
parental deprivation with their primary caregiver (Karen, 1998). In Bowlby’s time
psychology was still very much rooted in psychoanalysis and Bowlby perceived the thieving
behavior as a displacement of replacing maternal love with stolen goods (Karen, 1998).
Together with his assistant James Robertson, they observed the reaction of children in the
hospital during and following separation from their mothers and noticed the profound effect
separation has on the youngsters. In 1951 Robertson made the film A Two- Year-Old Goes
to Hospital to document and demonstrate the drastic and devastating effects on children when
they are isolated from their caregivers days at a time. When the protagonist of the film,
Laura, when first arrived at the hospital was a warm, well-behaved toddler. However, when
she found out that her parents will leave her alone in the hospital, she protested violently.
Subsequent visits from her parents showed an angry yet over-joyed child greeted her parents
and begged her parents to take her when they were ready to part. Her behaviors soon
became despaired and hollowed, Laura would rock back-and forth when she was alone in an
attempt to sooth herself. Her attitude towards her parents eventually became detached and
1
It is a common practice during the 1900s Britain to separate parents and children for quarantine purposes
weeks at a time when children were hospitalized
emotionless. The film ended with an initially affectionless Laura when her mother came to
visit, a somewhat suspicious and ambivalent Laura when her mother told her that she was to
go home with her, and a somewhat content Laura leaving the hospital with her mother (Karen,
1998). Bowlby would later note that Laura would reattach with her parents for she is lucky
that the separation was relatively short. Children separated or deprived from parental love
for longer duration during the critical attachment period would have a long lasting effect in
their personality and later attachments (Bowlby, 1988).
Bowlby believed that attachment plays a vital role throughout the life cycle and is a
process that characterize human beings “from cradle to the grave” (J. Feeney & Noller, 1996,
p. 19). In accordance with this hypothesis, Morris (1982) reasoned that due to the depth and
the significance of early life infant-parent attachment, the bond is likely to serve as a
prototype for later intimate relationships.
Function of Attachment
Bowlby (1973) defined attachment behavior as “any form of behavior that results in a
person attaining or retaining proximity to some other differentiated and preferred individual,
usually conceived a stronger and/or wiser” (p.292). Bowlby was profoundly influenced by
his contemporary scholars in ethology, especially by Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen who
studied bonding behavior of birds and mammals, which helped him conceptualize human
attachment behavior. Bowlby (1973) hypothesized attachment was the result of evolution
through the process of natural selection and that maternal deprivation is harmful because it
thwarts instinctual need (Hazan & Shaver, 1994a). The attachment system is proposed to
have “its own internal motivation distinct from feeding and sex, and of no less importance for
survival” (Bowlby, 1988, p. 27) Due to extreme immateriality at birth human infants are
more likely to survive by keeping proximity with their older and stronger caregiver who
would protect and keep danger at bay from them. Infants therefore enhanced on behaviors
(e.g. smiling, cuddling) that would promote the willingness of adults to provide protection
and care and built attachment bonds for their own survival advantage (J. Feeney & Noller,
1996). Under this frame of mind, attachment is considered as part of normal, healthy human
development, rather than being a sign of immaturity that needs to be outgrown (Cassidy &
Shaver, 1999).
The three defining features of attachment and functions of attachment relationship are
proximity maintenance, safe heaven and secure base (Bartholomew, 1990; Bartholomew,
Kwong, & Hart, 2001; Bowlby, 1973). The attachment system is hypothesized to function
homeostatically: When Infants smile and coo at their caregivers, it triggers the likelihood
for adults to respond positively. In contrast, babies cry and shout emit adults to come to
attend to their discomfort and at the same time terminate the annoyance baby created for
them in order to draw their attention (Bartholomew, Kwong, & Hart, 2001). In proximity
maintenance, infants seek for attachment figure at all times, especially under threat and
discomfort, and protest when their caregiver leaves and clam at their returned. The
caregiver serves as a haven of safety to which infants retreat in distress or fear for comfort
and protection. It is only when the infants feel safe with their attachment figures can they
explore, learn and feel curious about their environment, for they know they have a base of
security near them that could come to their rescue in time of need (Bartholomew, Kwong, &
Hart, 2001; J. Feeney & Noller, 1996; Hazan & Shaver, 1994a; Karen, 1998).
Working Model
Internal working model is a key phrase coined by Bowlby to represent one’s
expectancy toward the responsiveness of their attachment figure. A child learns from
experience how responsive his caregiver attends to his needs; accordingly he justifies his own
worthiness. A caregiver can respond to a child in two ways, consistently and inconsistently.
The caregiver could be reliably supportive towards her child’s need for care and protection or
she could be consistently irresponsive and cold. A parent could also be erratic in her care
giving pattern and being unpredictable as to whether or not she would provide care when her
child is in need (Bartholomew, 1990). Three types of attachment styles observed by
Ainsworth et al (1978), discussed more in the attachment styles section in this chapter)
displayed striking correlation between respond patterns and attachment styles between
mother-child dyads. Mothers of securely attached infants tends to be consistently
responsive and warm to their infant’s needs. In contrast, mothers of infant classified as
anxious/ambivalent tend to be inconsistent and inadequate in dealing with their infants
signals, showing a lack of sensitivity to their child’s needs and more of their own. Mothers
of avoidant children are perpetually irresponsive towards their children’s needs signals and
desperate signs (Bartholomew, 1990).
Confidence that an attachment figure is, apart from being accessible,

likely to be responsive can be seen to turn on at least two variables: a) whether
or not the attachment figure is judged to be the sort of person who in general
responds to calls for support and protection; and b) weather or not the self is
judged to be the sort if person towards whom anyone, and the attachment figure
in particular is likely to respond in a helpful way. Logically these variables are
independent. In practice they are apt to be confounded. As a result, the
model of the attachment figure and the model of the self are likely to develops
so as to be complementary and mutually confirming (Bowlby, 1973, p. 204).
These working models pertain not only with interactions with the caregiver but also
generalize to new situations and people. Working models function to predict the behavior
of others and to plan one’s own behavior to achieve relational goals (J. Feeney & Noller,
1996; J. A. Feeney, Noller, & Roberts, 2000). Children get attached regardless of whether
their caregivers can satisfy their physical needs. This notion is supported by evidence
indicating infants became attached even to abusive parents (Cassidy & Shaver, 1999).
While Bowlby contributed an immense amount of knowledge to our current

conceptualization of attachment, another prominent psychologist, Mary Ainsworth,
contributed additional perspective on attachment.
Mary Ainsworth
Following Bowlby’s footsteps, Ainsworth carried out series of studies on human attachment
(Bretherton, 1992; Karen, 1998). Her most prominent work is on classification of
attachment styles; her most famous experiment, which became one of the classics and must
mentioned research in introductory Psychology textbooks, is the Strange Situation
experiment (Bartholomew, 1990). The typology of attachment classification further
strengthens the hypothesis that attachment style remains consistent throughout the life span
because attachment styles in adulthood persists parallel with the classification from the
Strange situation observation in infancy. Ainsworth defines attachment as ” relationships
with a particular type of affectional bond, they are relatively long-lasting ties characterized by
a desire to maintain closeness to a partner who is seen as unique as an individual and who is
not interchangeable with any other” (Feeney & Noller, 1996, p.19).
Children play an active role in the attachment process. They take initiatives in
forming the attachment bonds with caregiver and are not mere recipients of stimulus from
their parents. Interaction between infants and mothers are chains of behavioral interactions,
which are initiated either by behavior of the mother to which infant responds, or by the infant
which the parent reacts to (M. D. S. Ainsworth, 1985). Maternal deprivation therefore is
best defined as insufficient interaction between the infant and the mother, and not just about
the lack of stimulation. Therefore, it can be reasoned that attachment deprived infant lacks
the response of an adult to the behavior he initiates (M. Ainsworth, 1962).
Attachment Styles
Although all children get attached, the quality of the attachment differs. Ainsworth
and colleagues first notice differences in attachment patterns exist between mother-child
dyad during her routine observations in her Strange Situation experiment (M. Ainsworth,
Blehar, Walters, & Wall, 1979). The experiment consists of a sequence of steps that
includes observations of the child’s behavior with the parent, when the parent was absent,
and when a stranger was present both with and without the parent (M. Ainsworth, Blehar,
Walters, & Wall, 1979; M. D. S. Ainsworth, 1985; Bartholomew, 1990). The experiment
was designed to arouse anxiety, security seeking and exploration in order to test Bowlby’s
assumptions on the three functions of attachment, which are proximity maintenance, safe
heaven, and secure base. Ainsworth and her colleagues noticed that the intensity of the
separation distress were different for different infants, the reunion interaction between the
caregiver and the child also varied (M. Ainsworth, 1964; M. Ainsworth, Blehar, Walters,
& Wall, 1979). They soon concluded that the difference was related to the strength and
quality of the attachment of the infant to the parent. The results from this experiment lead
to the development of the concept of attachment styles between infant and caregiver.
Ainsworth et al. highlighted three basic attachment styles: secure, avoidant, and
anxious-ambivalent (M. D. S. Ainsworth, 1985; Bretherton, 1992; Cassidy & Shaver, 1999;
Karen, 1998; Parks, Stevenson-Hinde, & Marris, 1991). The researchers observed that
securely attached infants could explore their environments when their caregiver was
present and displayed certain degree of separation distress when a parent left but were
easily comforted by their parent upon their return. The parent of avoidant infants was
generally distant or rigid and infants tended to avoid contact with them.
Anxious-ambivalent infants have parent who showed inconsistent caregiving behavior, and
shown extreme separation distress when the parent left, and ambivalence or anger upon
return.
Later works on attachment styles purposed four styles of attachment instead of three
(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Bartholomew suggested a four-group attachment model
elaborated from Bowlby’s framework on internal and external working models of attachment.
The model based in part on the positive and negative variations in the working models of self
and other mentioned previously. The types of attachment styles are named: secure (positive
self and other), preoccupied (negative self, positive other), dismissing (positive self, negative
other), and fearful (negative self and other). These four attachment styles are argued by
some as an elaboration of the three-group attachment style model originally proposed by
Ainsworth and her colleagues. Feeney (1996) proposes that the secure attachments style in
both models are considered the same. The preoccupied attachment style is equivalent to that
of anxious/ambivalent attachment style, and the avoidant attachment style can be sub-divided
into either the dismissing or fearful attachment styles. Therefore, the present study will
focus on the three-group attachment style model given its longer research history and its
fitness with the adult attachment assessment this study administrated (Adult Attachment
Questionnaire, (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
Continuity of Childhood Attachment to Adulthood
Adult Attachment styles
Although initial theorizing of attachment theory has focused on childhood, the theory
was later applied to adult romantic relationships and parenting relationships (Rothbard &
Shaver, 1994). The research on adult attachment styles formulated as two parallel studies in
the early 1980s. The developmental psychologists team lead by Mary Ainsworth’s students
in the University of Minnesota carried on Ainsworth’s legacy by extending her parent-child
dyadic attachments to that of typologizing adult attachment styles (Karen, 1998). Social
psychologists Cindy Hazan and Philip Shaver at the University of Denver, (1994a; , 1987)
studied adult attachment styles with respect to romantic relationships and the significance of
it with patterns of parent-child relationship in their families of origin.
Aside from the attachment figure, the attachment dynamic in adulthood is very similar
to that of when we were younger. The emotions adults exhibit toward their partner is strong,
the anxiety we experience when our significant other is away is intense, the ease we feel
when they are around us is comforting, the urge to seek for them when we are in need is
universal. All the emotions that I just mention sound familiar only to those of us who has
had significant attachments in our adult life before. It is because we all have experienced
them and they are reenactments of our childhood attachment with our parents. The
components and functions of attachment in adulthood with our partner are still very much the
same compare to that of childhood attachment with our caregiver. Kerns (1994) proposes
that attachment style at one developmental stages helps to influence the resultant attachment
style at the next developmental stage. Working models provide the continuity between
infant and adult attachment systems by maintaining expectations derived during childhood of
the attachment figure’s behavior and one’s capacity in social situations. In addition, each
stage of development provides the foundation for the next stage, for example, having the
advantages of a secure attachment would help a child develop secure attachments with peers
during adolescence. Shaver, Collins, and Clark (1996) have also proposed that expectations
associated with working models tend to become self-fulfilling over time, so for example,
being rejected can cause one to develop expectations of rejection and subsequently behave in
ways that increase the likelihood of rejection.
Attachment styles in adults are hypothesized to stem directly from the working models
of oneself and others that were developed during infancy and childhood. Ainsworth's
classification of the three attachment styles has been translated into terms of adult romantic
relationships as follow:
Secure adults find it relatively easy to get close to others and are comfortable
depending on others and having others depend on them. Secure adults
don't often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too
close to them.
Avoidant adults are somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; they find
it difficult to trust others completely, difficult to allow themselves to
depend on others. Avoidant adults are nervous when anyone gets too close,
and often, love partners want them to be more intimate than they feel
comfortable being.
Anxious / ambivalent adults find that others are reluctant to get as close as
they would like. Anxious / ambivalent adults often worry that their partner
doesn't really love them or won't want to stay with them. Anxious /
ambivalent adults want to merge completely with another person, and this
desire sometimes scares people away. (Hazan & Shaver, 1987, p. 515)
Attachment is an integral part of human behavior and the function and dynamic of the
system is hypothesized to be virtually the same across life span (Hazan & Shaver, 1994a).
Hazan and Shaver (1994b) noted several functional and behavior similarities between
childhood and adult attachment. First, the quality of the attachment is dependent upon the
reciprocation, sensitivity and responsiveness of the attachment figure/ caregiver. Second,
securely attached individuals (infants/adults) are generally happier and more adaptive than
insecurely attached individuals. Third, the attachment mechanism of maintaining proximity

to the attachment figure is displayed in both adult and infant attachments. Fourth,
separation from an attachment figure causes extreme distress (separation distress), and the
initiation of attachment behaviors in an attempt to regain contact with the attachment figure.
Fifth, in both adults and infants, there is an intense sensitivity when displaying discoveries
and achievements to the attachment figure for approval. And lastly, both attachments entail
a certain degree of baby talk or motherese (i.e., distinct speech patterns and vocabulary use
by caregivers when talking to young children) type communication. Despite the
continuation and similarities of the attachment behavior, several differences exist among
them worth mentioning. First, childhood attachments relationship are asymmetrical,
meaning that the relationship is usually complementary whereas adult attachment
relationships are typically reciprocal Second, children’s attachment is almost always toward
an adult caregiver, whereas adults’ attachment figures are normally peers, usually a sexual
partner; there is almost always a sexual component involved in adult attachments (J. Feeney
& Noller, 1996; Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
The quality of the mother’s romantic relationship or martial satisfaction is often the
best predictor of the mother’s parenting behaviors (Altepeter & Walker, 1992). Crittenden
and Ainsworth (1989) suggested the possibility of the elevation of insecure attachment bond
between child and mother due to young mother’s insensitive responds to their infants needs,
which furthermore increase the risk of abuse and neglect.

Mary Ainsworth (M. D. S. Ainsworth, 1985) in her acceptance speech for American
Psychological Association Division 12 Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award stated on
her student Mary Main’s research in Adult Attachment:
It is yielding very convincing evidence of cross-generational effects.

Those who have parented securely attached infants had not all had idyllically
secure relations with parents in early childhood. No, some were rejected,
neglected, and/or abused but somehow overcome these early handicaps and won
through to sufficient understanding of their parents to enable them to give their
own children the security that they themselves had not experienced early on.
How? (p. 29)
The purpose of this study is to attempt to answer the question Ainsworth asked 20
years ago about the positive factors that brought out the resiliency in mothers of adverse life
circumstance to successfully terminate the trans-generational circle of harmful parenting.
Some protective factors identified against child abuse in at-risk population are social support
(Goobic, 2002; Lowenthal, 1998; Muller & Lemieux, 2000; Muller, Lemieux, & Sicoli,
2001), perceived social support (Crouch, Milner, & Caliso, 1995), supportive spouse (Caliso
& Milner, 1992), and less socialemotional difficulties (i.e. anxiety, dependency, depression
and immaturity) (Burt et al., 2005; Langeland & Dijkstra, 1995). Aside from the protective
factors coming from external sources and from the socialemotional level, what else is
shielding a mother from maltreating her child when everything else seems to built up for her
to do just that? The construct of hope is a positive factor that may be helpful in
understanding this phenomenon.

Hope
Snyder, Irving and Anderson (1991) defined hope as a positive motivational state that
is based on an interactively derived sense of successful processes that includes (1) agency
thinking (goal directed energy; motivation) and (2) pathway thinking (planning to meet goals;
means to achieve the goal). Hope has been positive correlated with better psychological
adjustment and life satisfaction (Kwon, 2002), optimism (Kashdan et al., 2002) and better
treatment outcome (Snyder, 2004), and negatively related to levels of depression among
college student(Snyder, 2004). Hope is a relatively new concept in psychology and the
role of hope at the societal level in psychological adjustment warrants further study (Snyder,
2002). Research on the relationship of hope to high-risk families for child abuse and neglect
is scarce and inconclusive. Howater (2003) found no significant relationship between hope
and child abuse potential among first time adolescent mothers, but another study found hope
as a predictive factor in child abuse behavior (Parvizian, 2005). Hope is hypothesized to be
a socially learned behavior, and it has been postulated that the lost of hope in children is
especially induced upon by negligent and abusive parents (Snyder, 1994). Neglected
newborns do not have the opportunity to receive the necessary care and attachment to
develop hopeful thinking from their primary caregiver, and abused children learn that
interpersonal relationships cannot be trusted. Child abuse has long been associated with
negative attachment outcomes (Lowenthal, 1998; McCarthy & Taylor, 1999) and parental
insecure attachment styles has also been link with child abuse potential (Rodriguez, 2006).
But not much is known about the function of hope in the relationship between parental
attachment styles and risk for child maltreatment, therefore, more studies are needed to
understand attachment, and risk for child maltreatment and how they relate to hope.
The aim of this study is to investigate the relationships of hope, adult attachment styles
and potential for child abuse and neglect. It is hypothesized that parental hope will be
negatively associated with high level of child maltreatment potential and that it will be
positively correlated with low risk for child physical abuse and neglect. It is also
hypothesized that mothers with a secure attachment style will have higher hope scores, and
less likely to maltreat their young. The insecurely attached mother will have lower hope
scores and are more prone to child maltreatment.
Method
Participants
Participants were 45 at-risk for child abuse and neglect mothers. Age of participants
ranged from 16 to 43 years with a mean of 20.79 years (SD=4.96). African American
represented the majority (82.1%; n=37) of the sample, followed by mixed-racial (10.3%;
n=5), Hispanics (5.1%; n=2) and Caucasians (2.6%; n=1). Over half (61.5%; n=28) of the
participants are currently in high school, 33.3% (n=15) are not in school and has no high
school or equivalent degree, and 5.1% (n=2) received a high school degree or equivalent.
Procedure
The present study was conducted as a sub-study under the Preventing Child Neglect in
High-Risk Mothers Project (a multi-side longitudinal intervention project of the University of
Notre Dame, University of Kansas, Georgetown University and University of Texas Health
Science; For this study, data were collected at the Kansas site only). The intervention
project uses a treatment-control design. All participants were assigned with a family coach
that provides assistant according to their placement. All mothers were randomly assigned to
one of two groups: A low-intensity group that provides referral to community support
services based on assessed needs and a high-intensity group that provides referrals to social
support plus at least bi-weekly training on a wide range of skills related to parenting.
Assessors visit each participants to assess child development and complete interviews and
assessments prepared by the Preventing Child Neglect on High-Riska Mothers Project when
child is 4-month, 10-month, and every 6 months after. This sub-sample of participants from
the Kansas site consisted of 45 mothers from the larger sample recruited by the Preventing
Child Neglect in High-Risk Mothers Project from prenatal clinics during pregnancy whom fit
the profile for potential child maltreatment. The recruiting criteria were: participants are
between 15-18 years of age at the time of birth of their first child, or over 18 and without a
high school degree or rendered them eligible from inclusion barring major mental illness,
AIDS, or active substance abuse.
The Adult Attachment Style Questionnaire and Child Abuse Potential Inventory
(CAPI) were part of the prenatal and 1-month assessment packet prepared by the Preventing
Child Neglect in High-Risk Mothers Project. All data has already been collected by the
family coaches and stored in database from the prenatal phase and the 1-month assessment
phase of the Preventing Child Neglect project. For the purpose of this study, only the Adult
Attachment Questionnaire and the Child Abuse Potential Inventory from the entire prenatal
and 1-month postnatal packets were analyzed.
During the course of administering the standard assessment battery by the assessors at
the 4-month, 10-month and 16-month home visits, an additional information consent form
was presented to the participants. This additional consent form informed the participants of
their rights to chose to complete an additional assessment (Trait Hope Scale) for the purpose
of this study.
Measurement
The Trait Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991) measures adult trait hope. The assessment
consists of 7-point Likert-scale of 12-items, which are further divided to three subscales of
four agencies, four pathways, and four distracter items. Respondents are asked to imagine
themselves across time and situational contexts, and the average time to complete the
assessment is 3 minutes. Test-retest reliability is .80 or higher over a period of 10 weeks
(Snyder et al., 1991), convergent validity with related construct scales like optimism is
from .50 to .60 and discriminant validity on self-confidence scale which is believed to be not
correlated with hope is -.30 (Snyder et al., 1991).
Adult Attachment Style Questionnaire, AASQ (Hazan & Shaver, 1987) consists of questions
on satisfaction with intimacy. The assessment consists of two sub-scales, a 13-item
Likert-scale on feeling of attachment and a 1-item consists of the 13 items from the pervious
sub-scale into paragraphs by attachment styles. Concurrent validity on two months
test-retest correlation with the Adult Attachment Scale is r=.79.
The Child Abuse Potential Inventory (Joel S. Milner, 1986) designed to assess an individual’s
likelihood in imposing child maltreatment. It is a 77-item measurement composed with 3
abused-related subscales (Rigidity,Unhappiness, Problems with Child and Self). Studies
have found internal reliability rates on the CAPI Abuse Scale that range from .85 to .98 (see
Milner, 1986). Chaffin and Valle (2003) reported a 2-week test-retest reliability of .91 for
the CAPI Abuse Scale. At least one longitudinal study reported a significantly higher rate of
confirmed physical child abuse among parents with elevated CAPI scores (Milner, Gold,
Ayoub, & Jacewitz, 1985) while other studies indicated the CAPI can discriminate between
at-risk and control parents (see Milner, 1989). Measures of parental stress significantly
correlate with CAPI scores (Holden, Willis, & Foltz, 1989; Schellenbach, Monroe, &
Merluzzi, 1991).
Preliminary Analyses
Descriptive statistics were run to illustrate general information on trait hope scores,
child abuse potential scores and adult attachment styles. Analysis of variance of hope and
CAPI were run between different attachment styles to test if hope and CAPI scores are
significantly different between different attachment styles. Correlational analyses were
conducted on child abuse potential (CAPI), hope scores, and adult attachment styles. The
analyses illustrate how hope and adult attachment styles are related to child abuse potentials
and the relationship strengths of these individual variables.
Results
The descriptive statistics for the sample are shown in Table 1 for the total hope scores,
scores of total CAPI, and hope and CAPI scores among different adult attachment styles.
The recommended cut-off score for CAPI is 215 for the general population (Joel S.
Milner, 1986), the score is rather conservative to reduce false positive classification of
potential abusers. In this sample, 12 cases fall above the cut-off, which is equivalent to
26.7% of the total sample. When using the clinical cut-off score for the at-risk for child
abuse population of 166, 15 cases fall above the clinical cut-off score, which represent 34.1
% of the total sample. Approximately 1.8 to 4.2 percent of the general population are
estimated to abuse children (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1998). It is
evident that since the study was conducted among the at-risk population for child
maltreatment, the percentage is well above the general population.
The percentage breakdown of adult attachment styles in the present study are 45.5 %
(n=20) secure attachment style, 40.9% (n=18) avoidant attachment style, and 13.6 % (n=6)
anxious attachment style. One participant was removed from the analyses as she did not fall
under any attachment style. The percentage breakdown of the actual attachment styles is
inconsistent to the participants’ self-report attachment styles. Participants’ self-report
yielded secure attachment style (51.1%), avoidant attachment style (28.9%), and anxious
attachment style (20%). Study done in the general American population on adult
attachment styles indicates a spread of 60% secure, 15% Anxious/Ambivalent, and 25%
Avoidant (Campos, Barrett, Lamb, Goldsmith, & Stenberg, 1983). The present study done
in the at-risk population exhibits a slightly different breakdown. A much higher percentage
of the avoidant attachment style (40.9%) and a lower percentage of anxious attachment style
(13.6%) and secure attachment style (45.5%) are shown.
The anxious attachment style bared the highest mean hope score of 53.83 and a
standard deviation of 6.56, followed by the secure attachment style (µ=49.05; SD= 8.97) and
last by the avoidant attachment style (µ=46.50; SD= 6.55). However, the difference
between the three attachment styles in hope was not statistically significant (F=1.399;
p=.275). The avoidant attachment style bared the highest mean score for CAPI of 193.81
and a standard deviation of 100.28, follow by the secure attachment style (µ=129.87; SD=
79.08) and last by the anxious attachment style (µ=115.4; SD= 71.38 ). CAPI scores
between the three attachment styles were statistically significant at the .05 level (F= 3.194;
p= .051). The result of analyses of variances of hope, CAPI and attachment styles is shown
in Table 2.
The result of correlational analyses of hope, CAPI and adult attachment styles are
shown in Table 3. All correlations were done on a two-tailed significance level. As
hypothesized earlier, Hope is inversely correlated to CAPI at the .01 significance level
(r=-.388, p=.009), and hope is negatively correlated to the avoidant attachment scores at
the .05 significance level (r=-.294, p=.050). Hope is correlated positively to both the secure
attachment scale (r=.096, p=.533) and the anxious attachment scale (r= .051, p=.741),
however the results did not reach statistically significance. Contrary to the initial
hypotheses, anxiously attached individuals did not bare significantly lower hope scores in
comparison to the securely attached individual. A scatter plot of CAPI and hope is shown in
Figure 1. The graph indicates an inverse relationship between child abuse potential and
hope.
Consistent with the hypothesis of the present study, avoidant attachment scale is
positively correlated to CAPI at the .01 significance level (r=.515, p=.00). It is also positive
correlated to the anxious attachment scale, with r=.198 (p=.019) but did not reach statistical
significance. In contrast from the original hypothesis, CAPI scores are positively correlated
to the secure attachment scale in a minute level of r=.009 (p=.953).
Correlations among attachment scales yield several interesting relationships. The
secure attachment scale is negatively correlated to the avoidant attachment scale with r=-.131
(p=.391), this correlation did not reach statistical significance. The secure attachment scale
is positively correlated to the anxious attachment scale with r= .021(p=.893), the two factors
did not reach statistical significance either. The anxious attachment type scale statistical
significance at the .01 level with the avoidant attachment scale (r=-.457, p=.002).
Correlation between hope and CAPI among different attachment styles is showed in
Table 4. The analyses granted a closer examination into how child abuse potential and hope
is related in different styles of attachment. Hope scores among the avoidant attachment
style is negatively correlated to CAPI (r= -.124, p= .623), in the anxious attachment style
hope is positively correlated to CAPI (r= .080, p= .881), both correlation did not reach
statistical significance. CAPI and hope among the secure attachment style is significantly
correlated at the .001 level (r= -.597, p= .005). CAPI scores is negatively correlated
between the avoidant and anxious attachment styles (r= -.823, p= .044) at the .005
significance level. Scatter plots of hope and CAPI among the three attachment styles are
shown in Table 2, 3 and 4.

Discussion
Protective factors that break the cycle of child abuse have been an area of interest
among social science professionals. Parents raising children in adverse life circumstances
are especially prone to child abuse (DePaul & Domenech, 2000). Insecure attachment styles
among parents have also been linked with inadequate parenting and child abuse potential
(Rodriguez, 2006; Stalker, Gebotys, & Harper, 2005). However, some individuals rise
above the unfavorable conditions and raise their young like any other good parents. Hope
has been identified as a positive factor in optimism, better life satisfaction and adjustment
among the general population (Kashdan et al., 2002; Kwon, 2002). Yet not much is known
about hope in the relationship between parental attachment styles and risk for child
maltreatment. This study attempts to understand the effects of hope within high-risk
families for child abuse and neglect by examining mother’s adult attachment style, and child
maltreatment potential.
As hypothesized earlier, Hope is inversely correlated to child abuse potentials. Earlier
studies revealed inconsistent findings on the relationship between parental hope and child
abuse potential (Howarter, 2003; Parvizian, 2005). However, the present study adds to the
literature that supports the notion that higher levels of hope is indeed related to lower levels
of child abuse potential. One possible explanation for the inconsistency in the literature was
mentioned by the study’s author (Howarter, 2003). Howarter suspected that one reason may
be that her study used an abbreviated version of the CAPI which only consisted of 25 items,
while the current study used the complete CAPI abuse sub-scale consisted of 77 items. The
current study further strengthens the notion that, hope may act as a protective factor against
child abuse within the population that is most likely to maltreat their children.
No known pervious study has been done to explore the relationship between attachment
scores and an individual’s hopefulness. The present study voyaged into this field and found
significant correlations between the two factors. Hope is significantly inversely correlated
to the avoidant attachment scale. Both the secure and the anxious attachment scales did not
have statistical significant correlation with hope. The insignificant correlation may be
explained by the small sample of the present study, as there may be meaningful relationship
between hope and the secure and anxious attachment styles but the sample size is too small to
reveal any significant relationship.
Consistent with the hypothesis of the present study, avoidant attachment scale is
positively correlated to CAPI at the .01 significance level. Parents with avoidant attachment
style have been linked with high child abuse potential (Levy & Orlans, 1998). People with
avoidant attachment style shun away from relationships as they have grown to learn that
attachment is unreliable. Once giving birth to a child, being a parent is a relationship that an
individual can not avoid or escape from. Avoidant parents may lack the joy of being a
caretaker and looking at the task of raising the youngster as a burden of responsibility.
Another possible explanation may lie in the function of the working models (Hazan & Shaver,
1994b; Shaver & Hazan, 1987) An avoidant individual has a negative view of others and
more positive view of self, perhaps the abusive behavior towards their young result from the
belief that others are unworthy of their love, even ones own offspring. CAPI did not have a
significant correlation with the anxious attachment scale and the secure attachment scale.
The insignificant correlation may be explained by the small sample of the present study, as
there may be meaningful relationship between CAPI and the secure and anxious attachment
styles but the sample size is too small to reveal any relationship.
When individual cases were break down according to their attachment styles instead of
looking just at their attachment scales, only the secure attachment style hypothesis is
supported. Child abuse potential is significantly negatively correlated to hope among the
secure attachment style. Parents with secure attachment style are less likely to abuse their
children when they have a more hopeful attitude. Although consistent with the initial
hypothesis that hope and child abuse potential has a negative relationship among the avoidant
attachment style, the correlation is statistically insignificant. Inconsistent with the original
hypothesis child abuse potential is positively related to hope among the anxious attachment
but was statically insignificant. The relationship is baffling as to why higher hope would
result in higher child abuse potential. One possible explanation may lie in the small sample
of the anxious attachment style in the present study. There are only 6 participants in this
sample and the size of this group is too small to suggest any meaningful relation. Another
explanation may be the erratic pattern of attachment behavior among the anxious attachment
individuals, since their attachment behavior is inconsistent, the inverse relationship between
hope and child abuse potential does not apply to them.
Limitations
It is essential to take into account some of the limitations of this study. First, the
majority of the participants in this study are of African-American racial identity, this under
presents the general at-risk for child abuse population ethnically. The sample limits the
generalizability of the finding to all at-risk for child maltreatment mothers
Second, the CAPI originally contains three sub-scales, the abuse scale, lie scale and the
distraction scale. Only the abuse scale is used in the present study. It is therefore
important to take social desirability into account since it is a self-report instrument and the lie
scale is not included to tease out the possibility. It is also important to note that to date the
CAPI has not been successful in predicting neglect, since there are no other instrument built
up to measure child neglect, CAPI still is generally used for both abuse and neglect (Joel S.
Milner, 1994). Third, since all measurements used in this study are self-report measures, the
problem of social desirability should be taking into account of as a possible confound.
Adult Attachment Interview developed by Bartholomew and Horowitz in 1991 is a possible

alternative to replace the self administer questionnaire, however, the interview require
extensive training to administer (Bartholomew & Shaver, 1998). The present study used
Hazan & Shaver’s Adult Attachment Style Questionnaire (1987) owing to its fitness with the
three-group attachment style model theory used in this study.
Fourth, due to the nature of the conditions of this research being conducted as a
sub-study, all the three assessments were filled out by the participants at three different time
points. Taking into account that all the three factor of interest are stable traits (adult
attachment style, child abuse potential and hope), the result of the study should not differ
significantly as compared to completing all three assessments in one setting. However,
possible confounding variables may still exist due to the temporal difference. Despite some
of the limitations in this study, the data provide support to pervious literature on hope and
parental attachment style on child abuse potential and new insights into parental hope and
attachment styles.
Finally, the present study is a correlational study. Therefore, other unidentified
variables may contribute to the outcome of the correlations between the variable of interest in
the present study. Factors like social support, self-esteem, financial situation, emotional
state, stress level and etc were not examined but have been associated with levels of hope and
child abuse potential in past literature (Crouch, Milner, & Caliso, 1995; DePaul & Domenech,
2000; Goobic, 2002; Snyder, 2004). It is therefore important not to draw any casual
relationships interpreting the result of this study.
Directions for Future Research
The present study yield interesting outcomes that warrant future investigation. First,
it is still unclear why the two insecure adult attachment scale correlate differently with hope.
The avoidant attachment scale correlates negatively with hope while the anxious/ambivalent
attachment scale has a positive relationship with hope. More studies needed to be done to
fully understand the inverse relationship between the two insecure attachment scales with
hope. It is also unclear why anxious attachment style bare a different relationship pattern
between hope and child abuse potential compare to the other two attachment styles. Since it
is the only adult attachment style with a positive correlation between hope and child abuse
potential, more study needed to be done to understand this phenomena.
Next, the present study consisted of mainly African American participants, other ethnic
groups are under-represented. Future studies need to establish whether the outcomes found
in the present study could generalized to other ethnic populations. Future investigation
could explore ways to minimize social desirability by replacing self-report measures with
alternative forms of measurement. As the concept of hope is relatively new in the filed of
psychology, more research needs to be done to fully understand the relationship of hope in
adult attachment styles and child abuse potential.
(Caver & Nash, 2005; Joel S Milner, Gold, Ayoub, & Jacewitz, 1984; Schellenbach, Monroe, & Merluzzi, 1991)
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Approved by the Human Subjects Committee University of
Kansas, Lawrence Campus (HSCL). Approval expires one year
Appendix A
Information Statement
The Department of Psychology Research in Education at the University of Kansas supports

the practice of protection for human subjects participating in research. The following
information is provided for you to decide whether you wish to participate in the present study.
You should be aware that even if you agree to participate, you are free to withdraw at any
time without penalty. Your decision to participate in this study will not effect your current
involvement with the My Baby and Me program.
We are conducting this study to better understand parental coping. This will entail your
completion of a questionnaire. The questionnaire packet is expected to take approximately 3
minutes to complete.
The content of the questionnaires should cause no more discomfort than you would
experience in your everyday life. Although participation may not benefit you directly, we
believe that the information obtained from this study will help us gain a better understanding
of parenting stress and coping. Your participation is solicited, although strictly voluntary.
Your name will not be associated in any way with the research findings. If you would like
additional information concerning this study before or after it is completed, please feel free to
contact us by phone or mail.
Completion of the survey indicates your willingness to participate in this project and that you
are over the age of eighteen. If you have any additional questions about your rights as a
research participant, you may call (785) 864-7429 or write the Human Subjects Committee
Lawrence Campus (HSCL), University of Kansas, 2385 Irving Hill Road, Lawrence, Kansas
66045-7563, email dhann@ku.edu.
Sincerely,
Alice Wen-jui Cheng Kristin K. O’Byrne, Ph.D.

Principal Investigator Faculty Supervisor
Department of Psychology Department of Psychology
Research in Education Research in Education
Joseph R. Person Hall Joseph R. Person Hall
University of Kansas University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS 66045 Lawrence, KS 66045
(785)418-0171 (785)864-9648
alicecwj@ku.edu kkobyrne@ku.edu
Appendix B
Participant ID __________ Date __________
Adult trait Goal scale
Direction: Read each item carefully. Using the scale shown below, please select the number
that best describes you and put that number in the blank provided.
1=Definitely 2=Mostly 3=Somewhat 4=Slightly 5=Slightly 6=Somewhat 7=Mostly 8=Definitely
False False False False True True True True
___ 1. I can think of many ways to get out of a jam.
___ 2. I energetically pursue my goal.
___ 3. I feel tired most of the time.
___ 4. There are lots of ways around any problem.
___ 5. I am easily downed in an argument.
___ 6. I can think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me.
___ 7. I worry about my health.
___ 8. Even when others get discouraged, I know I can find a way to solve the problem.
___ 9. My past experiences have prepared me well for my future.
___ 10. I’ve been pretty successful in life.
___ 11. I usually find myself worrying about something.
___ 12. I meet the goals that I set for myself.

Appendix C
Adult Attachment Style Questionnaire
The following questionnaire, in two brief parts, is concerned with your experiences in
romantic love relationships. Take a moment to think about all of the most important
romantic relationships you have been involved in. For each relationship think about: How
happy or unhappy you were, and how your moods fluctuated. How much you trusted or
distrusted each other. Whether you felt you were too close emotionally or not close enough.
The amount of jealousy you felt. How much time you spend thinking about your partner.
How attracted you were to the person. How the relationship might have been better. How
it ended. (Thinking about these good and bad memories of various relationships will help
you answer the following questions accurately).
Part 1.
Read each following self-descriptions and then rate how much you agree or disagree that
each one describes the way you generally are in love relationships. Using the scale shown
below, please select the number that best describes you and put that number in the blank
provided. (Note: The terms ‘close’ and ‘intimate’ refer to psychological or emotional
closeness, not necessarily to sexual intimacy).
1=Disagree 2=Disagree 3=Disgree 4=Mixed or 5=Agree 6=Agree 7=Agree

strongly moderately slightly not sure slightly moderately Strongly
_____ 1. I find it relatively easy to get close to others.
_____ 2. I’m not very comfortable having to depend on other people.
_____ 3. I’m comfortable having others depend on me.
_____ 4. I rarely worry about being abandoned by others.
_____ 5. I don’t like people getting to close to me.
_____ 6. I’m somewhat uncomfortable being too close to others.
_____ 7. I find it difficult to trust others completely.
_____ 8. I’m nervous whenever anyone gets too close too me.
_____ 9. Others often want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being.
_____ 10. Others are reluctant to get as close as I would like.
_____ 11. I often worry that my partner(s) don’t really love me.
_____ 12. I rarely worry about my partner(s) leaving me.
_____ 13. I often want to merge completely with others, and this desire sometimes scares
them away.
Part 2.
Below, the self-descriptions from above are printed again, this time in paragraphs. Please
check the line next to the single alternative that best describes how you feel in romantic love
relationships (choose just one option).
_____ 1. I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them
completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am nervous when
anyone gets too close and, often, love partners want me to be more intimate than I
feel comfortable being.
_____ 2. I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my
partner doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay with me. I want to get very
close to my partner, and this sometimes scares people away.
_____ 3. I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending in them.
I don’t often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to
me.
Appendix D
CAP Inventory Form

The next section includes a series of statements which may be applied to yourself. After I
read each of the following statements, answer whether you agree or disagree with each
statement.
Agree Disagree
1. I have always been strong and health………………………………..............A D
2. I am a confused person……………………………………………………….A D
3. People expect too much from me………………………………….……...….A D
4. I am often mixed up………………………………………………………….A D
5. You cannot depend on others…………………………………………………A D
6. I am a happy person…………………………………………………………..A D
7. I am often angry inside……………………………………………………….A D
8. Sometimes I feel all alone in the world………………………………………A D
9. Everything in a home should always be in its place………………………….A D
10. I often feel rejected………………………………………………………….A D
11. I am often lonely inside……………………………………………..............A D
12. Little boys should never learn sissy games………………………………….A D
13. I often feel very frustrated…………………………………………………..A D
14. Children should never disobey……………………………………...............A D
15. Sometimes I fear that I will lose control of myself………………………….A D
16. I sometimes wish that my father would have loved me more……………….A D
17. My telephone number is unlisted……………………………………………A D
18. I sometimes worry that I will not have enough to eat……………………….A D
19. I am an unlucky person………………………………………………………A D
20. I am usually a quiet person…………………………………………………...A D

Agree Disgree
21. Things have usually gone against me in life…………………...…..……..A D
22. I have a child who is bad…………………………………………………A D
23. I sometimes feel worthless………………………………………………..A D
24. I sometimes feel worthless………………………………………………..A D
25. I often feel worried……………………………………………………….A D
26. A child should never talk back………………………………………...….A D
27. I am often easily upset…………………………………………………….A D
28. I am often worried inside………………………………………………….A D
29. People have caused me a lot of pain……………………………………….A D
30. Children should stay clean…………………………………………………A D
31. I have a child who gets in trouble a lot…………………………………….A D
32. I find it hard to relax……………………………………………………….A D
33. These days a person doesn’t really know on whom one can count………...A D
34. My life is happy…………………………………………………………….A D
35. I have a physical handicap………………………………………………….A D
36. Children should have play cloths and good cloths…………………………A D
37. Other people do not understand how I feel…………………………………A D
38. Children should be quiet and listen…………………………………………A D
39. I have several close friends in my neighborhood…………………………...A D
40. My family fights a lot………………………...……………………………..A D
41. I have headaches…………………………………..………………………..A D
42. I do not laugh very much……………………………..…………………….A D
43. I have fears no one knows about…………………………...……………….A D
44. My family has problems getting along………………………………………A D
45. Life often seems useless to me………………………………………………A D

Agree Disagree
46. People do not understand me………………………………………….…A D
47. I often feel worthless…………………………………………………….A D
48. Other people have made my life happy………………………………….A D
49. Sometimes I do not know why I act as I do……………………………..A D
50. I have many personal problems………………………………………….A D
51. I often feel very upset……………………………………………………A D
52. My life is good……………………………………………………………A D
53. A home should be spotless………………………………………………..A D
54. I am easily upset by my problems………………………………………..A D
55. My parents did not understand me……………………………………….A D
56. Many things in life make me angry……………………………………….A D
57. My child has special problems……………………………………………A D
58. Children should be seen and not heard……………………………………A D
59. I am often depressed………………………………………………...…….A D
60. I am often upset……………………………………………………………A D
61. A good child keeps his toys and clothes neat and orderly…………………A D
62. Children should always be neat…………………………………..………..A D
63. I have a child who is slow………………………………………………… A D
64. A parent must use punishment if he wants to control a child’s behavior….. A D
65. Children should never caused trouble………………………………………A D
66. A child needs very strict rules……………………………………………….A D
67. I often feel better than others………………………………………………..A D
68. I am often upset and do not know why……………………………………...A D
69. I have a good sex life…………………………………………….………….A D
70. I often feel very alone………………………………………………….…….A D

Agree Disagree
71. I often alone……………………………………………………….……….A D
72. Right now, I am deeply in love...…………………………………………..A D
73. My family has many problems………………..……………………………A D
74. Other people have made my life hard…………………..………………….A D
75. I laugh some almost every day…………………………………..…………A D
76. I sometimes worry that my needs will not be met…………………………..A D
77. I often feel afraid……………………………………………………………A D

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for total hope, total CAPI and hope and CAPI among
attachment styles
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Hope 45 29 64 48.60 7.892
CAPI 45 17.00 330.00 154.8751 91.16539
Hope Avoidant 18 37 57 46.50 6.555
Anxious 6 47 64 53.83 6.735
Secure 20 29 63 49.05 8.971
Total 44 29 64 48.66 7.974
CAPI Avoidant 18 43 330 193.81 100.278
Anxious 6 48 243 115.40 71.380
Secure 20 17 329 129.87 79.082
Total 44 17 330 154.05 92.051

Table 2. Analyses of Variances of hope, CAPI between attachment styles

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Hope Between
247.603 2 123.802 2.042 .143
Groups
Within
2486.283 41 60.641
Groups
Total 2733.886 43
CAPI Between
49109.262 2 24554.631 3.194 .051
Groups
Within
315245.716 41 7688.920
Groups
Total 364354.977 43
Table 3. Correlations between hope, subscales of hope, CAPI and attachment styles
CAPI Hope total Secure Avoidant Anxious
CAPI Pearson
1 -.388(**) .009 .515(**) .198
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) . .008 .953 .000 .193
N 45 45 45 45 45
Hope total Pearson

-.388(**) 1 .096 -.294(*) .051
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .008 . .533 .050 .741
N 45 45 45 45 45
Secure Pearson
.009 .096 1 -.131 .021
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .953 .533 . .391 .893
N 45 45 45 45 45
Avoidant Pearson
.515(**) -.294(*) -.131 1 .457(**)
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .050 .391 . .002
N 45 45 45 45 45
Anxious Pearson
.198 .051 .021 .457(**) 1
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .193 .741 .893 .002 .
N 45 45 45 45 45
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 4. Correlations between hope and CAPI among different attachment styles
Hope CAPI Hope CAPI Hope CAPI
Avoidant Avoidant Anxious Anxious Secure Secure
Hope Avoidant Pearson

1 -.124 -.605 -.249 .063 .150
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) . .623 .203 .634 .804 .553
N 18 18 6 6 18 18
CAPI Avoidant Pearson

-.124 1 .021 -.823(*) .504(*) -.360
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .623 . .968 .044 .033 .142
N 18 18 6 6 18 18
Hope Anxious Pearson

-.605 .021 1 .080 -.680 .827(*)
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .203 .968 . .881 .137 .042
N 6 6 6 6 6 6
CAPI Anxious Pearson

-.249 -.823(*) .080 1 -.528 .348
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .634 .044 .881 . .282 .499
N 6 6 6 6 6 6
Hope Secure Pearson

.063 .504(*) -.680 -.528 1 -.597(**)
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .804 .033 .137 .282 . .005
N 18 18 6 6 20 20
CAPI Secure Pearson

.150 -.360 .827(*) .348 -.597(**) 1
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .553 .142 .042 .499 .005 .
N 18 18 6 6 20 20
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Figure 1. A scatter plot of CAPI and hope
60
50
Hopetotal
40
30
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00

CAPI
Figure 2. Scatter plot of hope and CAPI in secure attachment style
60.00
50.00
Hope Secure
40.00
30.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00

CAPI Secure
Figure 3. Scatter plot of hope and CAPI in avoidant attachment style
60.00
55.00
Hope Avoidant
50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00

CAPI Avoidant
Figure 4. Scatter plot of hope and CAPI in anxious attachment style
65.00
60.00
Hope Anxious
55.00
50.00
45.00
50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00 300.00 350.00

CAPI Anxious

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Running head: HOPE AND ATTACHMENT STYLE AMONG MOTHERS

Alice Wen-jui Cheng

consequences of child maltreatment. Research on the positive mediating construct in

psychology and is related to positive psychological adjustment among non-clinical

higher child abuse potential and have lower hope scores.

consider as inappropriate in modern days.

Prevalence of Child Abuse

of Health and Human Services, 2005).

abuse, and sexual abuse. Neglect is defined as a form of maltreatment characterized by a

involuntary acts of physical or emotional aggressions towards a minor, which also

maltreatment households (Ethier, Palacio Quintin, & Jourdan Ionescu, 1992).

Long-Term Consequences of Abuse and Neglect

of maltreatment on children’s cognitive, emotional and social development spheres are

problems such as depression, self-mutilation, low self-esteem, aggression, anxiety, PTSD,

achieve more understanding about abusive parents.

Characteristics of the Abusing Parent

Parental functioning is influenced by characteristics of the parent, child and

mothers reported a significant higher level of physical punishment in childhood compared to

the non-neglectful mother from similar socioeconomic and educational backgrounds

Britner & Reppucci, 1997; Buccholz & Korn-Bursztyn, 1993).

Attachment and Parenting

Attachment Theory: An Overview

deprivation among the forty-four juvenile thieves he described as “affectionless

characters”(Karen, 1998, p. 53). The forty-four adolescents Bowlby witnessed displayed a

profile of affectionless, detachment, solitariness, unresponsiveness, impervious to punishment

their personality and later attachments (Bowlby, 1988).

prototype for later intimate relationships.

Internal working model is a key phrase coined by Bowlby to represent one’s

child is in need (Bartholomew, 1990). Three types of attachment styles observed by

mother-child dyads. Mothers of securely attached infants tends to be consistently

anxious/ambivalent tend to be inconsistent and inadequate in dealing with their infants

desperate signs (Bartholomew, 1990).

Confidence that an attachment figure is, apart from being accessible,

While Bowlby contributed an immense amount of knowledge to our current

conceptualization of attachment, another prominent psychologist, Mary Ainsworth,

contributed additional perspective on attachment.

(Bretherton, 1992; Karen, 1998). Her most prominent work is on classification of

mentioned research in introductory Psychology textbooks, is the Strange Situation

experiment (Bartholomew, 1990). The typology of attachment classification further

Strange situation observation in infancy. Ainsworth defines attachment as ” relationships

the response of an adult to the behavior he initiates (M. Ainsworth, 1962).

(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Bartholomew suggested a four-group attachment model

some as an elaboration of the three-group attachment style model originally proposed by

Questionnaire, (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).

Continuity of Childhood Attachment to Adulthood

Adult Attachment styles

in the University of Minnesota carried on Ainsworth’s legacy by extending her parent-child

it with patterns of parent-child relationship in their families of origin.

ways that increase the likelihood of rejection.

reciprocation, sensitivity and responsiveness of the attachment figure/ caregiver. Second,

insecurely attached individuals. Third, the attachment mechanism of maintaining proximity

by caregivers when talking to young children) type communication. Despite the

them worth mentioning. First, childhood attachments relationship are asymmetrical,

meaning that the relationship is usually complementary whereas adult attachment

& Noller, 1996; Hazan & Shaver, 1987).

which furthermore increase the risk of abuse and neglect.

Psychological Association Division 12 Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award stated on

her student Mary Main’s research in Adult Attachment:

It is yielding very convincing evidence of cross-generational effects.

circumstance to successfully terminate the trans-generational circle of harmful parenting.

understanding this phenomenon.

as a predictive factor in child abuse behavior (Parvizian, 2005). Hope is hypothesized to be

scores and are more prone to child maltreatment.

Participant ID Date