Circuit Breaker Operation

In addition to the events that cause a trip, a circuit breaker for switchgear applications must also be selected for the method by which it opens when tripped. This is important, because when contacts are opened quickly at high voltage levels, a conductive metallic vapor can form that allows current to continue to travel between the open contacts. This phenomenon, known as arcing, creates the greatest obstacle to circuit interruption. As a result, medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers employ one of four different arc interrupting technologies. All take advantage of the fact that even the most powerful AC overcurrent cycles pass the ero-current level twice in one cycle. !y reducing the amount of conductive gas between the contacts, the arc cannot be sustained when it passes through a current ero. "ince the current in #C circuits does not follow a sine-wave pattern, circuit interruption is very difficult. This makes the #C interrupting rating for most breakers much lower than the interrupting rating for AC circuits. Air magnetic breakers use the arc to generate a magnetic field that forces the arc into arc chutes, which lengthen and cool the arc, allowing it to be e$tinguished at a current ero. Oil breakers are of several types, including bulk oil, but they all work in a relatively similar way. %ere, the contacts are immersed in a container of nonconductive oil. &hen an overcurrent occurs, the arc heats the surrounding oil forcing it to flow violently. The rapidly flowing oil displaces the arcing gases and breaks the arc path.

'il breakers always carry the ha ards of handling and disposing of spent oil, and the potential for oil fire. In (urope, however, special minimum-oil designs have been developed to reduce these drawbacks, and some minimum oil breakers have even been approved for limited indoor use. #ifferent oil breakers are designed for different power levels, with the highest rated for )*+ k, to +-- k,. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) is an insulating gas used in circuit breakers in two ways. In .puffer. designs, it/s blown across contacts as they open to displace the arcing gas. In .blast. designs, it/s used at high pressures to open contacts as it simultaneously e$tinguishes the arc. "01 breakers are rated for the highest voltage of all breaker designs. Vacuum breakers enclose the contacts within a vacuum chamber, so when the arc of metallic vapor forms it is magnetically controlled and thereby e$tinguished at current ero. ,acuum breakers are rated up to )*.+ k,.

A S! Classes Of "ela#s
There are many types of protective relays. The revision of A2"I )3.4-, .5elays and 5elay "ystems Associated with (lectric 6ower Apparatus. lists and defines five classes of relays7 8. Auxiliar# rela# - one that operates in response to the opening or closing of its operating circuit to assist another relay or device in performing a function. 9. $rotecti%e rela# - one whose function is to detect defective lines, apparatus, or other dangerous or undesired conditions, and to initiate or permit suitable switching, or to give adequate warning. ). "egulating rela# - one that operates because of a departure of a parameter from predetermined limits and that functions through

supplementary equipment to restore the quantity to within these limits. *. &onitoring rela# - one whose function is to verify that system or control circuit conditions con form to prescribed limits. +. $rogramming rela# - one whose function is to establish or detect electrical sequences. "ome +8 different types of relays and 9* kinds of protection are listed and defined in the "tandard. The types of relays include alarm, differential, distance, directional power, timing, voltage, etc., while the kinds are7 differential protection, directional over-current protection, ground protection, pilot wire protection, etc. The "tandard defines high speed as a qualifying term applied to a relay, indicating that the time of its operation usually does not e$ceed l:9-th of a second ;) cycles on 1- cycle base<. "low speed is defined as the time of operation usually e$ceeds l:9-th of a second. !y general acceptance, all relays operating in the range of ) to + cycles are referred to as high speed relays. %igh speed relay protection offers the advantages of greater continuity of service through reduced fault damage and lower personnel ha ard. 'n the other hand, they generally have a higher probability of occasional .nuisance. incorrect operations on transients. 5elays have very high reliability records. 5ecords on protective relays operations consistently show 44.+= and better relay performance. "ee IEEE DEVICE NUMBERS & FUNCTIONS Table in appendi$ page 9)).

Ohm's (a) For *irect+Current Circuits

&e/ll start the discussion of circuit mathematics and the use of 'hm/s law for #C circuits since it is more intuitive and widely understood. The relationships between the four circuit parameters7 ,oltage ;(<, Current ;I<, 5esistance ;5<, and 6ower ;&< are summari ed in a convenient form in the 'hm/s >aw &heel shown here.. This wheel summari es the formulas used to calculate any one of these parameters if two of the others are known. (ach segment of the circuit is assumed to have only a voltage source, a single load ;resistor<, and two

wires connecting them. The identifying symbols and an arrow to show the direction of the current flow complete the picture. 6ower flows continually from the voltage source to the load resistor in the closed circuit.

This relationship is defined by 'hm/s >aw7 ( ? I5 ( ? ,oltage I ? Current ;amps< 5 ? 5esistance ;ohms< The triangle illustration shown above shows you how to use any two of these values to determine the other in a given circuit. If you need to find current, cover the .I. with your finger and you/ll have (:5 ;volts divided by ohms.< If you want to determine resistance, cover the .5. and you/ll have (:I ;volts divided by amps<.

O%ercurrent $rotection
0ault protection requires careful selection of the protective devices. Adequate short-circuit interrupting capacity, routine disconnect, and on:off circuit switching are all needed. A switching device should meet these conditions7 8. It should be capable of being closed safely under any load or shortcircuit current to which it could be sub@ected. 9. It should be capable of interrupting load or short-circuit currents to which it could be sub@ected. This includes the locked-rotor current for motors. The two devices commonly used for the first condition are circuit breakers rated for switching duty and switches. The two devices commonly used to interrupt e$cessive current are circuit breakers and fuses. "witches can include fuse clips and circuit contacts in a single assembly. Circuit breakers combine switching and overcurrent protection functions.

'verloads, if continued, cause conductor circuit or motor overheating. They may not require immediate disconnect from the systemA only before the operating temperatures become too high. The overcurrent protective device used for overloads should have a time-overcurrent characteristic. A shortcircuit should be removed from the system immediatelyA however, a small amount of time may be allowed to permit selective operation of the device closest to the short-circuit location. Arcing ;and other< ground faults may be smaller than the normal full load current. Therefore, a different scheme must be used if the system is to be protected from this type of fault. This ground fault current may cause serious damage at the location of the fault, but still may be too small to trip the overcurrent device. This ground-fault sensing and protection concepts are discussed elsewhere in this manual. They involve au$iliary trip devices operated by e$ternal sensors. The 2(C ;9)--4+< requires that ground fault protection be provided on certain services rated 8,---A or more, where at least 8,9--A of ground fault current might flow. These systems need to be coordinated with the downstream overload protection devices, to prevent shutting down the entire system in the event of a down-stream ground fault.

$oints ,o Consider !n ,ransformer Selection

There are several points to consider when selecting a transformer. -. kVA "ating The k,A rating must be sufficient to handle the load. Consideration should also be given to possible future load growth. "ome companies handle growth using a large number of various si e transformers, installing them with a rating close to the actual load requirements, and then changing the bank when the load grows. &hile this is the way electric utilities do it, most industrial plants do not have the necessary stock of spares to operate in this manner, and the practice does not lend itself to the use of substations. 'f course, transformer ratings can be increased by forced cooling. The transformer k,A, impedance, and voltage rating determine the shortcircuit current interruption requirements for the protective device.

5emember that replacing a transformer with a larger unit to handle a larger connected load also impacts the interrupting requirements. /. Voltage "atings and "atios The transformer should be selected to give the proper voltage at the load terminals. This voltage is the system voltage desired, not the equipment utili ation voltage. 0or instance, if motors are rated for *1- ,olts, the transformer no-load voltage should be *B- ,olts. This permits a voltage drop in the feeders to the point of use. 0. Voltage ,aps Cost modern transformers have taps in the windings that make it possible to slightly change the turns ratio. These taps do not materially affect the voltage drop through the transformerA they merely change the voltage level. The standard for the taps in transformers used in industrial systems is two 98:9= taps both above and below rated voltage. Tap changing must be carried out with the transformer disconnected from the circuit. %owever, load tap changing transformers are available at additional cost. Taps are intended to ad@ust the transformer to the primary voltage level actually present. Therefore, if the input voltage is 9-8:9= above the nominal system voltage, the tap should be set to provide 9-8:9= more primary turns in order to keep the secondary voltage at the design level during operation. Taps are not intended to be used to raise or lower the secondary voltage from the design or rated values. "ome transformers are supplied with several taps on the secondary windings. These permit the choice of any one of the secondary terminal voltages appropriate to that particular tap. %owever, this is not what is referred to as .changing the taps. on a transformer. "ome auto transformers are designed to provide continuous ad@ustment of the secondary voltage by using wires wound around a toroidal core and providing a sliding contact to bared regions on these secondary turns. This is equivalent to having a secondary tap for every turn. 1. ,#pes of Construction

>iquid-filled transformers may be filled with either transformer oil or an insulating liquid specifically designed for transformers. These liquids perform two functions, serving as heat transfer mediums and as insulation. #ry-type transformers are available in either ventilated or sealed enclosures. The physical location of the transformer is of primary importance in determining the type of transformer to be used for a particular application. The characteristics of a given location may preclude the use of certain types or may make one type more desirable than another. In general, liquid-filled and sealed dry-type transformers are suitable for indoor and outdoor locations. 'il-filled transformers are suitable only for outdoor locations, and may not be used indoors because of the flammability of the oil ;unless located in a suitable fireproof vault<. &here a non-flammable oil is used, a containment area should be provided. ,entilation and atmospheric conditions are important factors in locating ventilated dry-type transformers. They are designed for installation in dry locations with a clean, dry supply of cooling air. Atmospheric conditions are not critical in the location of liquid-filled or sealed dry-type transformers since their core and coils are sealed. 6ad-mounted transformers and transclosures, which have the transformer, switch and connectors in a single metal enclosure, are becoming increasingly popular in industry as well as on utility systems. "everal slowburning silicone-based liquids are also being used as a cooling and insulating medium in transformers. These have a flash point of )-+DC and can be used under some conditions without a vault in Type 8 or Type 9 buildings. A nonflammable tetrachloroethylene liquid can be used in transformers with aluminum windings ;instead of copper< and with no current transformers internal to the transformer case in accordance with 2(C *+--9*. "ome other transformer liquids, while designated as .less flammable,. require competent engineering advice before considering their use. 2. !nsulation and !mpulse (e%els

Transformers may be sub@ect to overvoltages from lightning or switching surges and should be appropriately protected. These surge handling capabilities are described by the impulse levelA the amount of a momentary voltage surge which the insulation can withstand. #ry-type transformers with their basic insulation being air, have appro$imately one-half the impulse level handling capability of similar k,A liquid-filled transformers. Therefore, more thought must be given to dry-type transformer situations. 6ole-top distribution transformers are frequently e$posed to these voltage surges. That is why these transformers have the insulation on their windings strengthened to withstand lightning ;and other< surges. The strength of this insulation is given by the !asic Impulse >evel ;!I>< number. Enits with high !I> numbers can be obtained at a cost premium. As an e$ample, typical pole-top insulators for 4-8) k, would have a !I> of 889 k, since that is their flash-over voltage. The transformer used on such a line should have a !I> greater than this value. Another insulation parameter is the insulation between primary and secondary windings. This is essential in the application of instrument transformers, and in applications which require isolation between circuits ;such as the filament transformers for high-voltage F-5ay tubes<. Auto transformers have the primary and secondary windings interconnectedA therefore, they do not have any circuit isolation. 6. !mpedance >ow-voltage transformers are generally designed to conform with the impedance/s as shown in the T5A2"0'5C(5 IC6(#A2C( Table in the Appendi$. These values are sub@ect to standard tolerances of plus-or-minus 3 percent of the nominal impedance values listed. Canufacturers will design transformers to meet other impedance requirements if the standard values are not adequate, but this naturally adds to the cost. Transformers with lower impedance have lower voltage drop, but will also allow higher available fault currents. "ome devices, such as welders and arc furnaces, use transformers that are specifically designed to have relatively

high percent impedance/s. This is done to reduce the disturbances on the primary power system when these devices are operating. 3. Single+$hase or ,hree+$hase ,ransformers The recent trend is to use three-phase transformers rather than three single-phase transformers to make up a three-phase bank. Three-phase transformers have an e$cellent service record, cost less to install, and require less space. If three single-phase transformers connected delta-delta are used, the bank can still operate three-phases in the event one transformer fails. %owever, the capacity is reduced to about +3 percent of the original capacity and the voltages are unbalanced. Transformer failures are rare, and the e$tra space and labor needed to connect a bank of three instead of one three-phase unit may not be @ustified. 4. 5#e+*elta Arrangements Another consideration when ordering transformers is the manner in which they are connected to the system. 0or e$ample, when using three-phase transformers, specify how the primary and secondary windings are to be connected, whether they are to be delta or wye, and the polarity. 6. !nterrupting "ating Today/s utility transformers are capable of delivering very large currents to a building. "hort circuits can cause high currents and electrical arcs that generate tremendous heat and large mechanical forces in a building, which in turn could seriously damage or destroy apparatus and conductors in a very short time if they are not promptly interrupted. This increased short circuit potential over the values assumed to be adequate a few years ago should be considered whenever any transformer is changed out for a larger one.

"ela# ,#pes
This course is not intended to make relay engineers out of youG The discussion is limited to naming some basic operating principles, and discussing some of the common relay applications.

All relays provide an output signal which can be used to initiate some action. This output signal is often used to close one or more set of contacts, operate a circuit breaker, or a switch. "ome electronic relays provide an output current or a voltage signal, the more elaborate programmable controllers send digital signals which can be .read. by other devices. The basic electromechanical relays, however, simply operate to close a set of contacts when moved by either7 8. (lectromagnetic attraction, or 9. (lectromagnetic induction ;turn like a motor<. The simple electromagnetic attraction principle is illustrated in this diagram. The induction disc relay is pictured below in the !nduction *isc "ela# section. The relay will start to close whenever the current in its operating coil e$ceeds a threshold. It can be quite rapid since the force of attraction gets larger as the armature moves closer to the core. A mechanical dash-pot or mechanical escapement can be used to delay its operation. In some cases, the operating coil is provided with taps to permit a choice of the pick-up current setting. In other designs, the amount of the air-gap can be ad@usted by turning a screw. These relays are usually considered to be .instantaneous,. operating in about one cycle or less.

&etal+Clad S)itchgear
Cetal-clad switchgear is an assembly that contains all parts within a grounded metal enclosure. "econdary control devices and their wiring are isolated from all primary devices by grounded metal barriers or shielding. Ca@or parts of a primary circuit such as circuit breakers and transformers are also isolated by grounded metal barriers. The circuit breaker is removable and equipped with self-coupling primary and secondary disconnecting contacts. It has a disconnecting mechanism to move it from the connected to the disconnected positions. All buses,

connections, @oints, and connections to @oints are insulated, and the stationary structures consist of self-supporting steel frames.

Cetal-clad switchgear should not be confused with metal enclosed switchgear where the individual components are not isolated from each other even though enclosed in a protective metal cabinet.

Single $hase $o)er (5atts7 Volt+Amperes and VA"s)

'hm/s law for alternating-current circuits uses the quantity called .impedance,. ;represented by the letter H<, in place of resistance. The voltage and current quantities are .effective. values instead of the actual cyclically varying instantaneous values. In this form, the equation for 'hm/s law becomes the following for single phase circuits7

&hile this looks @ust like the #C equation from before, it is complicated by the fact that the impedance is made up of the resistance and the reactance of the circuit. And, as we indicated earlier, this reactance depends upon the inductive and capacitive elements in the circuit. &hile this reactance can be measured or calculated, it is not as easy as in pure resistance circuits where heat is dissipated or work is performed when current flows. 5eactance absorbs energy when the current is increasing and returns energy to the circuit when current is decreasing. The average power is canceled out but there is always a power flow over the connecting wires.

This is called the .reactive power. ;or .magneti ing power.< and is measured in ,olt-Amperes-5eactive ;,A5s<. Therefore, there are two types of power in AC circuits. These can be calculated in a simple way7 5eal 6ower ? 6 ? ;I9< $ ;5< &atts, ;"ingle 6hase< 5eactive 6ower ? I ? ;I9< $ ;F< ,A5s, ;"ingle 6hase< The .apparent power. is a combination of these two powers and is a measure of the current carrying capacity investment required at the designated voltage. It is the number used to determine the electrical si e ;or rating< of a device such as a transformer or generator7 Apparent 6ower ? " ? ;I9< $ ;H<, ;"ingle 6hase< These types of AC power are related by the power factor ;60< and the reactive factor ;50<. 5eal 6ower ? 6 ? ;"< $ ;6ower 0actor< 5eactive 6ower ? I ? ;"< $ ;5eactive 0actor< &here " ? Apparent 6ower >ikewise, the three types of impedance are related7 5esistance ? 5 ? ;H< $ ;6ower 0actor< 5eactance ? F ? ;H< $ ;5eactive 0actor< &here H ? Impedance The apparent power for a single-phase impedance is the product of the voltage with the current. These are the same quantities that are used with 'hm/s law. Apparent 6ower ? ;(< $ ;I< ,olt Amperes 0requently, it is more convenient to use larger units for describing these .powers.. The prefi$, .kilo,. means .one thousand. and .mega. means .one million.. Thus, one k,A is equal to 8,--- volt-amperes and one mega,A5 is one million volt amperes, reactive. "imilarly, prefi$es .milli. and .micro. mean .one-thousandth. and .one-millionth,. respectively. 8xample of Single+$hase $o)er ( ? *B- ,olts I ? 9- Amperes 0ind HA "A 60A IA 50 6ower ? B--- &atts

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