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0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
In recent years, there have been substantial developments in the acceptance and
increasingly mobile, often equipped with notebook computers and spending more of
their productive time working away from the standard office-desk or personal-computer
environment. More often than not, many workers find cables to be a hassle as cables get
lost or damaged easily and they add unnecessary bulk and weight when carried around.
Wireless network has been able to solve the problem as wireless networks support
mobile workers by providing the required freedom in their network access. Working
wirelessly also allows these workers to access networked resources from any point
within the range of a wireless access point. For Information Technology managers, the
combination of lowering wireless hardware costs and the ease of implementation into
diverse office environments means that wireless deployment is actively promoted, for it
provides the combination of wired network throughput with mobile access and
solutions for interconnecting personal devices that do not require the use of cables.
1.2 Objective
Going wireless has its disadvantages. There has been discussion about the problems of
technologies. The most prevalent WLAN technology, Wi-Fi which operates within the
crowded 2.4 GHz ISM band brings about the problem of interference between Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth. Researches done on this interference issue have concluded that, when
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separated by two metres or more, there appears to be no significant interference.
However, when the separation distances is less than two metres, the two technologies
can interfere with each other and this can cause severe problems when collocated within
a single device.
Several solutions have already been proposed, ranging from modifications and
technological advances. The 802.15.3 standard has been recently approved by IEEE as a
high data rate WPAN. This new standard would be able to bring WPAN to greater
heights as it would be able to provide the foundation for a broad range of interoperable
that has broad market applicability and deals effectively with the issues of coexistence
because the MAC is different. This project attempts to investigate the compatibility of at
least the coexistence of 802.15.3 with other systems, especially those in similar market
The report will attempt to discuss the design and operating characteristics of the
Bluetooth voice transmission and 802.15.3. This report will first give an overview of the
802.15.3 using the MATLAB software package will be presented. The results of the
Bluetooth voice transmission will also be presented and analysed, together with the
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analysis for the operating characteristics of 802.15.3. Finally, recommendations and
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2.0 BLUETOOTH
2.1 Overview
Bluetooth SIG was founded in 1998 when several telecommunications and computing
companies noticed that there was a need for a wireless technology to connect portable
devices such as laptops and mobile phones. As infrared technology had its limitations,
and computing companies, Nokia, Ericsson, IBM, Intel and Toshiba decided to create a
common standard for wireless connectivity called Bluetooth. The consortium, Bluetooth
SIG was established to create and publish specifications, promote the technology and
Bluetooth was designed to allow low bandwidth wireless connections to become simple
to use to be integrated into daily life. It uses a short-range radio link that has been
mobile phone. Today, one would have to either manually enter the names and phone
numbers of all contacts or use a cable or IR link between the phone and the PC and start
an application to synchronise the contact information. With Bluetooth, this could all
happen automatically and without any user involvement as soon as the phone comes
2.2 Purpose
Bluetooth technology was invented to replace cables between small personal devices
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such as mobile phones, pagers, PDAs (refer to Figure 2.1). As such, Bluetooth wireless
communications consume significantly less power because Bluetooth links operate over
shorter distances and at lower data rates. The nominal data rate and range for Bluetooth
technology are each about one-tenth that of the IEEE 802.11. Although this does not
necessarily mean that Bluetooth communication uses only 1 percent of the power
required for WLAN communication, it does indicate that significantly less power is
desires to exchange data with matching applications in other devices. The Bluetooth
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WPAN ceases to exist when the applications involved have completed their tasks and is
no longer need for the exchange of data. Bluetooth devices use FHSS, moving through
1,600 different frequencies per second or 625us per frequency hop to reduce
interferences and fading. There are 79 or 23 RF channels of 1MHz with a symbol rate of
1Mbps Radio power between 0 and 20 dBm. A typical Bluetooth device has a range of
about 10 metres. Bluetooth devices use TDMA scheme where the master starts its
transmission in even numbered slots only, whereas the slave starts its transmission solely
in odd numbered slots. On the channel, information is exchanged through packets. Each
nominally covers a single slot, although it can be extended up to either three or five slots.
The synchronous voice channels are provided using circuit switching with a slot
reservation at fixed intervals while the asynchronous data channels are provided using
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packet switching utilising a polling access scheme. A combined data-voice SCO packet
is also defined and can provide 64 kb/sec voice and 64 kb/sec data in each direction.
with one or more Bluetooth devices serving as slaves. Each piconet is defined by the
for the piconet, using the clock of the master of the piconet. Usage scenarios may dictate
that certain devices act always as masters or slaves. However, a slave device could be
used as a master during one communications session and vice versa. Slaves
communicate only with their master in a point-to-point fashion under the control of the
space. A Bluetooth device may participate in several piconets at the same time, thus
allowing for the possibility that information could flow beyond the coverage area of the
single piconet. A Bluetooth unit can act as a slave in several piconets but only as a
master in a single piconet. To participate on the proper channel, it should use the
associated master device address and proper clock offset to obtain the correct phase.
Figures 2.2 and 2.3 show the various ways Bluetooth devices interconnect to form a
communicating system.
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Figure 2.2: A piconet (Blankenbeckler n.d.)
M S
S M
S S
S
M Master S Slave
The PHY is the first layer of the seven-layer OSI model and is responsible for
transmitting bits over adjacent system over the air. Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz
ISM band. In a majority of countries around the world, the range of this frequency band
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is between 2400 MHz to 2483.5 MHz. In the United States and Europe, a band of 83.5
MHz width is available with 79 RF channels spaced 1 MHz apart being defined. France,
on the other hand has a smaller band with 23 RF channels spaced 1 MHz apart being
defined.
Each device is classified into three power classes, namely Power Class 1, 2 and 3.
1. Power Class 1 is designed for long range (approximately 100m) devices, with a
2. Power Class 2 is for ordinary range devices (approximately 10m) devices, with a
3. Power Class 3 is for short range devices (approximately 10cm) devices, with a
The Bluetooth radio interface is based on a nominal antenna power of 0dBm and each
2.4.2 Modulation
The Bluetooth radio module uses GFSK where a binary one is represented by a positive
bandwidth time is set to 0.5 and the modulation index must be between 0.28 and 0.35.
The receiver must have a sensitivity level for which the bit error rate 0.1 percent is met.
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2.4.3.2 Interference performance
The interference performance on Co-channel and adjacent 1 MHz and 2 MHz are
measured with the wanted signal 10 dB over the reference sensitivity level. On all other
frequencies, the wanted signal should be 3 dB over the reference sensitivity level. If the
frequency of an interfering signal lies outside the band of 2400 MHz to 2497 MHz, the
The out-of-band blocking is measured with the wanted signal 3 dB over the reference
sensitivity level and the interfering signal shall be a continuous wave signal. The BER
shall be less than or equal to 0.1 percent and the out-of-band blocking should fulfil the
The baseband layer lies on top of the Bluetooth physical layer in the Bluetooth stack.
The baseband protocol is implemented as a link controller, which works with the link
manager for the carrying out of link level routines such as link connection and power
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control. The baseband also manages asynchronous and synchronous links, handles
packets and does paging and inquiry to access and inquire Bluetooth devices in the area.
For full duplex transmission, a Time-Division Duplex scheme is used. On the channel,
different hop frequency. A packet nominally covers a single slot, but can be extended to
2.5.1 Packets
Thirteen different packet types are defined for the baseband layer of the Bluetooth
system. All higher layers use these packets to compose higher level PDU's. The ID,
NULL, POLL, FHS, DM packets are defined for both SCO and ACL links while the DH,
AX1, DM3, DH3, DM5, DH5 packets are defined for ACL links only and the HV1,
Each packet consists of three entities, namely the access code (68/72 bits), the header
(54 bits) and the payload (0-2745 bits) as shown in Table 2.3.
The first entity, the access code are used for timing synchronisation, offset compensation,
paging and inquiry. There are three different types of access code, namely Channel
Access Code (CAC), Device Access Code (DAC) and Inquiry Access Code (IAC). The
channel access code identifies a unique piconet and the DAC is used for paging while
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the IAC is used for inquiry purpose.
The second entity, the header contains information for packet acknowledgement, packet
numbering for out-of-order packet reordering, flow control, slave address and error
The third entity, the packet payload can contain either voice field, data field or both. It
has a data field and the payload will also contain a payload header.
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3.0 IEEE 802.15.3
3.1 Overview
The IEEE 802.15 Working Group, a part of the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards
Committee, develops the Personal Area Network consensus standards for short distance
portable and mobile computing devices such as PCs, PDAs, peripherals, cell phones,
interoperate with one another. The 802.15 Working Group also develops low-power
standards for personal area networks with long battery life and low cost requirements.
3. 802.15.3 aims to increase the data rate similar to those of Bluetooth and 802.15.1.
5. 802.15.4 is a low power version, with low data rate and long battery life. It is
intended for smart card, security tag and other embedded devices (Khirat & Kadhi 2002).
provides data rates from 11 to 55 Mb/s at distances of greater than seventy metres while
maintaining quality of service (QoS) for the data streams. It also addresses the QoS
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management, quality of service and security. Additionally, this standard is designed to
provide simple, ad-hoc connectivity similar to Bluetooth that allows the devices to
automatically form networks and exchange information without the direct intervention
of the user. Products compliant with this standard will complement, not compete with,
products compliant with IEEE 802.11, because 802.11 is a standard for Local Area
Networks, and 802.15.3 will be a standard for Personal Area Networks. The difference is
similar to that in the wired world of Ethernet and USB or Firewire, which provide for
As Bob Heile of IEEE 802.15 (cited in IEEE 2004), pointed out, “One of the major goals
for 802.15, as well as for the Bluetooth SIG, is global use of WPAN technology. The
802.15.3 standard allows networks based on this specification to coexist with other
802.15 WPANs, such as Bluetooth systems, and with 802.11 WLANs, especially
802.11b and 802.11g, which also operate in the 2.4-GHz band. Devices using IEEE
802.15.1 WPAN and Bluetooth technology will provide country-to-country usage for
travellers. They will be able to be used in cars, airplanes and boats on a global basis”.
3.2 Purpose
other 802.15 standards. It is also the intent of this standard to work towards a level of
coexistence with other wireless devices in conjunction with coexistence task groups such
as 802.15.2.
Based on the previous calls for applications collected for 802.15, there remains a
significant group of applications that could not be addressed by 802.15.1. High data
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rates are required for time dependent and large file transfer applications such as video or
proposed to be the lowest rate for these types of data. It is not and extension of 802.15.1,
The purpose of 802.15.3 is to provide for low complexity, low cost, low power
consumption that are comparable to the goals of 802.15.1 and high data rate wireless
connectivity among devices within or entering the personal operating space. The data
rate is high enough, 20 Mb/s or more, to satisfy a set of consumer multimedia industry
WPANs are used to convey information over relatively short distances among a
relatively few participants. Unlike WLANs, connections effected via WPANs involve
The data rate must be high enough, that is, greater than 110 Mbps, to satisfy a set of
consumer multimedia industry needs for WPAN communications. It uses time division
multiple access to allocate channel time among devices to prevent conflicts and only
Devices included in the definition of PAN are those that are carried, worn or located
near the body. Specific examples of devices include those that are thought of as
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and printers. Other devices include digital imaging systems, microphones, speakers,
3.3.1 Piconet
A piconet is a set of devices within a personal operation space operating under the
control of a PNC in order to share a wireless resource. The PNC always provides the
basic timing for the WPAN. Additionally, the PNC manages the QoS requirements of
the WPAN. This wireless ad-hoc communication covers at least ten metres in all
directions and envelops the person or a thing, whether stationary or in motion. This
standard allows a device to request the formation of a subsidiary piconet. The original
piconet is referred to as the parent piconet while the subsidiary piconet is referred to as
either a child or neighbour piconet, depending on the method the DEV is used to
associate with the parent PNC. Child and neighbour piconets are also referred to as
dependent piconets since they rely on the parent PNC to allocate channel time for the
operation of the dependent piconet. An independent piconet is a piconet that does not
have any dependent piconets. Parent and child piconets share common frequency
channel while an independent piconet is either far enough apart or on different frequency
channel and operates independently of other piconets. Child piconet controller can
exchange data with parent piconet controller while a neighbour piconet controller only
shares frequency channel. Unassociated device listens for presence of other piconets and
depending on directives from host controller and presence of other piconets (refer to
Figure 3.1).
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Parent Piconet Controller
Piconet Device
IEEE 803.15.3 MAC is designed to support the fast connection, ad-hoc networks,
quality of service with data transport, security, channel robust for multimedia traffic
over the WPAN and peer to peer communication. The device in the piconet are able to
3.4.1 Superframe
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Channel time in the 802.15.3 piconet is divided into a superframe, which is illustrated in
Figure 3.2. The superframe is composed of three parts, namely the beacon, contention
access period and the channel time allocation period. The beacon, which is used to set
the timing allocations and to communicate management information for the piconet
consists of the beacon frame, as well as any Announce commands sent by the PNC as a
(CTAP), which consist of CTAs, and MCTAs. CTAs are used for commands,
The length of the CAP is determined by the PNC and communicated to the devices in
the piconet via the beacon. However, the PNC is able to replace the functionality
provided in the CAP with management CTAs, except in the case of the 2.4 GHz PHY,
where the PNC is required to allow the device to use the CAP. MCTAs are a type of
CTA that is used for communications between the devices and the PNC.
The CAP uses CSMA/CA for the medium access. The CTAP, on the other hand, uses a
standard TDMA protocol where devices have specified time windows. MCTAs, are
either assigned to a specific source or destination pair and use TDMA for access or they
are shared CTAs that are accessed using the slotted aloha protocol.
The PHY operates in the 2.4 – 2.4835 GHz frequency range. It specifies raw data rates
of 11, 22, 33, 44 and 55M bit/sec, with the respective modulation type QPSK, DQPSK,
16-QAM, 32-QAM, and 64-QAM. The base rate of 22M bit /sec is uncoded while 11, 33,
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44 and 55M bit/sec use trellis coded modulation. Distance plays a role in transmission
speed. The closer the device is to the access point, the higher the bandwidth. For
instance, a device up to fifty metres away from an access point can transmit data at a
speed of 55M bit/sec, while the transmission speed of a device one hundred metres away
drops to 22M bit/sec. The highest rate, 55M bit/sec, is necessary for low-latency,
multimedia connections and large-file transfers, while 11M bit/sec and 22M bit/sec rates
are ideal for long-range connectivity for audio devices (Barr 2002).
3.5.1 Channels
The on-air bandwidth is limited to 15 MHz in order to allow more channels as well as to
A total of five channels in two sets are assigned for operation. The first set allocates four
channels for high-density application while the second allocates three channels to enable
better co-existence with IEEE Std 802.11b -1999. Since the two outer channels of the
sets overlap, there are a total of five channels allowed for operation. The assigned
channels are shown in Table 3.1. A compliant 802.15.3 implementation shall support all
five channels.
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CHNL_ID Centre frequency High-density 802.11b coexistence
1 2.412 GHz X X
2 2.428 GHz X
3 2.437 GHz X
4 2.445 GHz X
5 2.462 GHz X X
A device may, in the course of a scan, change to an 802.11b channel for the purpose of
detecting the presence of 802.11b networks. When a device is scanning to start a piconet,
it should scan all five channels to decrease the probability of choosing an occupied
802.11b network while scanning, it should use the 802.11b coexistence channel set. It
should also rate the channels where 802.11b networks were identified as the worst
channels. If multiple 802.11b networks are detected, the device should order them based
on an estimate of the amount of traffic and the power level in the channel.
The 2.4-GHz physical layer standard specifies uncoded DQPSK modulation as well as
supports a given modulation format other than DQPSK, it shall also support all of the
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QAM, it shall also support 16-QAM and QPSK-TCM as well as the DQPSK modulation
formats.
DQPSK, QPSK
(22 Mbit/s uncoded, 11
Mbit/s coded)
No coding shall be applied to the DQPSK modulation. The mapping of the bit pairs to
DQPSK symbols shall be implemented as specified in Table 3.2. In Table 3.2, phase
applies only to the DQPSK mode. In this mode, the entire frame, with the exception of
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Bit pattern d0, d1 Phase change
0,0 0
0,1 π/2
1,0 π
1,1 -π/2
The base data rate of the 802.15.3, 2.4-GHz PHY shall be 22 Mb/s operating in the
uncoded DQPSK mode. The DQPSK mode is used as a base rate instead of the 11 Mb/s
QPSK-TCM mode to reduce the overhead due to the duration of the PHY and MAC
Coexistence, in this context, refers to the co-location of IEEE P802.15.3 devices with
other, non-802.15.3 devices. The criteria described in this section focuses only on the
impact the 802.15.3 devices have on other non-P802.15.3 devices that may be sharing
the same frequency bands. The following IEEE wireless protocols are allowed to operate
in an operational area that overlaps with the operational area of an 802.15.3 piconet, but
1. 802.11 DSSS
2. 802.11 FHSS
3. 802.11b
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4. 802.15.1
with some networks, the throughput could be reduced and so under certain conditions,
802.11b and 802.15.3 share the same frequency band, which makes interoperability of
radio modules much simpler and cheaper. Additionally, the 802.15.3 PHY layer uses 11
Mbaud, DQPSK modulation for the base rate, which is the same as the chip rate and
modulation for 802.11b. However, 802.11b uses either a Barker code, CCK or PBCC as
a spreading code, which is not a part of the 802.15.3 standard. The 802.15.3 PHY was
also chosen with the same frequency accuracy, allowing the reuse of reference frequency
source and frequency synthesisers. While the 802.11b and 802.15.3 frequency plans are
slightly different, the synthesisers that would normally be used in either radio would be
capable of 1 MHz frequency step size and so would be capable of supporting either
frequency plan. The RX/TX turnaround time is also the same for both protocols (Gilb
2001). However, the TX/RX turnaround for 802.11b is 5 micro seconds versus a 10
micro seconds for 802.15.3, which could have an impact on the architecture of a dual-
mode radio. Thus, the similarities between 802.15.3 and 802.11b are as follows:
1. DQPSK modulation
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1. Barker, CCK or PBCC spreading code
3. Frequency plan
4. Performance criteria
7. MAC
2. 802.11b uses CSMA/CA and a polling method with the point coordination function
802.15.3 piconets use two access methods in the superframe; CSMA/CA during the
CAP and TDMA during the CTAP. The CAP provides the best method of coexistence
with 802.11b networks, since the CSMA/CA algorithm used in the CAP is similar to the
CSMA/CA algorithm used in 802.11b, that is, the transmitter uses a listen-before-talk
mechanism.
In the case of 802.11, there is more than one CCA method allowed and some of them
would not recognise an 802.15.3 frame. In this case, the 802.11b transmission might
collide with 802.15.3 frames. However, an 802.11b station which implemented ‘energy
above threshold’ for CCA, that is, CCA mode 1 or CCA mode 5, would signal that the
medium is busy when a sufficiently strong 802.15.3 signal is present. The 2.4 GHz PHY
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of 802.15.3 requires energy detection as a part of the CCA process. A sufficiently strong
802.11b signal would result in the 802.15.3 DEV signalling that the medium is busy,
which would improve the coexistence performance. A sufficiently strong 802.11b signal
would result in the 802.15.3 DEV signalling that the medium is busy, which would
A comparison between some characteristics of the IEEE 802.15.3 and Bluetooth is given
Bluetooth 802.15.3
Centre frequency 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz
Baud rate 1 MHz 11 MHz
Modulation GFSK DQPSK
Tx Power 0 dBm 0 dBm
Rx Antenna Gain 0 dBi 0 dBi
Rx Sensitivity -70 dBm -75 dBm
Range 10m 10m
No of video channel 0 5
Cost Low Medium
Regional support World wide World wide
Target application Voice + data Voice + data +
multi media
Piconet structure 1 PNC, ≤ 255 1 master, ≤ 7 slaves
active nodes
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From this table, it is clear that the 802.15.3 WPAN operates in a more daunting
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4.0 SIMULATION RESULTS
short-range radio link technology that operates in the 2.4 GHz Industrial, Scientific, and
Medical (ISM) band. The model modulates the signal using Gaussian frequency shift
keying (GFSK) over a radio channel with maximum capacity of 1Mbps. The Simulink
HV1, HV2 and HV3. It covers the signal processing characteristics of the baseband
section of the Bluetooth specification and some of the radio section. This includes
modulation, and frequency hopping, which are implemented in digital hardware or DSP
diagram and this is why Simulink is an appropriate tool for developing this model
(McGarrity 2001).
full-duplex voice communication between two devices. The timing of voice and data
transmission is organised around a slot framework. Each slot is 625 microseconds long,
with six slots defining an SCO period. As voice is transmitted at 64 Kbits/second, 240
bits are required to be transmitted during each SCO period. The high-quality voice (HV)
packet types differ according to how much forward error correction (FEC) coding they
use. The packet types range from HV1, employing one-third repeat coding and
transmitting every second slot, to HV3, employing no coding and transmitting every
sixth slot.
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Interoperability of wireless devices is a growing concern, due to the rise in popularity of
systems using unlicensed bands, spread spectrum and frequency hopping. One particular
area of investigation is Bluetooth and 802.11b, which share the 2.4-GHz ISM band.
Interference can occur when Bluetooth and 802.11b devices are in close proximity, and
the Bluetooth frequency hops to within the 22-MHz 802.11b channel while the 802.11b
such as -2 dB, is considerably lower that the 18-dB signal-to-noise ratio usually required
for a Bluetooth receiver. The Bluetooth FEC on the header or payload cannot protect the
bits and the whole packet can be corrupted. The next packet of voice data will be
transmitted at a new hop frequency, usually not in the same vicinity as the 802.11b
transmitter. But 802.11b transmission is very different from Bluetooth's. Packets are of
variable length and can be more than 4,000 bytes long, equivalent to more than 50
Bluetooth slots. Transmission is asynchronous with the media-access control layer using
phase shift keying, differential quaternary phase shift keying, Barker code spreading and
fixed bandwidth of 22 MHz. The transmit power of 802.11b is also higher than
The model consists of a master transmitter, radio channel, slave receiver, 802.11.b
interferer. The transmitter subsystem performs speech coding, buffering, framing, header
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error control (HEC), forward error correction, GFSK modulation and frequency hopping.
Channel effects modelled include thermal noise, path loss and interference. The Free
Space Path Loss block, from the RF Impairments library, models path loss. The IEEE
802.11b interferer is a masked subsystem that opens up a mask dialog for user input on
double-clicks. Mean packet rate, packet length, power and frequency location in the ISM
band can be specified in the mask dialog while the slave receiver recovers speech from
the transmitted signal, performing all the complementary operations that the transmitter
The limited range of radio signals restricts the use of this kind of network. RF
frequency is easily monitored by others, which makes the transmissions of data insecure.
Spread spectrum avoids the problem of insecure data transmission by using multiple
frequencies to increase the immunity to noise and to make it difficult for outsiders to
There are two common forms of spread spectrums, namely direct spectrum, where the
data sequence is multiplied by the pseudo noise sequence, and frequency hopping, where
the narrowband signal is ‘hopped’ over different carrier frequencies based on the pseudo
noise sequence. Both techniques result in a transmit signal bandwidth that is much larger
than the original signal bandwidth, hence the name spread spectrum (Walrand & Varaiya
2000, p. 330). The hopping of the carrier produces the desired spreading of the
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transmitted signal spectrum. The changes in the carrier frequency do not affect the
performance in additive noise and the AWGN performance remain exactly the same as
Just as with DSSS technique, the FHSS technique can allow coexistence of several
systems with orthogonal codes in the same frequency band and can provide a degree of
hopping pattern. One difference between the two spreading methods is that the DSSS
technique uses the full system bandwidth throughout the entire transmission time
whereas FHSS uses only a portion of the band at a time. In a FHSS system, each user
employs different hopping pattern; in this system, interference occurs when two
different user land on the same hop frequency. If codes are random and independent of
one another, the ‘hit’ will occur with some calculable probability. If the codes are
synchronised and the hopping patterns selected so that two users never hop to the same
frequency at the same time, the multiple user interference is eliminated. Figures 4.1 and
4.2 show the block diagram of a transmitter and receiver for a FHSS system.
Data Highpass
modulator filter
Frequency
Carrier frequency synthesizer
1 2 3... k
Code generator
FH clock
Figure 4.1: Block diagram of FHSS transmitter (Pahlavan & Levesque 1995, p. 370)
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Image Bandpass Data
reject filter filter modulator
Frequency
Carrier frequency synthesizer
1 2 3... k
Code generator
f FH clock
Figure 4.2: Block diagram of FHSS receiver (Pahlavan & Levesque 1995, p. 370)
At the transmitter, the digital modulation and the modulation over the hop frequencies
are implemented in two stages. The hop frequencies are randomly selected using the
frequencies synthesiser controlled by the pseudo noise code generator. A wideband filter
is applied to the signal for spectral shaping before the signal is fed to the antenna. The
receiver has a wideband front end filter that accommodates the entire system bandwidth.
through a noise reduction bandpass filter with the same bandwidth as the transmitted
information symbols. The final stage of the receiver is the data demodulator, which
modulates the first stage digital modulation (Pahlavan & Levesque 1995, p. 368).
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Energy
5 8 3 7 1 4 6 2
f1 f1 f1 f1 f1 f1 f1 f1 Frequency
Frequency
f8
f7
f6
f5
f4
f3
f2
f1
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 are examples of a frequency hopping signal. A number of channels
are allocated for the FH signal. Typically there are 2ª carrier frequencies forming 2ª
channels. The spacings between carrier frequencies and hence the width of each channel
32
usually correspond to the bandwidth of the input signal. The transmitter operates in one
channel at a time for a fixed interval. The sequence of channel used is dictated by a
spreading code. Both transmitter and receiver use the same code to tune into a sequence
802.11b interference is shown in Figure 4.5. The blue lines are the Bluetooth
transmissions, while the red lines are from 802.11b transmission. A dynamic plot of
packet frequency versus time is shown by the Spectrogram plot. Most of the time, due to
frequency hopping, there is not much overlap of these slots. In a few cases, the signals
Frequency
hopping
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4.1.3 Error rate
The error rate display in Figure 4.7 shows three types of error rates, namely, Raw bit
error rate, Residual bit error rate and Frame error rate. The raw bit error rate displays the
inconsistencies between the bits in the transmitted signal and the received signal while
frame error rate refers to the ratio of frame failure to the total number of frames. Frame
failure, caused by noise and interference, is determined if the HEC fails to match the
header info or if less than 57 bits are correct in the access code. If the frame fails, this is
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4.1.4 Additive white gaussian noise
The noise in a communication channel exits as unwanted random signal that interferes
with the information signal being transmitted. It may be due to external factors such as
atmospheric noise or due to internal factors such as shot noise from the hardware. An
additive white Gaussian noise channel is used to model the effect of channel and
receiver noise on the transmitted signal. The AWGN Channel block adds white Gaussian
noise to a real or complex input signal. When the input signal is real, this block adds real
Gaussian noise and produces a real output signal. When the input signal is complex, this
block adds complex Gaussian noise and produces a complex output signal. This block
inherits its sample time from the input signal. As seen from Figure 4.8 and 4.9, noisy
channel increase the magnitude of the signal. AWGN channel is used because it
represents a completely random process since any two samples in the noise process are
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Figure 4.9: Frequency spectrum AWGN on
4.2 802.15.3
The cost or complexity of the device must be as minimal as possible for use in the
personal area space. The PHY operates in the 2.4 – 2.4835 GHz frequency range. It
specifies raw data rates of 11, 22, 33, 44 and 55M bit/sec; with the respective
modulation type QPSK, DQPSK, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, and 64-QAM. The base rate of
22M bit /sec is uncoded while 11, 33, 44 and 55M bit/sec uses trellis coded modulation.
Distance plays a role in transmission speed. The closer the device is to the access point,
the higher the bandwidth. The highest rate, 55M bit/sec, is necessary for low-latency,
multimedia connections and large-file transfers, while 11M bit/sec and 22M bit/sec rates
are ideal for long-range connectivity for audio devices. Figure 4.10 shows a logical
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Figure 4.10: Logical blocks in the transceiver PHY
The model consists of six main components. They are, the Bernoulli Binary Generator
Channel block, the Free Space Path Loss block, DQPSK Demodulator Baseband block
The Bernoulli Binary Generator block generates random binary numbers using a
Bernoulli distribution. The Bernoulli distribution with parameter p produces zero with
probability p and one with probability 1-p. The Bernoulli distribution has mean value 1-
p and variance p (1-p). The Probability of a zero parameter specifies p, and can be any
real number between zero and one. The DQPSK Modulator Baseband block modulates
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digital data to analog format using the differential quaternary phase shift keying method.
Transmitter/Receiver shows the transition of the signal to and from the channel while the
AWGN Channel block adds white Gaussian noise to a real or complex input signal. This
block can process multichannel signals that are frame-based or sample-based. Variance
of the noise like signal to noise ratio is simulate through this channel. The Free Space
Path Loss block simulates the loss of signal power due to the distance between
transmitter and receiver. The block reduces the amplitude of the input signal by an
amount that is determined in either of two ways: By the Distance (km) and Frequency
(MHz) parameters, if you specify Distance and Frequency in the Mode field By the Loss
(dB) parameter, if you specify Decibels in the Mode field. The DQPSK Demodulator
Baseband block demodulates a signal that was modulated using the differential
quaternary phase shift keying method. The input is a baseband representation of the
modulated signal. The Error Rate Calculation block compares input data from a
transmitter with input data from a receiver. It calculates the error rate as a running
statistic, by dividing the total number of unequal pairs of data elements by the total
number of input data elements from one source. This block can be used to compute
either symbol or bit error rate, because it does not consider the magnitude of the
difference between input data elements. If the inputs are bits, then the block computes
the bit error rate. If the inputs are symbols, then it computes the symbol error rate.
For any type of wireless communication, the signal disperses with distance. Therefore an
antenna with a fixed area will receive less signal power the further it is from the
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transmitting antenna. Even with no other sources of attenuation or impairment are
assumed, a transmitted signal attenuates over distance because the signal is being spread
over a larger and larger area (Stallings 2004, p. 119). Figure 4.11 shows the losses
180
170
f = 300 GHz
160
150 f = 30 GHz
140
f = 30 MHz
Loss 130
(dB)
120
100
90 f = 30 MHz
80
70
60
1 5 10 50 100
Distance (km)
Figure 4.11 Free space loss (Stallings 2004, p. 121)
This form of attenuation is known as free space loss, which can be express in terms of
the ration of the radiated power Pt to the power Pr receive by the antenna or in decibels,
by taking 10 times the log of that ratio. For the ideal isotropic antenna free space loss is
Pt / Pr = (4 π d) ² / λ = (4 π d)² / c²
39
where Pt = signal power at the transmitting antenna
λ = carrier wavelength
QAM is a popular analog signalling technique that is used in the asymmetric digital
combination of ASK and PSK. QAM can also be considered as a logical extension of
QPSK. QAM takes advantage of the fact that it is possible to send two different signals
simultaneously on the same carrier frequency, by using two copies of the carrier
frequency, one shifted by 90º with respect to the other. For QAM, each carrier is ASK
modulated. The two independent signals are simultaneously transmitted over the same
medium. At the receiver, the two signals are demodulated and the results combined to
-π/2 phase
shift
sin 2πfct
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Figure 4.12: QAM modulator (Stallings 2004, p. 152)
Figure 4.12 shows the QAM modulation scheme in general terms. The input is a stream
of binary digits at a rate of R bps. The stream is converted into two separate stream bits
of R/2 bps each, by taking alternate bits for the two streams. In the diagram, the upper
the carrier. Thus, a binary zero is represented by the absence of the carrier wave and a
binary one is represented by the presence of the carrier wave at a constant amplitude.
This same carrier wave is shifted by 90º and used for ASK modulation of the lower
binary stream. The two modulated signal are then added together and transmitted. The
If two level ASK is used, then each of the two streams can be one of two states and the
ASK is used, then the combined stream can be in one of 16 = 4 x 4 states. Systems using
64 and even 256 states have been implemented. The greater the number of states, the
higher the data rate that is possible within a given bandwidth. However, it also means
that the greater the number of states, the higher the potential error rate due to noise and
attenuation.
Figure 4.13 uses the 16-QAM Modulator Baseband to modulate random data. Because
the modulation technique is 16-QAM, the plot shows 16 clusters of points and there
were no noise, the plot shows the 16 exact constellation points instead of clusters around
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Figure 4.13: 16-QAM ideal model
42
The model in Figure 4.15 shows a random integer modulated using 16-QAM Modulator.
After passing the data through a noisy channel, the model produces a scatter diagram of
the noisy data. Figure 4.16 suggests what the underlying signal constellation looks like
and shows that the noise distorts the modulated signal from the constellation. The SNR
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Figure 4.16: 16-QAM model with AWGN channel noise
The term quadrature implies that there are four possible phases (4-PSK) which the
carrier can have at a given time. In QPSK, information is conveyed through phase
variations. In each time period, the phase can change once. QPSK is a modulation
scheme that transmits 2 bit information using four states of the phase (Shafi, Ogose &
Hattori 2002, p. 221). Figure 4.17 shows a phasor diagram of the QPSK. The rate of
change (baud) in this signal determines the signal bandwidth, but the throughput or bit
rate for QPSK is twice the baud rate, thus effectively doubling the bandwidth of the
carrier. The four phases are labelled {A, B, C, D} corresponding to the {0, 90, 180, 270}
44
Figure 4.17 Phasor diagram of QPSK (Tervo 1998)
Each of the four possible phase changes is assigned a specific two-bit value or dibit as
0 A to A 01
90 A to B 00
180 B to D 10
270 D to C 11
For example, a carrier shifting through the phase ADABAADCCA, the QPSK waveform
A D A B A A D C C A
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This signal has undergone the following phase transitions as shown in Table 4.2.
PHASE A D A B A A D C C A ...
Change - A-to-D D-to-A A-to-B B-to-A A-to-A A-to-D D-to-C C-to-C C-to-A ...
Degrees - 270 90 90 270 0 270 270 0 180
Dibit - 11 00 00 11 01 11 11 01 10
symbol constellations which are offset by Pi/4 radians every other symbol period. A
block diagram for the modulator is shown in Figure 4.19. In the modulator, a uniform
random number generator produces symbols which are then differentially encoded and
upsampled in order for the output to approximate a pulse train of delta functions. Gray
encoding was used so that most symbol errors were 1 bit errors instead of 2 bit errors.
root raised cosine filter with a rolloff factor of 0.35. The modulator output is left at
baseband since the introduction of a carrier would only introduce spurious errors in the
calculation of the Irreducible BER and since the Irreducible BER is determined by the
multipath fading, the multipath delay spread, and the modulation technique irrespective
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Figure 4.19: Block diagram of DQPSK modulator (Anderson n.d.)
Random data is generated using DQPSK modulator. The model in Figure 4.20 below
plots the output of the DQPSK Modulator Baseband block with an offset of pi/4 shown
in Figure 4.21.
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Figure 4.21: Output of DQPSK modulator
At the receiver, the signal passes through a matched filter, that is, a square-root raised
cosine filter, is downsampled and the effects of the differential encoder are undone by
the detection circuitry. Block diagram of a DQPSK demodulator is shown in Figure 4.22.
48
Figure 4.22: Block diagram of demodulator (Anderson n.d.)
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5.0 CONCLUSION
The objectives of this project have been achieved to a certain extent. A comparison
between Bluetooth and 802.15.3 were analysed and discussed. The simulation in the
previous chapter was carried out with the aim of testing the functionality of the
transmission model. The accuracy of the results of the performance of the simulation
model is dependent on how closely the simulation model resembles the actual system
being modelled. The model is fully functional and produced close correct results.
Different inputs were tested and the according output was produced. Based on this
finding, a logical block diagram of the 802.15.3 transceiver had been made. Some
characteristic of the 802.15.3 such as the modulation and AWGN channel were
examined and presented. Implementing devices using IEEE 802.15.3 is clearly feasible.
Compatibility and coexistence with other system especially those in similar market
obtained through this research as well as through simulating them and studying their
responses.
5.1 Recommendations
Although the objectives of the project have been achieved to a certain extent, there are
some areas that can be improved upon. One of the areas is to implement devices using
the new 802.15.3 standard. Three targeted areas could benefit from short-range wireless
connections. These include PC and peripheral devices, mobile devices and consumer
significant amounts of data over very short distances with other complementary devices,
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usually by means of an interconnect cable. For example, a digital still camera, with a
transfer images. At the time of transfer, the distance between the PC and the camera is
typically a few metres at most. Implementing devices using the IEEE 802.15.3 allows
users to create a wireless link by enabling the necessary data rates in a radio suitable for
are smart phones, home entertainment centers, printers, handheld computers, camcorders,
video projectors and MP3 players. By eliminating the need for a physical cable
connection, a new level of user convenience and mobility is provided. Because 802.15.3
brings a step higher in the technology of WPAN. There is a need for this WPAN because
it is designed to provide QoS for real time distribution of multimedia contents, like video
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6.0 REFERENCES
Anderson, E.P., (n.d.), Determination of the irreducible BER for Pi/4-DQPSK. Retrieved:
March 3, 2004, from
http://www.stanford.edu/~eandersn/ee359/block.html#modulator.
Barr, J.R. 2002, IEEE 802.15 TG3 and SG3a. Retrieved: January 10, 2004, from
http://www.fcc.gov/oet/tac/april26-02-docs/FCC-TAC-802.15.3-
overviewNOPICT.ppt.
Cisco Systems 2003, CCNA1 network basic v3.0. Retrieved: February 24, 2004, from
http://www.ece.curtin.edu.au/%7Ecisco/ccna/en_CCNA1_v30/start.html.
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Coexistence-Capabilities.ppt.
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Pahlavan, K. & Levesque, A.H. 1995, Wireless information networks, John Wiley &
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Shafi, M., Ogose, S. & Hattori, T. (ed), 2002, Wireless communications in the 21st
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